in search of appropriate methodology from outside the people s republic of china looking in choosing a methodology determines what we can study as well as the range of possible results and conclusions this study took an instrument that had been developed in the west and used extensively in europe and north america to investigate managerial behavior in the people s republic of china for a number of reasons it failed to produce a valid and reliable description of chinese managerial behavior this paper investigates some of the methodogical issues involved in extending western organizational knowledge to the east it raises some fundamental questions about being outside looking in

industry and country effects on managers perceptions of environmental uncertainties international management research highlights political government policy and macroeconomic uncertainties strategy studies focus on input supply product market and competitive uncertainties this study develops and tests the reliability of an instrument for measuring managers uncertainly perceptions data analyses using an international sample provide insights into the relative importance of country and industry factors for explaining managers perceptions of different environmental uncertainties

salesperson performance pay and job satisfaction tests of a model using data collected in the united states and japan a causal model of salesperson performance and satisfaction is tested using data collected in japan and the united states the model seems to work well for both cultural groups that is comparable levels of variance are explained however the data appear to fit the model differently across samples culture appears to moderate the relationships among constructs pay and valence for pay play a more central role for the americans than the japanese value congruence has a strong influence on job satisfaction for the japanese but not the american sales representatives these findings confirm both the conventional wisdom that financial incentives are crucial in the united states and the anecdotal evidence that closer supervision and corporate culture will be more useful sales management tools in japan

i hate where it comes from but i still buy it countervailing influences of animosity and nostalgia drawing from negativity bias fading affect bias and ambivalence literature we provide evidence that consumer nostalgia acts as a countervailing force to consumer animosity in historically connected markets hcms that is trading countries that previously were part of the same country but are now independent for both soviet era and new russian brands our findings show that nostalgia can compensate for the negative effects of animosity on product judgment and product ownership in hcms characterized by intense negative past events lithuania in contrast in hcms experiencing current recent negative events ukraine animosity is a stronger predictor of product judgment and ownership than nostalgia importantly in both hcm settings consumer ethnocentrism only plays a minor role when both nostalgia and animosity are simultaneously considered as predictors in the model theoretical and managerial implications of the findings are considered and future research directions are identified

cross cultural variations in climate for autonomy stress and organizational productivity relationships a comparison of chinese and uk manufacturing organizations cross cultural researchers have questioned the extent to which european american management practices can be transported to major markets in asia such as the people s republic of china applying employee involvement theory we examined the relationships between climate for autonomy work demands climate employee stress and organizational productivity in a cross national study of 51 uk and 104 chinese manufacturing organizations we predicted and found that climate for autonomy was positively and negatively related to stress in the chinese and uk contexts respectively the interaction of climate for autonomy and work demands climate was significant climate for autonomy was positively related to organizational productivity only when work demands climate was low

a cross national comparison of consumer research measures the impact of three factors that affect the psychometric rigor of cross national consumer research comparisons is measured in this study conclusions are also drawn about the interactions among these factors and the resultant deterioration in the psychometric quality of the data

the interrelationships between television viewing values and perceived well being a global perspective do global marketing efforts for example those using television as a medium impact on the values and life satisfaction of people and if so is the process similar or different in various regions of the world we empirically examine the relationship between television viewing core values i e religiosity and materialism and perceived well being factors e g perceived socioeconomic status and relative life satisfaction data collected from the western developed nations e g united states and new zealand and several culturally homogeneous regions including new europe latin america the middle east and the far and southeast support the prevalence of diverse consumptionscapes with multiple global consumer cultures rather than a single global culture globalization and advances in technology have not created global norms and homogenized our identities but behavioral patterns and regional identities that are surprisingly durable specifically materialism was shown to influence perceived socioeconomic status both positively for two regions and negatively for two regions and relative life satisfaction except in new europe while perceived socioeconomic status had a positive influence on relative life satisfaction except in new europe and latin america the quantity of television viewing was positively shown to influence materialism directly in some cases as well as through perceived realism in others providing limited support for the cultivation theory effect finally religiosity was shown to play a countervailing role in negatively influencing materialism only in latin american and middle eastern countries and a positive influence on relative life satisfaction only in latin america the rationale behind the differences across regions was also explored the overall results can perhaps be best explained by postmodern epistemologies in which people worldwide are increasingly implicated and in which new traditions are constantly being invented

voluntary export restraints and expectations an analysis of export quotas in oligopolistic markets the frequency of export quotas imposed as voluntary export restraints has been increasing this tends to create the expectation that similar export quotas will be imposed in the future even if free trade is allowed now the author analyzes the effect of such an expectation he demonstrates that if a quota is expected to be imposed on foreign exporting firms it intensifies the exporting firms competition in the prequota period this offsets the protection which the export quota as a voluntary export restraint will provide for domestic import competing firms in the future quota period copyright 1989 by economics department of the university of pennsylvania and the osaka university institute of social and economic research association

voluntary import expansions with non stationary demand in this paper the effect of voluntary imports expansions vies on welfare in a dynamic game is analysed it is found that 1 there exists a markov perfect nash equilibrium mpne and a unique stable steady state 2 with habit formation in consumption the welfare and output for each firm are higher than that without habit formation and 3 vies can increase an importing country s welfare with raised con sumption and lowered price therefore vies can be voluntary to an importing country

long run competition in capacity short run competition in price and the cournot model in this article we investigate the nature of equilibrium in markets in which firms choose the scale of operation before they make pricing decisions we analyze a duopoly model in which firms choose their capacities before engaging in bertrand like price competition we demonstrate that the cournot outcome is unlikely to emerge in such markets and that the equilibrium tends to be more competitive than the cournot model would predict in addition our results indicate a tendency toward asymmetric firm sizes and price dispersion that results from the mixed strategies firms use in equilibrium

empirical research in international marketing 1976 1982 this paper reviews empirical research in international marketing published during the period 1976 82 the review focuses on what has been researched and how the research has been conducted this research is evaluated a cooperative multidisciplinary empirical research program in international marketing is then proposed

client perceived performance and value in professional b2b services an international perspective drawing from the resource based view and a contingency approach the authors develop and test a model of the antecedents of client perceived value in the context of international professional business to business services consultants engineers project management it consultants etc in a developing economies setting further we examine the effects of key moderators e g country of origin coo firm s international experience client s buying experience on client perceived performance and value the results generally support the hypotheses that client perceived performance is impacted by a firm s internal resources e g technical skills customer orientation innovation in addition this relationship is contingent upon the coo effect while client perceived value is moderated by the client s buying experience the findings can guide practitioners as to the key drivers of client perceived value and under what conditions this value is maximized

national business ideology and employees prosocial values employees prosocial values have been shown to foster helping cooperating and volunteering behaviors which in turn increase firm performance however despite the importance of prosocial values there is a general neglect of this area in the international arena as more trade occurs globally interest in cross cultural prosocial values is growing we therefore build on socialization theory and introduce national business ideology as a country level determinant of employees prosocial values we thus argue that transformational leadership and professional altruism are key elements of a national business ideology s stimulation of employees prosocial values while corporate corruption is considered to be an impediment based on 19 026 individuals from 17 countries our cross level analyses point to the national business ideology explaining national level variances above and beyond cultural aspects results support our hypothesis that national business ideology including transformational leadership and professional altruism is positively related to employees prosocial values the hypothesis on corporate corruption however was not supported instead results indicate that employees apply rationalization strategies to justify corruption with prosocial values being important for organizational performance as well as social welfare in general we thus draw attention to socialization processes in national corporate work contexts

influence of formalization on role stress organizational commitment and work alienation of salespersons a cross national comparative study organizations rely on formalization to coordinate the efforts of employees however this practice has been found to have a negative influence on role stress organizational commitment and work alienation of salespersons though the negative influence of formalization in the united states has been known for some time we still cannot predict if similar relationships would should be observed in other countries because the rationale developed to explain these relationships in the united states did not consider the cultural factors that influence them with such knowledge it would become possible to anticipate the nature of the relationship in different cultural environments such an approach to developing cross national models has been often suggested but seldom implemented by emphasizing the role of culture this study generates practical guidelines for both practitioners and theorists

a framework for integrated risk management in international business treatments of risk in the international management literature largely focus on particular uncertainties to the exclusion of other interrelated uncertainties this paper develops a framework for categorizing the uncertainties faced by firms operating internationally and outlines both financial and strategic corporate risk management responses

a measure of export market orientation scale development and cross cultural validation this study reports on the construction and psychometric assessment of a measure of export market orientation four multi item scales were developed showing strong evidence of reliability and convergent discriminant and nomological validity in samples of u k and dutch exporters further analysis revealed full invariance of the final measure across the two country samples several suggestions for applying the measure in substantive research are offered

interpersonal influence as an alternative channel communication behavior in emerging markets the case of china channel communications in emerging markets are embedded in the intricacy of economic and sociocultural environments managing channel relationships in emerging markets therefore requires more than formal interfirm communication to rely on interpersonal influence extending embeddedness theory we offer a conceptualization incorporating three embedding elements task environment social relations and institutional norms into a preliminary model that specifies the antecedents moderators and contingent consequences of interpersonal influence strategies in marketing channels specifically dependence firm boundary spanners social capital and their cultural values e g guanxi orientation may combine to shape firm boundary spanners use of interpersonal influence in channel communications which in turn affects channel member satisfaction in a chinese marketing channel context we test our research hypotheses with parallel analyses of 395 matched supplier retailer dyads the empirical results provide general support for the predictions and reveal differences between suppliers and retailers in terms of the focal effects journal of international business studies 2009 40 668 689 doi 10 1057 jibs 2008 84

intra cultural variation evidence and implications for international business this paper discusses the methodological and theoretical significance of intra cultural variation icv the population distribution of a characteristic within a culture a monte carlo study shows that icv has substantial influence on the statistical power of cross cultural tests therefore studying icv is methodologically important if we are to understand inconsistent findings and design cross cultural studies with enough statistical power moreover an examination of the cultural means and icvs of 42 cultures shows that icv is as large as the variation of cultural means across cultures and its relationship to cultural means is not definite a model based on multiple disciplines is proposed to cast icv in a nomological net and to illuminate several avenues for future research practical implications are also discussed

stabilization of emissions of co 2 a computable general equilibrium assessment a multisector computable general equilibrium model is used to study economic development perspectives in norway if carbon dioxide emissions were stabilized the effects discussed include impacts on main macroeconomic indicators and economic growth sectoral allocation of production and effects on the market for energy the impact of pollutants other than carbon dioxide on emissions is assessed along with the related impact on noneconomic welfare the results indicate that carbon dioxide emissions might be stabilized in norway without dramatically reducing economic growth sectoral allocation effects are much larger a substantial reduction in emissions to air other than carbon dioxide is found yielding considerable gains in noneconomic welfare copyright 1992 by the editors of the scandinavian journal of economics

managerial metric use in marketing decisions across 16 countries a cultural perspective research on metrics is consistently designated a priority by academics and practitioners however less is known about how culture and cross national differences can potentially impact metric use which is theoretically and managerially limiting this work develops a model that examines national and organizational cultural antecedents while controlling for the decision setting testing the model on data collected from 4384 managerial decisions from 1637 firms in 16 countries reveals that both levels of culture are associated with metric use but each has varying effects our results enable multinational executives to better understand and increase managerial metric use across different cultures and settings

the multifaceted role of language in international business unpacking the forms functions and features of a critical challenge to mnc theory and performance language lies at the heart of international business ib activities yet language as a key construct in the field of ib has not been sufficiently articulated or theorized language presents itself in forms such as national corporate technical or electronic in functions in terms of defining hierarchies exercising power or facilitating integration and in features such as the use of mixed syntax or gender marking understanding the complex interplay between the multiple facets of language and how they affect day to day operations is becoming increasingly critical to global business effectiveness the purpose of this special issue is therefore to catalyze and set a course for the development of a new domain in ib scholarship originating from an explicit focus on language

the relationship between export market orientation and export performance an empirical study abstractthis article investigates the relationship between export market orientation and export performance in saudi export firms questionnaire method was used to collect the data from managers of export firms with the mediating role of export strategy the data were analysed using structural equation modelling sem implemented using amos software results of sem analysis showed that export market orientation has impact on export performance the mediator variable export strategy was found to have partial mediation role in the relationship this article joins the literature of international trade by adding the perspective of saudi export firms managers of export firms can employ the study to support their firm towards the effect of market orientation on their performance

cross cultural examination of the fishbein behavioral intentions model most of the principal theories associated with consumer behavior have been developed and tested in the united states a question that has been posed by some consumer researchers concerns the applicability of these theories outside of the united states the study reported in this paper is a cross cultural examination of the applicability of the fishbein behavioral intentions model in korea and the united states korea can be characterized as a collectivist culture that is different from the individualist culture dominant in the united states the findings of the study suggest that the fishbein model can be employed to explain consumers behavioral intentions formation in a confucian culture as well as in the united states

excess capacity and collusion in this paper the authors analyze a restricted class of equilibria in the dynamic model of j p benoit and v krishna 1987 in which firms choose their scale of operation before engaging in a repeated game of price competition benoit and krishna established that all firms carry excess capacity in all collusive equilibria as the authors are interested in the relationship between excess capacity and collusion in price they examine equilibria in which firms tacitly collude in price but not in investment decisions copyright 1990 by economics department of the university of pennsylvania and the osaka university institute of social and economic research association

managers gender role attitudes a country institutional profile approach in this paper we use the country institutional profile to investigate how selected cognitive normative and regulative aspects of various countries relate to traditional gender role attitudes of managers from these countries our cross level analyses using hierarchical linear modeling control for a number of individual characteristics i e age education gender and social class results support our hypotheses that managers traditional gender role attitudes relate positively to nation level uncertainty avoidance and power distance moreover the results support our predictions that gender egalitarian normative institutions degree of regulation and degree of educational development are negatively related to managers traditional gender role attitudes however results reject our hypotheses regarding nation level religiosity assertiveness and masculinity not showing the proposed relationship with managers traditional gender role attitudes implications for research and practice are discussed

a framework for culture assessment understanding the nature and influences of culture is central to international business such inquiry presupposes knowing that the cultural grouping s of a study is a valid unit of analysis which is critical in that the estimation of culture effects can vary based on the unit definition unfortunately perhaps out of convenience international studies often simply use a country based definition of culture in a desire to facilitate further development in understanding culture effects in this paper we propose a framework by which valid cultural groupings may be assessed

comparative marketing the first twenty five years this article reviews the field of comparative marketing in terms of scope types and depth of studies methodological issues conceptual and managerial payoffs and teaching approaches after its first quarter of a century as an international business topic comparative marketing is still relatively green

leadership and organizational justice similarities and differences across cultures international management scholars and practitioners agree that managers cannot simply assume that leadership behaviors effective in one culture can be readily transferred to other cultures this study examines the relationship of transformational leadership and leader member exchange to organizational justice and job satisfaction in five separate cultures results indicate that while there is consistent support for some of the proposed linkages there are also some interesting differences across cultures implications for theory and future research on international business are discussed

the effects of customer and competitor orientations on performance in global markets a contingency analysis should companies adjust their orientations toward customers or toward competitors in global markets to answer this question we use contingency theory and examine how the effects of customer and competitor orientations on performance are moderated by different environmental conditions our results from the global hotel industry indicate that a customer orientation works better in economically developed markets as well as in markets with good local business conditions greater resource availability and demanding customers in contrast a competitor orientation is more effective in markets that are economically developing have poor local business conditions and face resource scarcity

a typology of management studies involving culture as a methodological review this paper delineates 6 approaches to researching cross cultural management issues parochial ethnocentric polycentric comparative geocentric and synergistic for each approach assumptions are discussed concerning the similarity and difference across cultures and the extent to which management phenomena are or are not universal the primary types of management questions which can be addressed using each approach are clarified main methodological issues which must be addressed are listed

fifty years of methodological trends in jibs why future ib research needs more triangulation we analyze methodological trends in empirical research in jibs from 1970 2019 our results point to the prevalence of the following patterns there has been an increase in the use of 1 large scale longitudinal cross national datasets 2 complex analytical techniques including the incorporation of multiple analytical techniques within the same study but 3 a decline in the diversity of methods in use we relate these trends to the underlying social technical and communicative conventions in the journal during the 50 year period the observed patterns are consistent with theory that posits scientific fields entrench a dominant paradigm over time resulting in a restricted set of methodological options being selected such restrictions jeopardize the quality of research because the study of any phenomenon requires the use of multiple methodological procedures to avoid the systematic biases errors omissions and limitations introduced by any single option therefore we propose the use of triangulation as a strategy for building methodological alternatives into research designs institutionalization of this principle in the field of international business has the potential to enhance both the rigor and scope of inquiry of future research

cross national comparison of export promotion services the views of canadian and austrian companies export promotion systems in canada and austria are contrasted and their services evaluated from a company perspective the canadian system is government based while the austrian one operates in the private sector apart from the philosophy under which these export support systems operate they differ also in strategic orientation a survey of stratified samples of exporters in canada 271 and austria 312 shows significant differences in perceived usefulness of services given similar exporter needs companies desire more tailored support as well as greater involvement of private sector institutions which are not currently providing export support overall austrian companies appear more inclined to use export support and generally seem more willing to acquire exporting know how externally compared to canadian firms conclusions are offered with respect to improving the respective export promotion systems

international perceptions of cost constraints on voluntary information disclosures a comparative study of u k and u s multinationals the main purpose of this paper is to examine the cost constraints on voluntary information disclosure in a comparative study of the perceptions of financial executives in u k and u s multinationals the study examines the perceived net costs or benefits of disclosing information voluntarily the types of costs involved and the significance of cost constraints in respect of specific items of disclosure the results suggest that while there is substantial agreement on the major cost constraints involved and the individual items giving rise to major net costs there are significantly different perceptions by u k and u s financial executives in terms of the overall emphasis of responses to the issue of cost constraints on voluntary information disclosures

methodological and theoretical issues and advancements in cross cultural research this paper summarizes the issues and concerns of critics of cross cultural research and discusses how they are being addressed by researchers given the state of the art and the complexity of this field of research the author recommends more inductive research and the pursuit of appropriate but not overambitious sampling designs so as to increase our understanding of cultures and encourage the building of richer theory bases taking an optimistic view of the field the author predicts useful contributions by researchers which will enrich the art and science of cross cultural management

an assessment of the measurement of performance in international business research a sizeable body of international business ib research is devoted to building knowledge about the determinants of organizational performance a key precursor to accurately diagnosing why some organizations succeed in the international marketplace while others struggle is operationalizing performance appropriately yet to date no systematic investigation has considered how well ib research measures performance we examine the measurement of performance in 96 articles published in the academy of management journal administrative science quarterly journal of marketing journal of marketing research journal of international business studies management science organization science a nd thestrategic management journal between 1995 and 2005 the findings reveal that most studies do not measure performance in a manner that captures the multifaceted nature of the construct we describe the implications of these results and offer suggestions for improving future practice journal of international business studies 2008 39 1064 1080

cross national empirical generalization in business services buying behavior we examine cross national generalization of the relative importance of factors that affect supplier selection and level of usage for global business services providers tests indicate that the majority of the response coefficients for a model of foreign exchange markets are equal across the four countries studied u s canada u k and germany inter country differences in buyer response seem most related to competitiveness and identifiable country specific institutional factors

an examination of the psychometric properties of some commonly researched individual differences job and organizational variables in two cultures this study examines the transferability and applicability of selected measures of individual differences job and organizational climate factors across two cultures questionnaires were administered to a sample of 267 white collar bank employees in the u s and 307 bank employees in india the individual difference dimensions examined were four manifest needs sense of competence and locus of control the job factors included variety autonomy identity and feedback the organizational climate factors related to communication stress participation in decision making and self esteem from the workplace the data were analyzed for internal consistency dimensionality and criterion related validity the results showed that the job and organizational climate measures were more reliable and were related more consistently to the criterion measures than the individual difference measures both within and across cultures the results suggested that psychometrically sound measures may be transferable to other cultures

international business competence and the contemporary firm the trend of increasing internationalization of small and medium enterprises smes is noteworthy because such firms typically have far fewer financial and tangible resources than large multinational enterprises as a result international business is often more challenging for smaller firms in this study we investigate the widespread internationalization of smes and specific factors that support their superior performance abroad we uncover a collection of intangible capabilities that are especially salient to these firms and their growing international involvement we identify international business competence ibc as an intangible overarching firm resource that engenders superior international performance in the international sme through case studies and a comprehensive literature review we identify four dimensions of ibc we devise and assess a model that links ibc to sme international performance results suggest that international orientation international marketing skills international innovativeness and international market orientation are all significant dimensions of ibc and that ibc is instrumental in sme international performance we discuss resultant findings and offer managerial implications

some methodological and analytic considerations in cross national comparative research this article demonstrates one methodological approach to aid in the complex process of making inferences about the meaning and usefulness of observed national differences by using data from an international study of the meaning of working 3 points are made 1 it is important to use multiple methods of measurement for conceptual ideas or domains 2 it is important to use intra country reference group comparisons and 3 it is important to use some form of relative position analysis in addition to score analysis

japan vs silicon valley quality cost trade off philosophies while japanese manufacturing philosophies are said to be based on quality is free notions it is commonly accepted that u s manufacturing centers on a quality is costly belief this paper provides empirical data that test this conceptual division seeking evidence about the quality tradeoff philosophies of u s and japanese electronics manufacturing managers

keiretsu and relationship specific investment implications for market opening trade policy abstract this paper considers the implications of relationship specific investment within keiretsu for policies aimed at opening the japanese market for intermediate goods such as auto parts both vies applied to parts and vers restricting japanese exports of autos cause the keiretsu to import a wider range of parts but of a relatively unimportant type such as seat covers since keiretsu investment and output fall the total value of us parts exports may actually fall for a given value of these exports a vie is less costly for us consumers and japanese producers but a ver is preferred by us automakers

diagnosing measurement equivalence in cross national research many researchers have pointed out that it is necessary to ensure measurement equivalence in cross national comparative research three aspects of measurement equivalence translation metric and calibration equivalence are necessary to establish the cross national reliability and validity of items used to measure theoretical constructs this paper discusses these issues and proposes two recently developed empirical techniques multiple group lisrel and optimal scaling for use in diagnosing cross national measurement equivalence these techniques are illustrated by reanalysis of a pioneering u s and japanese study the two techniques yield convergent results indicating measurement equivalence for some but not all ordinal level items under consideration the findings demonstrate that the proposed methods are useful diagnostic tools for exploring measurement equivalence several suggestions for reducing the likelihood of problems with measurement equivalence and a number of methods for dealing with items where lack of equivalence persists are also discussed

voluntary import expansions and voluntary export restraints in an oligopoly model with capacity constraints in a three country generalization of the kreps scheinkman 1983 duopoly model with price competition and capacity constraints the author analyzes the effects of discriminatory voluntary import expansions and voluntary export restraints on equilibrium capacity and pricing decisions voluntary export restraints are shown to be bad for the exporting country contradicting recent results in the literature by r harris 1985 and k krishna 1989 voluntary import expansions are shown to decrease competition cases are analyzed where voluntary import expansions may actually lead to import contraction or to increases in efficiency in the home country

linking product and process innovations and modes of international sourcing in global competition a case of foreign multinational firms in increasingly complex global competition multinational firms u s and foreign alike have stepped up international sourcing of components and finished products to serve various markets since an increasing portion of global competition is shaped by european and japanese multinational firms with due emphasis on product quality and manufacturing it is an opportune time to examine the like among their product development manufacturing and sourcing activities those european and japanese multinational firms marketing products in the united states are chosen as subjects of this study

management style and productivity in two cultures global competition has motivated an increasing number of united states firms to set up production facilities in mexico this study examines productivity and management style differences in a mexican maquiladora operation and its u s parent plant likert s system 4 theory was used as the theoretical basis of comparison as hypothesized significant differences were found in the management systems while productivity at the two facilities was equal

the behavioural homogeneity evaluation framework multi level evaluations of consumer involvement in international segmentation this paper presents a generic strategic framework of alternative international marketing strategies and market segmentation based on intra and inter cultural behavioural homogeneity consumer involvement ci is proposed as a pivotal construct to capture behavioural homogeneity for the identification of market segments results from a five country study demonstrate how the strategic framework can be valuable in managerial decision making first there is evidence for the cultural invariance of the measurement of ci allowing a true comparison of inter and intra cultural behavioural homogeneity second ci influences purchase behaviour and its evaluation provides a rich source of information for responsive market segmentation finally a decomposition of behavioural variance suggests that national cultural environment and nationally transcendent variables explain differences in behaviour the behavioural homogeneity evaluation framework therefore suggests appropriate international marketing strategies providing practical guidance for implementing involvement contingent strategies 2007 academy of international business all rights reserved

national context and individual employees trust of the out group the role of societal trust out group trust is a crucial driver of international business performance however employees from different countries vary in their levels of out group trust the aim of this study is therefore to capture national forces driving out group trust based on kramer s theorizing on the multiple bases of trust we argue that at the societal level dispositional categorization based and rule based trust influence employees out group trust in particular we argue for dispositional and rule based societal trust to increase and for categorization based societal trust to decrease employees out group trust through different types of socialization using data on 25 622 employees from 42 countries we find partial support for the coexistence of these bases of societal trust disentangling trust forming and trust impeding models we find support for dispositional and rule based societal trust as drivers of employees out group trust and for categorization based societal trust as impeding employees out group trust in a combined model however rule based trust is not significantly related to employees out group trust considering the coexistence of trust and distrust employees out group trust develops through socialization effects conveying general trust in others i e high dispositional trust and the equality of social groups i e low categorization based trust

energy taxes in the netherlands what are the dividends in this paper the environmental and economic effects of the introduction of a unilateral energy tax in the netherlands are analysed using an applied general equilibrium age model the effects of a small user energy tax and a general energy tax are compared while taking into account different tax recycling mechanisms the model contains a great level of detail with respect to emissions and environmental indicators greenhouse effect acidification eutrophication and waste which is helpful for assessing environmental quality the results show that the introduction of a small environmental tax reform not only improves the environment but also raises non environmental welfare which is due to an improvement of the efficiency of the tax structure

the importance of work goals an international perspective the paper probes into the basic question of what individuals seek from working results from a representative sample of the labor force in seven countries n 8192 showed that the two most dominant work goals are interesting work and good pay these were consistent internationally across different organizational levels between the genders and among different age categories

asia s materialists reconciling collectivism and materialism materialism has an ugly face the dominant view of materialism regards materialists as self prioritizing individuals who oppose collective and prosocial goals in favor of a lifestyle led by money possessions and status the present research argues that there is a side of materialism that is concerned with collective oriented interests we examine the nature and consequences of collective oriented materialism the belief system that ascribes importance to possessions for their symbolic and signaling capacities to construct desirable social attributes drawing from cultural and consumer theories we find considerable support that materialists espouse a collective oriented quality to an otherwise self oriented interest towards possessions

examining the cross national applicability of multi item multi dimensional measures using generalizability theory establishing the applicability of multi item measures is important for making valid inferences when testing theories cross nationally typically researchers have relied upon the tenets of classical measurement theory ct using confirmatory factor model invariance testing to conclude that a unidimensional measure is applicable across countries however two important issues remain unresolved via ct techniques 1 if the measure is found not to be invariant ct tells us little as to why the measure varies across countries and 2 if the measure is multi dimensional what factors affect its cross national applicability our research seeks to address these issues and the cross national measurement applicability of multi dimensional scales via generalizability theory gt in this paper we use a cross national data set and simulated data sets to demonstrate the usefulness of gt to cross national multi dimensional measurement

intrapreneurship construct refinement and cross cultural validation abstract intrapreneurship entrepreneurship within existing organizations has been of interest to scholars and practitioners for the past two decades intrapreneurship is viewed as being beneficial for revitalization and performance of corporations as well as for small and medium sized enterprises the concept has four distinct dimensions first the new business venturing dimension refers to pursuing and entering new businesses related to the firm s current products or markets second the innovativeness dimension refers to the creation of new products services and technologies third the self renewal dimension emphasizes the strategy reformulation reorganization and organizational change finally the proactiveness dimension reflects top management orientation in pursuing enhanced competitiveness and includes initiative and risk taking and competitive aggressiveness and boldness while differing somewhat in their emphasis activities and orientations the four dimensions pertain to the same concept of intrapreneurship because they are factors of schumpeterian innovation the building block of entrepreneurship the pursuit of creative or new solutions to challenges confronting the firm including the development or enhancement of old and new products and services markets administrative techniques and technologies for performing organizational functions e g production marketing sales and distribution as well as changes in strategy organizing and dealings with competitors are innovations in the broadest sense intrapreneurship theory and measures have an american basis while being considered universal their generalizability has been limited because their cross cultural testing has been extremely limited two main measures of intrapreneurship the entrescale and the corporate entrepreneurship scale were developed independently but lack validity for cross national comparisons and do not tap all four dimensions of intrapreneurship when used independently in order to fill the gaps in previous research these two scales are integrated into a four dimensional measure of intrapreneurship refinement and validation was done by using two samples from two distinct economies slovenia a small transition economy from central and eastern europe with a short entrepreneurship tradition and the united states a large developed and advanced economy that is a leader in entrepreneurship research and practice the refined multidimensional measure of intrapreneurship was developed to be cross culturally generalizable because its refined dimensions scales include only cross culturally comparable items the refined intrapreneurship construct measure showed reasonably good convergent and discriminant validity as well as good nomological validity in terms of expected positive relationships to its antecedents organizational and environmental characteristics and consequences growth and profitability across the two samples that included large medium sized and smaller firms from a variety of different industries manufacturing consumer and industrial goods consumer and business services trade and construction in addition to the generalizability of the refined intrapreneurship construct measure the results of this study support the notion that intrapreneurship is an important predictor of firm growth in terms of absolute growth growth in number of employees and in total sales and relative growth growth in market share in comparison to competition firms that nurture organizational structures and values conducive to intrapreneurial activities are more likely to grow than organizations that are low in such characteristics open and quality communication existence of formal controls intensive environmental scanning management support organizational support and values all help an organization become more intrapreneurial intrapreneurial organizations are those that engage in new business venturing are innovative continuously renew themselves and are proactive in transition economies which are adapting their economies to more developed economies standards of doing business and where growth may not yet be the primary goal intrapreneurship may be even more important for the growth and profitability of existing organizations

economic impacts of reducing nox emissions in norway using a multisector computable general equilibrium model for the norwegian economy the impacts on main macroeconomic indicators of reducing nox emissions are analyzed seven specific technical measures regarding passenger cars trucks ships and industrial processes are studied the measures have somewhat different impacts on the macroeconomy especially the measure pertaining to light and heavy duty trucks leads to an increase in gdp because of higher income from indirect taxes however the sum of value added in the production sectors is reduced the other measures cause a decrease in gdp all in all we find that the costs in terms of reductions in gdp and private consumption incurred from the introduction of additional nox emissions control measures are quite small

profitability of export restraint this paper analyzes the effect of quotas or voluntary export restraints upon each producer s profits in the case of an oligopoly with one foreign producer in this oligopoly all producers including the foreign producer can get greater profits under some protective quotas than under no restraints furthermore the optimal export restraint for the foreign producer with a low marginal cost is smaller than his optimal export under no restraints accordingly export restraints may be sought by the foreign producer as a strategic behavior to increase profits

assessing the cross national invariance of formative measures guidelines for international business researchers the importance of establishing equivalence in measurement prior to conducting substantive cross country comparisons has long been emphasized in international business research however all approaches currently available for the investigation of measurement equivalence or invariance me i assume that the focal measures are reflective in nature in our paper we offer guidelines for the assessment of me i when the focal construct is measured with formative indicators we first identify distinct types of me i that are conceptually consistent with the nature of formative measurement models we then describe a step by step procedure that can be employed to test for these types of me i in a comparative context lastly we illustrate the application of the proposed procedure with data from a three country survey on consumers product country image perceptions

influence of role stress on industrial salespeople s work outcomes in the united states japan and korea role theory espouses and extensive empirical research has found that role stress can have deleterious effect on work outcomes of sales personnel the findings of these investigations however are predicated on u s based samples of salespeople whether similar results would be obtained with samples of salespersons in other countries has not yet been determined this paper reports the results of a study that examined the impact of role stress on performance job satisfaction and organizational commitment of industrial salespeople from the united states japan and korea tests of cross national hypotheses indicate general consistency in the findings across the three countries

project escalation and sunk costs a test of the international generalizability of agency and prospect theories previous north american research suggests that aspects of agency theory and prospect theory may explain decisions to escalate commitment to failing projects this study explores the universality of these theories in this context the willingness of north american and asian managers to escalate commitment to losing projects was measured using four go no go decision cases we hypothesized that asian managers would be less willing to act in their self interest a lower agency effect and would be more willing to escalate a decision in the face of negative framing a stronger framing effect we found that agency theory had strong explanatory power for project in our asian sample framing effects were significant in both but they were not significantly different

process standardization across intra and inter cultural relationships theory suggests that culture may hinder the ability to effectively standardize the process of relationship development strategies across intra and inter cultural relationships construct relationships between trust commitment conflict and satisfaction in manufacturer distributor relationships are examined intra i e within a single cultural type and inter culturally i e between different cultural types with a sample of distributors from canada chile mexico and the united states results support theoretical differences in the consequences of the trust commitment relationship between intra cultural and inter cultural relationships the results suggest process standardization based upon cultural type

data equivalence in cross cultural international business research assessment and guidelines data equivalence refers to the extent to which the elements of a research design have the same meaning and can be applied in the same way in different cultural contexts failure to establish data equivalence in cross cultural studies may bias empirical results and theoretical inferences although several authors have encouraged researchers to ensure high levels of data equivalence no study has assessed the status of the field in relation to compliance with data equivalence standards accordingly this study examines three aspects of data equivalence construct equivalence measurement equivalence and data collection equivalence within 167 studies that involve cross cultural data published in the journal of international business studies management international review journal of world business strategic management journal and the academy of management journal from 1995 to 2005 the findings indicate that international business researchers report insufficient information in relation to data equivalence issues thus limiting confidence in the findings of many cross cultural studies to enhance future research a guideline for procedures for researchers to follow and report in establishing data equivalence is offered

how perceived brand globalness creates brand value in today s multinational marketplace it is increasingly important to understand why some consumers prefer global brands to local brands we delineate three pathways through which perceived brand globalness pbg influences the likelihood of brand purchase using consumer data from the u s a and korea we find that pbg is positively related to both perceived brand quality and prestige and through them to purchase likelihood the effect through perceived quality is strongest pbg effects are weaker for more ethnocentric consumers

measurement issues in cross national research substantive inference from cross national studies have important implications for theory e g because they reveal insights into generalizability and boundary conditions and managerial practice e g because they offer guidelines to mnc managers however few empirical studies attend to measurement issues involved in cross national research and still fewer recognize the risk of inferential errors that are likely to occur by overlooking measurement issues we discuss four measurement issues namely 1 standardized versus unstandardized coefficients 2 the impact of measurement error and unequal reliability 3 the overall error rate and simultaneous analysis and 4 construct equivalence using illustrate examples we demonstrate the nature of each of these problems the likely impact they can have on substantive conclusions and approaches for tackling these problems additionally we reanalyze a recently published three nation study by dubinsky michaels kotabe lim and moon 1992 to clarify these measurement concerns highlight a methodological approach and delineate the extent and severity of inferential errors our reanalysis shows that the interactive effects of these measurement issues are pervasive complex and unpredictable we close with implications for cross national research in general

organizational learning about new international markets exploring the internal transfer of local market knowledge this study examines the transfer of local market knowledge within the diversified firm as its divisions expand into a new host country within the u s based corporations in our sample both the nature of local market knowledge itself and differences in organizational structures significantly influence the extent of internal knowledge transfer among divisions the results suggest that as firms expand into new international markets their organizational learning processes differ significantly

a more expansive perspective on translation in ib research insights from the russian handbook of knowledge management the treatment of translation in the international business ib literature has been predominantly concerned with research methodology and back translation arguing for a less microscopic concept of translation in ib research we advocate a more expansive perspective whereby translation is understood as cross border interplay of entire terrains of corporate contexts and experience linking multiple mental and social frames of reference we apply three notions from linguistics and translation studies equivalence ambiguity and cultural interference to problematize the translation of management terms and concepts across languages and to highlight the importance of historical and cultural embedding in the translation process we substantiate the core argument through analysis of fragments from russia s first handbook of knowledge management a text composed of 23 contributions translated from english into russian a language in restless regeneration struggling arduously with western management terms and concepts after 70 years of communism this knowledge management text constitutes the essence of an entire corpus of modern management thought and action which is largely unfamiliar to the russian business and scholarly community we demonstrate how acts of translation serve as an analog for the cross cultural transfer of knowledge and how these insights can advance ib translation research into new and rewarding directions

understanding consumer animosity in an international crisis nature antecedents and consequences the nature antecedents and consequences of consumer animosity during the 1997 asian economic crisis are investigated based on a large scale survey of 2000 adult consumers representative of five affected nations indonesia malaysia singapore south korea and thailand an animosity model was developed and tested with the us and japan as target countries as predicted stable and situational animosity reduced willingness to buy products from a perceived hostile national entity affective evaluations and cognitive judgments were negatively influenced by situational animosity but not by stable animosity as expected situational animosity was increased by external attribution perceived external control and stable animosity implications of these findings are discussed and directions for future research suggested

entrepreneurs creativity and firm innovation the moderating role of entrepreneurial self efficacy there are several studies in entrepreneurship investigating determinants of innovation outcomes in smes although entrepreneurs entrepreneurial creativity is often seen as a prerequisite previous research indicates it is not an exclusive determinant of innovation we use theoretical logics of social cognitive theory and innovation theory to develop a conceptual model of entrepreneur s creativity self efficacy and innovation outcomes the model is then tested on a large sample of small and medium firms from two distinct economies the united states and slovenia empirical findings partially support the proposed moderation effects of entrepreneurial self efficacy but with the same variations between countries the implications of these results in relation to entrepreneurship theory and practice are discussed

organizational changes in emerging economies drivers and consequences organizational change in emerging economies although difficult is inevitable the authors study the drivers and consequences of organizational changes in an emerging economy china the results of a firm level survey show that organizational changes in technical vs administrative areas are differentially driven by firms motivation to change past performance opportunity to change firm location and market orientation and capability to change firm ownership managers change attitude and leader charisma furthermore technical and administrative changes affect firm performance through distinct paths technical changes have a direct positive impact on performance whereas administrative changes enhance firm performance indirectly through technical changes and the effect of administrative changes on performance is strengthened by the presence of a participative culture