consumer demand for food diversity evidence for germany abstract whereas a large number of empirical studies have been devoted to analysing consumer demand for specific products much less attention has been paid to the household s demand for product variety the number of different products consumed in a specific time period this paper analyses consumer demand for food variety in germany the econometric analysis of 4632 households suggests that variety significantly increases with income and the number of children aged between 7 and 17 years and is significantly higher if the family lives in larger cities in east germany and the housekeeping person is not additionally working full time a single male household consumes a significantly smaller number of different food products the significant and positive impact of household income on food variety is in line with the hypothesis that consumption evolves along a hierarchical order as income increases

realising the wellbeing dividend an exploratory study using the human scale development approach abstract despite claims about the existence of the wellbeing dividend that sustainable and reduced consumption is compatible with increased wellbeing there is little evidence that this dividend is being realised the present research illustrates how through workshops addressing the cultural economic political and personal factors that impede or promote human need satisfaction a given society can unravel its own pathway towards sustainability and wellbeing this study draws on the wellbeing literature particularly max neef s approach to human needs and satisfiers it uses an analysis of group discussions in lleida a medium sized catalonian city to show how unsustainable consumption is associated with local hurdles for actualising needs and how sustainable consumption is linked to local descriptions of the utopian need actualising society the manner of progressing towards need actualisation and sustainability is also addressed by participants who identify the changes in norms institutions and personal identity that need to be in place the analysis reveals the interrelatedness of satisfiers and argues for a systemic perspective to address social transition towards sustainability and wellbeing at the local level

nutritional status during an economic crisis evidence from russia between 1996 and 1998 russia experienced a spectacular decline in economic activity which was followed by a dramatic rebound between 1998 and 2000 we use panel data to examine the impact of variation in household resources on six dimensions of nutritional status distinguishing longer run from short term fluctuations in resources nutritional status is very resilient to short term variation in household resources gross energy intake adult weight and child stature change very little as expenditure deviates from its long run average longer run resources have a substantively large positive and significant effect on energy intake diet quality adult weight and child stature the evidence indicates that individuals and households are able to weather short term fluctuations in economic resources at least in terms of maintaining body mass and energy intake increased globalisation has resulted in many less developed countries becoming more integrated into world markets this integration carries both benefits and costs for the populations of those countries an oft cited cost is elevated risk of exposure to economic fluctuations which has been manifest in several spectacular economic crises across the globe in the last few decades there is however little evidence on the extent to which individuals and families are able to mitigate deleterious effects of these economic upheavals on their well being in spite of its importance for understanding the consequences of globalisation this article provides new evidence on this issue specifically we examine the relationship between several dimensions of nutritional well being and variation in household resources during the russian economic crisis in the late 1990s the economies of the former soviet bloc have been especially volatile since the transition to market based economies which began in the early 1990s nowhere has this been more true than in russia where in the last half of 1998 real gdp collapsed by around 30 and then rapid growth brought the economy back to its pre crisis level by 2000 the time path of changes in gdp is closely mimicked by changes in the incomes and expenditures of russian households using extremely rich longitudinal household survey data from the russian longitudinal monitoring survey rlms we examine the impact of these large fluctuations in household resources on nutrient intake and on anthropometric markers of nutritional status at the individual level in so doing we address an important issue in the literature regarding the extent to which households in low income settings are able

sustainable homeservices toward household services that enhance ecological social and economic sustainability abstract the idea of services replacing products is increasingly offered as a solution to making the production and consumption patterns of the affluent consumers more sustainable however the discussion about sustainable services or sustainable product service systems tends to emphasize the eco efficiency perspective rather than explicitly capture all sustainability aspects social or socioeconomic considerations are often forgotten or by passed without scrutiny this paper argues that there is the need for a concept of sustainable services in which the social sustainability aspect is also recognized with equal attention since a major part of private consumption occurs in the household context living at home and moving to and from it this paper will put forth the concept of sustainable homeservices and will suggest a way to assess sustainability of services directed to households for assessing the sustainability of services directed to households a set of indicators relating to the ecological social and economic dimensions of sustainability is proposed with the aim of giving an idea of how to assess homeservices in practical terms the paper will also exemplify how one could operationalize these indicators on an ordinal rating scale the conclusion is that it is possible to assess the sustainability of a homeservice in a relative fashion using no service or the product alternative as the point of comparison households alone have a limited capacity to influence their consumption choices because other actors set the frame for this reason institutional arrangements for making services easily available to households are outlined it appears that housing organizations have a central role in the alternative option for organizing the supply of service provision they are involved in five of the seven alternative ways of supplying services that could be identified the role of the housing organization can vary from direct supply to lighter forms such as cooperative arrangements with external service providers or resident involvement

poverty food consumption and nutrition during the transition to the market economy in eastern historically average reported levels of food intake in eastern europe have been considerably higher than in most middleincome countries according to food balance sheet data average calories proteins and fats in terms of availability per capita rose continuously over the 1961 1988 period and generally exceeded the intake requirements established by the world health organization who food and agriculture organization 1991 while it may rightly be argued that these data offer little information about the effective control over food by consumers in different income groups in the case of pre reform eastern europe full employment low income inequality and low food prices generally ensured a minimal level of food intake even for those in the bottom deciles of the income distribution while undernutrition did not generally represent a problem considerable imbalances affected the diet of most people in the region particularly in urban areas and among low income groups food intake was characterized by a high consumption of cholesterol rich products such as eggs and animal fats sugar salt bread and alcohol and a low intake of good quality meat fruit and vegetables and vegetable oils the data in table 1 clearly illustrate this situation for russia and can be taken as representative of the entire region low income families consumed less food per capita while their diet was characterized by greater intake both in relative and absolute terms of bread and fats and a lower consumption of more nutritious and healthy foods the dietary imbalances implicit in this consumption pattern caused an abnormally high incidence of nutritionally related health problems including a high prevalence of overweight people cardiovascular diseases micronutrient deficiencies and anemia in addition a fairly high prevalence of low birth weight lbw and low breastfeeding rates were common in the region inadequate breastfeeding represented a critical nutritional problem for young children as milk substitutes and baby foods were generally in short supply

what influences consumption consumers and beyond purposes contexts agents and history consumption of goods and services is a complex phenomenon at the root of environmental problems but it is still often framed in terms of individual behaviour which can be related to a lack of wide cross disciplinary explanations for consumption to contribute to filling this gap we conducted a literature review across ten disciplines we provide a cross disciplinary overview of what influences consumption juxtaposing dominant with less heard explanations for consumption and adding cross disciplinary evidence to counter the view of consumption as a chiefly individual phenomenon the resulting conceptual framework depicts consumption as influenced by three levels that undergo historical transformations the micro level of consumers purposes and products the meso level of the direct context in which consumption takes place and the macro level of societal contexts and agents future research should investigate which kinds of interactions between levels agents and contexts can lead to minimising social and environmental impacts of consumption

are estimates of calorie income fxelasticities too high a recalibration of the plausible range abstract the wide range of calorie income elasticities in the literature results in large part from the particular calorie and income variables used for estimation elasticities across four estimation techniques and four calorie income variable pairs for a sample of philippine farm households ranged from 0 03 to 0 59 estimates associated with calorie availability are biased upwards first because random errors in measuring food purchases are transmitted by construction both to calorie availability and total expenditures and second because the residual difference between family calorie intake and household calorie availability will often increase with income the calorie intake total expenditure variable pair gives the preferred elasticity estimate in the 0 08 0 14 range

luxury or lock in an exploration of unsustainable consumption in the uk 1968 to 2000 abstract sustainable consumption demands the ability to understand the patterns of resource consumption associated with changing lifestyles this paper explores changes in resource consumption patterns in the uk between 1968 and 2000 using an environmental input output model the paper tracks the fossil resource requirements attributable to 8 high level functional purposes and finds that overall fossil resource consumption increased 35 over the 32 year period the four functional purposes most closely related to the provision of basic material needs showed little change over the period the bulk of the increase in fossil resource requirements was attributable to two specific functional purposes 1 recreation and entertainment 2 commuting and business travel the authors discuss the relevance of these findings for the continuing debate over the question whether rising consumption is being driven by expanding social aspirations luxury or whether it is the result of structural lock in

distance time and specialization lean retailing in general equilibrium transport time increases with distance traveled and time is valuable we show the implications of these facts for global specialization and trade products where timely delivery is important will be produced near the source of final demand where wages will be higher as a result in the model timely delivery is important because it allows retailers to respond to final demand fluctuations without holding costly inventories and timely delivery is possible only from nearby locations using a unique dataset that allows us to measure the retail demand for timely delivery we show that the sources of u s apparel imports have shifted in the way predicted by the model with products for which timeliness matters increasingly imported from nearby countries jel f1 transporting goods and people costs time and money and both transport fees and time in transit generally increase with the distance traveled these facts imply an incentive to economize on distance and the equilibrium effects

the dynamics of willingness to consume abstract it is increasingly acknowledged that the growing consumption in the north constitutes an important part of global environmental problems to improve the possibilities of dealing with this aspect of the problems this paper explores some of the driving forces behind the growth in consumption the first section introduces the environmental debate on consumption including the relationship between final consumption and the consumption of resources the recent political acceptance of dealing with consumption and the fundamental conditions for consumption growth in the north in the following sections a cross disciplinary approach is applied in a broad search for the driving forces behind the willingness to consume throughout the exposition two questions are explored 1 why are productivity increases largely transformed into income increases instead of more leisure 2 why is such a large part of these income increases used for the consumption of goods and services with a relatively high materials intensity instead of less material intensive alternatives the explanations are divided into three groups first the economic explanations including socio economic aspects related to the institutional set up of the economy second socio psychological explanations focusing on consumption from the perspective of the human being embedded in specific social relations third historical and socio technological explanations focusing on different aspects of everyday life the paper concludes with some reflections on the political implications of the analysis

towards sustainable household consumption exploring a practice oriented participatory backcasting approach for sustainable home heating practices in ireland current attempts to encourage sustainable consumption are failing to make significant advancements and consumption by households in daily practices continues to grow interventions in this area are often based on simplistic behavioural assumptions which overlook the embeddedness of daily consumption practices and fail to challenge escalating consumption demands and expectations against this background there is a need to consider more radical socio cultural technological and organisational innovations that may fulfil the goals of daily practices more sustainably in the future taking the case of home heating the most energy intensive practice in irish households this paper reports on a participatory backcasting study that developed future scenarios and action plans for sustainable heating in contrast to conventional behavioural change models and forecasting techniques this study adopted a social practice orientation this paper focuses on the operationalisation of the social practice approach with special reference to the iterative processes around scenario development and the resultant backcasting outputs participant evaluations of the procedure are presented which indicate that despite significant operational complexity the process was strongly valued and provided significant opportunity for learning amongst stakeholders involved whether such approaches can be integrated into governing systems however will depend on a willingness amongst stakeholders to embrace a radical reconceptualisation of behaviour

potential consequences on the economy of low or no growth short and long term perspectives potential consequences on the economy of low or no growth short and long term perspectives

the impact of single windows on trade this paper is the first that quantifies the impact of single windows sws on international trade globally sws function as a single point of entry and exit of the goods traded internationally and are therefore intended to facilitate trade using a structural gravity model for a panel of 176 countries from 1995 to 2017 we apply a log log and a poisson pseudo maximum likelihood estimator ppml with multidimensional fixed effects to evaluate the extent to which export and import flows vary depending on whether or not countries have operational sws the main results from the linearised gravity model suggest that total trade between two countries with functioning sws increases by about 37 of which 23 corresponds to exports and 14 to imports the result from the ppml estimation also indicates a positive and significant effect which is however much smaller in magnitude

willing consumers or locked in policies for a sustainable consumption postmodern explanations of consumer behaviour stress social and psychological factors to the neglect of explanations based on structural issues such as the working life conditions which favour a work and spend lifestyle the conditions of urban living or the effects of pervasive marketing this paper argues that consumers may not be so keen and willing but are rather locked in by circumstances some of these circumstances are deliberately created by other interests and a policy to limit consumption must look for adequate means over a large and varied field in the end shorter working hours may be an important key to a more sustainable future 2002 elsevier science b v all rights reserved

geppml general equilibrium analysis with ppml we develop a simple procedure for general equilibrium comparative static analysis of gravity models non linear solvers are replaced by constrained regressions using theoretical properties of the poisson pseudo maximum likelihood estimator our geppml procedure can readily be implemented in any software capable of estimating constrained poisson models the procedure accommodates calibrated as well as estimated trade costs while using the estimation power of structural gravity to generate ge comparative statics using geppml we quantify the effects of a hypothetical removal of all international borders while preserving the impact of geography on trade we find that trade liberalisation has reaped at most half the potential world gains from trade in 2002 manufacturing a complementary counterfactual experiment simulates the removal of the border between canada and us thus contributing to the famous border puzzle literature in a multicountry setting

the design of an environmental index of sustainable food consumption a pilot study using supermarket data monitoring of the environmental impacts of consumption is necessary for the evaluation of current performance and to support the understanding of how initiatives for change can be implemented we discuss design issues and methodology for an environmentally sensitive shopper ess index to measure the environmental sustainability of food consumption at the household level the ess index is based on revealed consumer preferences and uses scanner data provided by the largest uk food retailer as a pilot illustration of the methodology we use the index to identify environmentally critical periods during the calendar year

developing post normal technologies for sustainability abstract the last two decades have seen the development of an array of techniques and practices aimed at promoting sustainability for many results have been disappointing there are charges that supposedly new organisational approaches remain embedded in managerialist functionalist and anti dialogic frameworks that are a significant part of the problem similarly the technocratic scientization of public policy is viewed as ill equipped to deal with the social economic and ecological issues currently facing neo liberal societies in this paper we seek to interpret these frustrations and identify pathways that move beyond this specifically we argue that the gap between sustainability rhetoric and sustainability practices can be reconceptualised through the practice of science as post normal and through developing the notion of post normal sustainability technologies pnsts the exponents of post normal science show why stakeholder engagement in sustainability and other scientific issues is critical for the legitimacy and quality of decisions and the admission of complexity in decision making and accountability processes building on this now well established foundation we seek to characterise and give examples of pnsts as tools for achieving this participation wherein stakeholders assume expertise and interact with those possessing more traditional forms of expertise in order to co produce knowledge about sustainability recognition of ideological and value diversity is also central to the post normal sustainability agenda and with pnsts the values based nature of the issues involved is articulated in a way that seeks to bring politics openly into the picture to this end we identify processes that are emerging in the literature and in practice that will enable pnsts these include extended peer communities and multi actor heuristics agonistic processes and new characterisations of citizenship that support moves to sustainability in so doing we believe that pnsts offer clumsy solutions for wicked problems that can be engaged with in both the research and practice arenas as significant contributions to addressing urgent needs

not irrational but habitual the importance of behavioural lock in in energy consumption abstract a substantial body of literature has shown that our behaviour is often guided by habits the existence of habits not fully conscious forms of behaviour is important as it contradicts rational choice theory their presence thus calls for the setting of new instruments as they make it unlikely that consumers be capable of exercising control over their energy consumption in reaction to given incentives this is further increased in the evolutionary perspective where the current carbon based socio technical system constrains and shapes consumers choices through structural forces habits being potentially counterintentional they may explain the efficiency paradox in energy as well as the continued increase of energy consumption despite the rising environmental awareness among the population policies aiming at reducing energy consumption should thus specifically address the performance context of habits for instance targeting new residents has proven to be more effective given that their preceding habits have been disturbed the results of our empirical analysis confirm this idea by showing how a change of context makes people more receptive to a proposed measure our analysis of the role played by habits also suggests that individuals do not consider the need to change existing habits as an obstacle even though this is contradicted implicitly in the answers they provided to open questions this unconsciousness is one of the most delicate features of habits and it should thus be accounted for when designing measures given the other characteristics of habits the joint use of feedbacks and commitment strategies appears promising

look at me saving the planet the imitation of visible green behavior and its impact on the climate value action gap abstract examining the regional distribution of 15 different greenhouse gas mitigation practices mps across australia we study the tendency for consumers to imitate visible pro environmental behavior in their local region while there is a great deal of variation in the specific type of mps adopted by consumers located in the same region anova results suggest that they tend to adopt a similar number of mps as their neighbours using discrete choice modelling our results suggest that this is due to the peer adoption of certain visible mps such as using public transport or car pooling encouraging agents to adopt other types of visible mps however the character of this spillover is limited in that visible pro environmental behavior does not appear to influence the adoption of non visible mps we also find that social imitation patterns help individuals overcome the observed gap between their stated concern about climate change and their propensity to act on this concern known as the climate value action gap policy implications for designing effective green nudges are discussed

degrowth energy descent and low tech living potential pathways for increased resilience in times of crisis the use or misuse of advanced technology is a key factor driving global environmental degradation but advanced technology is also widely assumed to be the solution to many environmental problems in contrast to that dominant approach this paper outlines a variety of what the authors call low tech options such as solar shower bags washing lines alternative heating and cooling methods and cycling and raises questions about the extent to which these types of simple living practices could help increase household resilience in conditions of economic disruption instability or crisis the analysis is framed by an energy descent scenario in which an individual household or community either chooses a reduced energy way of life motivated by climate change mitigation or has such a way of life imposed upon them due to declining fossil fuel availability or economic disruption the authors see such a future as plausible and in some contexts has already arrived or has always been the case hence the relevance of this analysis which has both quantitative and qualitative dimensions furthermore while the focus herein is on low tech living at the household level it is argued that prefiguring a simpler way to live has deeper significance too in that it could help create the cultural conditions needed for a politics and macroeconomics of degrowth to emerge which the authors maintain is a necessary part of any decarbonisation project challenges facing low tech options are also acknowledged including the ever present risk of rebound effects and other indirect impacts

sustainable consumption the new economics and community currencies developing new institutions for environmental governance seyfang g 2006 sustainable consumption the new economics and community currencies developing new institutions for environmental governance regional studies 40 781 791 sustainable consumption is gaining currency as a new environmental policy objective but there is a limit to the changes in consumption behaviour that individuals can make within current socio economic frameworks the new economics literature argues that sustainable consumption is characterized by five factors localization reducing ecological footprints community building collective action and building new social institutions these form a set of indicators for the evaluation of initiatives and policies community currencies have been put forward as a new tool to promote sustainable consumption but until now there has been no appraisal of their ability to deliver this goal three different community currency types are described and their effectiveness and potential in enabling more sustainable consumption patterns are assess

impact caps why population affluence and technology strategies should be abandoned abstract this paper classifies strategies to reduce environmental impact according to the terms of the i pat formula policies limiting resource depletion and pollution impact by heavily taxing resources or rationing them on a country basis are thus called direct or left side strategies other policies to achieve the environmental goal of lowering impact strive to limit population and affluence or to use technology to lower the ratio of resource inputs to goods and services outputs next it is shown that lowering any of these right side factors causes or at least enables the other two to rise or rebound this has two consequences 1 since i pat does not express these interdependencies on the right side it is more accurately written i f p a t and 2 success in lowering any of the right side factors does not necessarily lower impact rationing or pigouvian taxation of resources or pollution on the other hand necessarily lower impact and are therefore preferable to population consumption and technological environmental strategies finally lifestyle and technology changes towards more sufficiency and efficiency would follow the caps as consumers and producers work to retain the greatest amount of welfare within the limits given

growing green money mapping community currencies for sustainable development abstract parallel sustainable monetary systems are being developed by civil society groups and non governmental organisations ngos informed by ecological economics perspectives on development value economic scale and growth and responding to the unsustainability of current global financial systems these parallel systems of exchange or community currencies are designed to promote sustainable development by localising economic development building social capital and substituting for material consumption valuing work which is marginalised in conventional labour markets and challenging the growth based monetary system however this international movement towards community based ecological economic practices is under researched this paper presents new empirical evidence from the first international study of the scope and character of community currencies it identifies the diversity scale geography and development trajectory of these initiatives discusses the implications of these findings for efforts to achieve sustainable development and identifies future research needs to help harness the sustainability potential of these initiatives

demand for food variety in an emerging market economy using food intake survey data collected in bulgaria in 1997 this study identified socioeconomic and demographic factors affecting demand for varied diet as measured by the count of food items and entropy index consumer preference for food variety exhibited different patterns depending on the length of time allowed for consumption estimated correlation coefficients indicated that daily variety deviated from that measured weekly and monthly regression analysis showed that regional effects differed across the three periods of time illustrating that the length of time allowed for consumption is an important element in measuring the demand for food variety

using weather variability to estimate the response of savings to transitory income in thailand this paper measures the extent to which farmers are able to use savings and dissavings to smooth consumption in response to unexpected shocks to income time series information on regional rainfall is used to construct estimates of transitory income due to rainfall shocks the relationship between these measures of transitory income and savings indicates that farm households save a significantly higher fraction of transitory income than nontransitory income jel d91 016 the incomes of farm households in developing countries are notorious for being both low and uncertain policies that increase the incomes of farmers may well be different

environmental regulation of households an empirical review of economic and psychological factors abstract the literature on sustainable consumption and environmental regulation of household behavior is dominated by conceptual and normative approaches as a result many suggestions lack a firm empirical basis to overcome this deficiency econometric studies in three areas of environmentally relevant activities of households are reviewed residential use of energy generation of solid waste and recycling and residential use of water next to price and income elasticities attention is devoted to individual socio economic features and psychological factors such as attitudes knowledge perceptions and values potential psychological determinants and related insights are further examined by discussing a range of representative and illustrative statistical psychological studies of environmental behavior one important general finding is that there are very few empirical studies that systematically combine socio economic and psychological determinants a range of insights for environmental policy is derived and research recommendations are offered

trimming the excess environmental impacts of discretionary food consumption in australia abstract tackling the overconsumption of discretionary foods foods and drinks not necessary to provide the nutrients the body needs is central to aligning human and planetary health whilst the adverse health impacts of discretionary foods are well documented the environmental and broader sustainability impacts of these products deserve more attention especially since their consumption has been increasing in recent decades particularly amongst low income groups this paper presents a quantitative case study analysis of discretionary food consumption and the associated environmental impacts for households from different income groups in australia environmentally extended input output analysis is used to estimate the full life cycle environmental impacts of discretionary food consumption on the basis of household expenditures on average discretionary foods account for a significant 35 39 33 and 35 of the overall diet related life cycle water use energy use carbon dioxide equivalent and land use respectively these significant percentages provide further support for the need to incentivise diets that are both healthier and more sustainable including divestment from discretionary food products the study highlights the challenges ahead including the need for further research on food substitutions to minimise environmental and social impacts whilst maximising nutritional quality especially amongst poorer socioeconomic groups

product servicing for lifespan extension and sustainable consumption an optimization approach abstract sustainable consumption has been defined as the consumption of goods and services that meet basic needs and quality of life without jeopardizing the needs of future generations oecd 2002 lifespan extension of durable products underpins sustainable consumption this paper describes a novel approach to extend product lifespans by using product servicing that conceptualizes the interactions of a producer a policy maker and multiple consumer segments having different price demand relationships we propose a multi period mathematical optimization model that maximizes the producer s profit while optimizing the prices of different servicing options production quantities and inventory levels a computational study elicits several insights about how the optimal production or alternatively consumption quantities are affected by the introduction of product servicing and the effects of various product characteristics and government incentive or penalty levels on producer s profitability and on product servicing decisions we conclude that quantitative optimization models are useful for evaluating the impacts of different regulatory policies assessing the benefits of offering product servicing options and investing in design for durability and serviceability

a geographically and socio economically disaggregated local household consumption model for the uk abstract a key challenge for local environmental and economic planning is to predict resource flows and material waste arisings at a high level of geographical localisation this paper presents an approach to household consumption modelling in which the material demands of small socio economically homogeneous neighbourhoods are estimated on the basis of consumer expenditure data in conjunction with census data household waste arisings are estimated through incorporation of a household metabolism model selected material flows of consumer commodities such as household appliances carpets and clothing are examined in case study areas representing extremes of relative deprivation and neighbourhoods representing typical examples of the uk national output area classification oac the model will be of use in sustainable consumption policy making and local waste strategy planning

the sufficiency strategy would rich world frugality lower environmental impact abstract one alleged weapon against unsustainable environmental impact is for the wealthy to consume less this sufficiency strategy is to complement the efficiency strategy of lowering ratios of resource inputs to economic outputs the former would reduce the affluence factor in i pat the latter the technology factor that the latter strategy suffers from a consumption rebound is widely recognized this paper identifies a similar rebound when the affluence factor is autonomously lowered the lower initial demand lowers prices which in turn stimulates new demand by others the strategy moreover addresses only the rich raising questions of its theoretical maximum efficacy its proponents usually conflate frugality with the north south dichotomy and intra generational with inter generational equity moreover there are difficulties with the supporting arguments that frugality is good for one s own sake as well as for the environment and that the rich should lead the way to living more lightly personal behaviour change is furthermore not a substitute for international political efforts finally since all changes in right side factors of the i pat equation change other right side factors such indirect attacks on impact should be abandoned in favor of supply and emissions quotas