urban spatial structure urban structure is increasingly characterized by decentralization dispersion and multiple employment centers much is known empirically about such patterns and about how the interplay between agglomerative and dispersive forces generates spatial structures that are complex and prone to multiple equilibria and dynamic path dependence these forces operate at different spatial scales many entail unpriced interaction and external scale economies deriving from product differentiation and endogenous technical change appear particularly important because these forces interact in complex ways inefficiencies in urban structure are resistant to simple policy interventions

comparative statics analysis of a fully closed city abstract this paper extends the existing comparative statics analysis about open or semiclosed cities notably that of w wheaton j econom theor 9 2 223 237 1974 to a fully closed city where urban land rent is redistributed to the city population specifically we examine the effects on changes in exogenous variables such as population size agricultural rent and initial endowments on endogenous variables such as welfare level city size and rent schedule most but not all of the existing results are reestablished surprisingly it is shown that in contrast to the existing literature and perhaps to intuition the city area may shrink when the city population increases the paper also extends the existing literature by analyzing the effect of the exogenous variables on the endogenous income and the demand for transportation it is shown that under plausible assumptions the quantity of transportation demanded declines with its price

comparative statics analysis of density controls abstract the general similarity of the results of comparative statics in a semiclosed and in a fully closed city have been demonstrated by pines and sadka journal of urban economics 20 1 20 1986 the objective of this paper is to determine if the consequences of different forms of public regulation of the urban land market are also invariant with respect to the type of city the conclusion is that while there are well defined consequences of such controls on metropolitan area and land values in a semiclosed city the impacts in a fully closed city are generally ambiguous therefore proposals for the introduction of zoning and density regulation have to be city specific and take into consideration the pattern of land ownership and the extent of leakage of urban land rent income

estimating distance gradients for apartment properties the effect of distance from the city centre on selling price tax assessment and gross income is investigated for income property in proximity to the city centre hedonic estimation with a multiplicative model specification is used to estimate the relationship between property characteristics on the one hand and price assessment and income on the other the sample consists of centrally located apartment buildings in downtown stockholm sold during a recent three year period the application is specific to stockholm but the methodology and the insights gained are general the results include the estimation of price gradients for the dependent variables the models are used for estimating the implicit capitalisation rates in the property market as a function of the distance to the centre we also estimated where the market appears to place the city centre as implied by the observations although no rent gradient was found we were able to detect a significant negative price gradient the former is reasonab

aggregate land rents and aggregate transport costs this paper explores the relationship between aggregate land rents and aggregate transport costs for land markets in which locations differ solely in terms of accessibility that there exists a relationship between land rents and transport costs has been recognized at least since the time of von thunen the precise relationship between the two is however not generally well understood for instance until quite recently it was considered correct to estimate the benefits from a transport improvement by the induced change in aggregate land rents at those locations where travel costs are reduced this procedure can be shown to be correct only in very special circumstances this paper presents a very general characterization of the relationship between aggregate land rents and aggregate transport costs in some special cases the relationship turns out to be remarkably simple for a circular city with linear transport costs aggregate transport costs are precisely twice aggregate land rents independent of the distribution of tastes or income for a linear city with linear transport costs aggregate transport costs are equal to aggregate land rents one corollary of our general analysis is that aggregate land rents may stay the same or actually fall in response to a transport improvement which makes everyone better off in the first section we consider a simple example the second derives the basic theorems of the paper while the third examines their implications for the relationship between the benefits from a transport improvement and the change in aggregate land rents induced by the improvement and in the fourth section we examine the extent to which the theorems of section ii generalize this abstract was borrowed from another version of this item

exchange rate volatility and foreign trade evidence from thirteen ldc s this article investigates empirically the impact of real exchange rate volatility on the export flows of 13 less developed countries ldc s over the quarterly period 1973 1996 estimates of the cointegrating relations are obtained using johansen s multivariate procedure estimates of the short run dynamics are obtained for each country using the error correction technique the major results show that increases in the volatility of the real effective exchange rate approximating exchange rate uncertainty exert a significant negative effect on export demand in both the short run and the long run in each of the 13 ldc s these effects may result in significant reallocation of resources by market participants

the exponential density function first principles comparative statics and empirical evidence abstract it is well known that the exponential density function can be derived using a compensated demand for bousing with a unitary price elasticity we investigate how such an elasticity can arise from first principles and are thus able to identify the determinants of the density gradient we then use these determinants together with existing comparative statics to examine unambiguously the relation between the density gradient and some exogenous variables we conclude that our results are closely supported by existing empirical evidence except for the effect of urban population size on the density gradient

the demand for ldc exports of manufactures estimates from hong kong exports of manufactures from developing countries are generally believed to be sensitive to changes in the level of income in the developed countries their major market this belief is grounded on both casual observation especially from the experience of recent recessions and on extensive econometric evidence of low price elasticities and high income elasticities of demand for ldc exports in developed countries this paper argues that both casual observation and previous econometric evidence are misleading the aim of the paper is to show the order of magnitude of the bias contained in previous econometric estimates of price and income elasticities of demand for ldc exports of manufactures due to neglect of supply side influences previous econometric work has neglected the supply side of ldc exports for the simple reason that it is difficult to model it is difficult to model properly the supply of aggregate ldc exports since the determinants of export supply differ from country to country even for a single country modelling export supply is complicated since in addition to foreign demand and domestic supply exports are determined in part by domestic demand for exportables furthermore in most ldcs the incentive to export is strongly influenced by complex and continually changing industrial and trade policy measures there is one major exception hong kong one of the developing world s largest and most successful exporters of manufactured goods the manufacturing sector in hong kong is almost completely specialised exporting 95 of output consequently domestic demand plays no part in determining the volume of exports furthermore factor markets and the manufacturing sector are almost completely free from government intervention the main exception being the textile export restraints imposed at the insistence of importing countries the voluntary restraint agreements vras to which hong kong is subject no doubt affect the composition of exports but not necessarily the volume of aggregate exports if resources in the restrained sectors can easily be redeployed elsewhere in the economy judging from past export growth rates the vras do not appear to have had a significant effect on aggregate export growth in hong kong the results reported below also suggest that hong kong has effectively circumvented the trade barriers it faces the hong kong manufacturing sector in many ways resembles a firm in the

bottleneck congestion and residential location of heterogeneous commuters this study examines the effects of bottleneck congestion and an optimal time varying congestion toll on the spatial structure of cities we develop a model in which heterogeneous commuters choose departure times from home and residential locations in a monocentric city with a bottleneck located between a central downtown and an adjacent suburb we then demonstrate that commuters sort themselves temporally and spatially on the basis of their value of travel time and their flexibility furthermore we reveal that introducing an optimal congestion toll alters the urban spatial structure which contrasts with the previous literature we further demonstrate through an example that congestion tolling can cause the city to physically expand outward which helps rich commuters but hurts poor commuters

sources of sectoral employment fluctuations in central cities and suburbs evidence from four eastern u s cities abstract we develop a structural vector autoregression for a model of suburban and central city sectoral employment orthogonalized shocks attributable to national sectoral suburban central city and local sectoral sources can be identified and used to delineate the sources of fluctuations in sectoral movements in the two parts of the metropolitan area we apply the model to four metropolitan statistical areas and find that in the short run there is very little in the way of feedback between central city and suburban employment local shocks matter most of all in the long run there are a substantial number of city industries where demand and or supply shocks have spillover effects across the border of central city and suburb

comparative statics analysis of urban land values in the presence of government regulation the paper undertakes comparative statics of urban land values in the presence of government regulation of density or rent in the central city or at the periphery the principal finding is that the conclusions of wheaton 1974 regarding the flattening of the rent curve due to a rise in income or its steepening following an increase in transport cost need not always hold in the presence of such regulation results of the comparative statics are used to derive practical implications for individual real estate investors and for urban planning

strategic control of growth in a system of cities abstract this paper provides an analysis of the supply restriction model of growth controls growth controls in such a model harm consumers while enriching landowners and they will only be adopted if landowners have political power in the model this power is manifested in the city government s use of a social welfare that takes both landlord and consumer welfare into account since cities cannot be small if the supply restriction inherent in growth controls is to have an impact strategic interactions must be considered in the analysis of city choices a general model is presented and an extended example based on leontief preferences is then considered comparative static analysis of nash equilibria in the leontief case shows that perturbations of preferences or other characteristics of a single city can have important spillover effects that alter the choices of all cities in the region

why do some goods bear higher taxes than others abstract taxation in an economy containing land and labor is studied the tax system is a compromise based on the relative power of all groups of individuals the model extends one of aumann and kurz in response to the threat of taxation by a majority individuals can evade taxation of their labor time by destroying it but cannot avoid taxation of the land they own one result is that the compromise tax rate on land is higher than that on labor this contrasts with the classical normative result that in order to minimize the efficiency loss this tax rate should be higher

spatially variable property tax and optimal tax composition in congested monocentric cities george pigou ramsey and strotz unified abstract we explore the optimal spatial structure of the property tax in a monocentric city with transportation congestion to show how the availablity of revenue instruments impacts the properties of the optimal property tax we discuss three regimes with different combinations of a head tax congestion tolls and property tax in each regime the tax composition is optimally determined to finance a predetermined expenditure under the first regime with all the three taxes available the first best allocation is achievable only when the property tax is unused under the second regime where only head and property taxes are available a spatially variable property tax substitutes for the unavailable congestion tolls the head tax or subsidy fills the gap between the property tax revenue and the predetermined expenditure moreover property tax is negative positive close to the city center boundary under the third regime where only property tax is available the role of the property tax is twofold to substitute for the unavailable congestion tolls and to finance the predetermined expenditure in general for both roles the optimal tax rates are spatially variable furthermore if its role as a substitute for congestion tolls dominates its other role the property tax may be negative close to the boundary

the empirical modelling of nie exports an evaluation of different approaches this article investigates the current debate regarding the robustness of estimates of export demand and supply elasticities for ldcs and nies obtained by recent empirical studies the empirical findings reported in the article suggest that price elasticities of demand are indeed low and that there are strong and significant income effects on export demand furthermore using a variety of modelling approaches we demonstrate that the choice of estimation method and normalisation need not lead to drastically different conclusions regarding the size of the price elasticity of demand for nie exports whilst this points against the small country assumption usually made regarding ldc nie exports we argue that the preferred development strategy for ldcs need not necessarily be an inward oriented one this is because the large estimated income market growth elasticities in the demand equations may be due to the presence of supply side influences which have been the focus of attention of the new theories of i

effects of urban transportation system change on land prices in the setting of owner occupied residence abstract the purpose of this study is to analyze the impact of transportation improvement on the land development process and land price structure in an owner occupied residence setting a dynamic model of household and landowner in which the role of land as an asset is explicitly considered is presented and the process of land development and land price change after the announcement of transportation improvement is investigated during the period between the announcement and the completion of urban transportation improvement it is observed that the price of the land that is presently used for agriculture but will be developed in the future is higher than the agricultural land price

urban growth and transportation we estimate the effects of interstate highways on the growth of u s cities between 1983 and 2003 we find that a 10 increase in a city s initial stock of highways causes about a 1 5 increase in its employment over this 20 year period to estimate a structural model of urban growth and transportation we rely on an instrumental variables estimation that uses a 1947 plan of the interstate highway system an 1898 map of railroads and maps of the early explorations of the u s as instruments for 1983 highways we investigate the role of interstate highways in the growth of u s cities our investigation is in three parts in the first we develop a simple structural model describing the joint evolution of highways and employment in cities in the second we develop an instrumental variables strategy that allows us to identify key parameters of our structural model we are also able to provide out of sample evidence for the validity of our estimates and for the central assumptions of our model in the third we use our estimates to assess counterfactual transportation policies we find that a 10 increase in a city s stock of interstate highways causes about a 1 5 increase in its employment over 20 years and that an additional kilometre of highway allocated to a city at random is associated with a larger increase in employment or population than is a road assigned to a city by the prevailing political process our results also suggest that too many new highways were built between 1983 and 2003 these findings are important for three reasons first transportation generally and infrastruc ture in particular are large segments of the economy the median u s household devotes about 18 of its income to road transportation while all levels of government together spend another 200 billion dollars annually overall the value of capital stock associated with road transporta tion in the u s tops 5 trillion dollars united states bureau of transportation statistics 2007 2010 given the magnitude of transportation expenditures it is important that the impact of these expenditures on economic growth be carefully evaluated and not assessed on the basis of the claims of advocacy groups our analysis provides a basis for assessing whether these resources are well allocated our results also provide useful guidance to policy makers charged with planning cities since changes in a city s transportation infrastructure cause changes to the city s employment new transportation infrastructure causes complementary changes in the demand for public utilities and schools our results provide a basis for estimating the magnitude of such changes finally this research is important to furthering our understanding of how cities operate and grow transportation costs are among the most fundamental quantities in theoretical models

the problem of polarization this paper offers a unified political economy explanation of political extremism and moderation regarding income redistribution unlike the standard spatial voting model the explanation herein recognizes that extremists are distinguished not only by their political positions but also by the intensity with which they hold them the paper uses an extension of aumann and kurz s econometrica 45 5 1137 1161 1977 bargaining model to endogenize moderation and extremism in the context of democratic voting the extension shows that low income voters tend to be bolder in their redistributive demands and high income voters tend to be more tenacious in defending them these hypotheses are evaluated empirically using the political action panel study

the efficiency and distributional impacts of alternative anti sprawl policies this paper develops an analytical and numerical general equilibrium model to compare the efficiency and distributional impacts of development taxes urban growth boundaries property taxes and gasoline taxes from an overall efficiency perspective development taxes and urban growth boundaries are equivalent instruments and the most effective anti sprawl policies if the choice of anti sprawl instruments is influenced by distributional considerations our results suggest the preferred instrument is closely related to the location of land we present distributional impacts of the four policies at the urban city core the urban suburbs and rural area

property tax and urban sprawl theory and implications for us cities this article attempts a formal analysis of the connection be tween property tax and urban sprawl in u s cities we develop a theoretical model that includes households who are also landlords and land developers in a regional land market we then test the model empirically based on a national sample of urbanized areas the results we obtained from both theoretical and empirical analyses indicate that increasing property tax rates reduces the size of urbanized areas j e l classification h3 h71 r14

the demand for ldc exports of manufactures estimates from hong kong a comment in the march i 988 issue of this journal riedel claims that the findings of relatively low price elasticity of demand by the bulk of time series work are based on the assumption of infinite price elasticity of export supply and that the demand parameters derived from a fully specified simultaneous equation model strongly contradict the consensus view on the basis of his results suggesting infinitely price elastic demand for exports of manufactures from hong kong in this comment both of his claims and his results are disputed the author s conclusion concerning infinite price elasticity of demand for exports can be objected to on at least three grounds first in the context of his formulation it implies an abnormally large degree of money illusion on the part of the importers of manufactures second in using the inverse form of the demand function rather than the normal form he would necessarily produce a much larger estimate of price elasticity than otherwise using his approach one can quite easily produce an estimate of the marginal propensity to consume in excess of unity or an implausibly large estimate of the marginal propensity to save third infinite price elasticity is inferred from the statistical nonsignificance of the coefficient of export quantity in the inverse form of demand which represents the inverse of price elasticity however it can be argued that the estimate of the coefficient of export quantity is not statistically significant because of the high intercorrelation multicollinearity between quantity and income in view of the obvious upward bias involved in his approach to the estimation of price elasticity of export demand it is not only possible but also most probable that the adoption of his approach will also yield very high estimates of price elasticities of demand generally it is conceivable that one can produce a highly elastic demand for primary exports not only at individual country level but also at the world level using his approach if ldcs wrongly believe that demand for their primary exports is price elastic when in fact it is not unwarranted expansion of production could cause a significant fall in their export earnings with grave consequence for their economic development it is therefore most important to point out the weaknesses of his approach before it is widely adopted by other researchers keen to get high price elasticities of demand

income distribution and the residential density gradient abstract w c wheaton journal of economic theory 9 223 237 1974 asserted that an increase in incomes lowers central densities raising suburban densities in closed monocentric cities with identical resident incomes and tastes we show that with identical cobb douglas tastes and identical incomes a sufficient condition for densities to fall everywhere when incomes rise is that the land rent bill of the innermost resident be larger than the commuting bill of the outermost resident estimating this model using data in e s mills studies in the structure of the urban economy johns hopkins press baltimore london 1972 we show that densities are predicted to fall everywhere in baltimore denver milwaukee philadelphia rochester and toledo when income is increased by 10 circa 1960 but when we disaggregate the model using the 1960 census income distribution keeping tastes identical a 10 increase in incomes rotates densities around distances which vary from 3 3 miles in toledo to 9 8 miles in philadelphia in addition to empirically vindicating wheaton s assertion the disaggregated model gives approximately negative exponential densities consistent with spatial equilibrium and without resorting to r f muth s cities and housing university of chicago press 1969 assumption of a unitary compensated price elasticity of demand

the mills muth model of urban spatial structure surviving the test of time this paper examines the viability of some basic predictions of the mills muth model of city structure for modern cities using us data for the year 2000 the estimation strategy used to test the predictions is very similar to that of jan brueckner and david fansler who use 1970 data to find support for the model s basic comparative statics predictions namely that city area is increasing in population and income but decreasing in agricultural land value and commuting costs this paper uses different measures for land values and commuting costs where possible and a measure of polycentricity to estimate a slightly modified empirical model despite the changing structure of cities there is evidence that the mills muth comparative statics predictions hold for modern us cities that densely populated cities are more likely to have sub centres and that market forces drive urban spatial structure

uniform spatial growth with perfect foresight and durable housing abstract this paper presents explicit solutions for expanding monocentric cities housing is durable and redevelopment cannot take place landlords have perfect foresight the utility function and housing technology are cobb douglas the population of the city per capita income construction costs and transportation costs per mile change at constant percentage rates the model is solved analytically using an infinite time horizon if the population growth rate is greater less than twice the difference between the growth rates of income and transportation costs development density increases decreases with distance from the city center detailed comparative statics are presented for both open city and closed city growth

the fallacy of composition argument is it relevant for ldcs manufactures exports abstract the constraints imposed upon ldcs export growth by international demand have been the subject of a long standing controversy in this paper we present estimates of manufactures export demand functions for 23 ldcs we focus first on the constraints that the international environment imposes upon export growth for an individual ldc to this purpose the small country hypothesis of an infinitely elastic export demand is tested and the claim that supply factors play a determinant role in affecting export performances is then assessed we turn next to the constraints on global ldc growth and ask whether exports from ldcs complete mostly with northern products or are better substitutes with exports from other ldcs this allows us to assess the heuristic value of cline s 1982 remark that a generalized outward shift in the ldcs export supply schedule would be associated with an important decline in prices and would undermine the success of a widespread export led strategy we find that for a representative ldc a large share almost 80 percent of the benefits of devaluation on export revenues are made to vanish when other ldcs competitors pursue similar policies

employment decentralisation polycentricity or scatteration the case of barcelona at the present time most large cities in the world are polycentric and at the same time they are undergoing processes of employment decentralisation and deconcentration it has been argued that polycentricity is just an intermediate stage between monocentricity and a more unstructured chaotic and amorphous location model scatteration for the case of the polycentric barcelona the aims of this study are to test whether its employment is moving from polycentricity to scatteration and whether its employment location model is increasingly random and unstructured the results show that in spite of the decentralisation and deconcentration processes employment concentrated in centres still represents a significant percentage of total employment and new sub centres have emerged in the periphery what is more the results also show an increasing influence of employment sub centres on employment location and density conditions as a result polycentricity has been reinforced

the optimal distribution of population across cities abstract we develop an urban model that incorporates 1 heterogeneous sites 2 fiscal and urban externalities and 3 an endogenous number of cities i e the extensive margin of urban development within and across city decreasing returns to scale cause agents to perceive their city as being too large in the socially optimal allocation as a consequence in equilibrium the largest cities on the most amenable sites are undersized whereas the smaller cities on less amenable sites are oversized we propose a test for optimal city size with heterogeneous sites extending the henry george theorem

power majority voting and linear income tax schedules abstract we compare the linear income tax solutions of a version of the aumann kurz power and taxes game and the majority voting model we establish that an agent whose type is in the majority receives a lower payoff in this model than in the majority voting model this reflects the possibilities for bargaining and coalition formation considered in the aumann kurz model the solutions of an example are computed and compared with the optimal utilitarian the optimal rawlsian and the majority voting equilibrium linear income tax schedules

congestion land use and job dispersion a general equilibrium model abstract in dispersed cities congestion tolls would drive up central wages and rents and would induce centrally located producers to want to disperse closer to their workers and their customers paying lower rents and realizing productivity gains from land to labor substitution but the tolls would also induce residents to want to locate more centrally in order to economize on commuting and shopping travel in a computable general equilibrium model we find that the centralizing effect of tolls on residences dominates on the decentralizing effect of tolls on firms causing the dispersed city to have more centralized job and population densities under stylized parameters we find that efficiency gains from levying congestion tolls on work and shopping travel are 3 0 of average income about 80 of such gains come from road planning and 20 from tolls

demand elasticities in international trade are they really low the authors analyze the u s demand for bangladeshi imports for products restricted under the multifiber arrangement because bangladesh is only a small supplier of these products and latin american and asian countries can supply close substitutes the authors expected a high elasticity of demand for bangladeshi imports and they found consistently high estimates based on statistically significant coefficients their finding accords with trade theorists prejudice that small countries can essentially behave as price takers but conflicts with the empirical literature view that demand elasticities are low rarely exceeding 3 and generally between 1 and 2 the authors analysis differs from the existing literature in three ways they derive a set of estimation equations from an explicit utility maximization model and use the estimated parameters of the utility function to obtain the marshallian own price and cross price elasticities as well as the income elasticity of demand they take explicit account of u s imports from competitors of bangladesh relying directly on competitors prices and they use highly disaggregated data that make the unit value of exports a better proxy for price than using aggregated export data commonly used in this literature the authors outline their theoretical model for deriving their estimated equations in section 1 preliminarily determine who bangladesh s competitors are in section 2 and estimate the demand equation derived in section 1 and derive the price and income elasticities facing bangladesh in section 3

spatial structure of a metropolitan area with an agricultural hinterland abstract a dual economy metropolitan model is evolved by incorporating both urban and rural sectors to explain the real growth factors of the urban area the competitive relations between urban and agricultural sectors in both labor and land markets are modeled such a dual economy urban model is also indispensable for evaluating the micro effects of industrial policies e g the policy for liberalization of agricultural products on the urban spatial structure comparative static analysis is performed to evaluate the effects of lowered transport cost heightened production efficiency lowered world price of agricultural product and increased metropolitan population

regional spatial structure and retail amenities in the netherlands burger m j meijers e j and van oort f g regional spatial structure and retail amenities in the netherlands regional studies this paper examines how the presence of retail amenities in dutch regions is dependent on their spatial structure retail amenities in particular those specialized retail functions that require a large urban support base are less found in more polycentric and more dispersed regions this can be explained by the observation that in polycentric and dispersed regions the degree of market fragmentation is higher as a result of more intense regional competition and spacing between retail centres evidence is found for ways to overcome the lack of agglomeration benefits in more polycentric and more dispersed regions both concentration of retail and more complementarities between cities retail amenities may make up for the disadvantages of regions being polycentric or dispersed these findings provide a rationale to coordinate regionally specialized retailing in polycentric and

income class modal choice and urban spatial structure abstract this paper analyzes the impacts of urban transportation system changes and income changes on the welfare of people and on the urban spatial structure in a setting where the income level differs between two groups and two transportation modes compete with each other in a city it is demonstrated that an improvement in some transport facility will not necessarily increase the welfare level of every household and at times decreases the welfare of some households it also is argued that under particular situations an improvement in a particular transport mode may produce a contraction in the city size rather than an expansion similarly an increase in income of one group might have an adverse effect on the welfare of another income group as a result of competition in the land market

the urban impacts of the endangered species act a general equilibrium analysis we consider the general equilibrium implications of environmental regulations which result in a reduction of otherwise profitable residential development critical habitat designation under the endangered species act is an important example if the regulations affect a significant amount of land they may have important effects on the rest of the regional economy increasing rents and densities on lands not subject to the regulation causing the conversion of lands from alternative uses increasing the net developed area in the region and decreasing consumer welfare we develop a flexible general equilibrium simulation of the economic effects of critical habitat designation explicitly considering the distributional effects upon owners of different types of land and upon housing consumers the results of our simulation show that the most significant economic effects of critical habitat occur outside of the designated area the prices and rents of non critical habitat lands increase significantly incomes are redistributed across landlords and the well being of housing consumers is further affected through these linkages

political economy of commuting subsidies abstract we study the political economy of commuting subsidies in a model of a monocentric city with two income classes depending on housing demand and transport costs either the rich or the poor live in the central city and the other group in the suburbs commuting subsidies increase the net income of those with long commutes or high transport costs they also affect land rents and therefore the income of landowners the paper studies how the locational pattern of the two income classes and the incidence of landownership affects the support for commuting subsidies

towards a general theory of mixed zones the role of congestion mixed commercial and residential land use is observed in most cities around the world despite its ubiquity urban economic theory is rather silent on the formation of mixed land use in particular standard bid rent models typically predict complete segregation of land use the two main exceptions are fujita and ogawa 1982 and lucas and rossi hansberg 2002 who introduce bid rent models that allow for endogenous business and residential location choice as well as employment agglomeration externalities these models predict zones that are characterized by a restrictive type of mixed land use where there are as many residents as jobs at every location we extend the latter model by introducing a traffic congestion external effect that adds a degree of freedom to the shape of the bid rent curves and allows them to coincide over contiguous locations in the city where commuting takes place we show that this combination of congestion and agglomeration externalities leads to a general type of mixed land use zones

modelling nie exports aggregation quantitative restrictions and choice of econometric methodology the current debate regarding the robustness of estimates of export demand and supply elasticities for nies is examined by modelling manufactured exports from korea the results suggest that normalisation of the export demand function for price rather than quantity is an important issue in estimating export demand functions of small countries and that estimates of export demand elasticities at high levels of aggregation are subject to potentially powerful biases when the aggregate consists of categories which are subject to quantitative restrictions if proper modelling procedures are followed it is likely that the small country assumption will find far more empirical support than it has hitherto

the panexponential monocentric model abstract we derive declining exponential rent and density functions for a monocentric city from a new set of assumptions which place restrictions on commuting costs rather than on the demand for land the utility function is cobb douglas with unrestricted income expenditure shares for land and for the numeraire good the marginal commuting cost is assumed to be proportional to income earning potential and exponentially declining in distance from the center at a particular constant rate these assumptions capture realistic properties of congested cities under these assumptions equilibrium land rent residential density and numeraire consumption all decline exponentially with distance although at different rates if it is also assumed that traffic speed at the edge of a city is equal to free flow speed then the rates of decline in rent residential density and numeraire consumption all increase with the city s physical size we also suggest a new statistical procedure for estimating negative exponential density functions from a cross section of cities of various sizes