toward estimating the incidence of journey to work costs the purpose of this paper is to estimate the extent to which the daily travel to work costs are passed forward to employers in the form of higher wages the incidence is estimated from a sample of glasgow scotland workers who relocated their residences within the city it was found that the elasticity of wages with respect to travel costs is greater than zero for both men and women and perhaps as much as one for men since the relocation within the city led to substantial job change it would seem that wages should be expected to adjust to changes in policy areas such as transport and land zoning which make it cheaper or more expensive for workers to get to employment opportunities

analysis of changing hidden energy flow in vietnam abstract the energy consumption in production process is changing especially in developing countries by substituting technology input output analysis for energy flows has been developing and is one of the best solutions for investigating macroscopic exchanges of both economy and energy since each element in the leontief inverse contains both direct and indirect effects of any change in final demand to separate those direct and indirect effects the power series expansion is available in this work the changes of embodied energy intensity in vietnam from 1996 to 2000 were analyzed using the structural decomposition and its power series expansion by illustrating the change of causal relationship between direct energy consumption and embodied energy consumption the change of hidden energy flow which indicates how the changing embodied energy builds up the change of direct energy consumption in every sector can be seen in the case study the rice processing sector which is one of the important food processing sectors in vietnam is focused by drawing a diagrammatic map for the change of hidden energy flow it is clarified that in the case of raising embodied energy intensity cultivation sector and trade and repaired service sector are the main contributors and on the contrary in the case of reducing embodied energy intensity paper pulp sector is the main contributor

factor proportions in israel s manufacturing trade 1965 1982 abstract this paper tries to explain changes in the foreign trade patterns of israel s manufacturing sector in terms of changes in relative factor use during the period 1965 1982 although the sector s comparative advantage lay in labor intensive goods in most of this period changes in net exports were correlated positively with changes in human and physical capital use and negatively with changes in labor use this was due to the expansion of capital intensive exports

the wage effects of residential location and commuting constraints on employed married women it has been argued that greater spatial constraints are imposed on the job searches of women workers and that these greater constraints account for some of the gender wage gap all researchers agree that women commute shorter distances to work than men in addition some researchers have argued from indirect evidence that two earner households give greater weight to husbands job opportunities when choosing a residential location in this paper we use data on two earner households from the 1980 public use microdata sample pums of the us census for the detroit and philadelphia smsas to quantify the effects of residential location and of gender differences in commuting behaviour on the gender gap in wages first we find that within white households wives encounter relatively greater spatial variation in wages than their husbands but that there is less of a gender difference among black households second we analyse the simultaneous effects of commuting and residential constraints on wages we find for

temporary emancipation from land from the industrial revolution to the present time abstract ecological and thermodynamic analysis shows that the tremendous speed of matter and energy degradation of the earth is the genuine cause of land deterioration the temporary emancipation from land since the industrial revolution still heavily depends upon land based resources especially fossil fuels stored in the past the prophetic views of liebig and marx concerning land deterioration are reconsidered not only the essential differences but also similarities between manufacturing and farming will be presented several technological proposals for a secure food supply will be critically appraised this study suggests a drastic reorientation of economic activites in the future to preserve our land

large high technology firms and the spatial extension of metropolitan labour markets some evidence from israel the role of large high technology firms in fashioning the spatial extent of the labour markets that serve them is examined in this paper it is argued that the demand for highly skilled labour in these firms results in their active role in labour market extension through a strategy of employee transport this makes for employment mobility without a commensurate impact on residential mobility it can also result in the inclusion or exclusion of certain types of labour in this context the free rider phenomenon associated with worker transport is identified and described on the basis of an empirical study of some of the largest high technology firms in metropolitan areas in israel these processes are illustrated the labour markets serving these firms are delimited and characterised for employees of different skill levels in addition the determinants of the probability of the firm utilising spatially extensive labour markets is examined the role of firm size in explaining this behaviour is stre

unemployment and urban labour markets two quite distinct views on how metropolitan labour markets work have co existed for over three decades both claim empirical support and after a brief period of confrontation they continue to co exist today giving quite conflicting signals to policy makers according to the first model the urban labour market consists of a number of spatially defined sub markets so that local unemployment exists primarily because of deficiencies in highly localised demand for labour by this argument unemployment rates remain high in the absence of a renewed supply of appropriate jobs within short commuting distances of the jobless the solution according to this model is to attract private and public sector production into such areas in contrast a second model views the city as a single market in which transactions between labour and capital take place regardless of the location of residence and employment sites according to this perspective the spatial incidence of unemployment simply reflects the residential

technology and firm size wage differentials in colombia mexico and taiwan china in many economies studies have found large wage differentials not accounted for by workforce characteristics collective bargaining or market power researchers attribute these differentials to either unobserved worker quality or pay incentives designed to elicit worker effort this article finds empirical support for an alternative explanation these wage differentials result from firms technology generating activities using firm level data from colombia mexico and taiwan china the article compares the effects of research and development worker training and exports by employers on the wages of skilled and unskilled workers the results suggest that technology investments lead to large wage premiums for skilled workers but not for unskilled workers these wage premiums are primarily the result of investments in research and development and in training while exporting is relatively less important except in colombia

wage pressure bargaining and price cost margins in uk manufacturing to the extent that union employer bargaining is efficient price cost margins in oligopolistic industries are predicted to depend on wage rents and on the elasticity of substitution between wages and employment in union preferences unanticipated wage inflation will also affect margins cross section and time series analysis of price cost margins in u k manufacturing industries finds that margins tend to be eroded by the level of wage rents and are invariant to the rate of wage inflation copyright 1990 by blackwell publishing ltd

market power and unemployment abstract this paper explores the under consumptionist idea that market power can preclude the existence of a full employment equilibrium within the framework of the modern theory of economic growth it is shown that the introduction of market power can indeed eliminate the full employment equilibrium in an attempt to assess the importance of this possibility maximum values for the market power parameters consistent with a full employment equilibrium existing are computed in some plausible cases these maxima are uncomfortably low suggesting that market power has significant potential for causing unemployment

promises and pitfalls in environmentally extended input output analysis for china a survey of the literature abstract as the world s largest developing economy china plays a key role in global climate change and other environmental impacts of international concern environmentally extended input output analysis ee ioa is an important and insightful tool seeing widespread use in studying large scale environmental impacts in china calculating and analyzing greenhouse gas emissions carbon and water footprints pollution and embodied energy this paper surveys the published articles regarding ee ioa for china in peer reviewed journals and provides a comprehensive and quantitative overview of the body of literature examining the research impact environmental issues addressed and data utilized the paper further includes a discussion of the shortcomings in official chinese data and of the potential means to move beyond its inherent limitations

new methodology for the ecological footprint with an application to the new zealand economy abstract sustainable development has become a primary objective for many countries throughout the world since the late 1980s a major difficulty associated with sustainable development objectives however is the absence of reliable indicators to measure progress towards the goal of sustainability the ecological footprint provides an estimate of the land area necessary to sustain current levels of resource consumption for a given population on an aggregate basis the ecological footprint may be compared with the amount of ecologically productive land available to give an indication of whether consumption patterns are likely to be sustainable this paper proposes the use of a modified form of input output analysis to calculate the ecological footprint the input output approach provides a consistent means of calculating an ecological footprint using data collected as part of the system of national accounts in most developed countries in addition it makes explicit the link between the level of economic activity in a country and its corresponding impact on the environment an application of this methodology to new zealand indicates that it takes 3 49 has of ecologically productive land per year to sustain the average new zealander s current level of consumption

applying physical input output analysis to estimate land appropriation ecological footprints of international trade activities in the last few years some studies have been presented which link land use accounting and input output analysis based on monetary input output tables miots for the calculation of direct and indirect land appropriation of production and consumption activities the compilation of the first comprehensive physical input output tables piots for some western european countries in the 1990s opened new possibilities for linking physical accounting and input output analysis using a physical multiplier for this kind of calculation is more appropriate as the most land intensive sectors are also the sectors with the highest amounts of material flows physical input output analysis illustrates land appropriation in relation to material flows of each of the sectors which is more appropriate from the point of view of environmental pressures than land appropriation in relation to monetary flows of a miot physical input output analysis has so far not been applied for any land related studies based on a physical input output model of the eu 15 physical input output analysis is applied in this paper in order to calculate direct and indirect land requirements for the production of exports from eu 15 to the rest of the world

oligopoly distribution and the rate of profit this paper sets out to explore the division of national income between workers and capitalists in a world where monopoly capitalism dominates both for its intrinsic interest and because of its relevance to the process of accumulation elsewhere cowling 1978 i have tried to substantiate the argument for regarding the contemporary capitalist world as essentially monopolistic rather than essentially competitive but 1 will return to that theme at v uious points in the paper the basic point is that the major corporations art now organ d in often interlinked oligopoly groups in many cases wi h an international base and have captured dominant positions which are relatively unassailable they will remain unassailable partly because these dominant oligopolies will logically invest in their maintenance in order to secure the benefits of the stream of monopoly rents associated with their position competition between and within national oligopoly groups will occasionally break out but these should be seen as transient elements in the accommodation of dilferent capitals to each other the norm in such an oiigopolistic world will be collusion over output or plricing policies with collusion being itself the product of potentially rivalruus behaviour a seemingly paradoxical result which we will seek to subslantiate agents have substantial economic power and will use it in a variety of ways which has to be recognired in any discussion of the distribution of national income this point was obviously clearly recognised by kalecki 1971 steindl 1952 and baran and sweezy 1966 and the present paper follows closely on their work the starting point will be an attempt to complete kalecki s model of distribution by specifying the relationship between elements of market structure and the share of gross capitalist income plus salaries in value added this will allow us to precisely identify those processes which will lead

high tech and productivity evidence from israeli industrial firms abstract the main purpose of this study is to characterize and analyze high technology industrial firms a technology index is constructed and used to classify firms the largest concentration of hightech firms is israel is found in electronics and transport equipment industries and the lowest in textiles and clothing high tech firms appear to be more productive more export oriented pay higher wages and earn higher rates of return than low tech firms the fact that high tech firms in israel are export oriented is shown to be consistent with the international trade theories of comparative advantage and strategic rent seeking

panel estimates of the canadian rural urban women s wage gap this article analyzes the female rural urban wage gap in canada using longitudinal data from the survey of labour and income dynamics 1993 96 we estimate a two step wage equation accounting for unobserved heterogeneity and sample selection the results indicate that a statistically and economically significant rural urban wage gap remains after controlling for observed and unobserved characteristics further the results suggest this rural urban wage difference is not simply induced by immobility between rural and urban markets rather consistent with the effect of thinner rural labor markets the evidence indicates that rural urban differences in the impact of a number of explanatory variables are significant

the degree of monopoly international trade and transnational corporations abstract using a simple model of production the paper focuses upon the impact of intra firm imports on the theoretical specification of the degree of monopoly and thereby on the functional distribution of income in particular it is shown that a rise in an industry s import penetration need not imply a fall in the degree of monopoly data for the united kingdom new motor car industry is used to assess the bias that results from ignoring intra firm imports when estimating the degree of monopoly it is also pointed out that an identical framework can be employed to analyse intra firm exports

are earnings profiles steeper than productivity profiles we test competing explanations of rising age earnings profiles by obtaining direct estimates of marginal productivity differentials between workers in different age groups and comparing these to associated earnings differentials using contemporary data from israeli manufacturing firms the results indicate that controlling for other productive inputs and firm characteristics for the unskilled or less skilled workers who represent most of the workers in our sample both earnings and productivity profiles are upward sloping moreover these profiles mirror each other closely and are statistically indistinguishable however the estimates of the profiles are sufficiently imprecise that even sizable deviations between point estimates of earnings growth and productivity growth would not be statistically significant while we view the results as most consistent with a general human capital model of rising earnings profiles over the life cycle there is not strong evidence with which to reject alternative models

market structure and price cost margins in a paper that has become a standard reference in the structure conductperformance approach to industrial economics cowling and waterson 1976 developed a theoretical rationale for expecting industry profitability to be positively correlated with the level of concentration their model based on a simple algebraic description of oligopoly behaviour has been interpreted as providing a justification for the common empirical practice of cross industry regression analysis of price cost margins in terms of concentration levels in the present paper we show that on further examination this model implies a joint determination of margins and concentration this provides some interesting comparative static results of relevance to inter industry differences in concentration levels equally however it leads to various cautionary insights concerning the meaning of price cost margin versus concentration regressions

an overview of the driving forces behind energy demand in china s construction industry evidence from 1990 to 2012 abstract the rapid urbanization in china has produced a large demand for energy in the past decades it is therefore urgent to have an understanding of the driving forces behind the energy increase in the construction industry this study applies structural decomposition analysis sda to quantify the effects of driving factors from insight into consumption and production the results show that the energy consumption trajectory of china s construction industry is the result of competition between the effect of increasing final demand and improvement in energy efficiency although the effect of consistent efforts in structure optimization by the central government was significant from 2007 to 2012 the potential to save much energy still lies in structure optimization in energy production and final demand according to the projection structural upgrades in economy would be the most important factor for energy reduction in 2020 scenario analysis further indicated that the percentage change of energy increments in 2020 can be reduced at 22 of 2010 level under the optimistic scenario sector aggregation analysis revealed that more aggregates would increase uncertainty to some extent and result in a misinterpretation of the importance of the underlying factors according to the quantitative analysis in this study the percentage change of total embodied energy consumption in the construction industry should be limited below 25 of 2010 level at the end of the 13th five year plan

total embodied energy requirements and its decomposition in china s agricultural sector abstract humanity faces the important challenge of understanding and integrating human and natural processes including agriculture in china the scarcity of arable land 0 09 ha per capita increasing population and migration of the workforce to cities pose a significant challenge for food security agricultural energy productivity has therefore become a key concern in this study we used input output analysis to measure energy productivity at a national agro ecosystem scale for china using the total embodied energy requirement teer to reveal hidden energy flows we introduced a structural decomposition technique that reveals how changes in teer for the agricultural sector were driven by changes in energy use technology and the inter relationships among two agricultural sectors farming and animal husbandry the results will help both policymakers and farmers to improve the efficiency and environmental compatibility of agricultural production declining teer for both sectors means that china s overall agro ecosystem has increased its energy productivity since 1978 due to improved relationships between the agricultural sectors and increased use of biological energy however the net positive energy income decreased in the farming sector and an increasing proportion of fossil energy use accompanied by increased energy income in the animal sector provide incentives to increase yield and decrease labor by using more fossil energy thus raising more animals in the animal husbandry sector overuse of fossil energy since 1990 has resulted in decreasing fossil energy efficiency requiring immediate measures to improve the use of fossil fuel intensive materials such as fertilizers

the new protectionism revisited this paper reviews the strategic trade literature in oligopolistic industries beginning with the brander spencer 1984 model of duopolistic international rent shifting issues of long run equilibrium entry conditions and empirical estimates of the size of oligopolistic rents in tradable goods industries are reviewed in addition the results of simulation models of strategic trade policy are summarized the final sections of the paper deal with issues of the retaliation by other countries against single country policies and long term policy equilibrium it is emphasized that the prisoners dilemma characterization of these equilibria may be inappropriate and managed trade may be a more plausible outcome in oligopolistic industries than strategic trade policies

urban effects on participation and wages are there gender differences abstract this paper estimates participation and wage equations using panel data from the united kingdom to explore gender differences in urban wage and participation premiums the results suggest a small but economically significant urban participation premium for women but none for men results from the wage estimations suggest that after controlling for sample selectivity observed and unobserved heterogeneity the urban premium is larger for women this wage premium is also larger for married or cohabiting women relative to others there is also evidence of higher urban returns to experience for men and lower urban wage depreciation for both men and women

the general validity of the heckscher ohlin theorem despite a number of attempts to extend it the heckscher ohlin theorem remains woefully restricted in terms of the generality of the assumptions needed for its proof in its traditional form as a statement about the commodity composition of trade the theorem is valid only in the highly abstract environment of the two factor two good twocountry model that has been the mainstay of trade theory for half a century a weaker version of the theorem involving the factor content of trade rather than its commodity composition has been proved for any number of factors goods and countries but this generality has so far been bought only at the cost of other and perhaps equally restrictive assumptions 2 the purpose of this paper is to provide statements and proofs of the heckscher ohlin h o theorem that are more general than those currently available the approach taken is similar to that used in my 1980 article for an extension of the theory of comparative advantage in terms of correlations between autarky prices and trade in section i i lay out the assumptions on which the analysis is based these assumptions provide the outlines of a reasonably general model in which there may be any numbers of goods and factors and in which factor prices may be equalized or not trade impediments in the form of tariffs or export taxes are permitted though transportation costs are not 3 in section ii i discuss the difficulty of inferring the factor content of trade in a world of unequal factor prices and i provide several alternative definitions of that concept for use later in the paper these together with the assumptions of section i are used in section iii to prove a theorem on the value at autarky prices of the factor content of trade in section iv this theorem is used to prove a first corollary that makes a more direct statement about the pattern of trade it says that worldwide there must be a negative correlation between the factor content of trade by factor and country and the corresponding autarky factor prices it is precisely these autarky factor prices that constitute the ohlin measure of factor scarcity therefore the corollary provides a formal statement of the general idea that countries tend to export the services of those factors which they have in relative abundance and it may be regarded as a generalization of the factor content version of the h o theorem finally a generalization of the commodity version of the theorem is proved in section v the concept of a covariance is generalized university of michigan i have benefitted greatly from the comments of paul degrauwe wolfgang mayer michael mussa carl simon and robert stern as well as others who participated in seminars at the universities of michigan chicago and cincinnati and at the national bureau of economic research an anonymous referee also made valuable comments with additional goods and factor price equalization the theorem runs afoul of the indeterminacy of production and trade noted by paul samuelson 1953 and james melvin 1968 without factor price equalization trade impediments and intermediate production can cause reversals of the pattern of trade as shown in my 1979 article if additional factors and countries are also added it becomes difficult even to state the theorem let alone to prove it 2melvin stated such a theorem for the three good two factor case and jaroslav vanek 1968 proved it for the general case but only by assuming factor price equalization trent bertrand 1972 and jon harkness 1979 were able to drop the factor price equalization assumption but replaced it with restrictions on consumption of either goods or factors by country of origin it is unclear to me however that these restrictions can ever be met in a model that is otherwise plausible harkness 1978 has also used the factor content version of the theorems as the motivation for a regression equation relating commodity trade to factor intensities this bears some resemblance to my analysis below in section v see however james anderson 1981 and edward leamer and harry bowen 1981 who have criticized his result with a reply by harkness 1981 3for ease of exposition i do not allow here for transportation costs these were included in an earlier version of this paper following the technique in my 1980 article

scale technique and composition effects in trade related carbon emissions in china this study applies structural decomposition analysis to evaluate the scale composition and technique effects of trade related carbon emissions in china mainland from 1987 to 2007 the initial findings indicate that the increasing magnitude of china s trade both in terms of the carbon emissions embodied in exports and the carbon emissions avoided via imports had large scale effects during the whole period the technique effect caused by changes in input mix sector energy intensity fuel mix and carbon coefficients effectively offset part of the scale effect during the entire period but failed to do so during some sub periods changes in trade composition caused a relative small increase in the carbon emissions created by exports but a relative small decrease in the carbon emissions avoided via imports during the whole period

driving forces of rapid co2 emissions growth a case of korea abstract this study aims to investigate korea s final demand structure and its impacts on co 2 emissions in order to reduce co 2 emissions and develop environmental policy directions based on the environmentally extended input output model this study adopts a two step approach 1 to estimate the embodied emissions and their intensities for 393 sectors induced by final demand and 2 to calculate the driving factors of emission growth between 2003 and 2011 and then evaluate the result by using structural decomposition analysis sda the findings of this study demonstrate that the impact of composition change in export with less embodied emission intensities tends to offset the increase in co 2 emission by the export scale growth the relatively low residential electricity price has resulted in the rapid growth of household electricity consumption and significantly contributed to emissions growth the result of sda indicates that korea s final demand behavior yielded high carbonization over the same period the findings suggest that korean government should promote exports in industries with less embedded co 2 in order to protect environments in addition emission information of each product and service should be provided for consumers to change their purchase patterns towards contributing to low carbon emissions as active players

an empirical analysis of the commute to work patterns of males and females in two earner households the purpose of this paper is to empirically investigate the proposition that residential decisions are made with reference to the male head of household s job location disadvantaging females in the labor market a sample of approximately 50 000 adults in two earner households in urban areas distributed across the united states is selected from public use microdata from the 1980 census and used to estimate a simultaneous model to explain commute to work behavior of men and women the model is estimated separately for households that did and did not change residences in the past year the impacts of the new residences on the commute times of both male and female workers holding other variables constant are compared we conclude that residential selection does favor males relative to females although there is evidence that this advantage is eliminated as the ratio of female to male earnings in the same household narrows

international r d rivalry and industrial strategy this paper presents a theory of government intervention which provides an explanation for industrial strategy policies such as r d or export subsidies in imperfectly competitive international markets domestic net welfare is improved by the capture of a greater share of the output of rent earning industries although the subsidy ridden noncooperative international equilibrium is jointly suboptimal behaviour of governments and firms is modelled as a three stage subgame perfect nash equilibrium the assumption that the government is the first player in this game allows it to influence equilibrium outcomes by altering the set of credible actions open to firms

why women work closer to home this paper analyzes the extent to which differences in labor force status in household composition and in household roles account for sex differences in workplace residence separation modelling work trip length as the outcome of the choice of household residential and individual job locations equilibrium work trip length is estimated empirically as a function of labor market housing and household characteristics for male and female employees in seven different household categories data from the 1976 panel survey of income dynamics are used the study concludes that while sex differences in job tenure work hours and wages are in themselves sufficient to fully account for observed sex differences in workplace residence separation sex differences in household roles i e responses to spouses characteristics are of even greater importance in influencing women to work closer to home