professional achievements and gender differences among academic economists i introduction while the academic labor market for economists attracts a good deal of attention among its participants work on the differences in remuneration for economic research and other professional characteristics between men and women in academic institutions has been limited this paper tests for gender differences using data on grants and grant applications from the national science foundation ault rutman and stevenson 1979 addressing issues of academic placement found that the highest rated institution at which an academic economist will be employed is the institution of first employment willis and pieper 1991 found that women who received doctorates in economics in the 1970s had a somewhat higher rate of placement at doctoral degree granting institutions than men but that there was no difference in the rank of the institutions for these placements lower tier institutions must offer promotions to attract candidates moore et al 1983 reported that the rank of the department at which one earned the doctorate is critically important in determining initial academic placement hamermesh johnson and weisbrod 1982 found that for those at prestigious departments increases in citations lead to salary increases but that the department s rank was not inversely related to salary in his review of work by sociologists youn 1988 reported that the prestige of an academic institution was positively related to the research productivity of its scientists there are two competing hypotheses that might explain this result better departments select better scientists achievement model or better departments foster greater productivity ascription model empirical efforts to distinguish between these hypotheses have been mixed the research on salary differentials in academia has generally found that there are significant gender differences that widen during the careers of men and women 1 barbezat 1991 the most recent evidence suggests that salary differentials in the academic community may have diminished somewhat since the 1960s but still remain weiler 1990 separated the influence of the department s rank on salary by treating it in a separate equation and found that standard formulations underestimate the degree of salary discrimination although important salary is not the only measure of achievement in academe promotion to a higher rank employment in key departments and the production of well placed articles all help determine an economist s influence in the profession but despite the dramatic increase in the percentage of women receiving the ph d during the past two decades the number of senior women at graduate institutions is still very low 2 to what extent does gender bias exist in economics departments as measured not only by salary but also by other achievements such as the likelihood of achieving a senior position or being employed by a top department is there a difference in the experiences of the younger cohorts compared to their more senior counterparts this paper attempts to answer these important questions by 1 taking into account the endogeneity of the variables that are usually treated as exogenous in models of salary determination and thereby broadening the characteristics that traditionally reflect discrimination and 2 using a new detailed data base developed from the national science foundation the results of this more complete model in which salary as well as other measures of professional achievement are explained show significant differences between men and women at the more senior level at the assistant professor level although the signs of the gender coefficients are consistent with a discrimination hypothesis the results are not statistically significant ii the model single equations using the techniques developed by oaxaca 1973 and blinder 1973 have long been used to estimate gender salary differentials in academia with productivity measures such as books and articles published administrative experience etc

cyclicality and the labor market for economists the 1987 academic market was strong whereas the 1997 market was weak a multimarket theory of optimal search suggests that job seekers will respond to a weakening market by changing their search strategies at the extensive margin which markets to enter and the intensive margin how many applications to submit per market employers respond to the weakening market by raising their hiring standards high quality applicants will obtain an increased share of academic interviews in weak markets while applicants from weaker schools will increasingly secure interviews outside of the academic market empirical results show that in the bust market graduates of elite schools shifted their search strategies to include weaker academic institutions while graduates of lower ranked schools shifted their applications away from academia and toward the business sector in bust conditions academic institu tions increasingly concentrate their interviews on elite school graduates women and u s residents

determinants of scholarly productivity among male and female economists i introduction the purpose of this article is to test a model of the determinants of articles produced by male and female academics of particular interest is how article production is influenced by coauthorship institutional research orientation and gender several works have identified and demonstrated the trend toward coauthorship in economics and in other disciplines using data from the journal of economic literature heck and zaleski 1991 demonstrated that the incidence of coauthorship has increased from about 15 of total articles in 1969 to about 35 in 1989 durden and perri 1995 report that as of 1992 the proportion coauthored had grown to more than 38 hudson 1996 finds that by 1993 coauthorship rates in the journal of political economy and american economic review were 39 6 and 54 9 respectively as compared to rates of 6 and 8 in 1950 why do economists coauthor rational interest theory suggests that if scholars collaborate then there must be a utility enhancing result other things equal this could be in the form of higher salaries and increased probabilities of promotion greater access to funded research greater mobility in job markets and the like which might result if collaboration significantly increases the overall production of published papers studies by mcdowell and melvin 1983 barnett et al 1988 and piette and ross 1992 suggest that coauthorship among scholars may increase article production through the division of labor made necessary by increased complexity in the subject matter and by the need to saturate markets to increase the probability of getting papers accepted for publication laband and tollison 2000 find evidence that increasing rates of coauthorship result from the greater quantitative content of articles greater requirement for the use of sophisticated econometric techniques and the fact that cooperation is cheaper in time and other resources as compared to learning what is necessary to publish in another field or discipline hamermesh and oster 2002 discuss nonpecuniary purely consumption benefits such as the pleasure obtained from cooperation and suggest that higher levels of prestige among colleagues may also be relevant although many reasons for cooperation have been developed not much has been done to determine whether the rate of coauthorship among scholars actually affects total article production using cross section data hansen et al 1978 and graves et al 1982 estimate productivity models but coauthorship is not included in either study mcdowell and smith 1992 include a coauthorship variable but find that it neither increases nor decreases article production when articles are discounted by the number of authors hollis 2001 uses panel data to examine the relationship between coauthorship and research productivity he finds that coauthorship leads to better longer and more frequent publications when publications are discounted by the number of authors however coauthorship appears negatively related to research output mcdowell and smith s 1992 and hollis s 2001 results are very counterintuitive because a viable reason for coauthorship is to increase efficiency as shown in durden and perri 1995 durden and perri 1995 estimate a time series model finding that coauthorship is highly instrumental in determining article productivity as far as we know the only study by economists that specifically analyzes the effect of institutional research orientation on publishing output is that by graves et al 1982 using data from 240 schools they estimate total pages published per faculty member in the top 24 economics journals between 1974 78 using a series of independent variables to proxy influences that affect publication they find that secretaries per faculty member helps and teaching load hinders production the effects of ph d status teaching assistance and faculty student ratios are mixed depending on specification of the model

evaluation of stock allocation policies in a divergent inventory system with shipment consolidation in this paper we consider a one warehouse n retailer inventory system characterized by access to real time point of sale data and a time based dispatching and shipment consolidation policy at the warehouse more precisely inventory is reviewed continuously while a consolidated shipment for example a truck to all retailers is dispatched from the warehouse at regular time intervals the focus is on investigating the cost benefits of using state dependent myopic allocation policies instead of a simple fcfs first come first serve rule to allocate shipped goods to the retailers the analysis aims to shed some light on when if ever fcfs is a reasonable policy to use in this type of system the fcfs allocations of items to retailers are determined by the sequence in which retailer orders or equivalently customer demands arrive to the warehouse applying the myopic policy enables the warehouse to postpone the allocation decision to the moment of shipment from the warehouse or the moments of delivery to the different retailers and to base it on the inventory information available at those times the myopic allocation method we study is often used in the literature on periodic review systems

exact evaluation of batch ordering inventory policies in two echelon supply chains with periodic review this paper studies a two echelon supply chain with stochastic and discrete consumer demand batch order quantities periodic inventory review and deterministic transportation times reorder point policies manage inventories at every location average inventory backorders and fill rates are evaluated exactly for each location safety stock is evaluated exactly at the lower echelon and a good approximation is detailed for the upper echelon numerical data are presented to demonstrate the model s utility it is found that system costs generally increase substantially if the upper echelon is restricted to carry no inventory of if the upper echelon is required to provide a high fill rate in many cases it is optimal to set the upper echelon s reorder point to yield near zero safety stock yet in some cases this simple heuristic can significantly increase supply chain operating costs finally policies selected under the assumption of continuous inventory review can perform poorly if implemented in an environment with periodic review

two supply curves for economists implications of mobility and career attachment of women the pool of women with highly specialized trainiing is increasing and the tolerance of such women for accepting occupational seg regationi and narrow views of their career potentials is dimiiinishinig it is crucial that we understand the differences between lab or markets for men anid women at professionial levels the resulting differellces in career patterns and how barriers to full career development for women impinge on occupational rewards only then can we plani effcctively for the generation of younig womento come particularly important at this time is analysis of the market for h elds anid occupations that are atypical for women overall societal attitudes toward the proper role of women are evolving yet on the demand side employers perceived differences as to the employability of women whether real or imaginary result in barriers that vary in intensity by occupation economics a stereotypically male profession has relatively intense barriers for women on the demand side over and above variations in aggregate demand 1 the demand side barriers are different from those associated with stereotypically female occupations on the supply side barriers to full career development for women are likely to be those common to all professional occupations plus the effect of women s perceptions of the intensity of the demand side barriers for the particular profession i e any lack of support of male colleagues professional isolation and lack of access to information network or employers lack of perception of the women s career potential one group of supply side barriers includes presence of children husband s unfavorable attitudes guilt feelings of the women related to a high sense of responsibility for monitoring consumption at home and poor earlier education choices based on limited perception of career possibilities in addition the two probably most important are geographic mobility or immobility related to demands of family and lack of the on the job training caused by either gaps in the women s career patterns or diminished opportunities for investment in human capital for women when working the purposes of this paper are to use preliminary data from the committee on the status of women in the economics profession cswep american economic association aea 1974 75 survey of economists to test a model showing that two supply curves exist for economists instead of one with the division related to nonpecuniary returns for women and then consider whether more than two supply curves should be formulated to allow for whether workers are major earners in the family equal earners or secondary earners 2 the model used as a starting point professor of economics southern methodist university i wvant to thank patricia kirby and anna fay ifriedlander for help in computing and prograimming 1 for a qualitative discussion of such barriers see kenneth e boulding and barbara b reagani 2 informationi on the sampling and survey procedure anid qualityof sample may be obtained from the author

gender differences in first jobs for economists over the last several decades women have made substantial progress into traditionally maledominated professions reflecting this trend much recent research has focused on explaining the choice of profession and the gender composition of the workforce 5 23 16 however a focus on occupation choice may conceal interesting patterns within professions because a profession can include a number of different job types with a distinct mix of professional activities the dual labor market phenomenon of primary and secondary jobs may also be present although perhaps to a lesser extent within a particular profession 17 gender differences in composition of employment among the various jobs within a profession could thus affect the status pay and advancement of women in the occupation if women primarily place in secondary type jobs the advantages of entering a profession will be lower for women relatively little is known about career choice within a profession 15 in this paper we model the first job choice of economists among several careers and use data on new ph d economists over the last thirty years to examine whether career choices differ by gender over a period of low but increasing representation of women an advantage of our single profession analysis is that it contains a relatively homogeneous set of workers with quantitative human capital measures that other studies of job choice suggest are important 7 there is significant variation in career choices available within economics that permits possible market segmentation 2 there are research and teaching academic jobs and the government and private sectors employ large numbers of economists we find significant structural differences in the placements of male and female economists indicating that the choices of female economists differ from those of their male counterparts both within academia and between this and other sectors the economics profession provides a useful background to examine gender differences in the career choices of professionals in a male dominated occupation over the last 30 years the average number of ph d s conferred annually in the u s has increased from approximately 300 to over 800 reflecting increased opportunities for economists within economics departments and expansion of other academic government and private sector jobs at the same time the proportion

determinants of patent rights a cross national study abstract this paper presents an index of patent rights for 110 countries for the period 1960 1990 the index is used to examine what factors or characteristics of economies determine how strongly patent rights will be protected the evidence does indicate that more developed economies tend to provide stronger protection but the underlying factors which influence patent protection levels are the country s level of research and development r d activity market environment and international integration which are correlated with its level of development the results qualify however that r d activity influences patent protection levels after a nation s research sector reaches a critical size an implication of this is that to raise patent protection levels in weakly protecting countries it is important to foster a significant research base in those countries and thereby create incentives for protecting patent rights

review of nsf economics proposals gender and institutional patterns in a recent article in this journal rebecca blank 1991 reported on the results of an experiment in which articles submitted to the american economic review were randomly assigned to a doubleor single blind category for review among the patterns she found were that women referees gave lower ratings to single blind papers and men were harsher on double blind papers but that there were no significant differences in the acceptance rates by gender for singleor double blind reviewing other research has found gender differences in the outcomes of the reviewing process in economics journals by correlating acceptance rates with the type of reviewing procedure marianne ferber and michelle teiman 1980 linda edwards and ferber 1989 based on reviews of grant proposals to the national science foundation nsf this study presents evidence of significant differences in the reviewing of female and male authors by male and female referees even when author quality is controlled by comparing ratings on the same paper female reviewers rate female authored papers lower than do their male colleagues this result still holds when controls for institutional affiliation and experience of reviewer are also included this indicates that there is a significant downward bias in the ratings by female reviewers of female proposals independent of paper quality and reviewer background

r d policy productivity growth and distance to frontier using data from 20 us manufacturing industries we find strong evidence that a more generous tax treatment of r d positively impacts on the growth rate of total factor productivity and that this effect is stronger for industries farther from the technological frontier the estimates also suggest that the productivity growth effect of r d tax policy is comparable in size to that induced by technology transfers

the effect of gender sorting on propensity to coauthor implications for academic promotion a cohort sample of ph d economists indicates a significant propensity for researchers to select coauthors of the same sex this gender sorting contributes to lower article production for women further we find evidence of bias in academic promotion when single authored and coauthored articles carry the same weight in promotion and salary decisions the evidence explains in part why women academics wait longer for promotion and are not as likely to be promoted as men among the effects of gender sorting is self selection of women into larger departments where they are more likely to find colleagues of the same sex

women in economics moving up or falling off the academic career ladder copyright 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 by the american economic association

gender and promotion in the economics profession the authors use unique panel data on american economic association members to test for gender differences in promotion in a profession with a well defined promotion and job hierarchy and in which men and women exhibit similar labor market attachment the results suggest that over the period from the 1960s through the early 1980s female economists had lower levels of professional attainment and career advancement than did their male colleagues with similar attributes these gender differences remain in evidence despite controls for unobserved heterogeneity and self selection between academic and non academic jobs there is evidence however that promotion prospects for female economists significantly improved during the 1980s not only at all ranks but also within both ph d granting institutions and non ph d granting institutions in fact the results reveal no unexplained gender specific differences in promotion by the end of the 1980s

exploring the present through the past claudia goldin is one of the world s leading economists and economic historians and has made a series of outstanding and original contributions particularly to the cliometric or the new economic history literature in this interview professor goldin discusses with brian snowdon who first provides a background introduction several important issues relating to her research on economic history and cliometrics the economics of slavery us economic history corruption in america the role of human capital and education in us economic development wage inequality female labour force participation and the quiet revolution the influence of the contraceptive pill women s surnames the reversal of the college gender gap and women in the economics profession

approximations of dynamic multilocation production and inventory problems consider a central depot or plant which supplies several locations experiencing random demands orders are placed or production is initiated periodically by the depot the order arrives after a fixed lead time and is then allocated among the several locations the depot itself does not hold inventory the allocations are finally received at the demand points after another lag unfilled demand at each location is backordered linear costs are incurred at each location for holding inventory and for backorders also costs are assessed for orders placed by the depot the object is to minimize the expected total cost of the system over a finite number of time periods this system gives rise to a dynamic program with a state space of very large dimension we show that this model can be systematically approximated by a single location inventory problem all the qualitative and quantitative results for such problems can then be applied

gender differences in earnings among economics and business faculty abstract this research note finds significant earnings differentials across gender that can not be explained by differences in individual job or institutional characteristics specifically we find that female economics and business faculty earn between 1 3 and 7 4 less than would be predicted in the absence of discrimination

optimization of order up to s policies for two level inventory systems with compound poisson demand abstract we consider a two level inventory system with one warehouse and n retailers leadtimes are constant and the retailers face different compound poisson demand processes all facilities apply order up to s replenishment policies we show how to evaluate holding and shortage costs exactly

capital accumulation and growth a new look at the empirical evidence using annual data for 75 countries in the period 1960 2000 we present evidence of a positive relationship between investment as a share of gross domestic product gdp and the long run growth rate of gdp per worker this result is robust for our full sample and for the subsample of non oecd countries but not for the subsample of oecd countries our analysis controls for time invariant country specific heterogeneity in growth rates and for a range of time varying control variables we also address endogeneity issues and allow for heterogeneity across countries in model parameters and for cross section dependence

coordinated replenishment strategies in inventory distribution systems in this paper we study the impact of coordinated replenishment and shipment in inventory distribution systems we analyze a system with multiple retailers and one outside supplier random demand occurs at each retailer and the supplier replenishes all the retailers in traditional inventory models each retailer orders directly from the supplier whenever the need arises we present a new centralized ordering policy that orders for all retailers simultaneously the new policy is equivalent to the introduction of a warehouse with no inventory that is in charge of the ordering allocation and distribution of inventory to the retailers under such a policy orders for some retailers may be postponed or expedited so that they can be batched with other retailers orders which results in savings in ordering and shipping costs in addition to the policy we propose for supplying inventory to the retailers we also consider three other policies that are based on these well known policies in the literature a can order policy b echelon inventory policy and c fixed replenishment interval policy furthermore we create a framework for simultaneously making inventory and transportation decisions by incorporating the transportation costs or limited truck capacities we numerically compare the performance of our proposed policy with these policies to identify the settings in which each policy would perform well

one warehouse multiretailer systems with centralized stock information we consider a distribution system with a central warehouse and multiple retailers the warehouse orders from an outside supplier and replenishes the retailers which in turn satisfy customer demand the retailers are nonidentical and their demand processes are independent compound poisson there are economies of scale in inventory replenishment which is controlled by an echelon stock batch transfer policy for the special case with simple poisson demand we develop an exact method for computing the long run average holding and backorder costs of the system based on this exact method we provide approximations for compound poisson demand numerical examples are used to illustrate the accuracy of the approximations we also present a numerical comparison between the average costs of a heuristic echelon stock policy and an existing lower bound on the average costs of all feasible policies

do the effects of r d tax credits vary across industries a meta regression analysis this paper presents a survey of the micro econometric literature on the effects of r d tax credits on firms innovation activities we focus on one specific aspect that has not received sufficient attention in previous research the sectoral dimension our meta regression analysis mra sets up a new database collecting a large number of firm level studies on the effects of r d tax credits and investigates the factors that may explain differences in the estimated effects that are reported in the literature the main result of the mra analysis is indeed that sectors matter specifically the additionality effect of r d tax credits is on average stronger for smes firms in the service sectors and firms in low tech sectors in countries with an incremental scheme the paper proposes a simple framework to investigate why the innovation and economic effects of r d tax credits vary across sectors and points out new directions and hypotheses for future research

the effectiveness of r d tax credits in order to measure the effect of tax credits on private r d investment researchers confront the difficult problem of finding an exogenous measure of tax policy that exhibits sufficient variation

a multiechelon inventory model with fixed replenishment intervals this paper develops a new model for studying multiechelon inventory systems with stochastic demand for the model we assume that each site in the system orders at preset times according to an order up to policy that delivery times are deterministic and that the demand processes are stochastic with independent increments we introduce a new scheme for allocating stock in short supply which we call virtual allocation and which permits significant tractability we exercise the model on a set of test problems for two echelon systems to get insight into the structure of good policies the primary findings are that both the central warehouse upper echelon and the retail sites lower echelon should hold safety stock but that most of the safety stock should be at the retail sites consequently the central warehouse will stock out with high probability furthermore we show that the virtual allocation rule is near optimal for the set of test problems

gender and promotions evidence from academic economists in france the promotion system for french academic economists provides an interesting environment to examine the promotion gap between men and women promotions occur through national competitions for which we have information both on candidates and on those eligible to be candidates thus we can examine the two stages of the process application and success women are less likely to seek promotion and this accounts for up to 76 percent of the promotion gap being a woman also reduces the probability of promotion conditional on applying although the gender difference is not statistically significant our results highlight the importance of the decision to apply

stock allocation in general multi echelon distribution systems with r s order up to policies in this paper we analyze stock allocation policies in general n echelon distribution systems where it is allowed to hold stock at all levels in the network the goal is to achieve differentiated target customer service levels fill rates various allocation rules and accompanying numerical methods that have already been developed for smaller networks are extended and compared in an extensive numerical experiment we conclude that the extension of balanced stock rationing see van der heijden 1996 is the most accurate method in particular in cases of relatively high imbalance if the imbalance is not too high the extension of consistent appropriate share rationing see de kok et al 1994 verrijdt and de kok 1996 performs good as well

r d tax incentives in eu countries does the impact vary with firm size this paper studies the effect of r d tax incentives on the research activity of manufacturing firms based in france italy spain and the uk over the period 2007 2009 using a matching procedure we show that in all the examined countries but spain r d tax incentives induced a statistically significant increase in the intensity of r d expenses over sales however this effect is driven only by the behaviour of small firms by assessing the benefit cost ratio of r d tax policies we find evidence of substantial additional effects in italy and the uk

beggar thy neighbor the in state out of state and aggregate effects of r d tax credits abstract the proliferation of r d tax incentives among u s states in recent decades raises two questions i are these tax incentives effective in increasing in state r d ii how much of any increase is due to r d being drawn away from other states this paper answers i yes and ii nearly all the paper estimates an augmented r d factor demand model using state panel data from 1981 to 2004 i estimate that the long run elasticity of in state r d with respect to the in state user cost is about 2 5 while its elasticity with respect to out of state user costs is about 2 5 suggesting a zero sum game among states

exact and approximate evaluation of batch ordering policies for two level inventory systems we consider a two level inventory system with one warehouse and n identical retailers lead times transportation times are constant and the retailers face independent poisson demand in a previous paper we derived a recursive procedure for determining the policy costs for an average item in case of one for one replenishment policies in this paper we show how these results can be used for the exact or approximate evaluation of more general policies where both the retailers and the warehouse order in batches we compare our methods to the method recently suggested by a svoronos and p zipkin

entry level salaries of academic economists does gender or age matter i introduction since the mid 1970s earnings differentials in academic labor markets have been extensively investigated with particular attention focused on salary differentials between males and females the leading studies use similar methodologies but differ in terms of the time period analyzed data sources and whether a single academic discipline or multiple disciplines are considered for example johnson and stafford 1974 investigate several academic professions in 1970 jusenius and scheffler 1981 consider a single discipline economics in 1973 and include a cross section of universities and professorial ranks as well as race several investigators including katz 1973 hirsch and leppel 1982 rickman 1984 and raymond sesnowitz and williams 1988 focus on a single college or university and include diverse academic disciplines the latter two studies raise the question of whether gender continued to matter in academic labor markets in the 1980s and reach opposite conclusions a consistent finding transcending early studies of academic labor markets is that earnings differentials are smallest between men and women who are at the beginning of their careers for example johnson and stafford in a widely cited study state the most important finding is that the salaries of females start out at not much less than those of males 4 to 11 percent in the six disciplines in our sample and then decline 1974 901 this paper investigates entry level salaries in a single academic discipline by considering a cross section of newly hired economists the primary source of labor market information is a unique survey of entry level salaries in the 1987 88 academic year it might seem that by the late 1980s gender differentials should have disappeared at the entry level but like johnson and stafford s 1974 earlier result our survey reveals newly hired females received 1060 3 4 percent less than males our principal purpose is to determine whether this gender differential and the effects of age are significant once other determinants of earnings are taken into account for example we consider and control for terminal degree status the quality of the ph d granting department field of specialization highest degree offered by the hiring department differences in cost of living across areas and other institutional factors that can influence beginning entry level salaries we first describe the data set developed primarily from a survey which is used to estimate entry level earnings equations we also briefly compare our survey to other surveys providing information on market outcomes for economists we then present estimates of the determinants of entry level salaries and discuss the influence of gender age and other determinants of earnings ii the survey a total of 469 u s economics departments were surveyed in the summer and fall of 1987 with 258 departments responding 55 percent 1 the 1987 88 academic year salary of each new hire was requested of each department demographic information age sex and human capital characteristics ph d granting university primary field of specialization and degree status were also requested for each new hire in addition the survey included questions on whether the hiring college university is privately or publicly supported the administrative reporting channel of the economics department highest degree offered and number of entry level persons hired the identities of the hiring department and the university at which the newly hired economist did his or her graduate work are used to construct two measures of quality the quality of the department where the ph d work was done is the first measure and the quality of the hiring department is the second 2 the survey was designed to provide microdata on individual entry level economists for the purpose of estimating earnings equations in an effort to maximize responses the questionnaire was intentionally brief only questions directly relevant to estimating the earnings equation of entry level economists were included

do female researchers face a glass ceiling in france a hazard model of promotions the present article examines whether french female researchers face a glass ceiling an invisible barrier to promotion using an original database from the national institute for agricultural research inra we estimate duration models for promotions the methodology used allows us to take into account censored observations and unobserved heterogeneity our results show a significant gender effect that does not contradict the glass ceiling hypothesis in addition factors that boost promotion seem to be radically different according to gender and we present evidence that promotion strategies are different for males and females

women in the economics profession this article discusses evidence from recent literature on gender literature on gender differences among ph d economists it finds many gender similarities in accomplishments including undergraduate grades publication rates ceteris paribus and labor market commitment it finds no evidence of disadvantages for women in admissions to ph d programs or in nonacademic salaries yet gender differences remain ceteris paribus in gre scores attrition from ph d programs non tenure track academic jobs academic salaries and academic promotion rates the paper suggests that trends toward increasing percentage of females may be peaking particularly given recent drops in female undergraduate economics majors