women s suffrage political responsiveness and child survival in american history women s choices appear to emphasize child welfare more than those of men this paper presents new evidence on how suffrage rights for american women helped children to benefit from the scientific breakthroughs of the bacteriological revolution consistent with standard models of electoral competition suffrage laws were followed by immediate shifts in legislative behavior and large sudden increases in local public health spending this growth in public health spending fueled large scale door to door hygiene campaigns and child mortality declined by 8 15 or 20 000 annual child deaths nationwide as cause specific reductions occurred exclusively among infectious childhood killers sensitive to hygienic conditions

women as policy makers evidence from a randomized policy experiment in india this paper uses political reservations for women in india to study the impact of women s leadership on policy decisions since the mid 1990 s one third of village council head positions in india have been randomly reserved for a woman in these councils only women could be elected to the position of head village councils are responsible for the provision of many local public goods in rural areas using a dataset we collected on 265 village councils in west bengal and rajasthan we compare the type of public goods provided in reserved and unreserved village councils we show that the reservation of a council seat affects the types of public goods provided specifically leaders invest more in infrastructure that is directly relevant to the needs of their own genders

the law of demand and risk aversion this note proposes a necessary and sufficient condition on a utility function to guarantee that it generates a demand function satisfying the law of demand this condition can be interpreted in terms of an agent s attitude towards lotteries in commodity space as an application we show that when an agent has an expected utility function her demand for securities satisfies the law of demand if her coefficient of relative risk aversion does not vary by more than 4

why political reservations many countries are amending their political systems to set aside positions to groups such as women and racial or religious minorities that are perceived as being disadvantaged using evidence from india this article assesses the case for these reservations jel h4 o15 several countries have introduced procedures either explicit quotas or forms of gerrymandering to ensure political representation of disadvantaged groups such as women or ethnic minorities in 2001 quotas for women in parliaments were in force in more than 30 countries in india seats are reserved for historically disadvantaged groups scheduled castes or sc and scheduled tribes or st in federal or state legislative assemblies and for both historically disadvantaged groups and women at all levels of the panchayat system the system of decentralized decision making on the basis of evidence accumulated about the indian experience this paper reviews the case for reservation

on behavioral complementarity and its implications we study the behavioral definition of complementary goods if the price of one good increases demand for a complementary good must decrease we obtain its full implications for observable demand behavior its testable implications and for the consumer s underlying preferences we characterize those data sets which can be generated by rational preferences exhibiting complementarities the class of preferences that generate demand complements has leontief and cobb douglas as its as extreme members

revisiting between group inequality measurement an application to the dynamics of caste inequality in two indian villages standard approaches to decomposing how much group differences contribute to inequality rarely show significant between group inequality and are of limited use in comparing populations with different numbers of groups this study applies an adaptation to the standard approach that remedies these problems to longitudinal household data from two indian villages palanpur in the north and sugao in the west the authors find that in palanpur the largest scheduled caste group failed to share in the gradual rise in village prosperity this would not have emerged from standard decomposition analysis however in sugao the alternative procedure did not yield any additional insights because income gains applied relatively evenly across castes

the geography and causes of food insecurity in developing countries abstract at the 1996 world food summit 186 countries made a commitment to reduce the number of chronically undernourished people by half by 2015 in order to formulate effective policies for reaching this goal a thorough understanding of the location and causes of food insecurity is needed this paper provides a broad overview of the current character of food insecurity in developing countries focusing on two questions 1 why are they food insecure and 2 why are the food insecure to answer the latter question data from 58 developing countries with high prevalences of food insecurity are employed to examine the relative importance of two of food insecurity s most basic causes national food availability and the inability of people to access food due to poverty using child malnutrition as a proxy along with descriptive controls for non food determinants of malnutrition the paper finds little correlation between national food availabilities and food insecurity the group of countries that exhibit the highest severity of food insecurity are those with high poverty and food dietary energy surpluses consistent with the view that poverty is the most widespread cause of food insecurity in the 1990s the paper concludes by considering the implications of the analysis for appropriate geographical and policy targeting to improve food security for the greatest numbers of people at the fastest pace now and into the 21st century

twin picks disentangling the determinants of risk taking in household portfolios this paper investigates risk taking in the liquid portfolios held by a large panel of swedish twins we document that the portfolio share invested in risky assets is an increasing and concave function of financial wealth leading to different risk sensitivities across investors human capital which we estimate directly from individual labor income also affects risk taking positively while internal habit and expenditure commitments tend to reduce it our microfindings lend strong support to decreasing relative risk aversion and habit formation preferences furthermore heterogeneous risk sensitivities across investors help reconcile individual preferences with representative agent models

persistent inequality an explanation based on limited parental altruism abstract this paper proposes an alternative theory for the observed persistence in income inequality across households a theory based on limited parental altruism we argue that the degree of parental altruism is limited by the economic status of the parent a poor parent not only has less ability but also has less willingness to invest in children s human capital formation this generates a non linearity in such investment expenditures as a result initial income differences may perpetuate over time even with convex technology and convex preferences in this context we also compare the efficacy of the public vis a vis the private education system from the perspective of long run growth

productivity health and inequality in the intrahousehold distribution of food in low income countries a model is formulated incorporating linkages among nutrition labor market productivity health heterogeneity and the intrahousehold distribution of food and work activities in a subsistence economy empirical results based on a sample of households from bangladesh indicate that despite considerable intrahousehold disparities in calorie consumption households are averse to inequality furthermore consistent with the model the results also indicate that both the higher level and greater variance in the calories consumed by men relative to women reflect in part the greater participation by men in activities in which productivity is sensitive to health status copyright 1990 by american economic association

the politics of public good provision evidence from indian local governments this paper uses village and household survey data from south india to examine how political geography and politician identity impacts on public good provision we provide evidence that the nature of this relationship varies by type of public good for high spillover public goods residential proximity to elected representative matters in contrast for low spillover public goods sharing the politician s group identity is what matters jel d78 h40

the political economy of public goods some evidence from india we are interested in how public goods get allocated by a centralized state we use data on public goods and social structure from parliamentary constituencies in rural india to understand the allocation of these goods over the 1970s and 1980s national policies and political agendas during this period emphasized universal access to basic amenities and financed a rapid expansion in rural infrastructure we find evidence of considerable equalization in many of these facilities reflecting perhaps the importance of these commitments among the historically disadvantaged social groups those that mobilized themselves politically gained relative to the others measures of social heterogeneity that have been emphasized in the recent empirical literature on public goods are relevant but not overwhelming in their importance

risk preferences in multi period consumption models the equity premium puzzle and habit formation utility abstract the relationship between the relative risk aversion measure for the utility function for consumption and that for the value function for wealth is a derived relationship whose properties depend on how consumption and wealth are defined and measured this fact together with information concerning estimates for these two relative risk aversion measures is used to give another perspective on the equity premium puzzle and to explain why it is that the habit formation utility function is effective in eliminating that puzzle a time separable utility function that can serve as an alternative to the assumption of habit formation is also presented

does access to formal agricultural credit depend on caste summary this paper analyzes whether caste impedes access to formal agricultural credit in india credit is provided mainly through cooperative and commercial banks using national data we find that cooperative banks discriminate against lower caste borrowers and find weak evidence that commercial banks instead bias lending in their favor in accordance with affirmative action policies we compare the organizational structures of the two types of bank and explain discrimination by cooperative banks in terms of interest group capture at the district level by showing that discrimination takes place in those districts where higher castes dominate

discrimination social identity and durable inequalities what are the mechanisms by which societal discrimination affects individual achievement and why do the effects of past discrimination endure once legal barriers are removed we report the findings of two experiments in village india that suggest that the mechanisms of discrimination operate in part within the individuals who are members of the groups who have been discriminated against we demonstrate that publicly revealing an individual s membership in such a group alters his behavior in ways that make the effects of past discrimination persist over time a growing literature in social psychology on stereotype threat finds that stereotyped based expectations affect individual performance in the domain of the stereotype a study by jeff stone et al 1999 is illustrative when college students were asked to perform a task described as diagnostic of natural athletic ability blacks stereotyped as better athletes but worse students than whites performed better than whites when the same test was presented as diagnostic of sports intelligence the performance of blacks declined that of whites improved and the racial gap was reversed evidence suggests that a mediating factor in stereotype threat is a change in self confidence mara cadinu et al 2005 in our studies we investigated whether the public revelation of social identity caste affects cognitive task performance and responses to economic opportunities by young boys in village india subjects were sixth and seventh graders drawn from the two ends of the caste hierarchy we asked subjects to learn and then perform a task under incentives and we manipulated whether their peers in the experimental session knew their caste caste is well suited to this manipulation because unlike race gender and ethnicity there are no unambiguous outward markers of caste among young boys six subjects generally from six different villages participated in each experimental session in the control condition the subjects were anonymous within the six person group in the experimental conditions the experimenter publicly revealed subjects names and caste in the task solving mazes in which performance was studied here the low caste subjects in the anonymous condition did not perform significantly differently from high caste subjects but when caste identity was publicly revealed in a mixed caste group a significant caste gap emerged the caste gap was due to a 20 percent decline in the average number of mazes solved by the low caste the study shows that publicly revealing the social identity of an individual can change his behavior even when that information is irrelevant to payoffs our results are a generalization of the literature on stereotype threat like that literature we find that individuals performance is more in accordance with the stereotype of the group when group membership is made salient in some way unlike that literature salience in our experiments depends on the public revelation of social identity and more importantly we do not argue that the domain of the tasks undertaken by discussants rachel croson university of pennsylvania iris bohnet harvard university stefano dellavigna university of california berkeley

affirmative action in education evidence from engineering college admissions in india abstract this paper examines an affirmative action program for lower caste groups in engineering colleges in india we study both the targeting properties of the program and its implications for labor market outcomes we find that affirmative action successfully targets the financially disadvantaged the upper caste applicants that are displaced by affirmative action come from a richer economic background than the lower caste applicants that are displacing them targeting by caste however may lead to the exclusion of other disadvantaged groups for example caste based targeting reduces the overall number of females entering engineering colleges we find that despite poor entrance exam scores lower caste entrants obtain a positive return to admission our estimates however also suggest that these gains may come at an absolute cost because the income losses experienced by displaced upper caste applicants are larger than the income gains experienced by displacing lower caste students limited sample sizes in our preferred econometric specifications however prevent us from drawing strong conclusions from these labor market findings

can mandated political representation increase policy influence for disadvantaged minorities theory and evidence from india accountable governments often fail to reflect the interests of disadvantaged minorities this paper exploits the institutional features of political reservation as practiced in indian states to examine the role of mandated political representation in providing disadvantaged groups influence over policy making ifind that political reservation has increased transfers to groups which benefit from the mandate this finding also suggests that complete policy commitment may be absent in democracies as is found in this case jel d72 d78 hl 1 h50

inferior good and giffen behavior for investing and borrowing 1971 shows that the risky asset is a normal good its demand is increasing with income or wealth if the arrow pratt measure of absolute risk aversion is decreasing arrow also proves that a sufficient condition for the income elasticity of demand for the risk free asset to be greater than one is that relative risk aversion is increasing aura diamond and geanakoplos 2002 point out that these two results together imply that both assets are normal goods however if one relaxes either the assumption that the risk free asset is held long or that preferences exhibit increasing relative risk aversion we show that the risk free asset can be an inferior good moreover it can even be a giffen good where cor responding to an own price increase the asset s positive income effect swamps the negative substitution effect resulting in increased demand what is particularly sur prising is that both inferior and giffen good behavior can be exhibited for members of the widely popular hara hyperbolic absolute risk aversion family of utility functions 1 this is in contrast to much of the classic demand theory literature where very special forms of utility need to be constructed to produce giffen behavior see for instance doi iwasa and shimomura 2009 we consider two examples of hara utility functions of the form w x x a where 1 x denotes consumption and absolute risk aversion is decreasing for the case where a 0 this utility satisfies the arrow requirement of increasing relative risk aversion but when the risk aversion parameter is sufficiently large the risk free asset will always be an inferior good over some income range where it is held short for a 0 where relative risk aversion is decreasing we show that the risk free asset will always be a giffen good for some combination of prices and income moreover distinct regions in the price income space are identified where the risk free asset exhibits normal good inferior good and giffen behavior in fact the only member of the hara class for which the risk free and risky assets are both always normal goods is the very special constant relative risk aversion crra form 2 we also provide a non hara example for which relative

selection on observed and unobserved variables assessing the effectiveness of catholic schools in this paper we measure the effect of catholic high school attendance on educational attainment and test scores because we do not have a good instrumental variable for catholic school attendance we develop new estimation methods based on the idea that the amount of selection on the observed explanatory variables in a model provides a guide to the amount of selection on the unobservables we also propose an informal way to assess selectivity bias based on measuring the ratio of selection on unobservables to selection on observables that would be required if one is to attribute the entire effect of catholic school attendance to selection bias we use our methods to estimate the effect of attending a catholic high school on a variety of outcomes our main conclusion is that catholic high schools substantially increase the probability of graduating from high school and more tentatively attending college we find little evidence of an effect on test scores

caste stratification and wealth inequality in india summary we analyze the relationship between wealth inequality and caste divisions in india using nationally representative surveys on household wealth conducted during 1991 92 and 2002 03 according to our findings the groups in india that are generally considered disadvantaged known as scheduled castes or scheduled tribes have as one would expect substantially lower wealth than the forward caste groups while the other backward classes and non hindus occupy positions in the middle using the anogi decomposition technique we estimate that between caste inequality accounted for about 13 of overall wealth inequality in 2002 03 the stratification parameters indicate that the forward caste hindus overlap little with the other caste groups while the latter have significantly higher degrees of overlap with one another and with the overall population using this method we are also able to comment on the emergence and strengthening of a creamy layer or relatively well off group among the disadvantaged groups especially the scheduled tribes

linking conflict to inequality and polarization in this paper we study a behavioral model of conflict that provides a basis for choosing certain indices of dispersion as indicators for conflict we show that a suitable monotone transform of the equilibrium level of conflict can be proxied by a linear function of the gini coefficient the herfindahl hirschman fractionalization index and a specific measure of polarization due to esteban and ray jel classification d74 d31

don t touch my road evidence from india on affirmative action and everyday discrimination summary this article investigates whether affirmative action in the form of electoral quotas affects group based discrimination the redistributive effect of quotas is subject to debate and their ultimate target is discrimination to identify the effect of electoral quotas i take advantage of their rotation across space and over time in india to proxy discrimination i use a measure of caste based exclusion from a public infrastructure namely streets in 2006 44 5 household members of the marginalized castes labeled scheduled castes sc still suffered from caste based exclusions i document that ongoing sc quotas reduce the likelihood of caste based exclusion for members of the scs by about one fifth the results also imply that the effect is not persistent it disappears with the end of the sc quota from a policy maker s perspective these results are mixed since electoral quotas do affect everyday discrimination even if the effect does not last these results are consistent with a temporary change in the behavior of members of the dominant castes after a one shot electoral quota these results are inconsistent with either a change in the stereotypes held by members of the dominant castes or a change in the aspirations of members of the lower castes

the uncompensated law of demand a revealed preference approach abstract milleron and malinvaud 1974 mityushin and polterovich 1978 and others provide conditions under which the uncompensated law of demand uld holds these conditions are based on properties of the consumer s unobservable utility function in this paper we introduce the new idea of a giffen commodity vector and show how in terms of it and the derivative of a consumer s inverse demand a new necessary and sufficient condition for the uld may be obtained as both the giffen vector and a consumer s inverse demand are observable this allows us to obtain a revealed preference style necessary and sufficient condition for the uld without relying on conditions based on unobservables such as differential or curvature properties of a consumer s utility function

risk ambiguity and giffen assets abstract we provide necessary and sufficient conditions for the demand for financial assets to satisfy the law of demand prices and quantity demanded move in opposite directions when preferences take the expected utility multiplier preferences choquet expected utility and the maxmin expected utility forms for the first three models the law of demand holds when the variation in the coefficient of relative risk aversion stays within a specified bound ensuring the law of demand holds in the maxmin expected utility model requires constant relative risk aversion

strength in numbers networks as a solution to occupational traps the new classical theory states that families in low skill occupations with low levels of human capital can stay poor from one generation to the next while families in high skill occupations with correspondingly high levels of human capital stay wealthy despite being endowed with the same level of ability on average this paper proposes an informal institutional mechanism the community based network through which families belonging to the same neighbourhood or kinship group can bootstrap their way out of such low skill occupational traps the insight from the dynamic model that is developed is that once they form new networks providing mutual support to their members and substituting for inherited parental human capital and wealth will strengthen most rapidly in historically disadvantaged communities generating a correspondingly high level of intergenerational mobility these predictions are successfully tested using unique data from india the analysis in this paper coupled with an emerging empirical literature on networks and migration provides a new perspective on mobility in developing countries with restrictive traditional networks decaying even as new networks supporting collective mobility form and strengthen over time

estimation of limited dependent variable models with dummy endogenous regressors applied economists have long struggled with the question of how to accommodate binary endogenous regressors in models with binary and nonnegative outcomes i argue here that much of the difculty with limited dependent variables comes from a focus on structural parameters such as index coefcients instead of causal effects once the object of estimation is taken to be the causal effect of treatment several simple strategies are available these include conventional two stage least squares multiplicative models for conditional means linear approximation of nonlinear causal models models for distribution effects and quantile regression with an endogenous binary regressor the estimation strategies discussed in the article are illustrated by using multiple births to estimate the effect of childbearing on employment status and hours of work

intra household resource allocation an inferential approach if household income is pooled and then allocated to maximize welfare then income under the control of mothers and fathers should have the same impact on demand with survey data on family health and nutrition in brazil the equality of parental income effects is rejected unearned income in the hands of a mother has a bigger effect on her family s health than income under the control of a father for child survival probabilities the effect is almost twenty times bigger the common preference or neoclassical model of the household is rejected if unearned income is measured with error and income is pooled then the ratio of maternal to paternal income effects should be the same equality of the ratios cannot be rejected there is also evidence for gender preference mothers prefer to devote resources to improving the nutritional status of their daughters fathers to sons

descent rules and strategic transfers evidence from matrilineal groups in ghana abstract traditional descent systems can roughly be divided into patrilineal and matrilineal in the latter a man s heir is not his own child but rather his sister s son the paper examines the implications of this social norm for the pattern of inter vivos transfers using household level data from rural ghana where the largest ethnic group is traditionally matrilineal in particular it tests the predictions of a model of strategic behavior according to which children should respond to the threat of disinheritance by increasing transfers to their parents during lifetime to induce a donation of land before the default matrilineal inheritance is enforced i find that the credibility of customary norms enforcement as proxied by the presence of a nephew in the father s household significantly increases the probability of receiving transfers from children for akans but not for the other groups the effect is specific to nephews and not to other co resident boys this pattern of behavior can affect asset accumulation decisions across generations

a new look at the classical bertrand duopoly abstract the paper provides necessary and sufficient conditions for the uniqueness of pure strategy nash equilibrium in the standard bertrand duopoly with a homogeneous product the main condition is elementary easy to interpret and nests all known sufficient conditions in the literature

how do senators vote disentangling the role of voter preferences party affiliation and senate ideology this paper develops a methodology for consistently estimating the relative weights in senator utility functions despite the fact that senator ideologies are unobserved the empirical results suggest that voter preferences are assigned only one quarter of the weight in senator utility functions the national party line also has some influence but the senator s own ideology is the primary determinant of roll call voting patterns these results cast doubt on the empirical relevance of the median voter theorem estimation of the model requires only roll call voting data making it widely applicable copyright 1996 by american economic association

escaping and falling into poverty in india today the study examines the dynamic nature of movements into and out of poverty over a period when poverty has fallen substantially in india the analysis identifies people who escaped poverty and those who fell into it over the period 2005 to 2012 the analysis identifies people who escaped poverty and those who fell into it over the period 2005 to 2012 using panel data from the india human development survey for 2005 and 2012 we find that the risks of marginalized communities such as dalits and adivasis of falling into or remaining in poverty were higher than those for more privileged groups some but not all of these higher risks are explained by educational financial and social disadvantages of these groups in 2005 results from a logistic regression show that some factors that help people escape poverty differ from those that push people into it and that the strength of their effects varies

the monotonicity of individual and market demand this paper studies the monotonicity of individual and market demand with the aid of the indirect utility function we identify sufficient and in a sense necessary conditions on an agent s indirect utility which will guarantee that he has a monotonic demand function our conditions also point to a natural way of extending the result of hildenbrand 1983 hildenbrand showed that market demand is monontonic if the income distribution has a downward sloping density even though individual agents demand function might violate monotonicity using the indirect utility function we introduce a measure of violations of individual monotonicity that allows us to identify a larger class of density functions that will generate a monotonic market demand

savings and portfolio choice in a two period two asset model we extend arrow s analysis of portfolio choice in a one period model to savings and portfolio choice in a two period model this abstract was borrowed from another version of this item

women s rank modifies the relationship between household and women s food insecurity in complex households in northern burkina faso abstract this study examined the relationship between food insecurity at household and woman children sub unit levels and factors modifying this relationship in complex households in northern burkina faso data were collected from 126 households and 176 woman children sub units every 6 months from july 2001 to july 2003 household food insecurity varied more between seasons than did woman children sub unit food insecurity woman children sub unit food insecurity increased when household food insecurity increased woman children sub units in monogamous households were less food insecure and more at risk of becoming food insecure when the household became food insecure than sub units headed by women with first or second rank in polygamous households within polygamous households woman children sub units headed by women with rank third or more were more likely to become food insecure when the household became food insecure than those with first or second rank these results have implications for design planning and evaluation of programs and projects aiming to alleviate food insecurity in this and similar settings

democracy and demography societal effects of fertility limits on local leaders we investigate whether restricting elected leadership positions to candidates with desirable characteristics leads to society wide adoption of those characteristics in a low income democracy with high political participation exploiting quasi experimental variation in fertility limits imposed on village council members in india to curb population growth we find that rural couples significantly decreased fertility in response socially disadvantaged families exhibit the greatest reduction in marginal fertility immediately following the passage of these limits but the decline in the long run stock of children is more evenly spread across socioeconomic groups the limits however also increased the already male biased sex ratio at birth in castes with strong son preference therefore while restricting access to elected office may aid in achieving social objectives it can also worsen inequality

women in politics evidence from the indian states abstract this paper uses panel data from the 16 larger states in india during the period 1967 2000 to study the effects of female political representation in the state legislatures on public goods policy and expenditure it finds that politicians gender affects policy but that their social position i e their caste should be taken into account as well female legislators in seats reserved for lower castes and disadvantaged tribes invest more in health and early education and favor women friendly laws such as amendments to the hindu succession act which was designed to give women the same inheritance rights as men they also favor redistributive policies such as land reforms in contrast female legislators from higher castes do not have any impact on women friendly laws oppose land reforms invest in higher tiers of education and reduce social expenditure the causal effect of female legislators is estimated using close elections between women and men

inverse demand and anti giffen goods consider the standard model of household theory and assume two goods one of them a giffen good it is well known that the uncompensated direct demand for the giffen good has a positive slope however contrary to common intuition this note shows that the uncompensated inverse demand for the giffen good has a negative slope and it is the uncompensated inverse demand for the other good which is upward sloping positively sloped inverse demand curves tend to arise for vastly superior goods which can therefore be called anti giffen goods

why have women become left wing the political gender gap and the decline in marriage the last three decades have witnessed the rise of a pohtical gender gap in the united states wherein more women than men favor the democratic party we trace this development to the decline in marriage which we posit has made men richer and women poorer data for the united states support this argument first there is a strong positive correlation between state divorce prevalence and the political gender gap higher divorce prevalence reduces support for the democrats among men but not women second longitudinal data show that following marriage divorce women are less more likely to support the democratic party

does oil corrupt evidence from a natural experiment in west africa abstract this paper explores the oil discovery announcements in sao tome and principe 1997 1999 to assess the role of natural resources in determining corruption for this purpose we use a natural experiment framework which contrasts sao tome and principe to cape verde a control west african country sharing the same colonial past and important recent economic and political shocks our measurement is based on tailored household surveys we conducted in both island countries the unique survey instrument was retrospective and used personal histories to elicit memories from the respondents we analyze changes in perceived corruption across a wide range of public services and allocations we find clearest increases on vote buying education namely in the allocation of scholarships and customs ranging from 31 to 40 of the subjective scale we interpret these findings as symptoms of increased competition for core state resources

differences in food insecurity between adults and children in zimbabwe food insecurity is a serious challenge facing millions of households across africa within these households distinguishing the incidence of food insecurity between adults and children is often difficult because most surveys rely on the reports of adults in this paper we address this shortcoming of previous work by using a survey from over 6000 households in zimbabwe where interviews were conducted with both an adult caregiver and a child using two measures of food insecurity we find that reports of adults and children differ within households with lower reports of food insecurity among children with children in the youngest age groups particularly being protected from food shortages an exception to this general rule though is in better off households where children are often more likely to be food insecure than adults findings also demonstrate the need for multiple measures to comprehensively capture the full picture of food insecurity in the household