urbanization and poverty reduction the role of rural diversification and secondary towns a rather unique panel tracking more than 3 300 individuals from households in rural kagera tanzania during 1991 4 2010 shows that about one in two individuals households who exited poverty did so by transitioning from agriculture into the rural nonfarm economy or secondary towns only one in seven exited poverty by migrating to a large city although those moving to a city experienced on average faster consumption growth further analysis of a much larger cross country panel of 51 developing countries cannot reject that rural diversification and secondary town development lead to more inclusive growth patterns than metropolitization indications are that this follows because more of the poor find their way to the rural nonfarm economy and secondary towns than to distant cities the development discourse would benefit from shifting beyond the rural urban dichotomy and focusing instead more on how best to urbanize and develop the rural nonfarm economy and secondary towns

benefit incidence public spending reforms and the timing of program capture assessments of the distributional effects of public spending reforms have generally been based on average rates of program participation by income or expenditure group this practice can be deceptive because the socioeconomic composition of participants can change as a social program expands or contracts the geographic variation found in 1993 94 household survey data for rural india is used to estimate the marginal odds of participating in schooling and antipoverty programs the results suggest early capture of these programs by the non poor it is shown that conventional methods for assessing benefit incidence underestimate the gains to the poor from higher public outlays and underestimate the losses from cuts

the limits of explanation testing the internalization theory of the multinationial enterprise the paper explores the difficulties of testing the internalization approach in the modern theory of the multinational enterprise the structure of the theory is elaborated and the conclusion drawn that testing cannot occur at the most general theoretical level but that the theory requires careful restricting assumptions to be placed on it to allow rigorous testing several empirical circumstances would constitute refutation if they could be shown to hold however the use of unconventional cases or outliers does not constitute disproof more rigour is required in formulating and testing the theory but the current verdict on the theory must be not disproven

toward a contingency framework of export entrepreneurship conceptualisations and empirical evidence this paper reports the findings of a study which employed a contingency export entrepreneurial approach to investigate the critical influences on export venture creation among a sample of nigerian small firms responding to the repeated calls in the literature for multi disciplinary research frameworks the paper draws on perspectives from entrepreneurship exporting and contingency literatures to examine the antecedent and moderating influences on the export behavior of small firms it explores in particular the effect of entrepreneurial orientation and external environmental moderators in the export venture creation process of small firms the findings suggest that an entrepreneurial orientation is associated with better export venturing and is the appropriate strategic posture for small firms operating in hostile environments it would appear also that this orientation is associated with certain decision maker characteristics including international orientation and contacts and previous business experience and firm level competencies by thus highlighting the entrepreneurial dimensions of export venturing this paper makes the case for greater policy focus on strengthening the entrepreneurial foundations capacities of small firms

new issues in corporate finance flow of funds data are used to compare methods of finance in 5 countries over the period 1970 to 1985 many of the problems associated with previous studies are avoided by estimating net instead of gross financing proportions the degree of consolidation of accounts reciprocal arrangements between borrowers and lenders and compensating deposit requirements on borrowers no longer distort financing patterns corrections for inflation are provided by employing flow rather than stock figures and using own aggregation procedures to derive stock measures significant variations in financing emerge these are not readily explained by traditional descriptions of corporate finance in particular taxation as an alternative the paper suggests that relationships between borrowers and lenders establish forms of commitment that are conducive to the provision of long term finance the separation between investment and finance which has been the starting point of corporate finance theory is untenable in a multiperiod context in which terms of finance define future allocation of control

has india s economic growth become more pro poor in the wake of economic reforms the extent to which india s poor have benefited from the country s economic growth has long been debated a new series of consumption based poverty measures spanning 50 years including a 15 year period after economic reforms began in earnest in the early 1990s is used to examine that issue growth has tended to reduce poverty including in the post reform period there is no robust evidence of more or less poverty responsiveness to growth since the reforms began although there are signs of rising inequality the impact of growth is higher when using poverty measures that reflects distribution below the poverty line and when using growth rates calculated from household surveys rather than national accounts the urban rural pattern of growth matters for the pace of poverty reduction however in marked contrast to the period before the reforms urban economic growth in the period after the reforms has brought significant gains to the rural poor as well as the urban poor

pathways out of poverty in lagging regions evidence from rural western china how to reduce poverty in lagging regions remains much debated and underserved with solid empirical evidence this study illustrates an empirical methodology to analyze the pathways households followed out of poverty and to explore their potential in the future using 20002004 rural household panel data from two lagging provinces of china inner mongolia and gansu it finds that rising labor productivity in agriculture has been key in understanding poverty reduction in rural lagging areas of these provinces and that it still holds much promise circular migration has also been important in gansu though less so in inner mongolia on average rural diversification has not proven to contribute much to poverty reduction and income transfers and agricultural tax abolishment have only helped at the margin the findings from these two case studies highlight that the scope for reducing poverty in rural lagging regions can still be substantial in agriculture also when nonagriculture drives national growth

explaining the international intensity and global diversity of early stage technology based firms abstract early stage technology based firms are confronted with the complexity of foreign markets and global competition from their earliest stages of development not only must technology entrepreneurs keep pace with ever changing technology based product offerings but they must also simultaneously stay abreast of competitors and industry trends in multiple countries we surveyed 75 small technology based firms in ontario to evaluate their international activities and try to explain both the intensity of their foreign sales the percent of total sales coming from foreign sources as well as the global diversity of the markets in which they operate the number of major regional areas from which they derive revenue our findings suggest that resources necessary to pursue international sales have an important impact on both foreign market intensity and diversity in contrast however attitudes towards foreign markets helped to explain international intensity but not global diversity additionally firm age was positively associated with global diversity but not international intensity these findings support the notion of small technology firms being instant internationals but suggest that proceeding to the next step achieving global diversity requires significantly greater time and resources in line with prior empirical research these firms tended to increase their international intensity and diversity as they became larger in contrast with what the literature suggests however firms utilizing strategic alliances were no more active internationally than those not using strategic alliances finally government assistance helped to explain the international intensity of these firms but not the global diversity these results help managers researchers and shapers of public policy better understand the international activities of early stage technology firms given the relationship between attitudes and international intensity there appears to be some opportunity associated with trying to influence the attitudes of ceos regarding initial expansion into international markets for firms to become globally diverse however there is a greater dependency on the availability of resources as well as accumulated business experience managers should recognize the pattern this suggests and perhaps be leery of becoming too globally diverse too quickly overall the relationship between size and foreign activities suggests that growth opportunities are linked to international markets although some broad relationships are suggested regarding the need for collaboration and government support further research is necessary to understand the use of strategic alliances as well as government assistance in both international market intensity and global diversity

innovation organizational capabilities and the born global firm we investigate born global firms as early adopters of internationalization that is companies that expand into foreign markets and exhibit international business prowess and superior performance from or near their founding our explication highlights the critical role of innovative culture as well as knowledge and capabilities in this unique breed of international entrepreneurial firm case studies are analyzed to better understand the early internationalization phenomenon and reveal key orientations and strategies that engender international success among these innovative firms case findings are then validated in a survey based study despite the scarce resources typical of young firms our findings reveal that born global firms leverage a distinctive mix of orientations and strategies that allow them to succeed in diverse international markets findings have important implications for the internationalization of contemporary firms

a time based process model of international entrepreneurial opportunity evaluation this article investigates two important research gaps in international business ib how entrepreneurs evaluate international entrepreneurial opportunities ieos and the role of time in the evaluation process drawing on the literature on decision making models and the philosophical foundation of opportunity this study employs gioia s methodology and content analysis to examine how the founders of 15 early internationalizing firms evaluated ieos in the early and late stage of internationalization the findings reveal that the interaction of time and three general rules of ieo evaluation that i coin simple revised and complex influenced the entrepreneurs decisions the findings show that the founders transitioned from simple to revised and to complex rules in the ieo evaluation process and that various contingent factors such as time pressure resource availability and type of stakeholders drove these transitions the three general rules correspond to what i label as opportunity actualization revision and development maximization processes respectively i propose a time based process model that reconciles extant internationalization models i e process network economics and entrepreneurship different explanations regarding why and how firms internationalize

new venture internationalization strategic change and performance a follow up study abstract although many scholars business experts and government agencies enthusiastically advise all firms including new and small ventures to internationalize such advice does not appear to be based on empirical evidence few researchers have empirically examined the link between new venture performance and the internationalization of new ventures at best the evidence suggests that there is no significant relationship we used a sample of 62 u s new venture manufacturers in the computer and communications equipment industries during the late 1980s these industries were purportedly globalizing and may have been leading other industries into increased international operations we found that higher levels of internationalization percentage of foreign sales to total venture sales were associated with higher relative market share two years later however there was no significant direct relationship between percentage of international sales and subsequent return on investment roi perhaps international operations simply cost more than expected or perhaps as macmillan and day 1987 found in their study of corporate ventures over a 4 year time period increases in market share may be a prelude to higher roi as scale benefits translate into higher profitability however the 2 year time period of our study may simply not be long enough for investments in higher market shares to produce improved profits during the 2 year study period many of the ventures changed their level of internationalization of the 36 ventures who were domestic no international sales in the prior study 10 expanded into international markets over the 2 years of the 26 originally international ventures international sales of at least 5 half increased their percentage of international sales nine reduced it and four stayed the same whereas the average change in international sales percentage of the ventures was only 2 9 percentage points the large standard deviation of 13 0 percentage points and the leptokurtic distribution 9 2 reflected the dramatic changes made by some of the ventures using subgroup analysis we examined these changes in percentage of international sales in conjunction with changes in strategies and performance ventures that had increased international sales relative to those that had not exhibited more positive associations between the degree of strategic change and performance as measured in terms of both relative market share and roi increased international sales in technology based new ventures seems to require simultaneous strategic changes in order to positively impact venture performance this study is a follow up to mcdougall s 1989 finding that technology based new ventures that had sales in foreign markets had significantly different strategies than similar ventures that sold their products only domestically the current study enriches the previous findings by adding consideration of 1 changes in degree of internationalization 2 changes in strategy and 3 venture performance although we found no performance penalty associated with increasing international sales alone indiscriminant advice for new ventures to sell in foreign markets without other supporting strategic actions is inconsistent with our findings internationalization alone did not lead to increased profitability entrepreneurs of young technology based firms who are considering internationalization should take heed of our results internationalization of sales does not appear to be a simple matter of applying established strategies and procedures developed for a domestic arena successful internationalization appears to require changes in the venture s strategy as well

nonfarm diversification poverty economic mobility and income inequality a case study in village india this paper assembles data at the all india level and for the village of palanpur uttar pradesh to document the growing importance and influence of the non farm sector in the rural economy between the early 1980s and late 2000s the suggestion from the combined national sample survey and palanpur data is of a slow process of non farm diversification whose distributional incidence on the margin is increasingly pro poor the village level analysis documents that the non farm sector is not only increasing incomes and reducing poverty but appears as well to be breaking down long standing barriers to mobility among the poorest segments of rural society efforts by the government of india to accelerate the process of diversification could thus yield significant returns in terms of declining poverty and increased income mobility the evidence from palanpur also shows however that at the village level a significant increase in income inequality has accompanied diversification away from the farm a growing literature argues that such a rise in inequality could affect the fabric of village society the way in which village institutions function and evolve and the scope for collective action at the village level failure to keep such inequalities in check could thus undermine the pro poor impacts from the process of structural transformation currently underway in rural india

internationalize to live a study of the post internationalization survival of new ventures despite a growing number of studies on the survival of new ventures who pursue an international entry strategy research in this area is not yet conclusive one line of argument tells a story of unprepared novices making a risky move and thus predicts negative consequences another line of argument tells a story of prepared entrepreneurs making a strategic decision and thus predicts positive consequences the problem of estimating the true effect involves an important endogeneity problem that can only be overcome by accounting for the fact that new ventures self select into internationalization the goal of this research is to add to the post internationalization survival literature by accounting for this self selection using an endogenous switching model in a potential outcomes or counterfactual inference approach leveraging a panel of us new ventures from the kauffman firm survey our results paint a picture more in line with the preparedness logic of new venture internationalization after controlling for this self selection we find a positive average treatment effect of internationalization on survival and we find evidence that early internationalization is better for post internationalization survival than late internationalization we argue that these results suggest that the new theories of new venture internationalization needs to be further unchained from the process theories of internationalization

impact of ownership on the international involvement of smes this paper analyses the relationship between the internationalisation strategies of smes and types of ownership different types of ownership affect firms and this in turn will influence the internationalisation strategy adopted using a sample of spanish smes our results show that internationalisation is negatively related to family ownership and positively related to corporate ownership we have also observed that the presence of a corporate blockholder in family firms encourages internationalisation these results support the idea that ownership type influences the decision to internationalise

poverty decline agricultural wages and non farm employment in rural india 1983 2004 the authors analyze five rounds of national sample survey data covering 1983 1987 8 1993 4 1999 0 and 2004 5 to explore the relationship between rural diversification and poverty poverty in rural india declined at a modest rate during this period the authors provide region level estimates that illustrate considerable geographic heterogeneity in this progress poverty estimates correlate well with region level data on changes in agricultural wage rates agricultural labor remains the preserve of the uneducated and also to a large extent of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes although agricultural labor grew as a share of total economic activity over the first four rounds it had fallen back to the levels observed at the beginning of the survey period by 2004 this all india trajectory masks widely varying trends across states during this period the rural non farm sector grew modestly mainly between the last two survey rounds regular non farm employment remains largely associated with education levels and social status that are rare among the poor however casual labor and self employment in the non farm sector reveal greater involvement by disadvantaged groups in 2004 than in the preceding rounds the implication for poverty is not immediately clear the poor may be pushed into low return casual non farm activities due to lack of opportunities in the agricultural sector rather than being pulled by high returns offered by the non farm sector econometric estimates reveal that expansion of the non farm sector is associated with falling poverty via two routes a direct impact on poverty that is likely due to a pro poor marginal incidence of non farm employment expansion and an indirect impact attributable to the positive effect of non farm employment growth on agricultural wages the analysis also confirms the important contribution to rural poverty reduction from agricultural productivity availability of land and consumption levels in proximate urban areas

moving up or just surviving nonfarm self employment in india the classical economic development literature argues that growth is accompanied by a reduction in agriculture s share and an increase in nonagriculture s share of employment yet growth of the nonfarm sector does not necessarily signal increasing levels of development as the sector may serve as subsistence employment for many individuals this ambiguity is heightened by a surprising lack of microevidence regarding sectoral and occupational choice and especially how government policies impact these decisions in this article i make a simple observation regarding how nonfarm self employment reacts to market conditions households and individuals that enter into nonfarm self employment for subsistence reasons are more likely to exit the sector when wages increase or when more stable employment becomes available with this assumption as a starting point i examine the effects of the mahatma gandhi national rural employment guarantee act which increased prevailing wages in rural india the program significantly decreases days spent in nonfarm self employment in addition the implied labor elasticity is three times higher than economy wide estimates suggesting rural nonfarm self employment is a sector of last resort for many individuals additional analyses suggest this impact is driven primarily by two mechanisms higher wages and alternative options for risk management

mexico stabilization debt and growth mexico rudiger dornbusch mexico today is at a crossroads as the de la madrid presidency which has been dominated by the debt crisis comes to an end a number of major policy difficulties remain inflation is still a problem and the continuation of stagnation in a country where the population grows by 3 a year is clearly unsustainable the outlook for inflation is dependent on the government s ability to keep its budget under control the stabilization programme has been quite successful in this respect but the cost in terms of foregone growth is staggering the issue here is how to collect the disinflation benefits of policy restraint analysing the peculiar process of rapid inflation both in mexico and elsewhere the author calls for an incomes policy as for growth it is closely linked to the external situation mexico which triggered the debt crisis in 1982 has made remarkable progress in achieving a non interest current account surplus yet its external debt remains huge and requires a continuation of net transfers abroad the experience though is that debt service comes at the expense of productive investment and growth the author proposes to escape from the unacceptable choice between debt service and growth by adopting what he calls interest rescheduling a debt equity swap applied to interest payments rather than to the principal

a theory of international new ventures a decade of research oviatt and mcdougall s jibs article identified and defined international new ventures invs and their prominent role in the global marketplace the article spurred worldwide interest in invs by raising questions about the validity and efficacy of existing theory especially about the uppsala process model of internationalization the article also laid an important theoretical foundation for research into international entrepreneurship ie where younger and wellestablished companies use their entrepreneurial activities to create value as they internationalize their operations this paper reviews oviatt and mcdougall s original propositions highlighting their important contributions to the field the paper also highlights the progress made in research using oviatt and mcdougall s framework the major debates that persist about the nature and role of invs the source of their competitive advantages and the key issues to be explored in future research

international entrepreneurship in internet enabled markets abstract despite the increasing numbers of businesses that are already using the internet to pursue international opportunities and the latent potential for such activity from rising internet adoption levels the international entrepreneurship literature has paid limited attention to the phenomenon to address this gap we review past research in international entrepreneurship as well as the broader fields of entrepreneurship international business marketing management and management information systems to identify firm level resources that are associated with the successful pursuit of international opportunities in internet enabled markets we identify three such internet related firm level resources online reputation online technological capabilities and online brand communities we develop a propositional inventory of the expected relationships identify measures expected to be useful to future scholars in this area and present the implications of our review for future international entrepreneurship research

engel s what a response to gan and vernon gan and vernon s comment does not resolve the puzzle that we originally posed their description of the puzzle is unclear so we start by restating it the essence of the matter is this imagine two households one of which is larger than the other for example containing the same age and sex composition of people but with twice as many of everyone imagine too that both households have the same level of per capita total household expenditure so that in the example the household with twice as many people spends twice as much in total if there are economies of scale the second household is better off while it is possible for it to maintain exactly the same expenditure pattern as the smaller household with everyone having the same of everything it can also rearrange its purchases to take advantage of the differential economies of scale in different goods because food is a normal good we would expect the larger household to spend more per capita on food this is especially so in poor countries where there are few substitutes for food so that there is limited opportunity for substituting away from food toward goods with greater economies of scale the evidence contradicts this prediction we looked at household survey data from the united states the united kingdom france taiwan thailand pakistan and south africa in all cases and with per capita expenditures held constant larger households have lower per capita food consumption and the reduction with household size is greatest in the poorest countries what do gan and vernon do they show that for the united states russia and south africa when they increase household size holding constant per capita total expenditure the per capita demand for housing falls more rapidly than the per capita demand for food the same is also true for various combinations of housing and other goods compared with food alone or food combined with clothing this is correct and such results can be inferred from table 5 p 920 of our original paper but these findings do not address the central puzzle which is that larger households that are more than fully compensated for their

internationalisation conceptualising an entrepreneurial process of behaviour in time this paper presents a three stage process of conceptual development in response to the call for a unifying direction for research in the emergent field of international entrepreneurship drawing on classic approaches to internationalisation and importing insight from entrepreneurship as a separate and distinct field of study the paper develops three potential models of internationalisation as a time based process of entrepreneurial behaviour the models evolve from the simple through general to precise levels of conceptualisation research implications are discussed

caste female labor supply and the gender wage gap in india boserup revisited abstractthe gender wage gap is notable not just for its persistence and ubiquity but also for its variation across regions and countries a natural question is how greater workforce participation by women matters to female wages and the gender wage gap within india a seeming paradox is that gender differentials in agricultural wages are the largest in southern regions of india that are otherwise favorable to women ester boserup hypothesized that this is due to greater labor force participation by women in these regions this is not obvious as greater female labor supply could depress male wages as well other factors also need to be accounted for especially since women have fewer opportunities for nonfarm employment this article undertakes a formal test of the boserup proposition we find that differences in female labor supply are able to explain 55 of the gender wage gap between northern and southern states of india the article also finds that women gain from greater nonfarm employment even if

prior conditions and early international commitment the mediating role of domestic mindset our study investigates why some firms engage in low international commitments such as exports in the early phases of internationalization whereas others leapfrog the internationalization process and start with high international commitments in the form of foreign direct investment fdi process models of internationalization propose that firms start with low commitment activities and gradually increase their commitments to international markets however recent empirical evidence has shown that many firms make high international commitments from the start our findings suggest that domestic resources and competitive action propensity affect early international commitments indirectly through domestic mindsets a domestic mindset refers to the knowledge structures of the top management team prior to starting international activities based on their managerial experience and learning in domestic markets our results suggest that knowledge and learning gained in domestic markets through diverse resource and competitive activities may be crucial in early international commitments

the internationalization of small and medium sized firms this paper contributes to the existing research by integrating the notions of organizational learning and entrepreneurial orientation into the body of international entrepreneurship our primary framework combines learning theory and the new venture theory of internationalization to study the extent to which small and medium sized companies engage in international activities we found that the firms international learning effort and entrepreneurial orientation are positively associated with internationalization intent whereas domestic learning effort is negatively related with internationalization intent overall our results suggest 1 that intensive knowledge renewal and exploitation regarding foreign markets and the internationalization process itself may increase internationalization by affecting the perceptions of opportunities offered by further international expansion and 2 that firms with an entrepreneurial mindset may be more likely to develop a long term substantial presence in the international arena compared to firms that are more reactive or conservative

distributional implications of climate change in rural india a general equilibrium approach we develop a general equilibrium framework based on a specific factors trade model to quantify the medium term household welfare impacts of global warming in rural india using an hedonic approach grounded in the theory combined with detailed microdata we estimate that three decades of warming will reduce agricultural productivity in the range of 7 13 with the arid northwest of india especially hard hit our analysis shows that the proportional welfare cost of climate change is likely to be both modest and evenly distributed across percentiles of the per capita income distribution but this latter conclusion emerges only when the flexibility of rural wages is taken into account

information sources for new ventures in the turkish clothing export industry recently born global firms have received considerable attention in the entrepreneurship and international business literature managers leading these new ventures typically face substantial resource constraints when seeking information critical to internationalization this paper examines how the owner operators of new ventures in the turkish clothing export industry utilize their informal and formal social networks to acquire the information they need to export successfully field research and a survey of 250 turkish clothing firm owners was conducted in istanbul turkey to explore this issue findings indicate that informal social ties particularly friends and family connections are key sources of information for new venture firm owners in this industry two formal organizations provide export information to entrepreneurs in the turkish clothing industry but only one was found to be easily accessible to new venture firm owners the istanbul textile and clothing exporters union itkib ols regression results reveal that new venture firm owners perceptions of itkib s importance can be explained by their perceived importance of various kinds of export oriented information offered by this organization in particular perceived importance of export law market research and export process information drive their perceptions of the importance of their itkib membership

the technology of decontrol some macroeconomic issues by the time east europe was being pressed into stalin s authoritarian mould as soviet troops took over the region at the end of the second world war there was little more to be said in western theorising about the subordination of markets to a central plan from barone s i908 ministry of production in a collectivist state to lerner s i944 economics of control the issue was the allocative efficiency of the state in maximising a social preference function by the late i 940s a communist party determined to assume that role was in power in nine european and three asian countries each having a long term objective to overtake and surpass the performance of capitalism but more immediately to use central planning as the economic expression of a political monopoly in i990 the east european parties have forfeited that monopoly and have patently failed in the competition with capitalism as successor governments turn to the market it is the economics of decontrol that must be formulated throughout the industrialised capitalist world during the i98os the state has been rolled back in favour of the market deregulation and privatisation took place within a well established environment of market clearing prices and profit seeking transactions not so in the ussr and eastern europe for four decades stretching to six for the soviet union administrative direction has eliminated or marginalised the market which now must be rebuilt virtually from scratch the history of the two countries which broke with stalin s form of control is of no help yugoslavia had too little of a central plan and hungary had too little of a market 1 when mikhail gorbachev launched perestroika in i985 hungary and china had begun to re establish market relations and to allow some private enterprise to compete with a dominant state there and elsewhere the process was impeded by the hold of the communist party2 on political and economic activity those countries in which by i990 that hold had been relaxed started the process of decontrol and the establishment of equilibria within which a normal market can operate section i of this paper describes the preconditions for dismantling the soviettype economy section ii sets out the institutional and structural characteristics of the economy which must be unmade the required changes are considered

the role of family ownership in international entrepreneurship exploring nonlinear effects empirical research on international entrepreneurship is growing but results on the role of family ownership in this phenomenon are inconsistent we believe these inconsistencies owe to prior researchers having not yet investigated nonlinear relationships drawing on opposing perspectives of stewardship and stagnation we explore potential benefits and drawbacks of family ownership for international entrepreneurship and explore nonlinear relationships among these two variables using a sample of 1 035 us family businesses and applying ordinal regression analysis we find an inverted u shaped relationship between family ownership and international entrepreneurship international entrepreneurship is maximized when family ownership stands at moderate levels we discuss the implications of our findings for theory and practice and indicate avenues for future research

agriculture for development new paradigm and options for success the role of agriculture as an instrument for industrialization had been rigorously conceptualized in the 1960s and 1970s under theclassicalparadigmofdevelopmenteconomics aftermanyimplementationfailuresunderimportsubstitutionindustrialization policies and protracted neglect of agriculture under the policies of the washington consensus that followed the debt crisis agriculture has gradually returned in the development agenda especially with the food crisis we argue in this article that a new paradigm has started to emerge as to how to use agriculture for development pursuing a broadened development agenda we explore the specifications of this paradigm and discuss conditions for successful implementation jel classifications b20 o13 q18

toward a theory of international new ventures the formation of organizations that are international from inception international new ventures is an increasingly important phenomenon that is incongruent with traditionally expected characteristics of multinational enterprises a framework is presented that explains the phenomenon by integrating international business entrepreneurship and strategic management theory that framework describes four necessary and sufficient elements for the existence of international new ventures 1 organizational formation through internalization of some transactions 2 strong reliance on alternative governance structures to access resources 3 establishment of foreign location advantages and 4 control over unique resources

food prices wages and welfare in rural india this paper considers the welfare and distributional consequences of higher relative food prices in rural india through the lens of a specific factors general equilibrium trade model applied at the district level the evidence shows that nominal wages for manual labor both within and outside agriculture respond elastically to increases in producer prices that is wages rose faster in rural districts growing more of those crops with large price run ups over 2004 09 accounting for such wage gains the analysis finds that rural households across the income spectrum benefit from higher agricultural commodity prices indeed rural wage adjustment appears to play a much greater role in protecting the welfare of the poor than the public distribution system india s giant food rationing scheme moreover policies like agricultural export bans which insulate producers as well as consumers from international price increases are particularly harmful to the poor of rural india conventional welfare analyses that assume fixed wages and focus on households net sales position lead to radically different conclusions

international entrepreneurship research versus international business research a false dichotomy international entrepreneurship ie research draws from work in both international business ib and general entrepreneurship it examines inter alia entrepreneurial behaviour when crossing borders first stream and makes international comparisons of entrepreneurship as found in different countries and regions second stream see wright and ricks 1994 1 two influential ie articles have been bestowed with the jibs decade award namely oviatt and mcdougall 1994 and knight and cavusgil 2004 both articles suggested the need for new theory to explain the empirical phenomenon of early internationalization these papers developed the concepts of international new venture inv and born global bg respectively and stimulated a lively debate on early internationalizing companies oviatt and mcdougall defined an inv as a business organization that from inception seeks to derive significant

the impact of journals and authors on international business research a citational analysis of jibs articles in this paper we use citational analysis to examine the influence of individuals and disciplines on international business research we collected citational data over the ten year period 1984 to 1993 from every issue of the journal of international business studies we found that management economics marketing and finance disciplines have had significant influence on international business research and identified researchers such as dunning porter vernon casson rugman and hofstede as having made significant contributions to international business research

internationalization and performance degree duration and scale of operations we assess the theoretical underpinnings and associated empirical findings of the three stage sigmoid curve relationship between degree of internationalization doi and performance by re examining the results reported in one of the prominent studies in the literature we further conduct our own analyses of 23 474 observations of 2 620 us manufacturing firms over the period 1976 2008 and account for self selection of firms into different degrees of internationalization by using a generalized propensity score estimator both sets of results show that the relationship between doi and performance conforms to a mostly negative sigmoid curve and does not support the three stage theorization further examination reveals that two major conceptual and empirical shortcomings underlie the disparity between the theoretical predictions of the three stage model and these empirical findings first whereas theory relies overwhelmingly on enhanced scale of operations as a causal mechanism through which internationalization contributes to performance empirical studies preclude proper identification of scale related benefits second theory and empirics tend to confuse temporary difficulties experienced upon entry into international markets with examining the benefits realizable at different levels of doi regardless of the firm s short term difficulties in realizing those benefits our empirical results show that correcting for each of these shortcomings contributes to diminishing the theory empirics gap

financing new venture exporters this paper investigates the demand for and access to financing for young small and medium sized enterprises smes the work compares theoretically and empirically two sets of new firms those that export and those that do not export as to the frequency with which they seek and obtain external financing the work hypothesizes that new growth firms and new exporter firms are especially likely to seek external financing yet less likely to obtain financing empirical findings confirm these expectations demonstrating that young growth firms were more likely than non growth firms to seek all forms of capital and exporters were particularly likely to apply for equity and trade credit commercial lenders were less likely to approve loan applications from early stage growth firms and especially so for applications from young growth oriented sme exporters the implications of these results for research and public policy are discussed

the international entrepreneurial dynamics of accelerated internationalisation the initial stages of internationalisation prior to firms having established their definitive sources of advantage remain the relatively unexplored area of the international business ib literature at these early stages where firms are seeking to establish themselves and new multinational firms are appearing to exploit new opportunities created by globalisation the entrepreneurial aspects of internationalisation come to the fore in this paper we aim to delineate an emerging field of ib scholarship we use the appearance of international new ventures and the phenomenon of accelerated internationalisation that they feature to identify a set of issues that has slipped through the net of some of the existing ib frameworks we propose that the salient features of accelerated and early internationalisation by the newly internationalising firm are best captured in a framework that is found at the intersection of entrepreneurial and internationalisation perspectives which we propose be known as international entrepreneurial dynamics we discuss such a framework in terms of entry points and pathways mapped by firms as they probe the ib arena and the key factors that impinge on behaviour and strategic choices in line with recent developments in the entrepreneurship literature these are grouped into three milestones of entrepreneurial processes that extend across national boundaries 1 the discovery of new opportunities 2 the deployment of resources in the exploitation of these opportunities and 3 the engagement with competitors implications for mne and internationalisation theory are discussed

how access to credit affects self employment differences by gender during india s rural banking reform abstract household survey data for 1983 2000 from india s national sample survey organisation are used to examine the impact of credit on self employment among men and women in rural labour households results indicate that credit access encourages women s self employment as own account workers and employers while it discourages men s self employment as unpaid family workers ownership of land a key form of collateral also serves as a strong predictor of self employment among the lower castes in india self employment is less likely for scheduled castes prone to wage activity but more likely for scheduled tribes prone to entrepreneurial work

explaining the internationalization of ibusiness firms information and communication technologies have given rise to a new type of firm the ibusiness firm these firms offer a platform that allows users to interact with each other and generate value through user co creation of content because of this ibusiness firms face different challenges when they internationalize compared with traditional firms even those online in this article we extend existing internationalization theory to encompass this new type of organization we theorize that because ibusiness firms produce value through the creation and coordination of a network of users these firms tend to suffer greater liabilities of outsidership when expanding abroad and therefore concentrate on network and diffusion based user adoption processes as they internationalize based on a multi case investigation of a sample of ibusiness firms we develop new theory and testable hypotheses thus we make an important contribution by expanding internationalization theory to a new set of firms

growth and inequality in india analysis of an extended social accounting matrix summary based on an extended social accounting matrix sam for 2002 03 this study shows how sectoral growth in india affects inequality a breakdown of the wage account into three educational levels and 10 sectors of employment improves the link between sectoral expansion and household income in the sam the results show that only agricultural growth reduces inequality while growth in heavy manufacturing and services sectors raises inequality given india s current growth pattern inequality is likely to increase further in an analysis of the standard sam growth in any sector would appear to reduce inequality which underlines the importance of our extension

offshore outsourcing as a source of international competitiveness for smes scholars typically view offshore outsourcing as a means of reducing the cost of manufacturing activities for large corporations yet offshore outsourcing may entail administrative and technical services and may include activities outsourced by small and medium sized enterprises smes drawing on research in international entrepreneurship and services we hypothesize and find evidence that offshore outsourcing of administrative and technical services by smes is associated with greater extent and scope of internationalization of sales offshore outsourcing enhances international competitiveness by enabling smes to reduce costs expand relational ties serve customers more effectively free up scarce resources and leverage capabilities of foreign partners

scott a shane winner of the global award for entrepreneurship research scott a shane is the 2009 winner of the global award for entrepreneurship research in this article we discuss and analyze shane s most important contributions to the field of entrepreneurship his contribution is extraordinarily broad in scope which makes it difficult to pinpoint one or a few specifics that we associate with shane s scholarship instead they can be summarized in the following three points first he has influenced what we view as central aspects of entrepreneurship shane has been a leading figure in redirecting the focus on entrepreneurship research itself second he has influenced how we view entrepreneurship shane s research is arguably theory driven and it applies and develops theoretical lenses that greatly improve our understanding of entrepreneurship third he has contributed to how we conduct entrepreneurship research shane has been a forerunner in examining relevant units of analysis that are difficult to sample research designs and databases specifically designed for studying entrepreneurial processes and sophisticated analytical methods this has contributed to advancing the methodological rigor of the field summing them up the contributions are very impressive indeed

beyond categorization new directions for theory development about entrepreneurial internationalization categorizations emphasizing the earliness of internationalization have long been a cornerstone of international entrepreneurship research here we contend that the prominence of categories has not been commensurate with theory development associated with them we draw on categorization theory to explain why earliness based categories are persistent and argue that a greater focus on notions related to opportunity can open new avenues of research about the entrepreneurial internationalization of business we propose and discuss three directions for opportunity based research on entrepreneurial internationalization involving context dynamics and variety

international new ventures revisiting the influences behind the born global firm there is a small but theoretically important literature on born globals or international new venture firms that positions itself in contrast to the more established sequential international entry literature in this paper we examine the pattern of entry into international markets for a set of international new ventures and show that they need not be a distinct breed of firms as previous research has portrayed absent a specific technological advantage the decision for a new venture to internationalize at inception is influenced by the size of its home market and by its production capacity as well as by cultural and economic forces that also influence other more traditional firms that stage their entry into international markets most importantly we demonstrate that the decision to internationalize or not should be considered jointly with the capacity allocation decision to specific international markets as analysing these separately may lead to biased results

is india s economic growth leaving the poor behind there has been much debate about how much india s poor have shared in the economic growth unleashed by economic reforms in the 1990s the authors argue that india has probably maintained its 1980s rate of poverty reduction in the 1990s however there is considerable diversity in performance across states this holds some important clues for understanding why economic growth has not done more for india s poor india s economic growth in the 1990s has not been occurring in the states where it would have the most impact on poverty nationally if not for the sectoral and geographic imbalance of growth the national rate of growth would have generated a rate of poverty reduction that was double india s historical trend rate states with relatively low levels of initial rural development and human capital development were not well suited to reduce poverty in response to economic growth the study s results are consistent with the view that achieving higher aggregate economic growth is only one element of an effective strategy for poverty reduction in india the sectoral and geographic composition of growth is also important as is the need to redress existing inequalities in human resource development and between rural and urban areas

born global or born regional evidence from an exploratory study in the costa rican software industry this paper provides empirical evidence about born global firms in the software industry of a small developing country with an open economy costa rica the paper is based on data collected through interviews with ceos or founders of 40 costa rican software companies findings show that there are few born global firms among costa rican software providers we find that most companies followed a gradual approach to internationalization and they did not export immediately upon birth a careful analysis of firms that exported soon after they were born reveals that most firms are actually born regional

international business competence and the contemporary firm the trend of increasing internationalization of small and medium enterprises smes is noteworthy because such firms typically have far fewer financial and tangible resources than large multinational enterprises as a result international business is often more challenging for smaller firms in this study we investigate the widespread internationalization of smes and specific factors that support their superior performance abroad we uncover a collection of intangible capabilities that are especially salient to these firms and their growing international involvement we identify international business competence ibc as an intangible overarching firm resource that engenders superior international performance in the international sme through case studies and a comprehensive literature review we identify four dimensions of ibc we devise and assess a model that links ibc to sme international performance results suggest that international orientation international marketing skills international innovativeness and international market orientation are all significant dimensions of ibc and that ibc is instrumental in sme international performance we discuss resultant findings and offer managerial implications

the knowledge network of international entrepreneurship theory and evidence the knowledge network associated with the young and emerging field of international entrepreneurship is defined through a bolean search progression of key words on the ssci data bases from 1992 to 2000 the knowledge network of an applied field portrays and usually follows the actual developmental path of its corresponding field some 287 articles document the early emergence of international entrepreneureship as a field of scholarly inquiry when a field is young and in need of theoretical foundations the knowledge networks of other fields may provide for those early needs this is the case of international entrepreneurship the rich theoretical foundations of the two fields of international business and entrepreneureship among others have nourished and accelerated the internationalization process of entrepreneurship a detailed analysis of 7 651 citations contained in the contributions of the 287 documents reported here traces international entrepreneurship s rich yet young developmental path this analysis reveals a wealth of information for example the lists of highly cited books articles authors and their affiliated institutions presented here

poverty dynamics in rural orissa transitions in assets and occupations over generations abstractwe investigate whether historic land distribution determines stagnation or development of indian villages the empirical analysis is motivated by the banerjee and newman 1993 model of occupational choice and economic development family histories are collected for a random sample of 800 households households are classified into economic categories according to the assets occupations mix at present and at grandfather s time transitions are described and for a remote district explained by the historic village land distribution we also investigate the role of social identity and find that scheduled tribes are more likely trapped in poverty than scheduled castes

characteristics of opportunities search of entrepreneurs versus executives sources interests general alertness abstract a recent article by low and macmillan 1988 suggests that at the current stage of entrepreneurship research empirical studies that are not theory driven and do not test hypotheses are no longer acceptable p 155 this paper is written in the spirit of this directive it starts with an explicit theory of entrepreneurship developed by israel kirzner and tests three hypotheses derived from the theory the theoretical thrust of the paper emphasizes the role of information and information seeking behavior as a central element of entrepreneurial behavior entrepreneurship is based on discovering of opportunities and resources to exploit them our interpretation of kirzner s theoretical works leads to the formation of hypotheses regarding the differences that should exist in the way entrepreneurs as opposed to managers seek this information these concern 1 differences in the manner in which entrepreneurs and corporate managers expose themselves to information 2 differences in the sources of information used and 3 differences in evaluating information cues in addition we test the hypotheses that success and experience will erode the above differences between entrepreneurs and corporate managers our sample involved 51 founders of companies in new jersey and 36 executives of a very large financial company a questionnaire was used to gather the data and scales were formed using principal component factor analysis with a varimax rotation differences were tested using univariate and multivariate statistical methods significant differences were found in five of the nine factors examined entrepreneurs spent significantly more time searching for information in their off hours and through nonverbal scanning they employed different sources than executives and paid special attention to risk cues about new opportunities executives on the other hand tended to focus on the economics of the opportunity these results are only partially consistent with a previous study comparing entrepreneurs and small companies managers suggesting a contextual contingency to the behaviors under study the most persistent finding was regarding the time and volume of search for information reinforcing the idea developed in the recent network theory of entrepreneurship that entrepreneurs are avid information gatherers and opportunistic learners but not necessarily or not uniquely in a verbal social networking manner finally with success and experience the differences become smaller it seems that success and experience reduce the need or desire of entrepreneurs to search for new opportunities no such effect was found with our executive sample

on the future of international joint venture research international joint ventures ijvs are an important type of international strategic alliance isa and have been studied by scholars for decades resulting in a plethora of empirical studies publications and reviews yet an inadequate accumulation of knowledge exists as a closer look reveals much more than providing a summary and critical assessment of past contributions this paper develops an expansive research agenda based upon a deep understanding of past research and comprehensive frameworks that distill this research we identify a number of research opportunities that would not only advance ijv research but also closely related literatures and disciplines such as isas theories of the multinational firm international business research and strategic management

adaptation and performance in foreign markets evidence of systematic under adaptation past empirical studies have yielded no consistent relationship between strategy adaptation and firm performance these inconclusive results may be partially due to a bias amongt managers to under adapt their host market strategies this paper presents the results of the second stage of a longitudinal study identifying a potential status quo bias among exporters leading to systematic under adaptation

why has economic growth been more pro poor in some states of india than others abstract we use 20 household surveys for india s 15 major states spanning 1960 1994 to study how the sectoral composition of economic growth and initial conditions interact to influence how much growth reduced consumption poverty the elasticities of measured poverty to farm yields and development spending did not differ significantly across states but the elasticities of poverty to urban and rural non farm output varied appreciably and the differences were quantitatively important to the overall rate of poverty reduction states with higher elasticities did not experience higher rates of non farm growth the non farm growth process was more pro poor in states with initially higher literacy higher farm productivity higher rural living standards relative to urban areas lower landlessness and lower infant mortality

decent rural employment and farm production efficiency empirical evidence from tanzania and ethiopia promoting decent rural employment by creating new jobs in rural areas and upgrading the existing ones could be one of the most efficient pathways to reduce rural poverty this article systematically investigates the impact of decent rural employment on agricultural production efficiency in ethiopia and tanzania the analysis applies an output oriented distance function approach with an estimation procedure that accounts for different technological demographic socioeconomic institutional and decent rural employment indicators data of the 2011 round of living standards measurement study integrated surveys on agriculture for the two countries are used and a set of indicators is derived to proxy core dimensions of decent rural employment the findings of our analysis show that decent rural employment contributes to agricultural production efficiency

evaluating export promotion programmes uk overseas trade missions and export performance this paper examines the extent to which firms knowledge and structural characteristics as well as firms behaviour in foreign markets following trade mission participation impacts upon trade mission success and export performance the findings suggest that 1 a diversification strategy in terms of export markets benefits future expansion into new foreign markets 2 specific knowledge about the targeted markets should be acquired prior to participating in the trade missions 3 communication with potential business partners should be established prior to participating in the trade missions and 4 the business relationships established before and during the trade missions should be cultivated through regular contacts using not only communication technology but also regular visits in summary overseas trade missions contribute to the generation of incremental sales in foreign markets by enhancing the relationship building process between business partners

why have some indian states done better than others at reducing rural poverty the unevenness of the rise in rural living standards in the various states of india since the 1950s allowed the authors to study the causes of poverty they modeled the evolution of average consumption and various poverty measures using pooled state level data for 1957 91 they found that poverty was reduced by higher agricultural yields above trend growth in nonfarm output and lower inflation rates but these factors only partly explain relative success and failure in reducing poverty initial conditions also mattered states that started the period with better infrastructure and human resources with more intense irrigation greater literacy and lower infant mortality rates had significantly greater long term rates of consumption growth and poverty reduction by and large the same variables that promoted growth in average consumption also helped reduce poverty the effects on poverty measures were partly redistributive in nature after controlling for inflation the authors found that some of the factors that helped reduce absolute poverty also improved distribution and none of the factors that reduced absolute poverty had adverse impacts on distribution in other words there was no sign of tradeoffs between growth and pro poor distribution

u k smes decision to discontinue exporting an exploratory investigation into practices within the clothing industry abstract although the decision to internationalise has been viewed in certain studies as an entrepreneurial act research has also indicated that some firms may be better served in concentrating on their domestic market depending on a number of internal and external considerations associated with the profitable exploitation of identified opportunities this investigation reports on first reasons why a sample of executives from small firms discontinued export activities and second perceptions towards policy assistance that may motivate them to recommence overseas activities in the future analysis in this study establishes that differences exist between two distinct groups of firms namely those indicating their discontinuation of exporting was a short term measure compared with those that viewed the decision as longer term entrepreneurial learning was found to be present in firms that influenced some managers to overcome identified obstacles and engage in alternative modes of international activity to the export route whereas others decided to pursue domestic opportunities the study provides recommendations for policymakers in the provision of trade assistance programs

the role of home country demand in the internationalization of new ventures international new ventures invs have been documented to exist all around the world but the literature is silent on the frequency of such companies in different countries we contend that the propensity of new ventures to internationalize by forming international partnerships is higher in small domestic demand countries because they have a greater motivation given their limited local demand after discussing the methodological challenges in testing this hypothesis we do such a test by studying alliances in the health segment of the biotech industry in relatively small domestic demand countries australia israel and taiwan and by comparing the results with five large domestic demand countries uk germany france us and japan we find that young firms in the countries with smaller domestic demand are at least 3 times more likely to enter into international partnerships than their counterparts in countries with larger domestic demand we further demonstrate that this difference can primarily be explained by the difference in the size of domestic healthcare markets rather than other underlying opportunity structure related factors

is there a metropolitan bias the relationship between poverty and city size in a selection of developing countries this paper provides evidence from eight developing countries of an inverse relationship between poverty and city size poverty is both more widespread and deeper in very small and small towns than in large or very large cities this basic pattern is generally robust to the choice of poverty line the paper shows further that for all eight countries a majority of the urban poor live in medium small or very small towns moreover it is shown that the greater incidence and severity of consumption poverty in smaller towns is generally compounded by similarly greater deprivation in terms of access to basic infrastructure services such as electricity heating gas sewerage and solid waste disposal we illustrate for one country morocco that inequality within large cities is not driven by a severe dichotomy between slum dwellers and others robustness checks are performed to assess whether the findings in the paper hinge on a specific definition of urban area are driven by differences in the cost of

agricultural productivity growth rural economic diversity and economic reforms india 1970 2000 a salient theme in d gale johnson s work is the importance of agricultural development for general prosperity and for economic diversification e g johnson 2000 johnson has also noted that most of the world s poor are engaged in farming so that a key focus of development policy is to raise the incomes of farmers from a global perspective increasing the productivity of agriculture given the fixity of land is necessary for both poverty reduction and the development of the nonagricultural sector at the level of the world agricultural productivity gains poverty reduction and the growth of the nonfarm sector are complements however the question remains whether these observations imply that every poor country should focus its public resources on agricultural development in order to raise the incomes of people now engaged in farming and whether such a policy is necessary for obtaining economic diversity in this article we use the experience of india over the past 30 years to address the issue of whether agricultural technical change actually leads to economic diversification and income growth within the rural sector in the context of an open economy country in which there are cross area trade and capital flows we focus in particular on the rural sector because this is the sector in which linkages between agricultural and nonagricultural sectors are thought to be the strongest we exploit the fact that india has maintained a policy of openness with respect to agricultural technology over this period permitting and actively supporting agricultural development and has moved to a reformed regime in which goods are traded and capital is more mobile in the 1990s evidence on the relationship between agricultural growth and nonfarm

poverty reduction during the rural urban transformation the role of the missing middle as countries develop they restructure away from agriculture and urbanize but structural transformation and urbanization patterns differ substantially with some countries fostering migration out of agriculture into rural off farm activities and secondary towns and others undergoing rapid agglomeration in mega cities using cross country panel data for developing countries spanning 1980 2004 the analysis in this paper finds that migration out of agriculture into the missing middle the rural nonfarm economy and secondary towns yields more inclusive growth patterns and faster poverty reduction than agglomeration in mega cities this suggests that patterns of urbanization deserve much more attention when striving for faster poverty reduction

can public works increase equilibrium wages evidence from india s national rural employment guarantee abstract we estimate the impact of the world s largest public works program india s national rural employment guarantee scheme nregs on agricultural wages nregs was rolled out across india in three distinct phases and this phased introduction is used to identify difference in difference estimates of the program effect using monthly data on wage rates from the period 2000 2011 in 209 districts across 18 indian states we include district specific fixed effects and trends to control for differences in wage rates in the absence of the program we find that on average the program boosted the growth rate of real daily agricultural wages by 4 3 per year the effect of the scheme is more consistent with an increase in the growth rate of wages than with a discontinuous jump in wages the effect was concentrated in some states and in the agricultural peak season appears to have been gender neutral and was biased towards unskilled labor since many of the world s poorest depend on casual agricultural labor for their livelihood while at the same time minimum wage legislation is unlikely to be effective in many developing countries we argue that rural public employment programs constitute a potentially important anti poverty policy tool

jobs off the farm wealth human capital and social group in rural eastern india abstractthis study examines the effects of wealth human capital and social group on the occupational choice and income of farm households to gain an understanding of the mechanism underlying the

adapting the uppsala model to a modern world macro context and microfoundations vahlne and johanson 2017 present the multinational business enterprise mbe as a new form of cross border organization that supersedes the multinational enterprise mne they offer a general model of the evolution of the mbe arguing that the mbe evolves through ongoing internationalization processes by proactively and entrepreneurially engaging in business exchange rather than production in this counterpoint we focus on two critical dimensions absent from vahlne and johanson s 2017 arguments the impact of the digital context as a defining macro level feature of our modern world and the role of the individual as a core microfoundation of the internationalization process we argue that a robust theory of the evolution of the modern firm must necessarily account for these dimensions to explicate these impacts we draw from a range of complementary research streams across international business entrepreneurship and international entrepreneurship we identify research implications for scholars seeking to further advance the uppsala model of internationalization and those who will use the revised model to study the modern multinational

another day another dollar enterprise resilience under terrorism in developing countries this study extends the literature on entrepreneurship in developing countries by offering a two stage explanation for the paradoxical observation that enterprise activities often flourish under extreme adversity our findings complement the base of pyramid and peace through commerce attention to the growing role of business in international development by fleshing out the functions of enterprise resilience under terrorism we first explain how terrorism conditions outbreak escalation and reduction may create psychological incentives for enterprise resilience then we show that controlling for ex ante terrorism conditions enterprise resilience yields more favorable economic payoffs at higher levels of terrorism especially for informal entrepreneurs

explaining the formation of international new ventures the limits of theories from international business research abstract international new ventures invs represent a growing and important type of start up an inv is defined as a business organization that from inception seeks to derive significant competitive advantage from the use of resources and the sale of outputs in multiple countries oviatt and mcdougall 1994 their increasing prevalence and important role in international competition indicates a need for greater understanding of these new ventures oviatt and mcdougall 1994 logitech as described in a case study by alahuhta 1990 is a vivid example of an inv its founders were from two different countries and had a global vision for the company from its inception the venture which produces peripheral devices for personal computers established headquarters in both switzerland and the u s manufacturing and r d were split between the u s and switzerland and then quickly spread to taiwan and ireland the venture s first commercial contract was with a japanese company using 24 case studies of invs we found that their formation process is not explained by existing theories from the field of international business specifically neither monopolistic advantage theory product cycle theory stage theory of internationalization oligopolistic reaction theory nor internalization theory can explain the formation process of invs these theories fail because they assume that firms become international long after they have been formed and they therefore highlight large mature firms they also focus too much on the firm level and largely ignore the individual and small group level of analysis i e the entrepreneur and his or her network of business alliances we propose that an explanation for the formation process of invs must answer three questions 1 who are the founders of invs 2 why do these entrepreneurs choose to compete internationally rather than just in their home countries and 3 what form do their international business activities take who are the founders of invs we argue that founders of invs are individuals who see opportunities from establishing ventures that operate across national borders they are alert to the possibilities of combining resources from different national markets because of the competencies networks knowledge and background that they have developed from their earlier activities following the logic of the resource based view of the firm we argue that the possession of these competencies is not matched by other entrepreneurs only the entrepreneur possessing these competencies is able to combine a particular set of resources across national borders and form a given inv why do these entrepreneurs choose to compete internationally rather than just in their home countries the founders of invs recognize they must create international business competencies from the time of venture formation otherwise the venture may become path dependent on the development of domestic competencies and the entrepreneur will find it difficult to change strategic direction when international expansion eventually becomes necessary as the founder of one inv explained the advantage of starting internationally is that you establish an international spirit from the very beginning mamis 1989 38 what form do their international business activities take founders of invs prefer to use hybrid structures i e strategic alliances and networks for their international activities as a way to overcome the usual poverty of resources at the time of start up this study has important implications for the practice of management in financing decisions relating to invs venture capitalists and other venture financiers should look for entrepreneurs who have a global vision international business competence and an established international network when entrepreneurs start invs they should create hybrid structures to preserve scarce resources finally given the path dependence of competence development founders of new ventures should consider whether establishing a domestic new venture with plans to later internationalize will be as successful a strategy as establishing a new venture that is international from inception

an investigation into the overseas expansion of small asian owned u k firms this paper contributes to the growing body of knowledge in international entrepreneurship by reporting on a qualitative empirical investigation into the overseas expansion processes of small asian originating from the indian sub continent owned firms operating in the u k clothing industry the key decision makers within these firms frequently identified themselves as an active and important influence upon the actual activities of their firms as international operators for some firms though a more passive approach to internationalisation could be identified whereby the receipt of unsolicited orders had an effect on some firms timing of overseas market entry the balance between the nature of opportunities that frequently derived from cultural networks and the constraints of a limited resource base with which to exploit those opportunities also had a major impact on the direction and pace of certain firms overseas expansion the findings suggest a general tendency to adopt an incremental approach to internationalisation within this mature trade sector the cultural and business experience of managers however was found to have an effect on the pace and direction of the overseas expansion recommendations on the likely efficacy and effectiveness of public private sector interaction within the area of international entrepreneurship involving entrepreneurs from asian backgrounds are offered

rural nonfarm employment and farming household level linkages this article introduces the articles in agricultural economics vol 40 no 2 march 2009 first we introduce their objectives in a brief review of existing literature on developing country trends in rural income diversification in particular rural nonfarm employment rnfe and its impact on farm technology choice in crops and livestock and thus on agricultural modernization and diversification then we preview the key points of the articles which use distinctive primary datasets from albania bulgaria china india mexico nigeria the philippines senegal and vietnam to document the impacts of rnfe and their implications for farm technology and farm activity

non farm activity household expenditure and poverty reduction in rural vietnam 2002 2008 summary diversifying into non farm activities has been suggested as an effective way out of poverty for rural households in developing countries using the vietnamese household living standards surveys of 2002 2004 2006 and 2008 we test this claim and investigate the effect of non farm sector involvement on poverty and expenditure growth our endogeneity corrected estimates show that an additional household member involved with non farm activity reduces the probability of poverty by 7 12 and increases the household expenditure by 14 over a two year period our findings also indicate that non farm involvement reduces the hours worked on farm but not the household agricultural income

the born global firm an entrepreneurial and capabilities perspective on early and rapid internationalization our 2004 journal of international business studies article innovation organizational capabilities and the born global firm provided a framework for the phenomenon of early and rapid internationalization among young entrepreneurial firms this work can be characterized as an integration of marketing entrepreneurial and capability based thinking around exporting positioned as the born global exporter the article also reported findings from a national study of start up firms that expanded abroad early in their evolution in the present commentary we reflect on the contributions of the 2004 article review the scholarship on the topic over the past decade and offer suggestions for future inquiry while the incidence of early internationalization by firms was a novel concept two decades ago today such firms are found in abundance in many countries yet many unresolved research questions remain including the crucial topic of what happens to born global firms as they grow and mature over time similarly the issue of why some firms internationalize early others late in their evolution and still others choose to remain local is a fundamental question for international business scholarship

sequencing the expansion of geographic scope and foreign operations by born global firms born global firms are not actually born global but rather internationalize rapidly from their inception by expanding their geographic scope and extent of foreign operations however it remains unclear whether such firms 1 simultaneously expand along both dimensions 2 focus on expanding along a single dimension at a given time and switch interchangeably between expanding geographic scope and extent of foreign operations in subsequent periods or 3 stick solely to a specific internationalization path over several subsequent periods this study theorizes and empirically demonstrates that born global firms stick to a dominant internationalization path over subsequent periods arguably this phenomenon reflects managerial efforts to reduce the perceived risk of internationalization and their preference to develop and leverage capabilities that are specific to either of the internationalization paths until the economies of further expanding this path are exhausted

creative tension the significance of ben oviatt s and patricia mcdougall s article toward a theory of international new ventures the article by oviatt and mcdougall threw the spotlight on international entrepreneurs on international new ventures and on their importance in the globalising world economy recognising the rich theoretical implications of this phenomenon they mounted a challenge to received internationalisation process theories and established a new and exciting research theme that of international entrepreneurship this article reviews the impact of their contribution and discusses new research themes raised by their challenge to the process theories of internationalisation

the influence of the management team s international experience on the internationalization behaviors of smes why are some small and medium sized enterprises smes more successful in selling outside their domestic markets than are other smes in the same industry although the traditional explanation is that firms can gain valuable knowledge and resources as they become older and larger small and young firms are not necessarily disadvantaged if they develop other mechanisms to acquire the requisite knowledge and resources we examine the role of the management team s international experience as such a mechanism for the internationalization of canadian software product firms we show that internationally experienced management teams have a greater propensity to develop foreign strategic partners and to delay less in obtaining foreign sales after start up and that these behaviors are associated with a higher degree of internationalization

agricultural productivity hired labor wages and poverty evidence from bangladesh this paper provides evidence on the effects of agricultural productivity on wage rates labor supply to market oriented activities and labor allocation between own farming and wage labor in agriculture to guide the empirical work this paper develops a general equilibrium model that underscores the role of reallocation of family labor engaged in the production of non marketed services at home home production the model predicts positive effects of a favorable agricultural productivity shock on wages and income but the effect on hired labor is ambiguous it depends on the strength of reallocation of labor from home to market production by labor surplus and deficit households taking rainfall variations as a measure of shock to agricultural productivity and using subdistrict level panel data from bangladesh this paper finds significant positive effects of a favorable rainfall shock on agricultural wages labor supply to market work and per capita household expenditure the share of hired labor in contrast declines substantially in response to a favorable productivity shock which is consistent with a case where labor deficit households respond more than the labor surplus ones in reallocating labor from home production