defining chronic poverty comparing different approaches in this study we discuss two methods commonly used in the literature to measure chronic poverty the permanent income approach where the chronically poor are those whose mean income over time is below the poverty line and the spells approach where the chronically poor are those households who are below the poverty line half of the time or more we check the differences between these two methods considering also several household characteristics the index we use is that of foster greer and thorbecke fgt with and when each method identifies the chronically poor which could be different individuals by each method and shows the percentage of the chronically poor while when the methods also take into account the depth of poverty our main goal is to show the differences between the two methods so that policymakers would have different perspectives on the problem of chronic poverty and could make decisions on this basis the results show that in the data used the permanent method and the spells

econometric developments in agricultural and resource economics the first 100 years this article reviews the major contributions of agricultural and resource economists in the area of econometrics over the past 100 years early on a number of agricultural economists were in on the ground floor in terms of developing new econometric methods over time as the economics profession became more empirically oriented agricultural and resource economists increasingly assumed the role of early adopters of new econometric methods even so agricultural and resource economists continue to make useful modifications to econometric techniques in order to adapt the methods to the unique nature of the problems and applications that we study

credit market constraints consumption smoothing and the accumulation of durable production assets in low income countries investments in bullocks in india in this paper we formulate and estimate a finite horizon structural dynamic model of agricultural investment behavior that incorporates the major features of low income agricultural environments income uncertainty constraints on borrowing and rental markets and the use of investment assets to generate income and smooth consumption the model is fit to longitudinal indian household data on farm profits bullock stocks and pump sets the estimated structural parameters are used to assess the effects on the life cycle accumulation of bullocks agricultural profits and welfare associated with complete markets and bullock liquidity and with second best policies that provide assured sources of income to farmers and weather insurance

measuring lifetime poverty abstract this paper presents an axiomatic framework for measuring lifetime poverty over multiple periods for an individual we argue that lifetime poverty is influenced by both the snapshot poverty of each period and the poverty level of the permanent lifetime consumption it is also influenced by how poverty spells are distributed over the lifetime we axiomatically characterize classes of lifetime poverty indices and derive dominance conditions of poverty orderings for both individual and societal lifetime poverty measurements

predicting turning points through the integration of multiple models a new method for forming composite turning point or other qualitative forecasts is proposed rather than forming composite forecasts by the standard bayesian approach with weights proportional to each model s posterior odds weights are assigned to the individual models in proportion to the probability of each model s having the correct turning point prediction these probabilities are generated by logit models estimated with data on the models past turning point forecasts an empirical application to gross national product gross domestic product forecasting of 18 organization for economic cooperation and development countries demonstrates the potential benefits of the procedure

macroeconomic forecasting using pooled international data it has long been recognized that national economies are economically interdependent see e g burns and mitchell 1946 for evidence of comovements of business activity in several countries and zarnowitz 1985 for a summary of recent evidence recognition of such interdependence raises the question can such interdependence be exploited econometrically to produce improved forecasts of countries macroeconomic variables such as rates of growth of output and so forth this is the problem that we address in this article using annual and quarterly data for a sample of european economic community eec countries and the united states

changes in the u s wage structure 1963 1987 application of quantile regression the 1980 s witnessed rapid changes in the structure of wages in the united states in this study recently developed techniques for quantile regression are applied to every march current population survey since 1964 and changes in the return to schooling and experience at different points of the wage distribution are examined the quantile regression technique parsimoniously describes the entire conditional wage distribution this conditional distribution is used to examine changes in within group wage inequality as measured by the difference between conditional quantiles two linear models are considered a simple one group model and a 16 group model the results suggest that the returns to schooling and experience differ across quantiles of the wage distribution but their patterns of change are similar significant differences in wage inequality are also found across the various skill groups the paper also presents a new imputation method for cps data

on measuring the benefits of lower transport costs despite large amounts invested in rural roads in developing countries little is known about their benefits this paper derives an expression for the willingness to pay for a reduction in transport costs from the canonical agricultural household model and uses it to estimate the benefits of a hypothetical road project estimation is based on novel cross sectional data collected in a small region of madagascar with enormous yet plausibly exogenous variation in transport cost a road that essentially eliminated transport costs in the study area would boost the incomes of the remotest households those facing transport costs of about usd 75 ton by nearly half mostly by raising non farm earnings this benefit estimate is contrasted to one based on a hedonic approach

bayesian composite qualitative forecasting hog prices again a new method for forming composite qualitative forecasts is presented a set of qualitative forecasts is evaluated using auxiliary logit models to predict the probability of each forecast s correctness individual model forecasts are then combined on the basis of normalized values of these probabilities this method is demonstrated with three sets of forecasts on the direction of change in hog prices up or down the application shows that without any information on the manner in which the individual forecasts are generated this method can form a composite forecast that is superior according to a variety of metrics for evaluating qualitative forecasts

the transfer of japanese style management to american subsidiaries constraints and competencies this paper first reviews the theories of the transfer of japanese management practices overseas the paper then outlines a contingency theoretical model that specifies the factors which are hypothesized to impact the transfer of japanese style hrm practices to overseas subsidiaries qualitative data from a field study of ten japanese subsidiaries in the u s five in the service industry and five in manufacturing are used to illustrate the concepts presented in the theoretical discussion

institutional theory and mnc subsidiary hrm practices evidence from a three country study this study sets out to explore human resource management hrm practices in multinational corporation mnc subsidiaries within an institutional theory framework based on a sample of 158 subsidiaries of mncs operating in the united states russia and finland the paper examines factors hypothesised to influence the hrm practices adapted in us japanese and european mnc subsidiaries located in russia finland and the us the results indicate significant differences in hrm practices used across host countries both the status of the subsidiary human resource department and the degree to which the subsidiary was involved in knowledge transfer with other parts of the mnc had a significant impact on the selection of hrm practices

assessing the extent and nature of chronic poverty in low income countries issues and evidence discussions of chronic poverty have mostly considered its monetary dimensions with current evidence suggesting that such poverty is much more transient than chronic but chronic poverty is a real and important phenomenon potentially more important quantitatively than it first appears once account is taken of different methodological approaches and inevitable measurement difficulties the chronic poor have distinctive characteristics such as lack of assets or high dependency rates which may account for their persistent poverty the paper argues that it is also necessary to develop concepts of chronic poverty further covering relevant nonmonetary dimensions and not just relying on panel data

using bayesian techniques for data pooling in regional payroll forecasting this article adapts to the regional level a multicountry technique recently used by garcia ferrer highfield palm and zellner 1987 and extended by zellner and hong 1987 to forecast the growth rates in gross national product across nine countries this forecasting methodology is applied to the regional level by modeling payroll formation in seven ohio metropolitan areas we compare the forecasting performance of these procedures with that of a ridge estimator and find that the ridge estimator produces forecasts equal to or better than those from the newly proposed estimators we conclude that the ridge estimator which does not reference the pooled data information introduced by the newly proposed techniques may serve as a benchmark against which to judge the relative importance of this kind of information in improving forecasts

this is what the leading indicators lead we propose an optimal filter to transform the conference board composite leading index cli into recession probabilities in the us economy we also analyse the cli s accuracy at anticipating us output growth we compare the predictive performance of linear var extensions of smooth transition regression and switching regimes probit non parametric models and conclude that a combination of the switching regimes and non parametric forecasts is the best strategy at predicting both the nber business cycle schedule and gdp growth this confirms the usefulness of cli even in a real time analysis copyright 2002 john wiley sons ltd

the impact of strategy on conflict a cross national comparative study of u s and japanese firms an empirical test of 290 u s and 653 japanese managers using the miles and snow typology provides a cross national examination of strategy s impact on conflict results substantially support the study s predictions and indicate that firms should 1 monitor their conflict handling mechanisms 2 emphasize integrative approaches and 3 appropriately use formalization for conflict handling despite a convergence of management practices globally findings indicate that considerable differences still exist between u s and japanese firms

irrigation agricultural performance and poverty reduction in china the overall goal of our paper is to understand the impact that irrigation in china has had on grain production and incomes in general and income and poverty alleviation in poor areas in particular the paper seeks to meet three objectives first we describe the relationship among irrigation status yields and household crop revenue second we seek to understand the magnitude and nature of the effect that irrigation has on yields and crop revenue finally we seek to understand the impact that irrigation has on incomes in poor areas our analysis shows that irrigation contributes to increases in yields for almost all crops and in income for farmers in all areas the importance of crop income in poor areas and the strong relationship between crop revenue and irrigation provides evidence of the importance of irrigation in past and future poverty alleviation in china we also show that in the majority of the villages that invested in new irrigation returns are positive even after accounting for increases in capital and production costs 2005 elsevier ltd all rights reserved

wealth weather risk and the composition and profitability of agricultural investments despite the growing evidence that farmers in low income environments are risk averse there has been little empirical evidence on the importance of risk in shaping the actual allocation of production resources among farmers differentiated by wealth the authors use panel data on investments in rural india to examine how the composition of productive and nonproductive asset holdings varies across farmers with different levels of total wealth and across farmers facing different degrees of weather risk income variability is a prominent feature of the experience of rural agents in low income countries the authors report evidence based on measures of rainfall variability that the agricultural investment portfolio behavior of farmers in such settings reflects risk aversion due evidently to limitations on consumption soothing mechanisms such as crop insurance or credit markets the authors results suggest that uninsured weather risk is a significant cause of lower efficiency and lower average incomes a one standard deviation decrease in weather risk measured by the standard deviation of the timing of the rainy season would raise average profits by up to 35 percent among farmers in the lowest wealth quartile moreover rainfall variability induces a more unequal distribution of average incomes for a given distribution of wealth wealthier farmers are willing to absorb significant risk without giving up profits to reduce production risk smaller farmers have to invest their limited wealth in ways that reduce their exposure to risk at the cost of lower profit rates the authors found that at high levels of rainfall variability differences in rates of profit per unit of agricultural assets were similar across classes of wealth but over the sample range of rainfall variability these rates of profit were always higher for the poorer farmers than for the wealthier ones suggesting that the disadvantages of small farmers in risk diffusion are more than offset by their labor cost advantage

organization development and firm performance a comparison of multinational and local firms this study examines the usage and outcomes of organization development od interventions in multinational firms we test competing hypotheses derived from the cultural and institutional isomorphic perspectives data from firms operating in hong kong show that western firms u s and european are more receptive to od interventions than asian firms local and japanese which supports the cultural explanation however the local isomorphism explanation is valid in predicting organizational outcomes that od interventions have similar effects regardless of a firm s country origins hence neither perspective alone is sufficient to explain both usage and outcomes this implies that local adaptation of od interventions is a complex issue for managing multinational firms

growth inequality and poverty looking beyond averages the evidence is compelling that the poor in developing countries do typically share in the gains from rising aggregate affluence and in the losses from aggregate contraction but how much do poor people share in growth do they gain more in some settings than others do some gain while others lose does pro poor growth mean more or less aggregate growth recent theories and evidence suggest some answers but deeper microeconomic empirical work is needed on growth and distributed change only then will we have a firm basis for identifying the specific policies and programs needed to complement and possibly modify growth oriented policies

building a process model of local adaptation of practices a study of six sigma implementation in korean and us firms the strategic transformation of asian firms into global players has involved the adoption and adaptation of many organizational practices developed in the west we build a process model of adaptation by observing how an organizational practice is adapted to a local setting different from its locus of origin through inductive methods and case studies of six sigma implementation in korean and us firms based on these cases we propose a cascading sequential pattern to the local adaptation of the conceptual social and technical dimensions of organizational practices reconciling conflicting views in the literature on whether or not to adapt our theoretical model highlights the importance of considering the different degrees of contextual influence on different underlying dimensions of a practice and of configuring each dimension accordingly further we suggest that the sequence and configuration of adaptation across different practice dimensions matter to the successful implementation of a practice across borders

the regional nature of japanese multinational business in the world s largest 500 firms there are 64 japanese multinational enterprises mnes with data on regional sales but only three operate globally whereas 57 of them average over 80 of their sales and foreign assets in their home region why is there such a strong intra regional dimension to their activities using empirical data and a new framework for analysing both downstream sales assets and upstream production assets we analyse why most large japanese firms appear to have firm specific advantages fsas that are based in their home region a structural contingency approach is applied to two case studies to explain how home region bound fsas constrained the ability of japanese mnes to implement internationalisation strategies

the determinants of expatriate staffing by japanese multinationals in asia control learning and vertical business groups we empirically examine the determinants of the decision whether or not to appoint an expatriate as the managing director of overseas affiliates for a sample of 844 japanese manufacturing affiliates operating in asia in 1995 confirmation is found for hypotheses derived both from a control and coordination perspective on expatriation and from a knowledge creation and learning perspective strategic dependence of the parent on the affiliate increases the propensity to appoint expatriates whereas localisation of the affiliate reduces it organisational experience in the country both by the affiliate and by the firm increases the probability that host country nationals will be appointed inter firm relationships within vertical keiretsu groups impact on expatriation policies through inter organisational knowledge exchange in host countries and the mitigation of localisation requirements owing to intra group transactions

expected poverty under risk induced welfare variability two of the most widely accepted stylised facts about agriculture in south asia sub saharan africa and elsewhere are that income is highly uncertain from one year to another and that deep and widespread poverty exists and yet there has been very little analysis of the joint problems of poverty and risk this paper offers a methodological approach to the issue of how risk affects poverty and applies it to household level data for dry areas of rural india the following questions are addressed under what conditions can one expect an increase in the riskiness of an income or consumption stream to increase poverty how should one measure the contribution of risk to poverty and what long term benefits in terms of reduced poverty can be expected from policies aimed at stabilising incomes of the poor such policies have been widely discussed in the indian subcontinent of late and their effect on rural

is transient poverty different evidence for rural china we define transient poverty as the component of time mean consumption poverty at household level that is directly attributable to variability in consumption this can be thought of as a measure of vulnerability to falling consumption the non transient component then depends solely on mean consumption over time and we call this chronic poverty using robust semi parametric methods and household panel data for rural china we test whether transient poverty is determined by a process that is similar to chronic poverty commonly identified causes of poverty in this setting have weak explanatory power for transient poverty and some of the factors determining transient poverty do not matter to chronic poverty or even have the opposite effect successful policy responses to chronic poverty may still leave considerable transient poverty

rural livelihoods and poverty reduction strategies in four african countries this paper compares and contrasts rural livelihoods in uganda kenya tanzania and malawi with a view to informing rural poverty reduction policies within poverty reduction strategy plans prsps low household incomes in rural areas of all countries are associated with low land and livestock holdings high reliance on food crop agriculture and low monetisation of the rural economy these adverse factors are in some instances made more difficult by land sub division at inheritance declining civil security in rural areas deteriorating access to proper agronomic advice and inputs and predatory taxation by decentralised district councils better off households are distinguished by virtuous spirals of accumulation typically involving diverse livestock ownership engagement in non farm self employment and diversity of on farm and non farm income sources lessons for prsps centre on the creation of a facilitating rather than blocking public sector environment for the multiplication of non farm enterprises seeking creative solutions to the spread of technical advice to farmers and examining critically the necessity for and impact of tax revenue collection by district councils on rural incomes and enterprise

policies for sustainable development in the hillside areas of honduras a quantitative livelihoods approach in this article we use data for 376 households 1 066 parcels and 2 143 plots located in 95 villages in the hillside areas in honduras to generate information needed by decision makers to assess the needs and opportunities for public investments and design policies that stimulate natural resource conservation we develop a quantitative livelihood approach using factor and cluster analysis to group households based on the use of their main assets this resulted in seven household categories that pursue similar livelihood strategies we use a multinomial logit model to show that livelihood strategies are determined by comparative advantages as reflected by a combination of biophysical and socioeconomic variables while 92 of the rural hillsides population in honduras lives on us 1 00 capita day or less households that follow a livelihood strategy based on basic grain farming are the poorest because they often live in isolated areas with relatively poor agro ecological and socioeconomic conditions opportunities for off farm work tend to be limited in these areas and household strategies that combine on farm work with off farm work earn higher incomes per capita incomes can be increased by improving road infrastructure widening access to land policies that reduce household size and dependency ratios and adoption of sustainable land management technologies that restore soil fertility we used probit models to show that the latter can be promoted by agricultural extension programs and land redistribution investments in physical assets should be directed toward households that pursue livelihood strategies based on off farm employment or coffee production while agricultural training programs are best focused on livestock producers

in the eye of the storm the welfare impacts of a hurricane summary the impact of a large covariant shock namely hurricane mitch is examined in the context of household asset holdings in rural nicaragua utilizing household panel data from the period it is found that the hurricane did not have an adverse impact on the ownership of productive assets among the affected households on average on the other hand nonproductive asset holdings seem to have been significantly reduced a further examination confirms that the shock affected the poorest households disproportionally especially in terms of nonproductive assets finally this study presents strong suggestive evidence of a geographical poverty trap within the shock affected areas of the country

why have some indian states done better than others at reducing rural poverty the unevenness of the rise in rural living standards in the various states of india since the 1950s allowed the authors to study the causes of poverty they modeled the evolution of average consumption and various poverty measures using pooled state level data for 1957 91 they found that poverty was reduced by higher agricultural yields above trend growth in nonfarm output and lower inflation rates but these factors only partly explain relative success and failure in reducing poverty initial conditions also mattered states that started the period with better infrastructure and human resources with more intense irrigation greater literacy and lower infant mortality rates had significantly greater long term rates of consumption growth and poverty reduction by and large the same variables that promoted growth in average consumption also helped reduce poverty the effects on poverty measures were partly redistributive in nature after controlling for inflation the authors found that some of the factors that helped reduce absolute poverty also improved distribution and none of the factors that reduced absolute poverty had adverse impacts on distribution in other words there was no sign of tradeoffs between growth and pro poor distribution

poverty transition and persistence in ethiopia 1994 2004 summary this study analyzes the persistence of poverty in both rural and urban areas in ethiopia during 1994 2004 the key finding is that households move frequently in and out of poverty but the difficulty of exiting from poverty like the chance of avoiding slipping back increases with the time spent in that state and varies considerably between male and female headed households our results imply that it is important to design anti poverty policies both to hinder households from slipping into extreme poverty and to minimize the length of the poverty spell for households once they have fallen into it

opening the black box of the relationship between hrm practices and firm performance a comparison of mne subsidiaries in the usa finland and russia this paper investigates the extent to which different human resource management hrm practices work better in different countries we also try to open the black box between hrm and multinational enterprise mne subsidiary performance by considering mechanisms through which hrm practices affect mne subsidiary performance the study utilizes a unique data set consisting of subsidiaries of 241 mnes operating in russia usa and finland in the partial least square analysis used to examine our hypotheses we demonstrate that different hrm practices are preferable in different countries and that motivation and ability are important mediating variables in the hrm mne subsidiary performance relationship

identifying vulnerability to poverty a critical survey in the economic literature on poverty various methods have been proposed for measuring a phenomenon known as vulnerability however after more than a quarter century of research no consensus has been reached on how to identify such vulnerable individuals within a given population some misunderstandings have also arisen from the overlapping of other closely related concepts such as the expectation of being poor expected poverty multi period poverty and risk exposure this paper offers a detailed conceptual discussion on vulnerability to poverty and its related elements reviewing a wide range of identifying criteria provided in the literature it is found that according to the state of the art in this field of research two key elements stand out in identifying vulnerable individuals an expected well being below the poverty line and a relevant risk of falling into poverty due to downside deviation from a reference level of well being the traditional classification of vulnerability approaches has been updated into four groups i those that stress the element of exposure to risk ii those that emphasize the element of expected poverty iii those that define vulnerability through a utility gap and iv those that are supported by a mean risk dominance criterion

jobs off the farm wealth human capital and social group in rural eastern india abstractthis study examines the effects of wealth human capital and social group on the occupational choice and income of farm households to gain an understanding of the mechanism underlying the

are the poor less well insured evidence on vulnerability to income risk in rural china the authors test how well consumption is insured against income risk in a panel of sampled households in rural china they estimate the risk insurance models by generalized method of moments treating income and household size as endogenous insurance exists for all wealth groups although the hypothesis of perfect insurance is universally rejected those in the poorest wealth decile are the least well insured with 40 percent of an income shock being passed on to current consumption by contrast consumption by the richest third of households is protected from almost 90 percent of an income shock the extent of insurance in a given wealth stratum varies little between poor and nonpoor areas

how access to irrigation influences poverty and livelihoods a case study from sri lanka abstractthis study combines a livelihoods approach with a regression approach to quantify the effectiveness of irrigation infrastructure investment on improving people s livelihood strategies using a unique dataset based on households in southern sri lanka and a natural experimental setting we estimate from a two stage income regression model to show that irrigation access has a positive effect on income through livelihood choices we also show through qualitative approaches that factors not linked to irrigation infrastructure may contribute to changes in livelihood portfolios in addition we highlight factors that result in certain households being unable to move out of poverty despite access to the improved irrigation infrastructure

microlending in emerging economies building a new line of inquiry from the ground up the world s poor may be the last great frontier in international business international microlenders are increasingly tapping into this emerging opportunity by extending small business loans to millions of borrowers however to date there is very limited understanding of this domain from an international business perspective using qualitative case studies developed in guatemala and the dominican republic we probe the causes and consequences of high performance and business failure for microloan recipients the analysis of these cases led to the development of six testable propositions focused on the behavior of borrowers whose loans populate the portfolios of international microlenders our research aims to lay a foundation in international business for future research on microlending

livelihoods and chronic poverty in semi arid zimbabwe abstract remoteness and geographic natural physical human and social capital are contrasted with social and political exclusion in explaining persistent rural poverty we found that persistent poverty was strongly associated with the structural poverty of zimbabwe s semi arid communal areas relative urban proximity assisted income diversification and improvement in a very poor socially and politically excluded area less excluded but remote areas remained poor but not as poor as the excluded population livelihoods changed and diversified more in the nonremote area speeding poverty reduction as measured by an index of perceived change we conclude with what policy options and sequence might support the inclusion of chronically poor people

has rural infrastructure rehabilitation in georgia helped the poor this article proposes a research strategy to deal with the scarcity of data on beneficiaries for conducting impact assessments of community level projects community level panel data from a regular household survey augmented with a special community module are used to measure the impact of projects propensity score matched difference in difference comparisons are used to control for time invariant unobservable factors this methodology takes into consideration the purposeful placement of projects and their interactions at the community level this empirical approach is applied to infrastructure rehabilitation projects for schools roads and water supply systems in rural georgia between 1998 and 2001 the analysis produces plausible results regarding the size of welfare gains from a particular project at the village level and allows for differentiation of benefits between the poor and the non poor the findings of this study can contribute to evaluations of the impact of infrastructure interventions on poverty by bringing new empirical evidence to bear on the welfare and equity implications

social capital formation and credit access evidence from sri lanka summary while previous studies evaluate the impact of social capital on development outcomes there are very few empirical studies on determinants of social capital formation we use unique long panel data from sri lanka to examine the mechanism of social capital formation in an imperfect credit market we show that households facing credit constraints reduce investments in social capital furthermore temporal declines in investment persistently reduce general trust trust in villagers and trust in business partners while previous studies argue that social capital improves access to informal credit we show the reverse causality combining these findings suggests a potential poverty trap

household strategies and rural livelihood diversification this article reviews the recent literature on diversification as a livelihood strategy of rural households in developing countries with particular reference to sub saharan africa livelihood diversification is defined as the process by which rural families construct a diverse portfolio of activities and social support capabilities in order to survive and to improve their standards of living the determinants and effects of diversification in the areas of poverty income distribution farm output and gender are examined some policy inferences are summarised the conclusion is reached that removal of constraints to and expansion of opportunities for diversification are desirable policy objectives because they give individuals and households more capabilities to improve livelihood security and to raise living standards

poverty dynamics in brazilian metropolitan areas an analysis based on hulme and shepherd s categorization 2002 2011 abstract ever more sophisticated studies on the methodological approach and the conceptual scope of poverty have led to a consensus among scholars on the dynamic characteristic of this phenomenon in other words the existence of an in and out of privation movement of individuals and families within this context hulme and shepherd 2003 defined five groups according to the location of the punctual and average indicators of poverty vis a vis the poverty line this paper s objective is to adapt this typology to brazil using pme monthly job survey micro data for the 2002 2011 timeframe and the six brazilian metropolitan regions covered by pme as well as by estimating a multinomial logit investigate which family characteristics relate to a greater or lesser chance of belonging to each of the chronic and transitory poverty categories categorization allows observation that despite a sweeping across the board decline in the percentage of families in all poverty categories in the past decade those families always or usually poor display demographic socioeconomic access to and insertion into the labor market categories which differ from families in transitory poverty or classified as never poor moreover northeastern metropolitan regions salvador and recife have higher percentages of chronic or transitory poverty multinomial logit estimates make it possible to verify that families whose members have completed secondary schooling or college or hold a higher qualified occupation stand lesser chances of entering into or remaining in poverty results call for differentiating among poor families as they enter into or leave poverty which is tantamount to saying that the dynamics of poverty must be taken into account as public policies are drawn up