innovation behaviour and regional indigenous potential meyer krahmer f 1985 innovation behaviour and regional indigenous potential reg studies 19 523 534 this paper has been written in order to present empirical results about some hypotheses not yet very well clarified in innovation oriented regional research the first part relates to one of the assumptions underlying innovation oriented regional policy which is that innovating and non innovating firms have different characteristics with respect to employment product lines and markets in particular the contribution to regional growth made by innovating firms is said to be larger in the second part of the paper the results of a study are presented in which it was attempted to find out empirically the extent of regional differences in indigenous innovation potential in the federal republic of germany reference is made to the innovating firms their performance and behaviour and bottlenecks in innovation as in other recent studies it is confirmed that there exists also in rural regions a sizeab

public research and industrial innovations in germany this paper deals with the effects of publicly funded research at universities polytechnics and federal research labs on industrial innovations in germany we discuss the characteristics of companies that benefit from the findings of public research institutions in questioning 2 300 companies we found that less than one tenth of product or process innovating firms introduced innovations between 1993 and 1995 that would not have been developed without public research these new products amount to approximately 5 percent of all new product sales regressions show that firms own r d support the ability to absorb the findings of public research and turn them into innovations contrary to the widely held opinion that proximity to public research institutions does promote collaboration between firms and public research and increase the amount of received knowledge spillovers we found no higher probability of publicly supported innovations for firms in germany that are located near universities or polytechnics

accounting for external costs in a study of a swedish district heating system an assessment of environmental policies sweden has historically had strict emission control by implementation of economic policy instruments with the aim of internalising the external costs of air pollution this study aims to evaluate how well current swedish policy instruments reflect the environmental costs associated with heat generation in several district heating dh plants in the dh system of goteborg furthermore it aims to simulate and evaluate the operation of the dh system based on its social cost effectiveness which takes into account the dh system s private and external costs non internalised environmental costs the study shows that the economic policy instruments do not fully internalise all external costs whereas for certain technologies the costs in terms of taxes emission permits environmental fees etc are higher than the environmental costs caused by the pollutants given the environmental cost estimates used in the study the simulation results show that the deviating internalisation of external costs affects the economic ranking of the different plants within the studied dh system the estimated loss in social cost effectiveness of the operation of the dh system of goteborg is noticable but relatively small if compared to the variable heat generation costs for most of the studied dh plants c 2010 elsevier ltd all rights reserved

licensing of university inventions the role of a technology transfer office abstract we develop a theoretical model to explain the specific role of technology transfer offices ttos in licensing university inventions using a framework where firms have incomplete information on the quality of inventions we develop a reputation argument for the tto to reduce the asymmetric information problem our results indicate that a tto is often able to benefit from its capacity to pool innovations across research units and to build a reputation within universities we identify when the technology seller will have an incentive to shelve some of the projects thus raising the buyer s beliefs on expected quality this results in fewer but more valuable innovations being sold at higher prices we explain the importance of a critical size for the tto to be successful as well as the stylized fact that ttos may lead to fewer licensing agreements but higher income from innovation transfers

measuring the returns of r d an empirical study of the german manufacturing sector over 45 years abstract motivated by recent statistics that show significant growth in labor productivity this paper seeks to analyze the long term relationship between domestic rd recent rates of return on r d are estimated to have reached an all time low spanning the last 45 years current yields of r d are only one third compared to the sixties in conclusion though the productivity slowdown of the seventies seems to have been overcome this is not attributed to r d investments

government r d subsidies as a signal for private investors abstract government subsidies for r d are intended to promote projects with high returns to society but too little private returns to be beneficial for private investors this may be caused by spillovers or a low appropriability rate apart from the direct funding of these projects government grants may serve as a signal for good investments for private investors we use a simple signaling model with different types of r d projects to capture this phenomenon the agency has a preference for basic research projects as they promise high expected social returns while banks prefer applied research projects with high private returns in a setup where the subsidy can only be used to distinguish between basic and applied research projects government agency s signal is not very helpful for banks however if the subsidy is accompanied by a quality signal it can lead to increased or better selected private investments

academic research underlying industrial innovations there has been no systematic study of the characteristics of the universities and academic researchers that seem to have contributed most to industrial innovation nor do we know how such academic research has been funded this paper based on data obtained from sixty six firms in seven major manufacturing industries and from over two hundred academic researchers sheds new light on the sources characteristics and financing of academic research underlying industrial innovation the findings should be of interest to economists concerned with technological change and to policymakers attempting to increase the economic payoff from the nation s academic research copyright 1995 by mit press

global and domestic utilization of industrial relevant science patent citation analysis of science technology interactions and knowledge flows abstract the development of science based technologies may draw heavily on codified and tacit outputs from both domestic research bases and foreign sources having a view of the scientific underpinnings of these technical innovations and related knowledge diffusion and utilization processes especially those concerning public financed basic research is of major importance to policymakers nowadays some of those scientific and technical inputs are pivotal to technical inventions and are acknowledged as such by explicit references citations to related research papers in the reference list on the corresponding patents this case study deals with citations to dutch authored research papers on uspto patents granted during the period 1987 1996 results of the citation analysis reveal several important features of contributions made by the dutch science base to dutch invented and or foreign invented patents such as 1 a marked overall increase of patent citations to dutch research papers and 2 significant differences between domestic and foreign citation patterns where 3 domestic citation links are dominated by author inventor self citations and patents originating from the large r d intensive multinational firms such as philips these findings provide new empirical evidence that patent citation analysis produces systemic quantitative data providing strategic background information regarding nation specific and sector specific factors in domestic and cross border science technology linkages and knowledge flows

the relationships between science technologies and their industrial exploitation an illustration through the myths and realities of the so called european paradox abstract this paper discusses first the properties of scientific and technological knowledge and the institutions supporting its generation and its economic applications the evidence supports the broad interpretation that we call the stanford yale sussex synthesis second such patterns yield important implications with respect to the so called european paradox i e the conjecture that eu countries play a leading global role in terms of top level scientific output but lag behind in the ability of converting this strength into wealth generating innovations some descriptive evidence shows that contrary to the paradox conjecture europe s weaknesses reside both in its system of scientific research and in a relatively weak industry the final part of the paper identifies a few normative implications much less emphasis should be put on various types of networking and much more on policy measures aimed at strengthening both frontier research and european corporate actors

the economic impact of industry funded university r d abstract in recent years industry has increased its direct funding of university r d this article examines whether such collaborative r d leads to increases in technological innovation in industry data are analyzed for the years 1953 through 1986 it is found that direct industry funding of university research is associated with subsequent increases in industry r d expenditures these expenditures include funding from both federal and industry sources this increase in r d expenditures occurs with a median lag of five years rival hypotheses are examined such as the effect of general university research expenditures however these hypotheses are rejected this article concludes by raising significant implications for policy

impacts of grants and contracts on academic researchers interactions with industry abstract based on a representative national sample of 1564 academic researchers we investigate the impacts of research grants and contracts on the nature and extent of faculty research and technology activities with industry a particular focus is on understanding the independent contributions of industry and government grant sources on levels of industrial involvement in addition to examining the source of grants the study controls for a number of independent factors including scientific field research center affiliation tenure status and gender results suggest independent effects of grants and contracts on industrial activities grants and contracts from industry have a significant effect on academic researchers propensity to work with industry as measured by an industrial involvement scale federally sponsored grants also have an impact in increasing work with industry but a more moderate one further those with more grants and contracts of each type have a greater propensity for industrial involvement than those who have such contracts but fewer this holds even when proxies for productivity and career stage are introduced in regression equations the analysis also considers whether provision of grants and contracts is best viewed as a predictor of industrial involvement or just another type of industrial involvement using factor analysis and nested multivariate modeling to compare effects

the effects of federal research and development subsidies on firm commercialization behavior abstract this paper assesses the longer term up to 14 years causal impact of federal research and development r d subsidies on firms commercialization behavior the data are for small firms which applied to the 1998 2000 advanced technology program atp competitions a variant of the research design pioneered by heckman 1979 allows for selection bias to be controlled for commercialization behavior is operationalized as the number of new product announcements related to the technology a firm mentions in its atp proposal s the major finding is that receiving an atp award has a positive and significant causal impact on a firm s commercialization behavior

science dependence of technologies evidence from inventions and their inventors abstract articulating a compelling economic rationale to justify investments in research by definition furthest removed from direct immediate economic benefit is perhaps one of chief challenges of r d managers policy makers and science analysts in the years ahead although several innovation studies and surveys have provided some convincing empirical evidence of impacts and benefits of research to technical progress there is still an urgent need for comprehensive models reliable data and analytical tools to describe and monitor links between r d and industrial innovation in more detail as for the role of scientific and engineering research in the innovation process this paper reports on the findings of a novel methodology to increase our understanding of the contribution of research efforts to successful technical inventions the approach is based on a nation wide mail survey amongst inventors working in the corporate sector and the public research sector in the netherlands the inventors inside information regarding their patented inventions and related technological innovations on the market provided a range of quantitative data on the importance of the underpinning research activities statistical models attempting to explain the degree of science dependence of the inventions identify a range of relevant variables covering the inventor s own capabilities and previous r d achievements external information sources as well as the inventor s r d environment in general some 20 of the private sector innovations turned out to be partially based on public sector research furthermore citations in patents referring to basic research literature were found to be invalid indictors of a technology s science dependence

if star scientists do not patent the effect of productivity basicness and impact on the decision to patent in the academic world abstract we run an event history analysis on a sample of italian researchers in the field of materials science aiming at understanding how the characteristics of the research trajectories followed by scientists in academia affect their opportunities to do development of industrial applications results of our estimates suggest that all measures of academic performances have a dual effect although different in magnitude scientists that are moving along applied research trajectories find it easier to produce industrial applications than their colleagues engaged in the quest for very fundamental understanding we interpret our results by suggesting that for the former more academic research results in more exploitable results hence in more chances to patent for the latter more academic research makes it just more unlikely that they will find the time to produce industrial applications similar results apply for the low versus high research impact

academic research and industrial innovation the purpose of this study is to estimate the extent to which technological innovations in various industries have been based on recent academic research and the time lags between the investment in recent academic research projects and the industrial utilization of their findings because no attempt to my knowledge has been made to estimate the social rate of return from academic research we also make some rough and tentative estimates of this sort while the results are subject to many limitations discussed below they should be of interest to public policy makers concerned with science and technology as well as to

economic status and health in childhood the origins of the gradient the well known positive association between health and income in adulthood has antecedents in childhood not only is children s health positively related to household income but the relationship between household income and children s health becomes more pronounced as children age part of the relationship can be explained by the arrival and impact of chronic conditions children from lower income households with chronic conditions have worse health than do those from higher income households the adverse health effects of lower income accumulate over children s lives part of the intergenerational transmission of socioeconomic status may work through the impact of parents income on children s health

assessing spillovers from universities to firms evidence from french firm level data we assess the importance of information flows from universities to innovative firms and determine the relative contribution of formal collaboration and pure knowledge spillovers in this process we find that spillovers provide the most benefit to firms that imitate existing technologies or those that are involved in incremental innovation on the other hand highly innovative firms appear to derive most benefit from collaborative research with foreign universities indeed highly innovative firms are at the frontier of the academic knowledge in their industry therefore they only marginally benefit from aggregate or industry wide spillovers they require new forms of academic knowledge that they acquire through formal cooperation with foreign universities

in search of the european paradox an international comparison of europe s scientific performance and knowledge flows in information and communication technologies research abstract this article deals with the scientific performance of the european union eu in what is now perhaps the most important enabling technology worldwide information and communication technologies ict the performance measures are based on the stock and flows of scientific knowledge embodied in research papers published in international scientific and technical journals quantitative data derived from these papers are used to examine and compare the performance of the eu science base with the us and japan two leading scientific nations in ict research and major competitors in ict industries these bibliometric indicators characterize and compare these three ict research bases in terms of research output international scientific quality transnational knowledge flows and domestic and international cooperation patterns the analysis focuses on the key issue whether or not these data bear evidence of the perceived european paradox which is among others characterized by a strong eu public sector science base coupled to a relatively weak r d performance of eu firms the findings provide empirical confirmation for the existence of this paradox in both ict research domains under investigation computers and data processing and telecommunications

the economic impacts of academic spin off companies and their implications for public policy abstract the importance of academic research ar to economic growth is widely accepted but quantification of incremental impacts and their attribution to any one country s expenditures is difficult yet quantitative justification of government ar funding is highly desirable we therefore attempt to quantify one impact which can be directly and causally attributed to one country s funding spin off companies we focus on ar in the non medical natural sciences and engineering nsexm in a whole country canada applied disciplines are sometimes assumed to be the most commercializable so we also separately investigate an especially basic science physics using a novel methodology we estimate the lifetime impacts of companies spun off directly from ar performed in 1960 1998 and compare the impacts with all government funding direct and indirect over the same period this picks up virtually all funding and most company formation since wwii up to 1998 such long term studies are rare but essential since we show that successful spin offs grow often exponentially over several decades with very conservative assumptions and allowing for the time value of money the impacts exceed government funding by a substantial margin physics actually fares 30 60 better than the combined nsexm this reflects more successful companies rather than greater numbers and therefore does not seem inconsistent with earlier studies on company numbers firm lifetimes are long with canadian impacts truncated primarily by some foreign acquisitions we argue that the spin off impacts represent incremental contributions to gdp much larger even on a time discounted basis than the government funding and directly attributable to it governments will also receive more in additional tax than they spent the impacts therefore provide a quantitative justification for the public investment allowing the much more important but less quantifiable long term benefits to be regarded as a free bonus the very good showing of physics also suggests that reduced emphasis on basic work or on the basic disciplines could actually weaken the commercialization of ar

environmental externalities and social optimality in biomass markets waste to energy in the netherlands and biofuels in france this paper explores two existing markets for energy produced from biomass waste to energy electricity production in the netherlands and the blending of biofuels with oil based fossil fuels in cars in france both cases provide excellent material to analyse social optimality of current biomass markets vis a vis their fossil fuel substitute the paper applies social cost benefit analysis to estimate both private and environmental cost of these supplies and uses the results to evaluate actual government behaviour in both countries the main findings for the waste to energy case in the netherlands are perhaps somewhat surprizingly that waste to energy is optimal only if the alternative of landfilling is excluded as an opportunity for waste management the case for biofuels in france shows that the take off of this market is only due to considerable government subsidization these subsidies cannot be defended by the difference they make in externality reduction even if the opportunity cost and benefits of set aside land are included as well as the potential productivity improvements

r d appropriability opportunity and market structure new evidence on some schumpeterian hypotheses one of the largest bodies of literature in the field of industrial organization is devoted to the interpretation and testing of several hypotheses advanced by joseph schumpeter 1950 concerning innovation and industrial market structure one set of hypotheses focuses on the role of firm size as a determinant of r d spending and the rate of technological advance another set focuses on the effect of market concentration on r d and technological advance in this paper we reexamine the latter set of hypotheses at the industry level using new data on r d appropriability and technological opportunity collected by levin et al 1984 in a survey of r d executives in 130 industries

institutions supporting technical advance in industry elsewhere 1982 economists beliefs that modern capitalism is a fine innovation generating machine have no intellectual grounding in contemporary neoclassical theory the twin theorems take technologies as given the apparent effectiveness of capitalism in this arena must reside in characteristics and mechanisms other than those featured in the microeconomic theory textbooks in our book we attempt to analyze these it also is true that the capitalist engine is a much more complicated one than many economists seem to think i presently am

the effects of mission oriented public r d spending on private industry this paper addresses the question of how government mission oriented r d spending affects private r d spending and thereby the total investment in technology the problem is approached within the context of the capital asset pricing model in which the firm views investment projects in terms of their risk and return characteristics the firm is assumed to produce jointly an established product and an r d intensive product where the latter generates an additional output of technology or spillover that is used as an input into the former by investing in r d the firm alters its risk and return characteristics in two ways through the expected profits from the sale of the r d intensive good and through the expected profits from the spillover in this model government mission oriented r d contracting affects the firm by enabling it to separate to some extent these two sources of risk and return the main implication of the analysis is that while some public crowding out of private r d is likely this is almost certain to be incomplete the empirical evidence from the u s transport industry supports the model and suggests that each dollar of government funding adds around 92 cents to total r d spending crowding out private investment by as little as eight percent private companies in the united states perform a great deal of publicly funded r d contract work notably in connection with defence space exploration energy and health this work is generally believed to make two contributions to society a direct effect of providing technology intensive public goods and an indirect or spillover effect into the technology content of the private goods produced by the firms which undertake the government contracts for example space technology has produced heart pacemakers alongside cryogenic insulation materials while automatic instrument landing systems benefit holidaymakers as well as air force pilots

regional clusters of the information economy in germany matuschewski a 2006 regional clusters of the information economy in germany regional studies 40 409 422 in germany similar to other countries enterprises that belong to the information economy ie tend to concentrate in a few regions the paper takes a closer look at the reasons and driving forces for regional clustering within the ie it is based on the analysis of three german ie clusters hamburg dresden and the technology region karlsruhe the analysis follows an explorative actor oriented approach using a mixture of qualitative and quantitative empirical methods the paper concentrates on selected aspects of clustering questioning the relevance of different theoretical concepts for regional clusters within the ie it confirms that regional clusters rely on sectoral and regional factors that shape specific regional development paths matuschewski a 2006 regional clusters of the information economy in germany regional studies 40 409 422 in germany similar to other countries enterpri

the inevitable limits of eu r d funding abstract the experience of the past 40 years in national policies for and european cooperation in science and technology points to clear conclusions about eu policies first the prevailing notions of technology gaps between europe and japan and the usa notions which have been a driving force in the eu policy for research and technology have been exaggerated however real gaps exist amongst the eu member countries themselves secondly it is unrealistic to expect eu funded r d programmes by themselves to make a substantial difference to the rate and direction of technical change in europe however eu policies for competition and other forms of regulation trade and investment can have a major influence on corporate decisions about technical change it is important for eu innovation policy to promote favourable framework conditions within which business firms are encouraged to improve their technological and related organisational practices

university start up formation and technology licensing with firms that go public a resource based view of academic entrepreneurship abstract although academic entrepreneurship is a topic receiving some attention in the literature higher education s appetite for expanding technology transfer activities suggests that more research is needed to inform practice this study investigates the effects of particular resource sets on two university commercialization activities the number of start up companies formed and the number of initial public offering ipo firms to which a university had previously licensed a technology utilizing multisource data on 120 universities and a resource based view of the firm framework a set of university financial human capital and organizational resources were found to be significant predictors of one or both outcomes

a transaction costs analysis of innovations in the organization of pharmaceutical r d abstract this paper uses transaction costs economics to analyze the increasing importance of vertical disintegration of r d by large pharmaceutical and chemical firms first it discusses three characteristics of the research based pharmaceutical industry then it shows that market failures related to long term joint venture r d contracts between firms and university laboratories are less significant than appears at first and may account for their striking increase over the past fifteen years

inventor moral hazard in university licensing the role of contracts abstract we examine commonly observed forms of payment such as milestones royalties or consulting contracts as ways of engaging inventors in the development of licensed inventions our theoretical model shows that when milestones are feasible royalties are not optimal unless the licensing firm is risk averse the model also predicts the use of consulting contracts which improve the firm s ability to monitor inventor effort because these contracts increase the firm s expected profits the upfront fee that the university can charge is higher than otherwise these results therefore support the commonly observed university policy of allowing faculty to consult with licensing firms outside of their university contracts they also support firm policies of including milestones an empirical analysis based on a survey of 112 businesses that license in university inventions supports the complementarity of milestones and consulting suggested by the theory

internalisation of external costs in the polish power generation sector a partial equilibrium model this paper presents a methodical framework which is the basis for the economic analysis of the mid term planning of development of the polish energy system the description of the partial equilibrium model and its results are demonstrated for different scenarios applied the model predicts the generation investment and pricing of mid term decisions that refer to the polish electricity and heat markets the current structure of the polish energy sector is characterised by interactions between the supply and demand sides of the energy sector the supply side regards possibilities to deliver fuels from domestic and import sources and their conversion through transformation processes public power plants public chp plants industry chp plants and municipal heat plants represent the main producers of energy in poland demand is characterised by the major energy consumers i e industry and construction transport agriculture trade and services individual consumers and export the relationships between the domestic electricity and heat markets are modelled taking into account external costs estimates the volume and structure of energy production electricity and heat prices emissions external costs and social welfare of different scenarios are presented results of the model demonstrate that the internalisation of external costs through the increase in energy prices implies significant improvement in social welfare

regional co evolution of firm population innovation and public research evidence from the west german laser industry abstract we trace the co evolution of regional firm population sizes private sector patenting and public research in german laser research and manufacturing for over 40 years from the emergence of the industry to the mid 2000s qualitative as well as quantitative evidence suggests a co evolutionary process of mutual interdependence rather than a unidirectional effect of public research on private sector activities

globalisation of knowledge production and regional innovation policy supporting specialized hubs in the bangalore software industry abstract this paper is concerned with the changing role of regional innovation systems and regional policies in supporting the transition of indigenous firms in developing countries from competing on low costs towards becoming knowledge providers in global value chains special attention is paid to policies supporting the emergence and development of the regional innovation system in this transition process regional innovation systems in developing countries have very recently started to be conceptualised as specialized hubs in global innovation and production networks asheim b coenen l vang lauridsen j 2007 face to face buzz and knowledge bases socio spatial implications for learning innovation and innovation policy environment and planning c government and policy 25 5 655 670 chaminade c vang j 2006a innovation policy for small and medium size smes in asia an innovation systems perspective in yeung h ed handbook of research on asian business edward elgar cheltenham maggi c 2007 the salmon farming and processing cluster in southern chile in pietrobello c rabellotti r eds upgrading and governance in clusters and value chains in latin america harvard university press a specialized hub refers to a node in a global value chain that mainly undertakes one or a few of the activities required for the production and development of a given good or service or serves a particular segment of the global market in global value chains firms in developing countries have traditionally been responsible for the lowest added value activities however a few emerging regional innovation systems in developing countries are beginning to challenge this scenario by rapidly upgrading in the value chain there is however still only a poorly developed understanding of how the system of innovation emerges and evolves to support this transition process and what the role of regional innovation policy is in building the regional conditions that support indigenous small and medium size enterprises smes in this transition process this paper aims at reducing this omission by analyzing the co evolution of the strategies of indigenous smes and the regional innovation system of bangalore india

a review of the pricing mechanisms for district heating systems heating represents the largest proportion of energy use as supplied to consumers across all end energy uses therefore there is huge potential for energy savings in the heating sector in order to reduce the emission of co2 district heating dh has been considered an efficient environmentally friendly and cost effective method for heating in buildings and is playing an important role in the mitigation of climate change in the interest of fairness and in the highly competitive market the dh companies operate there is a strong need to develop a novel heat pricing mechanism in order to promote sustainable development of dh systems in this paper existing methods and models regarding heat pricing have been reviewed the features of different pricing mechanisms have been analysed including advantages and disadvantages insights into developing an advanced pricing mechanism for dh systems have been offered

a survey of the literature on human capital intensive firms the aim of this paper is to provide an exhaustive survey of the academic research dedicated to the study of human capital intensive firms hcifs we use a bibliometric analysis based on the three widely used databases econlit science direct and wiley over the period 1992 2015 we are adapting a methodology developed in previous works to our specific object of study and we generate a bottom up clustering on keywords titles and abstracts our examination of the data sheds a light on five main clusters of works that respectively focus on 1 critical human resource management 2 intellectual capital assessment 3 funding risk and innovation 4 high skilled employees supporting economic development and 5 internal and external valuable social networks in a critical appraisal of our results we stress that the bibliometric analysis remains silent on how the different clusters are linked with each other based on our own appreciation of the hcifs literature we propose a further step in the identification of a central question linking up these clusters a transversal review of the five clusters reveals that hcifs appear as a network of specialized agents whose complementary human resources are decisive for the value creation process

factors affecting university industry r d projects the importance of searching screening and signalling this paper presents an empirical analysis of the determinants of research cooperation between firms and public research organisations pros for a sample of innovating small and medium sized enterprises smes the econometric analysis is based on the results of the know survey carried out in seven eu countries during 2000 in contrast to earlier works that provide information about the importance of pros research we know the number of firm pro collaborative research and development r d projects this allows us to study the determinants of firm collaboration with pros in terms of both the propensity of a firm to undertake r d projects with a university do they cooperate or not and the extent of this collaboration number of r d projects two questions are addressed which firms cooperated with pros and what are the firm characteristics that might explain the number of r d projects with pros the results of our analysis point to two major phenomena first the propensity to forge an agreement with an academic partner depends on the absolute size of the industrial partner second the openness of firms to the external environment as measured by their willingness to search screen and signal significantly affects the development of r d projects with pros our findings suggest that acquiring knowledge through the screening of publications and involvement in public policies positively affects the probability of signing an agreement with a pro but not the number of r d projects developed in fact firms that outsource research and development and patent to protect innovation and to signal competencies show higher levels of collaboration

child health and household resources in south africa evidence from the old age pension program this paper presents nonparametric evidence on the effects of the expansion of the old age pension program in south africa on child health did this increase in household resources improve child health and nutrition does the gender of the recipient of the pension affect its impact the answers to these questions have very important policy implications there is evidence that inadequate nutrition during childhood and even in utero affects long term physical development as well as the development of cognitive skills this in turn affects productivity later in life see partha dasgupta 1993 john strauss and duncan thomas 1998 t paul schultz 1999 in the united states the evidence suggests that monetary transfers to the poor have very little impact on child welfare janet currie 1995 susan mayer 1997 however the effects of parental income and monetary transfers on child outcomes are likely to be of greater magnitude among poor households in developing countries the south african pension program provides an unusual opportunity to evaluate the possible effects of such a monetary transfer this paper exploits the rapid increase in the coverage and benefits of the old age pension program in south africa which took place in the early 1990 s anne case and angus deaton 1998 at the end of the apartheid era the government committed to achieving parity of benefits and eligibility requirements between whites and africans this was achieved mostly by increasing the benefits received by the africans in 1993 80 percent of african women above age 60 and 77 percent of african men above 65 received the pension the maximum benefit of 370 rands per month aproximately 3 per day was equal to half of the minimum wage and about twice the median income per capita in rural areas due to living arrangements inherited from the apartheid era close to onethird of african children under the age of 5 currently live with a pension recipient children who live with a pension recipient tend to come from relatively disadvantaged backgrounds as a consequence they tend to be smaller than other children their age to estimate the effect of receiving a pension on the anthropometric status of children this paper exploits the fact that height reflects accumulated investments in child nutrition the larger the proportion of her life during which a child is well nourished the taller she will be given her age due to the expansion of the program in the early 1990 s individuals of qualified age became more likely to receive a pension and the benefits became substantially larger thus children born after the expansion of the program are more likely to have spent a larger fraction of their lives wellnourished if they live with a pension recipient to the extent that the pension resulted in improved nutrition in this paper i present nonparametric evidence of the program s effect on nutrition based on this observation

universities as engines of r d based economic growth they think they can two issues raised by increased participation of universities in equity arrangements designed to commercialize faculty research are addressed a the effects that an increased emphasis on patenting faculty research and on enhancing the commercial value of these patents has on the characteristics of academic research net revenue streams and existing channels through which academic research enters the market and b processes of institutional change and imitation whereby changes in the policies of elite research universities exert competitive and emulative pressures on other institutions increased efforts by universities to foster the commercialization of technological innovations erodes the singular position of institutions of higher learning in the united states based on past performance there is little reason to expect that a substantial reallocation of faculty effort towards commercially oriented r d will generate appreciable net revenues for other than a select number of universities these ventures also serve to shift academic researchers from the social roles in which they are most efficient as suppliers of a collective goodscientific and technological knowledge just as very few men are both capable business managers and ingenious inventors so few are at the same time ingenious inventors and exalted altruists some twenty years ago a university professor devised a method for measuring with accuracy the content of butterfat in milk the device if patented would doubtless have yielded him a very handsome income the inventor gave it freely to the public saying modestly that to do so was but part of his duty as a servant of the people and it has come into use the world over we call his conduct noble but our very recognition of its nobility is an admission of its rarity f w taussig inventors and money makers 1915 58

the changing rewards to science the case of biotechnology little is known about the form and or magnitude of compensation provided university based scientists working on firm r d this is unfortunate given the important role that university based scientists play in r d and the growing literature concerning compensation and innovation this paper sheds some light on these issues by examining the compensation of university based scientists involved with 52 biotech firms that made an initial public offering between march of 1990 and november of 1992 although the stock holdings of the university scientists are of particular interest additional forms of compensation received by the scientists are also examined

cash transfer programs and child health in brazil abstract this note presents evidence from brazil that children who benefit from cash transfer programs have better health indicators than those who live in a nonbenefited household and than nonbenefited children who live in a household that receives cash transfers

the relationship between federal contract r d and company r d according to recent estimates federal budget outlays for research and development rd this component will rise 28 percent and absorb 70 percent of all federal r d spending in 1984 compared to under 50 percent in 1980 since work corresponding to about one half of the dollar value of the federal r d program is generally performed by private industrial firms under contract with federal agencies the rapid increase in federal r d outlays will presumably be reflected in a similar increase in the value of commitments by industrial firms to perform government r d one of the most important economic questions posed by the large prospective increase in resources allocated to federal contract r d concerns its consequences for the economy s rate of technical progress of productivity growth in the next section i argue that the ultimate impact on productivity depends on how company decisions to finance r d are affected by the availability of federal contract r d funds i then provide a brief review and critique of previous studies of the relationship between companyand federalfinanced r d performed in industry and present new estimates which differ from existing ones with respect to both methodology and implications these estimates are consistent with the hypothesis that increases in federal r d activity tend to be associated with significant reductions in companyfinanced r d a number of studies have attempted to determine the ceteris paribus effects of company and federal r d on the rate of productivity growth p by estimating variants of the equation

academic spin off s transfer speed analyzing the time from leaving university to venture for academic spin offs i analyze the length of time between the founder s leaving of academia and the establishment of his firm technology transfer can take place even years after leaving the mother institution a duration analysis reveals that a longer time lag is caused by the necessity of assembling complementary skills either by acquisition by a single founder or by searching for suitable team members furthermore new ventures are established earlier if the intensity of technology transfer is high the founders have access to university infrastructure or received informal support by former colleagues

r d collaboration networks in mixed oligopoly we develop a model of endogenous network formation in order to examine the incentives for r d collaboration in a mixed oligopoly our analysis reveals that the complete network where each firm collaborates with all others is uniquely stable when r d subsidies are not available in addition to the complete network the private partial and the private hub star networks are pareto efficient however the complete network becomes the unique pareto efficient network when r d is subsidized this result is in contrast with earlier contributions in private oligopoly where under strong market rivalry a conflict between stable and efficient networks is likely to occur it also highlights the role of a public firm as policy instrument in aligning individual incentives for collaboration with the objective of efficiency independently of whether r d subsidies are provided by the regulator

firms transfer strategies with universities and the relationship with firms innovation performance based on a representative sample of swiss firms we empirically investigated strategies for knowledge and technology transfer ktt activities between business firms and universities as well as other public research institutions based on a cluster analysis of 19 different forms for ktt three types of ktt strategies were identified they were significantly correlated mainly to i the absorptive capacity of a firm ii several factors hampering ktt activities and iii some characteristics of the transfer process such as the number of partners the existence of contacts to foreign universities and the utilization of the mediating services of transfer offices furthermore it was found that ktt strategies related to the core transfer activities such as r d contracts are stronger correlated with innovation performance compared to strategies related to softer transfer forms copyright 2009 the author 2009 published by oxford university press on behalf of associazione icc all rights reserved oxford university press

the economic impact of licensed commercialized inventions originating in university research abstract the purpose of this article is to estimate quantitatively the contribution that university licensing makes to the national u s economy as regions and nations face increased economic problems they seek ways to augment opportunities for economic growth and to identify areas where public funding can be cut it is now well recognized that the research university can be a significant engine of economic growth and job creation university research and research related activities contribute in many important ways to modern economies notably through increased productivity of applied rd provision of highly valued human capital embodied in faculty and students development of equipment and instrumentation used by industry in production and research and creation of concepts and prototypes for new products and processes which may have some unexpected and large social and economic impacts yet clear documentation of the proportional contributions these make to economic growth remains elusive this article provides detailed estimates of the economic impact on the u s national economy of one core university activity licensing of university inventions to industry our approach combines licensing data for u s universities with national input output i o model coefficients and provides more valid and complete estimates of the national economic impacts of university licensing of intellectual property than have previously been available our results estimate national economic impact expressed as annual increases in gross domestic product gdp in total industry output and employment generated over a 15 year period summing over the entire 15 years for which we have data 1996 2010 we estimate that assuming no product substitution effects and a 2 10 royalty fee the total contribution of university licensing to gross industry output is at least 162 1 billion and as much as 686 9 billion 2005 dollars estimates based on 5 royalty rates yields an estimated impact of 293 3 billion 2005 dollars over the period assuming 2 royalty fees and no product substitution effects we estimate that over a 15 year period university licensing agreements based on product sales contributed at least 70 5 billion and as much as 277 6 billion 2005 dollars to the u s gdp with a moderately conservative estimate based on 5 royalty rates such agreements contributed more than 122 2 billion 2005 dollars the i o model also calculates the number of jobs person years of employment directly created or supported per million dollars of final purchases estimates of the total number of additional jobs created as a function of year due to university licensed products assuming no product substitution effects ranged from about 7000 jobs in 1996 to 23 000 in 2010 or more than 277 000 person years of employment over the entire 15 year period because of uncertainty we also provide estimates of the economic impact of university licensing income based on a range of product substitution rates 5 10 and 50 the magnitude of the estimated impact depends significantly on the assumptions made for example the royalty fees and substitution rates but even the most conservative yet reasonable assumptions yield estimates of very large impacts on gdp industry output and employment major discoveries emanating from academic and or publicly funded research have had enormous global economic and social impacts that are obvious but difficult to predict and quantify e g google the world wide web nanotechnologies etc although this article examines the economic impact of only a select technology transfer activity it nevertheless offers quantitative evidence that the economic impact of university research and technology transfer activities is significant

the globalization of r d results of a survey of foreign affiliated r d laboratories in the usa abstract this paper examines the globalization of innovation and the phenomenon of foreign direct investment fdi in research and development to do so it draws from a survey of foreign affiliated r d laboratories in the united states while the literature on foreign direct investment has emphasized the role of markets in driving off shore investments the main conclusion of this research is that the globalization of innovation is driven in large measure by technology factors of particular importance is the objective of firms to secure access to scientific and technical human capital

trust and the market for technology abstract conditional on the decision to enter the market for immature technology we test for the effects that trust proxied by the context in which the negotiating parties first met has on the likelihood that these negotiations are successful using survey responses from 860 university firm and firm firm technology transactions we find that trust matters parties with high levels of trust i e know each other from a previous business are between 6 and 23 per cent more likely to conclude a transaction compared with those with low levels of trust i e cold callers we also find that patents can effectively substitute for a lack of trust and that trust is more important in upstream stages basic or applied science

external costs of energy do the answers match the questions looking back at 10 years of externe abstract while the claim for getting prices right is quite popular in conceptual policy papers the implementation of appropriate internalisation strategies is still hampered by a lack of reliable external cost data great expectations were set into the externe project a major research programme launched by the european commission at the beginning of the 1990s to provide a scientific basis for the quantification of energy related externalities and to give guidance supporting the design of internalisation measures after more than a decade of research the externe label became a well recognised standard source for external cost data looking back into the externe history the paper pursues how emerging new scientific insights and changing background assumptions affected external cost estimates and related recommendations to policy over time based on externe results the usefulness and inherent limitations of external cost estimates for impact categories like climate change or nuclear waste disposal is discussed the paper also gives examples on how external costs in spite of remaining uncertainties are successfully used to support environmental policy

an analysis of the composition of r d spending research and development encompasses a myriad of activities generally research is the primary search for technical or scientific advancement and development is the translation of such advancement into product of process innovations the national science foundation has fostered an even finer breakdown basic research applied research and development in practice however r d is more heterogeneous than these labels imply the research fields associated with basic research include areas in both the physical and biological sciences applied research and development projects relate to product groups as diverse as all the activities in the industrial sector nevertheless most previous empirical studies of the microeconomic aspects of r d have treated r d spending as a single homogeneous activity consequently a generally acceptable set of variables has developed for explaining inter firm levels of r d spending but virtually nothing is known about the determinants of the inter firm composition of r d

does government funding complement or substitute private research funding to universities abstract there is growing political pressure on universities to intensify their interaction with industry and to enlarge their own research funding options in a context characterised by increasing constraints on public spending however whether the successful achievement of such a political desired outcome is consistent with a restriction of government funding is not clear and requires further investigation as a matter of fact there is scant empirical evidence on whether and to what extent government funding affects the external funding options available to universities in particular those related to research and consulting activities by using a set of probit and tobit panel data models estimated on financial data for the whole population of italian university departments engaged in research in the engineering and physical sciences this paper provides evidence that government funding to universities complements funding from research contracts and consulting contributing to increasing universities collaboration with industry and activating knowledge transfer processes

municipal solid waste management and energy production consideration of external cost through multi objective optimization and its effect on waste to energy solutions abstract energy production from municipal solid waste msw has become one of the most prominent strategies in msw management in this study a multi objective mathematical programming model is developed in order to provide the candidate pareto optimal solutions for a msw management system performing structural design and operational optimization besides the economic criterion the green house gas ghg emissions are taken into account as a second optimization criterion therefore we do not obtain just an optimal solution i e least cost but a set of pareto optimal solutions that spread from minimum cost to minimum ghg emissions each pareto optimal solution provides the corresponding technologies and the capacities that are associated with it an innovative issue is that we incorporate the external costs benefits associated with a atmospheric pollution impacts b impacts on soil and groundwater c impacts on quality of life d electricity use displacement e fertilizer use reduction from compost using the external costs benefits as an additional term in the cost objective significantly affects the results especially regarding the waste to energy options this is clearly illustrated in the case study for the msw management of the athens region in greece

the social shaping of the national science base abstract innovation studies confirm de tocqueville s prediction that continuous technical change in business firms in modern society would require the development in close proximity of publicly funded basic research and associated training the rate and direction of the development of a country s science base is strongly influenced by its level of economic development and the composition of its economic and social activities in other words it is socially shaped

assessing the effect of public subsidies on firm r d investment a survey this survey examines the empirical literature on the relationship between public r d subsidies and private r d investment over the past five decades the survey reveals a considerable heterogeneity of empirical results that cannot be explained fully by methodological issues we aim to provide further explanations of the possible causes of that heterogeneity in particular we emphasise a set of issues that in our view are critical to understanding the potential effect of public r d subsidies on private r d spending special attention is paid to the dynamic aspects and composition of firm r d the constraints faced by the firm such as financial constraints and the amount and source of public subsidies none of these issues have been investigated in depth we formulate a set of research assumptions to guide future empirical research in this field

why are governmental r d and private r d complements it is well known that government r d and private r d have a complementary relationship however no previous study has provided an explanation for why that complementary relationship exists this paper argues that infratechnology is the critical link between governmental and private r d and that the observed complementarity is the result of technical complementarity at the production level between funding infratechnology and knowledge sharing a theoritical framework based on this argument is developed and examined empirically for supporting evidence evidence of technical complementary is found as well as evidence that governmental r d stimulates the sharing of knowledge

the effect of government funding on private industrial research and development a re assessment a number of previous studies have attempted to determine the effect of federal support of research and development r d performed in industry on the rate of private investment in r d by estimating regressions of private r d expenditure on federal industrial r d expenditure controlling for total demand sales and in some cases other variables this paper presents arguments and econometric evidence in support of the hypothesis that due to misspecification of the private r d equation i e failure to distinguish government sales from other sales previous estimates of the effect of federal industrial r d on private r d funding are seriously upwardly biased

effects of federal support on company financed r and d the case of energy for decades policy makers in both the public and private sectors have been concerned with the question what is the impact of changes in federal r and d support on company financed r and d expenditures this is one of the first empirical studies at a micro level of this topic the results which pertain to energy r and d indicate a complementarity between government financed and company financed r and d on the average although there is a considerable amount of interfirm variation in this regard in about one third of the projects studied federally financed r and d projects suggested some further r and d into which the firm invested its own funds the results of a logit analysis suggest that whether or not a government financed r and d project results in such a spinoff depends on the extent to which the performing firm contributes to the formulation of the project s goals and strategies

product innovation product market competition and persistent profitability in the u s pharmaceutical industry increasingly strategy scholars are exploring the relationships between innovation competition and the persistence of superior profits sustained high profitability may result when a firm repeatedly introduces valuable innovations that service previously unmet consumer demands while the returns to the firm from each innovation may erode over time innovation ensures that overall the firm maintains a high performance position at the same time sustained high profitability may also accrue to firms that innovate less often but effectively avoid the competition that otherwise erodes high returns this paper elaborates these relationships before presenting an empirical analysis of the effects of differential innovative propensities and differential rates of competition on pharmaceutical firms abilities to sustain profit outcomes that are above those earned by competing firms the analysis which is situated within the u s pharmaceutical industry finds support for the expected relationship between high innovative propensity and sustained superior profitability but no support for a link between persistence and the ability to avoid competition copyright 1999 john wiley sons ltd

heart of darkness modeling public private funding interactions inside the r d black box abstract this paper is a first step toward closing the analytical gap in the extensive literature on the results of interactions between public and private r d expenditures and their joint effects on the economy a survey focusing on econometric studies in this area reveals a plethora of sometimes confusing and frequently contradictory estimates of the response of company financed r d to changes in the level and nature of this category of public expenditures yet a theoretical framework seldom is provided within which the empirical results are to be interpreted some such structure is necessary in view of the multiple channels through which public research can affect private r d performance especially as not all the effects flow in the same direction a major cause of inconsistencies in the empirical literature is the failure to recognize key differences among the various policy experiments being considered depending upon the economy in which they are embedded and the type of public sector r d spending that is contemplated using a simple stylized structural model we identify the main channels of impact of public r d we thus can characterize the various effects distinguishing between short and long run impacts that would show up in simple regression analyses of nominal public and private r d expenditure variables within the context of our simple model it is possible to offer interpretations that shed light on recent cross section and panel data findings at both high i e national and low specific technology area levels of aggregation

the microeconomics of manufacturing modernization programs abstract manufacturing modernization programs are designed to improve the competitiveness of small and medium sized manufacturers by accelerating their use of best practice technologies justification for these programs is most often cast in terms of past slow rates of adoption international economic competitiveness and market failures in the provision of information these frameworks however do not adequately address policy and programmatic issues related to program design financing and program evaluation using a microeconomic model based on the firm and industry level effects of these programs we examine the importance of spillover benefits from modernization efforts both horizontal spillovers to rivals of program clients and vertical spillovers to clients customers and the implications for these policy and programmatic issues

encouraging university entrepreneurship the effect of the bayh dole act on university patenting in the united states abstract universities are seen as a source of technology development that is useful to entrepreneurial activity as a result policy makers often consider mechanisms to stimulate technology commercialization at research universities as a way to encourage entrepreneurial activity in a region however the transfer of technology from universities to the private sector requires the exploitation of markets for knowledge which are fraught with difficulty arrow k 1962 economic welfare and the allocation of resources for inventions in nelson r ed the rate and direction of inventive activity princeton nj princeton univ press this article examines the effect of one u s public policy initiative the bayh dole act in the united states on one aspect of technology commercialization university patenting specifically the article explores the university share of patents from 1969 through 1996 across 117 lines of business and shows that the effectiveness of licensing in a line of business is significantly correlated with university share of patents in the post bayh dole period but not in the pre bayh dole period these results suggest that the bayh dole act provided incentives for universities to increase patenting in those fields in which licensing is an effective mechanism for acquiring new technical knowledge the paper discusses the implications of this shift in patenting for research and public policy

regional economic impacts of federal r d by funding source and performer type hicks d a and lee s g 1994 regional economic impacts of federal r d by funding source and performer type reg studies 28 619 632 guided by persistent spatial and sectoral concentration of federal r d we find that while defence r d is stimulative funds flowing to non defence non profit and educational research institutions are more so effects are stronger in larger metro scale regions and in local economies in which manufacturing accounts for greater shares of total employment moreover federal r d flows appear to have local investment effects as indicated by their capacity to accelerate the rate of local employment expansion in the total technology intensive tti subsector in which r d intensive goods account for significant portions of inputs and final output hicks d a et lee s g 1994 les impacts economiques regionaux des depenses de r et d federales suivant l origine et la destination des fonds reg studies 28 619 632 pilote par la concentration geographique et sectorielle des d

the international economics of intellectual property right protection a welfare theoretic trade policy analysis abstract this paper provides an analytical construct for examining the trade policy effects of greater intellectual property protection in technology importing countries it is shown that two types of conflict are likely to arise between net technology importers and exporters the first relates to the level of protection with importers preferring a low level and exporters a high one the second conflict hitherto unexplored relates to the manner of protection with importers likely to prefer discriminatory regimes favoring local r d creation whereas exporters would prefer nondiscriminatory protection in importing countries

scientific linkages and firm productivity panel data evidence from taiwanese electronics firms using a panel of electronics firms listed on the taiwan stock exchange this paper explores the spillover of scientific research to the private sector by looking at the impact of the intensity a patent s backward citation of scientific publications relative to citation of other patents on the patent owning firm s productivity to identify the causal effect we use measures of a firm s financial constraints as instrumental variables to account for the potential endogeneity of scientific citation intensity of a patent the empirical results suggest that the citation of scientific publications by a patent has a strong and positive effect on the patent owning firm s productivity

estimating the impact of government r d abstract if we do not pay for an input it is important it is suggested that the r d literature by ignoring the fact that government r d is given away has confused zero value of marginal product with zero marginal physical product

r versus d estimating the differentiated effect of research and development on innovation results r d is considered to be the main source of innovation we argue that r d is too broad a measure including activities differing in purposes culture people management and other features however empirical studies have not analyzed them separately mainly due to the lack of data using firm level data the aim of this paper is to estimate the differentiated effect of research and development on different innovation outputs results show that both research and development activities are important however we find that development activities are more important for product innovation while the effect of research activities is higher on process innovation moreover we analyze differences by technological intensity of the sector when analyzing product and process innovations we find evidence supporting the existence of higher payoffs to development and especially to research in low tech sectors when compared with high tech ones

r d subsidy and self financed r d the case of japanese high technology start ups this paper examines whether public r d subsidies constitute a substitute or complement for private financed r d the empirical analysis is based on a panel data of 223 japanese high technology start ups our evidence is consistent with the complement hypothesis i e that publicly funded r d does promote private r d the complement effects are stronger for more mature firms this is because such firms in the growth phase might have greater demands for r d funds