a meta analysis of the international gender wage gap abstract since the early 1970s a number of authors have calculated gender wage differentials between women and men of equal productivity this meta study provides a new quantitative review of this vast amount of empirical literature on gender wage differentials as it concerns not only differences in methodology data and time periods but also different countries we place particular emphasis on a proper consideration of the quality of the underlying study which is done by a weighting with quality indicators the results show that data restrictions i e the limitation of the analysis to new entrants never marrieds or one narrow occupation only have the biggest impact on the resulting gender wage gap moreover we are able to show what effect a misspecification of the underlying wage equation like the frequent use of potential experience has on the calculated gender wage gap over time raw wage differentials worldwide have fallen substantially however most of this decrease is due to better labor market endowments of females

equal pay as a moving target international perspectives on forty years of addressing the gender pay gap this paper provides an overview of the key factors impacting upon the gender pay gap in the uk europe and australia forty years after the implementation of the first equal pay legislation the pay gap remains a key aspect of the inequalities women face in the labour market while the overall pay gap has tended to fall in many countries over the past forty years it has not closed in some countries it has been stubbornly resistant or has even widened in reviewing the collection of papers that make up this special issue we identify four broad themes with which to group the contributions and draw out the explanations for diverse trends theoretical and conceptual debates legal developments and their impacts wage setting institutions and changing employer demands and newly emerging pay inequalities between and within educational and ethnic groups across the four themes we underline how the trends in the gender pay gap capture the dynamism of inequalities as the market power of different groups and stakeholders changes over times three key dimensions emerge from the papers to provide a framework for future research and policy discourse the relationship between litigation and bargaining strategies the interaction between wage setting institutions and new organisational practices and the increasing and range of diversity or equality strands competing for equal treatment we conclude that progress towards closing the gender pay gap will not be easy will require a collective effort of various actors and will not be quick

structural determinants of peripheral urbanization the effects of international dependence this paper examines the extent and mechanisms by which international economic dependence affects urbanization in peripheral countries between 1950 and 1970 using panel regression analyses qnd structural equation models on a sample of37 countries investment dependence is found to have a lagged positive effect on urbanization in 1970 the data suggest that investment dependence stimulates growth in the tertiary and informal sectors while inhibiting growth in the industrial labor sector this restructuring of the urban labor force generates increased levels of overurbanization in peripheral countries finally it is argued that dependency theory provides a more adequate framework for understanding urbanization in peripheral countries than modernization theory

urbanization and underdevelopment a global study of modernization urban bias and economic dependency the causes and effects of 3rd world urbanization have been addressed in theories of modernization urban bias and economic dependency but no single cross national study has tested the arguments advanced by all 3 theories this paper uses panel regression analysis to assess the validity of the 3 perspectives in 61 underdeveloped countries between 1960 and 1980 the modernization theory asserts that industrial employment attracts people to urban areas where they work in modern sector employment that facilitates national economic expansion the urban bias theory posits that the disparity in welfare between country and city increases rural to urban migration and thereby expands both urbanization and service informal employment dependency and world system arguments assert that foreign investment promotes both urbanization and service informal labor with foreign investment in agriculture pushing farmers townward and foreign investment in urban manufacturing pulling them there results suggest that underdeveloped nations are experiencing a gradual transition from an agrarian to a service and informal economy a transformation that impedes economic expansion unfavorable agricultural conditions alone will not push rural citizens to urban areas 2 theories help explain the relationship between relatives urbanization and economic growth if future studies of urbanization and underdevelopment are going to be useful then they must transcend current theoretical and ideological particularism

income inequality regime repressiveness and political violence death rate from political violence is postulated to vary cross nationally as a positively accelerated time lagged function of income inequality and as a nonmonotonic inverted u function of regime repressiveness the former hypothesis is consistent with approaches to the explanation of collective political violence that emphasize the general concept of discontent or more specifically relative deprivation the latter hypothesis is consistent with a political process version of the resource mobilization approach in the context of a multivariate model estimated across two decades 1958 67 and 1968 77 support is found for the inequality hypothesis support also is foundfor the regime repressiveness hypothesis in the decade 1968 77 for which the index of regime repressiveness is available the u curve effect of regime repressiveness appears to have stronger impact on variation in rates of deadly political violence than the positively accelerated effect of income inequality

status in the world system income inequality and economic growth this paper addresses recent challenges to fundamental world system research findings by using methods and measures suggested by critics of these findings reanalysis of income and economic growth data using a categorical indicator of world system status derived from snyder and kick suggests that dependency does increase income inequality and retard per capita economic growth net of initial development this offers renewed support for world system theory by rebutting weede s criticism of rubinson and jackman s criticism of snyder and kick

income inequality development and dependence a reconsideration we reconsider the role of foreign investment in income inequality in light of recent critiques that question the results of quantitative cross national research on foreign capital penetration we analyze an unbalanced cross national data set in which countries contribute different numbers of observations with a maximum of 88 countries and 488 observations dated from 1967 to 1994 random effects regression models that control for unmeasured country heterogeneity are used to investigate effects of foreign capital penetration on inequality measured as the gini coefficient against the background of an internal developmental model of inequality we adapt firebaugh s 1992 1996 critique of the literature on the effect of foreign investment on economic growth to the study of income inequality and find that the stock of foreign direct investment has an effect on inequality that is independent of the mechanisms identified by firebaugh we explore tsai s 1995 claim that the effect of foreign capital penetration is spurious and find that foreign stock has a significant positive effect on inequality net of region specific differences an alternative interpretation of the findings of the foreign investment inequality literature is discussed in light of the discovery of an inverted u shaped relationship between income inequality and foreign investment stock per capita we conclude that thinking on the relationship between income inequality and investment dependence should be revised in light of an investment development path relating the inflow and outflow of foreign capital to economic development

gendering the varieties of capitalism a study of occupational segregation by sex in advanced industrial societies this article explores the unintended gendered consequences of employment protection and vocational training systems it develops a micrologic of skill investment by workers and employers to identify the mechanism by which specific skills become disadvantageous for women the central claim of the article is that institutions that encourage male investment in specific skills exacerbate occupational sex segregation the article finds that coordinated market economies because of their robust institutional protection of male skill investments are generally more sex segregating than are liberal market economies the empirical section provides cross sectional analyses of advanced industrial countries

growth effects of foreign and domestic investment over tha past few years numerous studies in sociology have concluded that foreign investment harms poor nations these studies have focused on the coefficient for foreign capital stock controlling for flow new investment and defying logic have inferred that a negative coefficient for stock reflects dependency effects that retard economic growth since capital stock is the denominator for investment rate the greater the stock the lower the investment rate for a given level of new investment hence the negative coefficient for capital stock found in dependency studies indicates a beneficial investment effect not a harmful effect this point is demonstrated by reanalysis of the data used in dependency studies in these data foreign investment spurs growth earlier analysts have concluded otherwise only because their conclusions have belied their findings

from wage regulation to wage gap how wage setting institutions and structures shape the gender wage gap across three industries in 24 european countries and germany whilst a common and persisting feature of advanced market economies the gender wage gap nevertheless varies across countries amongst the factors affecting this wage gap industrial relations and industry differences still require further research using data from eu silc in 25 european countries this article analyses how national wage setting institutions impact wage differences between male and female full time employees in three distinct industries complementing the country comparison is an in depth study of the german case using data from the german linked employer employee database shedding light on the interaction of industry specific wage setting regulations and gender equity in living wages findings from the international comparison suggest a substantial gender wage gap for full time employees across industries with specific country patterns country patterns seem to be due to the overall influence of trade unions and the relationship between pay bargaining strategies and specific minimum wage policies the german case adds to these findings by analysing the impact of sectoral models of wage bargaining for industry specific gender wage gaps focussing on living wages for skilled full time employees

is there a glass ceiling over europe exploring the gender pay gap across the wages distribution using harmonised data from the european union household panel we analyse gender pay gaps by sector across the wages distribution for ten countries we find that the mean gender pay gap in the raw data typically hides large variations in the gap across the wages distribution we use quantile regression qr techniques to control for the effects of individual and job characteristics at different points of the distribution and calculate the part of the gap attributable to differing returns between men and women we find that first gender pay gaps are typically bigger at the top of the wage distribution a finding that is consistent with the existence of glass ceilings for some countries gender pay gaps are also bigger at the bottom of the wage distribution a finding that is consistent with sticky floors third the gender pay gap is typically higher at the top than the bottom end of the wage distribution suggesting that glass ceilings are more prevalent than sticky floors and that these prevail in the majority of our countries fourth the gender pay gap differs significantly across the public and the private sector wages distribution for each of our eu countries

labour market effects of parental leave in europe we investigate the aggregate level effects of parental leave legislation on various labour market outcomes of women in 16 european countries for the period between 1970 and 2010 the paper updates and extends previous findings in the literature the results show increases in participation rates that diminish with length and generosity of leave schemes while pure participation numbers may not increase dramatically there is strong evidence of increases in weekly working hours on the other hand a decrease in wages for high skilled women and amplified occupational segregation are possible results of long parental leave schemes we conclude with a discussion of the recent debates over extending minimum maternity and parental leave rights on the european level copyright oxford university press

dependence distorted development and fertility trends in noncore nations a structural analysis of cross national data to evaluate the hypothesis that dependence on developed nations distorts demographic development in less developed countries ldcs a researcher used panel regression analysis to study variables from 62 nations multinational corporate penetration an estimate of the shares of both a nations capital and its labor that are controlled by developed country based transnational corporations was used as a measure of the level of dependence the analysis demonstrated that school enrollment was highly correlated with level of development social insurance program history and both family planning effort fpe measures in addition countries that underwent the most economic growth the most concerted fpes etc had the most rapid decline in fertility rates conversely those with high levels of multinational corporate penetration dependency experienced either an increase in fertility or a slow decline for example south koreas 1965 cbr was 36 below the population mean of 45 in 1984 the cbr dropped to 20 even further below the population mean of 39 a dramatic absolute and relative fertility decline south korea also had the highest rate of economic growth and its increase in family planning program effort was dramatic from no measurable effect in 1972 to the nation with the highest fpe score in 1982 in addition the level of multinational penetration was modest in conclusion this research supports the view that intranational economic phenomena such as rate of economic growth and concerted fpes contribute significantly to fertility decline on the other hand multinational corporate penetration distorts development and impedes fertility reduction

overwork and the slow convergence in the gender gap in wages despite rapid changes in women s educational attainment and continuous labor force experience convergence in the gender gap in wages slowed in the 1990s and stalled in the 2000s using cps data fr

intra industry trade and business cycles in asean a new resolve for both increased economic integration and monetary and exchange rate cooperation has started to emerge in the association of southeast asian nations asean especially since the 1997 1998 asian financial crisis according to the optimum currency area theory the degree of trade integration is one of the most important criteria for joining a currency union the large increase in intra asean trade in recent years raises the question of whether the asean countries are becoming better prepared to form a currency union this article sets to test whether the recorded increase in intra asean trade is leading the asean members to closer economic integration and thus to better satisfy the criteria for a common currency two separate models are estimated for that purpose first a variation of the model of frankel and rose 1997 was estimated for the asean members next a new panel data methodology was conducted the results with our own model were very significant and robust when four of the ase

urban bias dependence and economic stagnation in noncore nations this paper contributes to the growing body of research that assesses the effects of patterns of urbanization on economic growth in less developed countries ldcs regression analysis of data for 65 80 nations including analyses of influential cases suggests that both urban bias and dependency have independent simultaneous and negative effects on economic growth further analyses reveal a strong positive relationship between dependency and urban bias these findings show that understanding urbanization and development in the third world requires the consideration of both external international and internal intranational factors and a combination of the insights gained from dependency world system human ecology and modernization theories

family policies wage structures and gender gaps sources of earnings inequality in 20 countries this study uncovers an unexpected effect of family friendly policies on women s economic attainments using hierarchical linear models the analysis combines individual level data obtained from th

capitalist economies and wage inequality this article presents new stylized facts on the incidence of low pay and mobility out of low pay for 13 european countries and the usa women the young the less skilled and part timers are generally most at risk as are those who work in retail hotels catering and personal services however the relative importance of these characteristics can vary from country to country the incidence of low pay varies considerably across countries as does its trend no direct link is found to aggregate employment or to the employment rate of the less skilled nor does the industrial structure of employment have much effect however differences between the low wage production of goods and of services are important inclusive labour relations are central in containing the incidence of low pay by inclusiveness is meant the existence of mechanisms formal or informal to extend terms and conditions negotiated by workers with strong bargaining power to workers with less bargaining power in some countries a national minimum wage is an essential accompaniment the article considers the extent to which countries can maintain the more benign institutions that limit low pay copyright 2009 oxford university press