household carbon inequality in urban china its sources and determinants designing mitigation policies for households requires knowledge of household carbon distributions this study surveys the household carbon inequality in urban china and analyzes its sources and determinants using weighted household survey data different from existing literatures studying carbon inequality on the international or regional level we focus on the household aspect and first survey its characteristics by some comparisons by ascribing household carbon emissions calculated by the consumer lifestyle approach to several consumption categories with the method of gini coefficient decomposition we find that residential consumption with high carbon intensity is the most important source of household carbon inequality in urban china food consumption and the consumption of educational cultural and recreational services are the next largest sources because of the consumed quantities or carbon intensity the application of shapley decomposition shows the determinants of household carbon inequality in urban china and their contributions which are household demographic characteristics 59 74 household employment and income 24 31 household burdens 8 00 and household assets and financial plans 7 95 the policy implications of these results are also discussed

studying the relationship between economic growth co2 emissions and the environmental kuznets curve in venezuela 1980 2025 abstract this work tries to determine whether it is possible to stabilize co2 emissions under a rapid increase of gross domestic product in a medium term the paper is an effort to study in detail how changes in the driving forces of the economy affect co2 emissions we study the case of venezuela for the period 1980 2025 using the methodology proposed by robalino lopez et al 2014 2013 1 2 which is based on an extension of the kaya identity and on a gdp formation approach that includes the effect of renewable energies we test the environmental kuznets curve ekc 3 hypothesis in a coming future under different economic scenarios considering therefore not only past data but also projections for the coming years we use cointegration techniques 4 and the jaunky 2011 5 specification to test the fulfillment of the ekc hypothesis in venezuela our predictions show that venezuela does not fulfill the ekc hypothesis but however the country could be on the way to achieve environmental stabilization in the medium term this stabilization could be accomplished combining economic growth with increasing use of renewable energy appropriated changes in the energy matrix and in the productive sectoral structure

world polarization in carbon emissions potential conflict and groups an updated revision abstract typically conflicts in world environmental negotiations are related amongst other aspects to the level of polarization of the countries in groups with conflicting interests given the predictable relationship between polarization and conflict it would seem logical to evaluate the degree to which the distribution of countries for example in terms of their co 2 emissions per capita would be structured through groups which in themselves are antagonistic as well as their evolution over time this paper takes the concept of polarization to explore this distribution for the period 1992 2010 looking at different analytic approaches related to the concept specifically it makes a comparative evaluation of the results associated with endogenous multi polarization measures i e egr and der indices exogenous measures i e z k or multidimensional index and strict bipolarization measures i e wolfson s measure indeed the interest lies not only in evaluating the global situation of polarization by comparing the different approaches and their temporal patterns but also in examining the explanatory capacity of the different proxy groups used as a possible reference for designing global environmental policy from a group premise

sex differences in tenure profiles effects of shared firm specific investment this article employs a model of masanori hashimoto with extensions by donald parsons to analyze variation in tenure by sex age and firm type fixed wage contracts eliminate postcontractual opportunism associated with firm specific human capital investment however such contracts result in inefficient quits and terminations calibration of the sharing of this investment between workers and employers minimizes the costs of these inefficient separations moreover this optimal sharing rate varies systematically with the characteristics listed above these tenure slope implications are tested with favorable results

carbon inequality at the sub national scale a case study of provincial level inequality in co2 emissions in china 1997 2007 abstract this study asks whether sub national inequalities in carbon dioxide co2 emissions mirror international patterns in carbon inequality using the case study of china several studies have examined global level carbon inequality however such approaches have not been used on a sub national scale this study examines inter provincial inequality in co2 emissions within china using common measures of inequality coefficient of variation gini index theil index to analyze provincial level data derived from the ipcc reference approach for the years 1997 2007 it decomposes co2 emissions inequality into its inter regional and intra regional components patterns of per capita co2 emissions inequality in china appear superficially similar to though slightly lower than per capita income inequality however decomposing these inequalities reveals different patterns while inter provincial income inequality is highly regional in character inter provincial co2 emissions inequality is primarily intra regional while apparently similar global patterns in co2 emissions are not mirrored at the sub national scale

future inequality in co2 emissions and the impact of abatement proposals this paper analyzes future carbon emissions inequality using a group decomposition of the gini index business as usual projections to the year 2100 for 135 countries show inequality in per capita emissions declines slowly next the impact on emissions levels and inequality of the kyoto protocol and other abatement proposals for annex ii countries in 2010 are measured with a focus on the gap narrowing and reranking effects substantial reranking of per capita emissions between annex ii and non annex ii countries will not occur unless the former reduce their emissions by at least 50 versus 1990 levels and the latter continue growing unabated

international inequalities in per capita co2 emissions a decomposition methodology by kaya factors in this paper we provide a methodology for decomposing international inequalities in per capita co2 emissions into kaya multiplicative factors and two interaction terms we use the theil index of inequality and show that this decomposition methodology can be extended for analyzing between and within group inequality components we can thus analyze the factors behind inequalities in per capita co2 emissions across countries between groups of countries and within groups of countries the empirical illustration for international data suggests some points firstly international inequality in per capita co2 emissions is mainly attributable to inequalities in per capita income levels which helps to explain its recent reduction while differences in carbon intensity of energy and energy intensity have made a less significant contribution this result is strongly influenced by the performance of china and india secondly the between group inequality component which is the biggest component is also largely explained by the income factor thirdly the within group inequality component increased slightly during the period something mainly due to the change in the income factor and the interaction terms in a few regions

firm specific human capital as a shared investment reply as edwin leuven and hessel oosterbeek 2001 point out rather than performing the comparative statics analysis on the effect of increasing uncertainty my original study limited the analysis to degenerate cases and refrained from inferring a possible monotonic relationship between uncertainties and the share ratio hashimoto 1981 pp 479 80 leuven and oosterbeek do not dispute my conclusions for degenerate cases donald o parsons 1986 p 826 later asserted such a monotonic relationship without reporting a comparative statics analysis leuven and oosterbeek use a uniform distribution of productivity to dispute parsons assertion hashimoto and jeong geon lee 1994 reached a similar conclusion to theirs given the hashimoto lee comparative statics analysis i view the most significant contribution of leuven oosterbeek to be not so much their comparative statics as their explicit formulation to account for what has become known in the literature as enforceability of contracts in the 1981 paper i was concerned with the enforceability issues so i adopted a certaintyequivalent approach to the fixed wage formulation in the face of double informational asymmetry between the employer and worker i then focused on the becker type share determination of specific human capital returns gary s becker 1962 leuven and oosterbeek directly formulate the enforceability of employment contracts in terms of a fixed wage rather than in terms of the sharing ratio by considering the enforceability or the incentive compatibility issues in a fuller perspective i conclude that the certainty equivalent formulation i adopted in my 1981 model has an internal infirmity in my opinion this infirmity is a point that a serious comment on hashimoto 1981 should underscore i do not think that leuven and oosterbeek s comment 2001 is sufficiently articulate or structured to highlight this point space does not permit a full discussion so let me remark briefly on an important point that leuven and oosterbeek should have highlighted but did not the explicit and direct determination of the incentive compatible fixed wage w leads me to conclude that the joint maximand is not the unconditional expectation ev s 2 ey s as i originally formulated rather it is the conditional expectation estay v s 2 y s conditional on both parties not separating in the latter formulation the determination of the fixed wage w implies an ex ante determination of the share parameter to be a 5 estay w 2 y s estay v s 2 y s which is equivalent to leuven and oosterbeek s definition of a in spite of the difference in formulation between leuven oosterbeek and hashimoto lee the two studies obtain essentially the same comparative statics results this is because both formulations rely on incentive compatibility conditions for separation decisions where the forces at work are basically the same thus leuven and oosterbeek confirm the accuracy of the degenerate results reported in hashimoto 1981 for nondegenerate cases the comparative statics are generally ambiguous using a uniform distribution leuven and oosterbeek do find that the optimal wage decreases with the uncertainty in the market and increases with the uncertainty in the firm p 345 these findings are equivalent to what hashimoto and lee 1994 found that the optimal share ratio decreases with the uncertainty in the outside productivity and increases with the uncertainty in the inside productivity the leuven oosterbeek comment contributes a technical advance but it retains the essential economic logic department of economics 410 arps hall ohio state university 1945 north high street columbus oh 43210 i am grateful to hajime miyazaki for extensive discussions that elucidated theoretical issues in modeling information asymmetric employment relations and for improving the exposition and to teresa schoellner for her very competent research assistance however i bear full responsibility for any remaining shortcomings 1 further analytical details are available upon request

assessing global co2 emission inequality from consumption perspective an index decomposition analysis abstract co2 emission inequality among countries is a key issue in international climate negotiations in view of the growing popularity of the consumption based emission accounting system in climate policy studies analyzing the emission inequality from the consumption perspective can help policymakers design emission abatement scenarios that are fairer to all parties using a new approach based on the theil index and the index decomposition analysis ida technique this paper examines global per capita consumption based emission inequality in 1995 2009 the sources and determinants of both the status and evolution of the emission inequality are quantified the empirical results show that the global emission inequality was sourced mainly from the emerging economies particularly china and india the global inequality decreased at an accelerating rate during the period studied the narrowing disparity among countries in per capita consumption level drove while the expanding disparity in consumption based emission intensity largely hindered the inequality reduction comparing the consumption based emission inequality with that under the production based principle reveals that the latter partly masked the inequality in the distribution of global co2 emissions through production outsourcing more detailed results and discussions are presented

the accumulation of technology capital goods production in developing countries revisited abstract this paper examines theoretical and empirical issues related to the establishment of new capital goods industries in developing countries conventional theoretical approaches emphasize economic growth through allocation of substantial resources to capital goods production an extension of these approaches is proposed to account for the increasingly important role of the sector in innovation and diffusion of technology in addition it is argued that the global diffusion of key value added core components and the imperatives of dynamic information related economies of scale tend to erode comparative advantages from low labor costs in developing countries

international inequality in energy intensity levels and the role of production composition and energy efficiency an analysis of oecd countries abstract this paper analyses the inequality of energy intensity levels between oecd countries its causes and evolution the paper develops a methodology which allows the inequality in energy consumption per capita to be decomposed into explanatory factors it also analyses the contribution of different groups of countries to this inequality the results show that although differences in affluence are the most significant factor in explaining inequality in energy consumption per capita the inequality in energy intensity levels plays a prominent role in reducing the inequality in energy consumption per capita over the analysed period the paper also develops a methodology which determines the importance of different production structures and energy efficiency of productive sectors in the differences in energy use per unit of gdp between the countries analysed the results show that sector specialisation becomes increasingly important in explaining the inequality of energy intensity while there is a significant trend towards the convergence of energy efficiency between countries sector by sector this trend would explain the decreasing weight of energy intensity as an explanatory factor of the inequalities in energy consumption per capita

distributional aspects of emissions in climate change integrated assessment models the recent failure of copenhagen negotiations shows that concrete actions are needed to create the conditions for a consensus over global emission reduction policies a wide coalition of countries in international climate change agreements could be facilitated by the perceived fairness of rich and poor countries of the abatement sharing at international level in this paper i use two popular climate change integrated assessment models to investigate the path and decompose components and sources of future inequality in the emissions distribution results prove to be consistent with previous empirical studies and robust to model comparison and show that gaps in gdp across world regions will still play a crucial role in explaining different countries contributions to global warming

the relevance of science and technology indicators the case of pulp and paper this paper is based on a detailed analysis of knowledge formation and technical development within pulp and paper p p technology in section two it is shown that aggregated published statistics are not reliable for a deeper understanding of r d activities in p p technology the third section contains an in depth study of the development of thermopulp technology an incremental innovation creating a more energy efficient process for thermomechanical pulping it is shown that only some 20 of total development costs are accounted for as r d in the fourth section it is argued that project groups responsible for ventures like the recently installed paper machine in braviken sweden in fact carry out important innovative activities characteristic for this technological system the innovativeness of these concentrations of engineers is not accounted for as r d the long term potential for p p technology is probably related to the ability of the actors to transform products and processes to a more intensive use of biotechnology this transformation process may be classified as a radical technological change or even a shift of technological paradigm the dominant science and technology s t indicators do not capture this process however the conclusion formulated in section six is that the dominant s t indicators provide us with very blunt tools for understanding and explaining industrial and technological change

decomposing inequality in co2 emissions the role of primary energy carriers and economic sectors emission inequality across countries and the contribution of the energy mix and the sectoral composition of a country s energy use are of central importance to the climate debate we analyze the evolution of inequality in global co2 per capita emissions using both historical data on energy related co2 emissions and future emission scenarios generated with the integrated assessment model remind within our sample of 90 countries the results indicate that the gini index declined from about 0 6 in 1971 to slightly above 0 4 in 2008 a decomposition of the gini index of total emissions into primary energy carriers indicates that this reduction is mainly attributed to declining shares of emissions from coal peat and oil in total emissions and decreasing emission inequality within all fossil primary energy sources from the perspective of economic sectors the decline in overall inequality is almost entirely due to a decline of the contribution of emissions from manufacturing construction our analysis also suggests that an equally spread emission reduction from any one source would not have a major impact on overall emission inequality the analysis of future scenario data indicates that climate policy reduces absolute emission inequality while inducing drastic progressive emission reductions in all regions

inter industry technology flows in the united states abstract this paper presents for the u s economy a technology flows matrix tracing 1974 industrial r d expenditures from their industries of origin to industries in which the use of resulting products and processes was anticipated the distinction between origin and using industries is crucial to understanding the links between r d and productivity growth a regression analysis reveals high social rates of return and substantial productivity impacts from r d attributed to industries of use

the excess sensitivity of layoffs and quits to demand excessive layoffs in bad times and excessive quits in good times both stem from the same weakness in practical employment arrangements the specific nature of worker firm relations creates a situat

inequality across countries in energy intensities an analysis of the role of energy transformation and final energy consumption this paper analyzes the role of the energy transformation index and of final energy consumption per gdp unit in the disparities in energy intensity across countries in that vein we use a theil decomposition approach to analyze global primary energy intensity inequality as well as inequality across different regions of the world and inequality within these regions the paper first demonstrates the pre eminence of divergence in final energy consumption per gdp unit in explaining global primary energy intensity inequality and its evolution during the 1971 2006 period secondly it shows the lower albeit non negligible impact of the transformation index in global primary energy inequality thirdly the relevance of regions as unit of analysis in studying cross country energy intensity inequality and their explanatory factors is highlighted and finally how regions around the world differ as to the relevance of the energy transformation index in explaining primary energy intensity inequality

global appropriation of resources causes high international material inequality growth is not the solution abstract high levels of resource consumption cause detrimental environmental change very low consumption may fail to meet basic needs a major challenge for a sustainability transformation is to reduce inequalities and achieve a globally sustainable level of resource flows by providing access to resources beyond national boundaries trade could either lead to more equal international distribution or aggravate unequal distribution of material resources for a sample of 173 countries between 1993 and 2010 we studied the role of trade and the upstream global appropriation of resources in international material inequality until the turn of the century per capita material extraction was as unequally distributed as material consumption extraction plus imports minus exports import and export flows as such do not greatly affect inequality the global appropriation of materials associated with trade however decisively increased inequality until 2000 in the 21st century decreasing inequality coincided with a sharp rise in global material extraction appropriated by high and upper middle income countries such growth led reduction of inequality is not environmentally sustainable it has until now been enabled by global trade patterns distributing resources in a way that can never be globally inclusive putting especially the world s poorest countries at risk

reducing global environmental inequality determining regional quotas for environmental burdens through systems optimisation abstract reducing inequality is essential for sustainable development yet our understanding of its many dimensions and driving forces is still limited here we study the global distribution of 25 environmental burdens encompassing natural resources water materials and land use and air emissions all related to activities underpinning human welfare we find large disparities in inequality levels across burdens and a general yet slow decline in inequality in the period 1995 2009 explained mostly by the faster economic growth of emerging economies acknowledging that allocation issues may hamper greater equality we propose a framework for an optimal allocation of quotas for environmental burdens respecting a maximum allowable inequality limit while ensuring a safe operation within the earth s ecological capacity our results shed light on the global distribution of environmental burdens and provide a roadmap for achieving a greater environmental equality using systems optimisation it is hoped that this work will trigger further discussion on the need to address environmental inequality currently missing in the sustainable development goals and open up new research avenues on the use of whole systems approaches in solving global sustainability problems

sectoral patterns of technical change towards a taxonomy and a theory abstract the purpose of the paper is to describe and explain sectoral patterns of technical change as revealed by data on about 2000 significant innovations in britain since 1945 most technological knowledge turns out not to be information that is generally applicable and easily reproducible but specific to firms and applications cumulative in development and varied amongst sectors in source and direction innovating firms principally in electronics and chemicals are relatively big and they develop innovations over a wide range of specific product groups within their principal sector but relatively few outside firms principally in mechanical and instrument engineering are relatively small and specialised and they exist in symbiosis with large firms in scale intensive sectors like metal manufacture and vehicles who make a significant contribution to their own process technology in textile firms on the other hand most process innovations come from suppliers these characteristics and variations can be classified in a three part taxonomy based on firms 1 supplier dominated 2 production intensive 3 science based they can be explained by sources of technology requirements of users and possibilities for appropriation this explanation has implications for our understanding of the sources and directions of technical change firms diversification behaviour the dynamic relationship between technology and industrial structure and the formation of technological skills and advantages at the level of the firm the region and the country

firm specific human capital as a shared investment comment employment relationships typically involve the division of surplus surplus can be the result of a good match a monopoly rent or a quasirent that arises because of a specific investment the division of this surplus is of economic interest as it is a determinant of turnover investment and wages gary s becker 1962 argued in the context of specific human capital investments that the incumbent employee and firm will share the surplus this notion was formalized in a prototypical model of surplus sharing as first proposed by masanori hashimoto 1981 the model has been studied extensively among others by h lorne carmichael 1983 robert e hall and edward p lazear 1984 and donald o parsons 1986 while elizabeth becker and cotton m lindsay 1994 provide an empirical application the key feature of the model is the existence of transaction costs both the employee and the firm have ex ante uncertain private information on which they cannot write a contingent contract this makes that they write a nonrenegotiable contract that specifies a fixed wage after this the firm learns the value of the employee s marginal product whereas the employee learns the value of his outside option both parties then decide unilaterally whether to separate or not and inefficient separations may occur the wage is set in such a way as to maximize the expected total surplus the present analysis will consider the role of uncertainty in this model this has not been done before in a rigorous way hashimoto considered only degenerate cases his analysis suggests that the wage will be low when the uncertainty of the market conditions is small and high when the uncertainty of the conditions inside the firm is small parsons 1986 makes a claim that this is actually the case without deriving the result this paper shows that the comparative statics are ambiguous and may well be the opposite of those suggested by hashimoto and claimed by parsons it also provides the intuition that is behind this result namely that uncertainty not only influences turnover but also the option value of the match and its opportunity cost section i briefly summarizes hashimoto s model and shows that without further assumptions the comparative statics are ambiguous section ii derives an explicit solution of the wage section iii briefly considers alternative wage setting schemes and section iv concludes

geographical spread of global emissions within country inequalities are large and increasing abstract in spite of the extensive literature on greenhouse gas emission inequalities at the world wide level most of the evidence so far has been based on country level data however the within country dimension matters for both the implementation and the policy formation of climate policies as a preliminary step towards a better understanding of within country inequalities this paper measures their extent for the two major greenhouse gases co2 and ch4 over the 1970 2008 period using theil index decompositions we show that within country inequalities account for the bulk of global inequality and tend to increase over the sample period in contrast with diminishing between country inequalities including differences across sectors reveals that between sector inequalities matter more than between country inequalities and between sector inequalities become the dominant source of global inequality at the end of the sample period in the co2 case finally estimated social tensions arising from the disconnection between emissions and future damages turn out to be increasing as soon as within country disparities are taken into account these orders of magnitude should be kept in mind while discussing the efficiency and fairness of alternative paths in combating global warming

inequality of renewable energy generation across oecd countries a note abstract this study recommends the use of theil s second measure to investigate international renewable energy generation disparities this index permits disparities to be broken down within and between groups of countries in a reliable style an analysis of oecd countries for 1980 2011 shows some basic points first drop in renewable energy generation disparities is attributable both to within group and between group inequality components second between group inequalities are presently the key contributor to the inequality and further investigation on within group inequalities divulges the significant explanatory role played by north american european and asian and oceanian countries

inequality of energy intensities across oecd countries a note abstract this paper proposes the use of theil s second measure to analyze international energy intensity differences this index allows differences to be broken down within and between groups of countries in a consistent manner an analysis of oecd countries for the period 1971 1999 shows some basic points first the fall in energy intensities differences is attributable both to within group and between group inequality components second between group inequalities are currently the main contributor to the whole inequality value finally a detailed exploration on within group inequalities reveals the significant explanatory role played by eu countries

inequality in co2 emissions across countries and its relationship with income inequality a distributive approach this paper analyses the inequality in co2 emissions across countries and groups of countries and the relationship of this inequality with income inequality across countries for the period 1971 1999 the research employs the tools that are usually applied in income distribution analysis the methodology used here gives qualitative and quantitative information on some of the features of the inequalities across countries that are considered most relevant for the design and discussion of policies aimed at mitigating climate change the paper studies the relationship between co2 emissions and gdp and shows that income inequality across countries has been followed by an important inequality in the distribution of emissions this inequality has diminished mildly although the inequality in emissions across countries ordered in the increasing value of income inequality between rich and poor countries has diminished less than the simple inequality in emissions lastly the paper shows that the inequality in co2 emissions is mostly explained by the inequality between groups with different per capita income level the importance of the inequality within groups of similar per capita income is much lower and has diminished during the period especially in the low middle income group

economic growth and environmental degradation the environmental kuznets curve and sustainable development abstract in this paper we critically examine the concept of the environmental kuznets curve ekc it proposes that there is an inverted u shape relation between environmental degradation and income per capita so that eventually growth reduces the environmental impact of economic activity the concept is dependent on a model of the economy in which there is no feedback from the quality of the environment to production possibilities and in which trade has a neutral effect on environmental degradation the actual violation of these assumptions gives rise to fundamental problems in estimating the parameters of an ekc the paper identifies other econometric problems with estimates of the ekc and reviews a number of empirical studies the inference from some such ekc estimates that further development will reduce environmental degradation is dependent on the assumption that world per capita income is normally distributed when in fact median income is far below mean income we carry out simulations combining ekc estimates from the literature with world bank forecasts for economic growth for individual countries aggregating over countries to derive the global impact within the horizon of the bank s forecast 2025 global emissions of so 2 continue to increase forest loss stabilizes before the end of the period but tropical deforestation continues at a constant rate throughout the period

time varying analysis of co2 emissions energy consumption and economic growth nexus statistical experience in next 11 countries this paper detects the direction of causality among carbon dioxide co2 emissions energy consumption and economic growth in next 11 countries for the period 1972 2013 changes in economic energy and environmental policies as well as regulatory and technological advancement over time cause changes in the relationship among the variables we use a novel approach i e time varying granger causality and find that economic growth is the cause of co2 emissions in bangladesh and egypt economic growth causes energy consumption in the philippines turkey and vietnam but the feedback effect exists between energy consumption and economic growth in south korea in the cases of indonesia and turkey we find the unidirectional time varying granger causality running from economic growth to co2 emissions thus validates the existence of the environmental kuznets curve hypothesis which indicates that economic growth is achievable at the minimal cost of environment the paper gives new insights for policy makers to attain sustainable economic growth while maintaining long run environmental quality

weighting vectors and international inequality changes in environmental indicators an analysis of co2 per capita emissions and kaya factors abstract analyses of international inequality in environmental factors such as the well known co 2 per capita or the kaya factors that is carbon intensity energy intensity and affluence have overlooked the effect that weighting vectors of distance functions and their time variations can have on the evolution of the inequality observed thus for example increases in the relative weight of countries with low emissions tend ceteris paribus to increase the inequality even when the vector of international per capita emissions remains unchanged this effect strictly associated with share variations is assessed in this paper by means of a simple decomposition methodology this methodology allows us to ascertain what part of the time variation of the inequality is attributable to the variations in the shares and or the variations in the environmental variable analysed and in turn suggests extending the analysis to the group components of inequality shorrocks 1980 this proposition is used empirically to assess international inequalities in co 2 per capita and the kaya factors for a variety of sub periods during the 1971 2007 period and for various satisfactory inequality indices

the costs of related diversification the impact of the core business on the productivity of related segments i develop the thesis that in related diversified firms the core business in my analysis the largest business may provide benefits such as scope economies to a related segment but it may also exert power and constrain the segment to act in its interests in various internal and external transactions this enables the core business to shift productivity gains toward itself from the segment which could lead to various inefficiencies within the related diversified firm using input output flow data and a multilevel model with the segment as the unit of analysis i first show that a segment s productivity is lower compared with a single business firm when it shares backward and forward complementarity i e when it shares transactions with common suppliers and customers with the core business correspondingly i show that as a mirror image the core business s productivity is enhanced when the business shares backward and forward complementarity with segments and when segments are backward integrated with it i e when the core business provides outputs to segments these shifts in productivity and the attendant inefficiencies do not seem to be destroying the entire value from related diversification overall the findings support the argument that the power and influence exerted by the core business and concomitantly the subsidization of the core business by related segments is an important source of costs borne by segments in a related diversified firm

the influence of market demand upon innovation a critical review of some recent empirical studies abstract a number of recent empirical studies of technical change at the level of the individual firm have concluded that market demand is the dominant influence upon the innovation process calling forth innovations in market economies the pace of innovation in the private sector heavily influences the growth of national output and productivity and these studies and their conclusions have therefore received much attention having been extensively quoted in discussions of appropriate government policy for the encouragement of innovation this paper reviews a number of these studies and concludes that their findings and the interpretations of their findings in the secondary literature are seriously flawed and in many cases invalid the proposition that market demand governs the innovation process is by no means conclusively demonstrated in these studies and they are therefore inadequate and inappropriate guides for the formulation of policy most of the studies examined employ a working definition of demand factors which is so broad as to embrace a range of possible influences upon innovation which should more properly be classified elsewhere the concept of demand utilized in these studies bears little resemblance to the more restrictive and precise definition of market demand found in economics in addition the phenomena analyzed in these studies are a very heterogeneous lot the studies do not address identical empirical questions and their findings are as a result neither uniform nor unambiguous both demand and supply side influences are crucial to understanding the innovation process and it is the exclusive preoccupation with only one set of these forces which is criticized in this paper some implications of the criticism for government policy toward innovation are discussed in the conclusion

is the choice of renewable portfolio standards random this study investigated factors influencing the adoption or intention to adopt renewable portfolio standards rps by individual states in the united states u s theory of adoption of innovation was applied as a conceptual framework a logistic model was used to achieve the task gross state product gsp growth rate of population grp political party dominancy education level natural resources expenditure and share of coal in electricity generation were used as explanatory variables results indicated that the model predicts the dependent variable state s choice of adopting or not adopting rps 82 times correctly out of 100 results also suggested that education followed by political party dominancy gsp and grp are shown to have large impacts on the probability of rps adoption

economic growth and atmospheric pollution in spain discussing the environmental kuznets curve hypothesis abstract the environmental kuznets curve ekc hypothesis posits an inverted u relationship between environmental pressure and per capita income recent research has examined this hypothesis for different pollutants in different countries despite certain empirical evidence showing that some specific environmental pressures have diminished in developed countries the hypothesis could not be generalized to the global relationship between economy and environment at all in this article we contribute to this debate analyzing the trends of annual emission flux of six atmospheric pollutants in spain the study presents evidence that there is not any correlation between higher income level and smaller emissions except for so2 whose evolution might be compatible with the ekc hypothesis the authors argue that the relationship between income level and diverse types of emissions depends on many factors thus it cannot be thought that economic growth by itself will solve environmental problems

embodied knowledge and sectoral linkages an input output approach to the interaction of high and low tech industries abstract this paper considers the measurement of the direct and indirect flows of knowledge between different technology intensive industries in france germany norway sweden and the united states using the oecd input output database and the anberd database we show that product embodied knowledge accounts for about half of total technology use on average but with a substantial variation between industries we then develop a general two sector linkage measure that allows us to examine the interaction between predominantly technology producing industries generally high tech and predominantly technology using industries generally low tech this study shows that the medium high and medium low tech industries identified as specialized supplier and scale intensive industries including knowledge intensive business services kibs are essential for the production diffusion and use of technology and hence for economic growth

urbanization economic growth energy consumption and co2 emissions empirical evidence from countries with different income levels abstract the growth of anthropogenic co2 emissions has been widely attributed to the combustion of energy in support of human activities associated with economic development while the link between urbanization economic growth energy consumption and co2 emissions has as a result received considerable multidisciplinary scholarly attention little work has been undertaken with respect to the how differences in the development stages or income levels of the countries studied may affect these relations here we empirically explore the link between urbanization economic development energy consumption and co2 emissions specifically taking into account the different income levels of the countries studied a series of panel data models and a balanced dataset for a panel of 170 countries were utilized in the study which took the period of 1980 2011 into consideration the result of panel cointegration tests suggested that a cointegration relationship existed between variables in all the countries studied and that a statistically significant positive relationship existed between the variables employed in the long run the results of a granger causality test based on the vector error correction model vecm provided evidence of varied granger causality relationships between the variables across the income based subpanels moreover we also undertook an impulse response and variance decomposition analysis that allowed us to forecast the impacts of economic growth urbanization and energy consumption on future co2 emissions during the period surveyed our results cast a new light on the importance of a country s development stage and income level for government policy decisions relating to the reduction of co2 emissions

will history repeat itself economic convergence and convergence in energy use patterns in this paper a difference in differences estimator on panel data for 30 developing and 21 industrialized countries is employed over the period 1971 2005 to examine how patterns of energy use characterized by the consumption of primary energy carriers sectoral energy use and carbon emissions are changing in the process of economic development for the average developing country in our sample the results indicate that economic catch up has been accompanied by above average growth of the use of most primary energy carriers the consumption of final energy in most sectors and total co2 emissions for industrialized countries we find that economic growth is partially decoupled from energy consumption and that above average rates of economic growth were accompanied by larger improvements in energy efficiency these results emphasize the need to identify the relevant engines of economic growth their implications for energy use and possibilities to achieve low carbon growth centered on productivity and efficiency improvements rather than on capital accumulation

technological networking and innovation implementation this paper presents a theory of innovation which presumes that new technologies emerge from a firm s accumulated stock of skills among these we distinguish technological and networking skills we examine two aspects of innovating firms their inclination to adopt a technological innovation and their propensity to implement innovation alone or with other firms historical conditions pertaining to organizational skills are examined to account for these aspects among the most important are a firm s cumulative stream of technological projects that have some affinity to the new technology a second important antecedent can be inferred from a firm s history of technological networking networking includes licensing joint ventures and long term contracts and can be formed for technological reasons or for reasons having to do with the delivery of products and services networking is deemed important for facilitating access to strands of technology that are alien to a firm linkages are also conducive for con

economic growth trade and energy implications for the environmental kuznets curve abstract the environmental kuznets curve ekc hypothesis asserts that pollution follows an inverted u path with respect to economic growth the ekc has been explained in terms of structural changes in the composition of economic output and increased environmental regulation at higher income levels while some authors have incorporated the impact of trade policy orientation on the ekc the impact of the actual movement between countries of goods that embody pollution has not been considered this paper attempts to econometrically quantify the effect using pooled cross country and time series data the ekc hypothesis is examined with respect to commercial energy consumption the source of many serious environmental problems it was found that while both industrializing and industrialized countries have added to their energy requirements by exporting manufactured goods the growth has been substantially higher in the former at the same time industrialized countries have been able to reduce their energy requirements by importing manufactured goods exports of manufactured goods by industrialized countries has thus been an important factor in generating the upward sloping portion of the ekc and imports by industrialized countries have contributed to the downward slope

polarization of co2 emissions in china s electricity sector production versus consumption perspectives abstract the inter provincial inequality of per capita co2 emissions in china s electricity sector means that their responsibilities for co2 emission reduction are different considering the spatial separation of co2 emissions in power production and consumption with respect to the large scale inter provincial electricity trade in china this paper innovatively investigates the sub national inequality and polarization degree of per capita co2 emissions in china s electric power sector from the perspectives of both production and consumption the overall tendencies of the sub national polarization degrees of per capita co2 emissions embodied in the both electric power consumption and production in china show an increasing trend the results indicate that the polarization distribution of per capita co2 emissions is still one of the important factors leading to difficulties in achieving the new reduction arrangements the evolution of the bi polarization analysis shows that the grouping results of per capita co2 emissions are different from production and consumption perspectives as well as the high and low emission groups have significantly different characteristics the inequality and polarization degree of per capita co2 emissions in china s electric power sector have changed as the co2 emissions embodied in the electricity trade had been taken into account one size fits all strategies are unlikely to be successful in advancing the provincial cooperation on co2 emissions reduction

r d capital rate of return on r d investment and spillover of r d in japanese manufacturing industries the effect of r 50d on productivity growth in japanese manufacturing industries is examined using more accurate firm r 50d expenditure data than widely used data based on financial statements series of r 50d capital are constructed then rate of return on r 50d investment is estimated in addition the impact of other industries r 50d on the productivity growth of an industry is also estimated an attempt is made to determine the effect of electronics technology upon the productivity growth of other industries through the transaction of the intermediate electronics goods with improved quality and through the diffusion of the new technological knowledge discovered japanese technology trade 1977 1981 copyright 1989 by mit press

decomposing inequality in energy related co2 emissions by source and source increment the roles of production and residential consumption abstract using provincial data on energy related co2 emissions in china from 1997 to 2014 and the co2 emission gini coefficient ceg this study evaluates china s spatial inequality in energy related co2 emissions further we decompose this inequality and its variation from the perspectives of production and residential energy consumption using the source decomposition and source increment decomposition methods this paper presents a new ceg source increment decomposition method that can achieve complete decomposition the results reveal a downward trend in china s overall production sector and residential sector co2 emissions inequality although the gini coefficient of co2 emissions from the residential sector is larger than that from the production sector the contribution of the latter to the overall ceg is higher the impacts of the spatial inequality of co2 emissions from china s production and residential sectors depend on the type of energy the concentration effect is the primary factor responsible for inducing changes in china s overall and production sector co2 emissions inequality but it is not the only dominant factor for the residential sector co2 emissions inequality

international ecological footprint inequality a methodological review and some results scarcities of environmental services are no longer merely a remote hypothesis consequently analysis of their inequalities between nations becomes of paramount importance for the achievement of sustainability this paper aims on the one hand at revising methodological aspects of the inequality measurement of certain environmental data and on the other at extending the scarce empirical evidence relating to the international distribution of ecological footprint ef most of the techniques currently important in the literature are revised and then tested on ef data with interesting results we consider the underlying properties of different inequality indices those indices which fit best with environmental inequality measurements are cv 2 and ge 2 because of their neutrality property subgroup and source decompositions are also discussed from a methodological perspective empirically this paper contributes to the environmental inequality measurement of ef this inequality has been quite stable subgroup decomposition by using exogenous country groups world bank classification conclude that between group inequality explains almost the totality of international ef inequality source decomposition warns of the dangers of confining co 2 emissions reduction to crop based energies because of the implications for basic needs satisfaction

invention and innovation in the chemical industry demand pull or discovery push abstract this paper describes a study of the determinants of the rate direction and scale of inventive and innovative activity in the chemical industry over the period 1830 1980 statistical data are interpreted in the light of case study material in three major sectors dyestuffs plastics and pharmaceuticals theories of technical change and economic growth particularly those of schmookler and schmpeter are examined in relation to this material on the chemical industry the findings suggest that the importance of demand pull and discovery push factors and the validity of schmookler s and schumpeter s theories vary over an industry s life cycle

sectoral patterns of production and use of innovations in the uk 1945 1983 abstract based on information on more than 4000 innovations commercialised in the uk between 1945 and 1983 we analyse sectoral patterns and trends in the production and use of innovations a few core sectors chemical mechanical instruments and electronic are of major importance in the production of technology that gets used over a much wider range of sectors including those outside manufacturing similar sectoral patterns of production and use exist in the uk and usa the trend over time in the uk has been toward greater sectoral interdependence in technology and a higher share of uses outside manufacturing reflecting the growth and spread of the electronic based technological cluster any understanding of the nature determinants and dynamics of intersectoral differences in patterns of production and use of technology will require an integration into empirical and theoretical analysis of the characteristics of innovating firms

the building blocks of international ecological footprint inequality a regression based decomposition this paper carries out an empirical decomposition of international inequality in the ecological footprint with a view to quantifying the extent of the contribution of explanatory variables such as countries affluence economic structure demographic characteristics climate and technology using data for the period 1993 2007 the regression based inequality decomposition methodology we use allows us to extend the results obtained in standard environmental impact regressions stirpat models and to deal with an often neglected aspect of such models that of equity within generations the results obtained point towards the prioritization of policies which take into account both future and present generations in this regard economic redistribution should be considered as a primary environmental policy

science accounting and statistics the input output framework abstract statistics on science are often framed within an input output framework inputs are invested into research activities that produce outputs this framework is a pure accounting framework based on the anticipated economic benefits of science this paper asks where the framework comes from it shows that the semantics on input and output in science can be traced back to the economic literature and its analyses of growth via an econometric equation called the production function used extensively by economists in the mid 1950s to study science and its relationship to the economy the semantics immediately offered official statisticians a conceptual framework for organizing statistics on science this is due to the fact that the framework was perfectly aligned with policy discussions on the efficiency of the science system

searching for a kuznets curve in environmental efficiency using kernel estimation abstract the paper constructs environmental efficiency indexes for a sample consisting of high and low income countries using nonparametric production frontier techniques and then establishes an environmental kuznets relationship for environmental efficiency by nadaraya watson kernel estimation methodology

explanatory factors of co2 per capita emission inequality in the european union the design of european mitigation policies requires a detailed examination of the factors explaining the unequal emissions in the different countries this research analyzes the evolution of inequality in co2 emissions per capita in the european union eu 27 in the period 1990 2009 and its explanatory factors for this purpose we decompose the theil index of inequality into the contributions of the different kaya factors the decomposition is also applied to the inequality between and within groups of countries north europe south europe and east europe the analysis shows an important reduction in inequality to a large extent due to the smaller differences between groups and because of the lower contribution of the energy intensity factor the importance of the gdp per capita factor increases and becomes the main explanatory factor however within the different groups of countries the carbonization index appears to be the most relevant factor in explaining inequalities the policy implications of the results are discussed

the limited effect of eu emissions trading on corporate climate strategies comparison of a swedish and a norwegian pulp and paper company this article article examines to what extent and how the eu ets has influenced the climate strategies of two nordic pulp and paper companies swedish sca and norwegian norske skog rising electricity prices are perceived to be the greatest effect of the scheme the eu ets has served to reinforce commitments to improve energy efficiency and reduce co2 emissions in both companies studied procedures like monitoring of co2 emissions and accounting for co2 prices have become more significant since the introduction of the eu ets but the scheme has not triggered a search for innovative low carbon solutions due to differences in market factors and production factors sca has been more active than norske skog in investing in and implementing co2 lean actions future studies of climate mitigation activities strategies and innovations in the pulp and paper industry should involve more in depth investigation of the interactions between such factors and the eu ets c 2013 elsevier ltd all rights reserved less

the economics of private sector training a survey of the literature abstract this survey organizes and summarizes existing theoretical work on private sector training the theoretical models focus on investment efficiency finance and turnover recent developments in the on the job training literature are characterized by strategic interaction between employers and employees and emphasize market imperfections

some determinants of cost distributions in the process of technological innovation abstract industrial research and development r d is a set of activities within the broader set of decisions and activities the process of technological innovation ti it is technology transfer commercialization of the innovation that leads to technology diffusion that permits production and employment expansion and hence economic growth an important goal of industrial policy firms managements and government policy makers should recognize the close relationships among the phases of ti and direct their policy planning budgeting and control decisions to the complete process many policies currently focus their attention to only one or a few points such as r d in this study we conducted a detailed cost analysis of a limited number of innovation projects and studied the distributions of ti cost over the process phases we find that almost half of ti costs are devoted to r d which implies that government support of this phase is important different cost patterns emerge when we classify innovations by industrial sectors firms sizes and project complexity complex innovations require larger and more variable risky r d budgets smaller firms need more assistance in technology transfer these are only a few important policy implications this study emphasizes the importance of post r d phases and concludes that differential industrial policy may be required for technological innovations

analysis of the international distribution of per capita co2 emissions using the polarization concept abstract the concept of polarization is linked to the extent that a given distribution leads to the formation of homogeneous groups with opposing interests this concept which is basically different from the traditional one of inequality is related to the level of inherent potential conflict in a distribution the polarization approach has been widely applied in the analysis of income distribution the extension of this approach to the analysis of international distribution of co 2 emissions is quite useful as it gives a potent informative instrument for characterizing the state and evolution of the international distribution of emissions and its possible political consequences in terms of tensions and the probability of achieving agreements in this paper we analyze the international distribution of per capita co 2 emissions between 1971 and 2001 through the adaptation of the polarization concept and measures we find that the most interesting grouped description deriving from the analysis is a two groups one which broadly coincide with annex b and non annex b countries of the kyoto protocol which shows the power of polarization analysis for explaining the generation of groups in the real world the analysis also shows a significant reduction in international polarization in per capita co 2 emissions between 1971 and 1995 but not much change since 1995 which might indicate that polarized distribution of emission is still one of the important factors leading to difficulties in achieving agreements for reducing global emissions

the roles of science in technological innovation abstract one of the central issues in science policy during the past decade has been the extent to which the national levels of expenditure on scientific education and research influence the standard of living this paper provides empirical evidence to show that the pay off from this investment in science is more complex and indirect than previously supposed

the causal factors of international inequality in hbox co _ 2 emissions per capita a regression based inequality decomposition analysis this paper uses the possibilities provided by the regression based inequality decomposition fields in res labor econ 22 1 38 2003 to explore the contribution of different explanatory factors to international inequality in hbox co 2 emissions per capita in contrast to previous emissions inequality decompositions which were based on identity relationships this methodology does not impose any a priori specific relationship thus it allows an assessment of the contribution to inequality of different relevant variables in short the paper appraises the relative contributions of affluence sectoral composition demographic factors and climate the analysis is applied to selected years of the period 1993 2007 the results show the important though decreasing share of the contribution of demographic factors as well as a significant contribution of affluence and sectoral composition

r d innovations and total factor productivity growth in british manufacturing 1989 r d innovations and total factor productivity growth in british manufacturing applied economics vol 21 no 11 pp 1549 1562

cross country polarisation in co2 emissions per capita in the european union changes and explanatory factors we analyse the degree of polarisation in the international distribution of co2 emissions per capita in the european union it is analytically relevant to examine the degree of instability inherent to a distribution and in the analysed case the likelihood that the distribution and its evolution will increase or decrease the chances of reaching an agreement on climate policy two approaches were used to measure polarisation the endogenous approach in which countries are grouped according to their similarity in terms of emissions and the exogenous approach in which countries are grouped geographically our findings indicate a clear decrease in polarisation since the mid 1990s which can essentially be explained by the fact that the different groups have converged i e antagonism among the co2 emitters has decreased as the contribution of energy intensity to between group differences has decreased this lower degree of polarisation in co2 distribution suggests a situation more conducive to the possibility of reaching eu wide agreements on the mitigation of co2 emissions

analyzing literature based innovation output indicators the italian experience abstract this paper presents the results of a study on the product innovations introduced in the italian market in 1989 and reported in a selected number of trade journals the analysis of data collected by means of this literature based counting procedure confirms that r d oriented industries and large firms do not in italy have a marked competitive advantage in innovation the country appears to be instead characterized by a significant presence of consumer goods industries and small firms in innovation our data indicate a statistically significant association between trade competitiveness and strength in product innovation and show the comparatively higher capacity for product innovation of some of the industries in which italy achieves a positive performance in international trade moreover the presence of spillovers at the regional level from both private and public r d expenditures proves to be positively correlated with the development of product innovations finally small firms with fewer than 50 employees appear to be more innovative than is usually believed to be the case

the role of knowledge in r d efficiency past research has recognized that both demand and capability influence the allocation of r d resources scholars have had an easier time getting a grip on demand than on capability while it has been recognized that knowledge is an important part of capability to date formalization of knowledge and its role in r d activity has been unsatisfactory this paper models the role of knowledge in r d various sources of such knowledge are considered the model throws a different light on analyses that employ a knowledge capital stock and also illuminates the dual private and public nature of technological knowledge

a comparison of census nsf r d data vs compustat r d data in a financial decision making model abstract this paper reports the results of a project in which r d data drawn from national science foundation and census bureau studies were substituted in several financial models for r d data drawn from the 1975 1982 compustat tapes the result using the compustat data did not differ significantly from that based on the nsf census data in the aggregate but significant differences were observed for certain industries and certain years the purpose of this paper is to discuss the financial models and determinants of corporate r d expenditures using the different databases and to suggest further questions for research financial support was provided by the center for innovation management studies at lehigh university and the national science foundation