the impact of nationalism patriotism and internationalism on consumer ethnocentric tendencies the study investigates the impact of patriotism nationalism and internationalism as antecedents to consumer ethnocentrism in turkey and the czech republic controlling for demographics the findings indicate that the impact of patriotism and nationalism is not consistent across the two countries consumer ethnocentrism in turkey is fueled by patriotism and in the czech republic by nationalism internationalism does not have a significant effect on consumer ethnocentrism in either country managerial implications of these findings are considered and future research directions are identified

measuring the pay disparity between typically female occupations and other jobs a bivariate selectivity approach the author of this study using a bivariate probit selectivity model with data from the 1984 panel survey of income dynamics finds that women in female dominated jobs earned 6 15 percent less than

incorporating cultural values for understanding the influence of perceived product creativity on intention to buy an examination in italy and the us extending our understanding of the effects of perceived product creativity this study contributes to the literature by empirically investigating the influence of cultural values on the relationship between the creativity dimensions of novelty and meaningfulness and intention to buy schwartz s values framework is employed to theorize cultural differences the results based upon 206 italian and 201 us consumers surveyed via a mall intercept approach indicate that novelty is a more important dimension of product creativity in the us i e a low resultant conservative high resultant self enhancement culture than in italy i e a high resultant conservatism low resultant self enhancement culture in influencing intention to buy and that meaningfulness is a more important dimension of creativity in italy than in the us in influencing intention to buy these results provide important standardization adaptation implications for international marketing academics and practitioners

occupational self selection a human capital approach to sex differences in occupational structure a rich and diverse literature exists concerning the distribution of labor incomes one approach namely that of human capital concentrates on lifetime accumulation paths of earnings capacity units human capital individual variations in human capital imply differences in earnings power thereby yielding strong implications concerning earnings distribution within a population despite its explanatory power the human capital model has been widely criticized one criticism centers on its inability to obtain inferences concerning occupational distribution the purpose of this paper is to alleviate at least some such criticism by applying the hedonic price approach so as to embed occupational choice into the human capital framework the significance is that neoclassical economic theory can be used to obtain implications concerning the determinants of occupational structure excerpt

a life cycle consumption model with liquidity constraints theory and empirical results a structural consumption model incorporating endogenous liquidity constraints is fit to a cross section of 798 u s families liquidity constrained families are estimated to constitute 19 4 percent of the population sampled a group that accounts for 16 7 percent of consumption in the population sampled in sample simulations of the model suggest that a temporary tax has three to four times more impact on aggregate consumption than it would if liquidity constraints were not in effect copyright 1987 by the econometric society

the wage effect of the occupational segregation of women in britain married females earn around 60 percent of the male rate of pay part of this wage difference der ives from inequality of pay within occupations and part derives from the different occupational distributions of the male and female workf orces this paper merges models of occupational attainment and gender wage distributions it shows that the gender wage difference derives largely from wage differences within occupations the effect of fema le nonparticipation in the paid workforce is found to be an important aspect of occupational attainment as well as of pay differences with in occupations copyright 1987 by royal economic society

on decomposing the wage gap a critical comment on blinder s method many studies have found that the impact of schooling on earnings is greater for females than for males despite the fact that females tend to earn less both absolutely and controlling for personal characteristics this study investigates possible

unequal assignment and unequal promotion in job ladders in this study gender differentials in professional status attainment are analyzed in the theoretical literature unequal treatment of females is often rationalized by their higher probability of quitting to test this hypothesis empirically we use data from the austrian microcensus and find that neither the risk of childbearing nor different productive characteristics can explain the crowding of females in lower hierarchical positions females have to fulfill higher ability standards to be promoted work experience is not rewarded in the same manner as it is for men

empirical research in international marketing 1976 1982 this paper reviews empirical research in international marketing published during the period 1976 82 the review focuses on what has been researched and how the research has been conducted this research is evaluated a cooperative multidisciplinary empirical research program in international marketing is then proposed

gender difference in promotions new evidence from the internal labor market in china gender differences in the labor market have attracted significant attention from economists who focus on gender differences not only in wages but also in promotions however the research on gende

the effect of social security on retirement in the early 1970s we analyze detailed longitudinal data on a cohort of males aged 58 67 in 1969 1973 a period of substantial increases in real social security benefits we find the following 1 the accelerating decline in labor force participation of elderly men in 1969 1973 can be explained by the large increase in real social security benefits 2 there is evidence of a liquidity constraint effect for an important subgroup of the elderly 3 the magnitude of this induced retirement effect is large enough that ignoring it can lead to serious underestimation of the fiscal implications of changes in benefit provisions our results are interpreted in the historical context of a particular cohort undergoing major unanticipated transfers of wealth the steady state effects of social security on retirement may not be the same

cross cultural examination of the fishbein behavioral intentions model most of the principal theories associated with consumer behavior have been developed and tested in the united states a question that has been posed by some consumer researchers concerns the applicability of these theories outside of the united states the study reported in this paper is a cross cultural examination of the applicability of the fishbein behavioral intentions model in korea and the united states korea can be characterized as a collectivist culture that is different from the individualist culture dominant in the united states the findings of the study suggest that the fishbein model can be employed to explain consumers behavioral intentions formation in a confucian culture as well as in the united states

brand credibility and marketplace globalization the role of perceived brand globalness and localness consumers in western markets are increasingly critical towards globalization and re embrace local values companies thus must decide whether to continue to pursue global branding strategies and or rejuvenate local branding strategies to explore the implications of market globalization for consumer preferences we use signaling theory to investigate the role of perceived brand globalness pbg and brand localness pbl as signals of brand credibility related downstream effects and boundary conditions across two countries with differing levels of globalization in globalized markets pbg is a weaker signal of brand credibility than pbl whereas in globalizing markets the two signals are of equal importance

the family as an incomplete annuities market families can self insure against uncertain dates of death through implicit or explicit agreements with respect to consumption and interfamily transfers interfamily transfers need have nothing to do with altruistic feelings they may simply reflect risk sharing behavior of completely selfish family members although family annuity markets are incomplete even small families can substitute by more than 70 percent for perfect market annuities given adverse selection and transaction costs family risk pooling may be preferred to public market annuities in the absence of public annuities these risk sharing arrangements provide powerful incentives for marriage and family formation

a framework for culture assessment understanding the nature and influences of culture is central to international business such inquiry presupposes knowing that the cultural grouping s of a study is a valid unit of analysis which is critical in that the estimation of culture effects can vary based on the unit definition unfortunately perhaps out of convenience international studies often simply use a country based definition of culture in a desire to facilitate further development in understanding culture effects in this paper we propose a framework by which valid cultural groupings may be assessed

theoretical justification of sampling choices in international marketing research key issues and guidelines for researchers sampling in the international environment needs to satisfy the same requirements as sampling in the domestic environment but there are additional issues to consider such as the need to balance within country representativeness with cross national comparability however most international marketing research studies fail to provide theoretical justification for their choice of sampling approach this is because research design theory and sampling theory have not been well integrated in the context of international research this paper seeks to fill the gap by developing a framework for determining a sampling approach in international studies the framework is based on an assessment of the way in which sampling affects the validity of research results and shows how different research objectives impact upon a the desired sampling method and b the desired sample characteristics the aim is to provide researchers with operational guidance in choosing a sampling approach that is theoretically appropriate to their particular research aims

the permanent income hypothesis estimation and testing by instrumental variables the permanent income hypothesis with rational expectation is restated estimated and tested by an instrumental variables technique on the postwar u s aggregate time series data the hypothesis is accepted on a consumption series which includes service flows from consumer durables if the consumption series is the one in the national income and product accounts the hypothesis is decisively rejected an explanation is suggested to reconcile the conflicting test results

glass ceilings or sticky floors statistical discrimination in a dynamic model of hiring and promotion i show that when two groups differ in i their average skill level ii the precision with which they can signal their skill prior to entering the labour market and or hi the frequency with which they have the opportunity to signal their skill prior to entering the labour market then even if firms become increasingly informed regarding each worker s skill over time equally skilled workers from different groups will have different likelihoods of making it to top jobs in the economy even though there is no discrimination when it comes to promotion to these top jobs in 1995 95 of senior level managers in the top fortune 1000 industrial and 500 service companies in the us were male 97 of whom were also white federal glass ceiling commission 1995 in the uk females make up just 8 3 of the senior judi ciary 9 7 of top business leaders and 9 1 of newspaper editors eoc 2005 at the end of the 2004 american football season only 5 of the 32 nfl head coaches were black and only 2 of the 117 division i college football teams had black head coaches rosenburg 2004 in 1999 there were only 68 female full professors at the 120 phd granting economics departments in the us cswep 1999 this severe underrepre sentation of females and minorities at the highest levels of occupational achievement throughout a wide range of occupations has often been referred to as the glass ceiling 1

the wealth age relation among the aged aged people face the problem of allocating over the rest of their lifetimes the wealth that they have accumulated during their working years this problem is fairly complex because they are uncertain about the dates of their death and because they may wish to use their wealth to finance general consumption or hold it to meet emergencies leave estates or maintain power or status whether skilled at dynamic programming or not aged people effectively do make these decisions what are the results some studies of the entire lifetime pattern of saving and wealth tend to support the simple life cycle model in which the aged use up their wealth to help finance consumption harold lydall for example found saving rates to increase and then decrease with age in the whole population and to be negative for the group aged 65 and over guarded support for the theory was found by franco modigliani and albert ando in britain and by dorothy projector in the united states more recently a f shorrocks examined the lifetime pattern of wealth holding in estate tax data for a single cohort and found the hump pattern that is characteristic of life cycle saving other evidence on wealth holding runs contrary to this however in a study of estate tax returns in washington d c james d smith found that wealth increased with age among the aged after controlling for other demographic variables examining national estate tax data john brittain found wealth to increase with age in the united states and a b atkinson and a j harrison reported the same pattern in england and wales in a sample of tiaa annuity recipients analyzed by james mulanaphy over half reported that their total savings had increased during retirement and another quarter reported that their savings had remained about the same in this paper i examine wealth holding patterns among aged married couples using survey data representing the entire aged population of the united states in 1968 the statistical analysis serves as a test of the hypothesis that emerges from life cycle theory and provides some further exploration into the economic behavior of the aged i find that the aged tend to increase their wealth over time

gender and promotion in the economics profession the authors use unique panel data on american economic association members to test for gender differences in promotion in a profession with a well defined promotion and job hierarchy and in which men and women exhibit similar labor market attachment the results suggest that over the period from the 1960s through the early 1980s female economists had lower levels of professional attainment and career advancement than did their male colleagues with similar attributes these gender differences remain in evidence despite controls for unobserved heterogeneity and self selection between academic and non academic jobs there is evidence however that promotion prospects for female economists significantly improved during the 1980s not only at all ranks but also within both ph d granting institutions and non ph d granting institutions in fact the results reveal no unexplained gender specific differences in promotion by the end of the 1980s

life cycle saving and dissaving in retirement abstract in a life cycle saving model with no bequest motive it is shown that aged persons may continue to accumulate wealth during the early years of retirement the key features of the model are the lack of borrowing opportunities and the recognition of empirically based mortality probabilities

the economic effects of social security toward a reconciliation of theory and measurement abstract in this paper we argue that actuarial valuation of social security benefit streams is theoretically inconsistent with the assumption of pure life cycle motives instead we show that the simple discounted value of future benefits ignoring the possibility of death is often a good approximation to the relevant concept of value this observation motivates a re examination of existing empirical evidence concerning the economic effects of social security we focus our attention on studies of distributional equity and personal saving behavior in both cases we argue that the use of simple rather than actuarial discounting of survival contingent income streams produces results that differ dramatically from previous findings specifically estimates based on actuarial valuation may overstate the importance of redistribution between and within generations and may understate the depressive effect of social security on personal wealth accumulation by a factor of three or more

the stampede toward hofstede s framework avoiding the sample design pit in cross cultural research we propose a method to design better multi country samples for international business studies using hofstede s framework and aimed at determining the effects of national culture on various business phenomena we describe typical research scenarios then develop sets of algorithms that calculate indexes reflecting the power of different samples for hypotheses testing the indexes were computed from hofstede s data then rank ordered the top multi country samples are presented in tables for selection when designing studies

vertical aspects of male female disparity in the labor market abstract the organization based economy model presented by garicano and rossi hansberg g rh 2004 is used to study the vertical dimensions of male female disparity in the labor market this sheds a new light on the major aspects of the phenomenon

a theory of dual labor markets with application to industrial policy discrimination and keynesian unemployment this paper develops a model of dual labor markets based on employers need to motivate workers in order to elicit effort from their workers employers may find it optimal to pay more than the going wage this changes fundamentally the character of labor markets the model is applied to a wide range of labor market phenomena it provides a coherent framework for understanding the claims of industrial policy advocates it also can provide the basis for a theory of occupational segregation and discrimination that will not be eroded by market forces finally the model provides the basis for a theory of involuntary unemployment

savings of the elderly and desired bequests cross section data often show that the wealth of the elderly increases with age even at advanced ages these and other results suggest that the life cycle hypothesis of consumption should be augmented to include a bequest motive for saving in this paper the author proposes a model of bequests and a test for a bequ est motive using panel data he finds that over a ten year period the elderly in the data set dissaved in contradiction to most cross section results the test offers no support for a bequest motive copyright 1987 by american economic association

life cycle valuation of social security and pension wealth abstract the proper valuation of annuity wealth is important for many empirical studies of economic behavior and the distribution of wealth and well being this paper examines bernheim s argument that the value of social security benefit streams should be determined by simple discounting rather than by actuarial discounting when consumers behave according to life cycle principles in a model having a more realistic mortality structure than his we document the poor performance of both methods for a broad range of parameter values

uncertain lifetimes and the welfare enhancing properties of annuity markets and social security this paper explores the implications of social security programs and annuity markets through which agents who are characterized by different distributions of length of lifetime share deathrelated risks when annuity markets operate a non discriminatory social security program affects only the intragenerational allocation of resources in the absence of private information regarding individual survival probabilities such a program will lead to a non optimal intragenerational allocation of resources however the presence of adverse selection considerations gives rise to a pareto improving role for a mandatory non discriminatory social security program

does a gender disparity exist in academic rank evidence from an australian university employing a unique administrative data set on academics from the university of wollongong uow we investigate if women are under represented in academic rank taking into account information on personal characteristics job characteristics education and productivity the results suggest that males have a significant advantage in rank attainment the possession of a phd the number of years of experience and the number of journal articles books book chapters competitive grants and era a ranked articles appear to be important for academic rank attainment a blinder oaxaca decomposition test indicates that both supply side and demand side factors play a role however there is greater support for the endowments argument interviews were conducted in an attempt to explain the results interviews showed that men were more career driven compared to women

examining the cross national applicability of multi item multi dimensional measures using generalizability theory establishing the applicability of multi item measures is important for making valid inferences when testing theories cross nationally typically researchers have relied upon the tenets of classical measurement theory ct using confirmatory factor model invariance testing to conclude that a unidimensional measure is applicable across countries however two important issues remain unresolved via ct techniques 1 if the measure is found not to be invariant ct tells us little as to why the measure varies across countries and 2 if the measure is multi dimensional what factors affect its cross national applicability our research seeks to address these issues and the cross national measurement applicability of multi dimensional scales via generalizability theory gt in this paper we use a cross national data set and simulated data sets to demonstrate the usefulness of gt to cross national multi dimensional measurement

male female wage differentials and policy responses without implicating them for any of the contents of the paper i am grateful to the following for helpful discussions or comments andrea beller university of illinois david bloom harvard and columnbia glen cain university of wisconsin ron ehrenberg cornell victor fuchs stanford bob gregory australian national university jonathan leonard university of california berkeley roberta robb brock university and paul weiler harvard financial support of the humanities and social sciences committee of the research board of the universitu of toronto is eratefullu acknowlede ed

gender race pay and promotion in the british nursing profession estimation of a generalized ordered probit model we analyse job grading within the uk national health service nursing profession using 1994 survey data we start from the ordered probit model for which we develop and apply appropriate specification tests threshold constancy and covariate exogeneity are rejected with important consequences for estimates of the influence of gender ethnicity training and career interruptions we find little evidence of disadvantage for females relative to males but significant differences in speed of promotion between ethnic groups implying non negligible differences in lifetime earnings copyright 2000 john wiley sons ltd

female led firms and gender wage policies using a longitudinal data set covering the period 1987 2000 the authors explore the impact of female employers and gender segregation on wages in portugal in the context of becker s 1957 taste for discrimination theory they investigate whether the gender of a firm manager affects gender wage differences they find that females benefit from higher wages in female led firms than in male led firms further when females lead the wage gap between female and male workers is reduced by 1 5 regardless of the gender composition of the workforce at the same time the higher the share of females in a firm the lower the wages overall for both female and male workers the authors results are compatible with the notion that job promotion is an important factor in wage increases the more females are mentored and promoted the less men will be however as more females in the firm compete for promotion opportunities for both females and males to be promoted diminish author s abstract

gender and promotions evidence from academic economists in france the promotion system for french academic economists provides an interesting environment to examine the promotion gap between men and women promotions occur through national competitions for which we have information both on candidates and on those eligible to be candidates thus we can examine the two stages of the process application and success women are less likely to seek promotion and this accounts for up to 76 percent of the promotion gap being a woman also reduces the probability of promotion conditional on applying although the gender difference is not statistically significant our results highlight the importance of the decision to apply

sex discrimination in the promotion process previous research has suggested that intra occupational earnings differences are the principal source of the long standing earnings gap between men and women following that line of research this study examines the extent of gender differences in the incidence of and returns to promotions drawing on the quality of employment panel the authors compare the earnings and promotion experience of men and women over the period 1973 1977 after controlling for unmeasured differences in job level and constant individual ability in a fixed effect model they conclude that the returns to promotion are comparable for men and women further analysis indicates however that women are held to higher promotion standards than men and therefore receive fewer promotions than men with equal measured abilities although the female male wage ratio in this sample increased by nearly 6 percent over four years the increase could have been as much as 9 2 percent if women and men had been held to the same promotion standards

the cost of annuities implications for saving behavior and bequests the fact that most elderly u s individuals maintain a flat age wealth profile rather than buy individual life annuities contradicts the standard life cycle consumption model average expected yields on individual life annuities in the united states during 1968 1983 were lower by 4 21 6 13 percent or 2 43 4 35 percent after allowing for adverse selection than yields on plausible alternative investments simulations of a model of saving and portfolio allocation show that during the early retirement years such yield differentials can account for the absence of annuity purchases even without a bequest motive at older ages the combination of such yield differentials and a bequest motive can do so it is common experience that as we grow older and nearer to eternity we become more not less anxious about money derek brewer chaucer and his world p 213

cracks in the glass ceiling gender and promotion in the economics profession gender differences in promotion within the economics profession have long been a concern of the committee on the status of women in the economics profession cswep in a descriptive analysis of the aea universal academic questionnaire rebecca blank 1996 finds that hires and promotions to the associateand fullprofessor levels have averaged 4 2 and 2 7 percentage points below the share of female assistants and associates professors respectively thus women appear to be underrepresented in senior positions suggesting they may face a glass ceiling this paper uses unique panel data for american economic association aea members to examine formally whether there are differences across gender in promotion probabilities an academic labor market beyond its direct interest to economists is well suited to study possible gender differences in promotion because departments can be ranked within the profession and because professors can be ranked within a department by a welldefined promotion hierarchy a focus on academic economists offers an additional advantage in that on the job productivity can be measured directly by research output other promotion studies have had limited controls for productivity and have used cross sectional data which do not permit controls for unobserved ability e g rudolf winter ebmer and josef zweimuller 1997 failure to account for gender differences in unobserved productivity could produce biased inference prior promotion studies also have generally relied on job advancement indexes that limit the distinction between initial job assignment i e an

male female wage differentials in job ladders much of the male female wage differential exists because men and women are assigned to different jobs within narrow job categories there is no male female differential only a tortured taste theory of discrimination can reconcile these facts we argue that differential movement along job ladders entails comparative advantage so the ability standard for promotion is higher for women this implies that more able women will be passed over in favor of less able men women assumed to have the same ability distribution as men earn less the differential reflects females lower promotion probability not within job discrimination

uncertain lifetime consumption and dissaving in retirement this paper asks whether the continued accumulation or mild dissaving observed among the retired can be explained by uncertain lifetime in the absence of annuities after an initial period influenced by borrowing constraints under constant relative risk aversion uncertain lifetime depresses consumption by a proportion increasing with age if the elasticity of intertemporal substitution in consumption is small illustrative computations based on actual income and survival data show that plausible elasticities are sufficiently small to give this effect the reduction in consumption is large enough to explain much of the lack of decumulation by the elderly

cross national differences in computer use ethics a nine country study this study examines computer use ethics among nine countries singapore hong kong united states great britain australia sweden wales and the netherlands based on paradice 1990 an instrument was developed containing three scales focusing on ethical attitudes toward software license infringement use of virus programs and misuse of corporate computing resources analysis indicates that there are significant differences in ethical values among nationalities for each of these scales

gender and job performance evidence from wall street this study concerns the relationship between gender and job performance among brokerage firm equity analysts women s representation in analyst positions dropped from 16 percent in 1995 to 14 percent in 2005 the study found significant gender based differences in performance on various dimensions for example women cover roughly 9 stocks on average as compared with 10 for men and women s earnings estimates tend to be less accurate than men s estimates but the study also found that women are significantly more likely than men to be designated as all stars which indicates that they outperform men in other aspects of job performance

data equivalence in cross cultural international business research assessment and guidelines data equivalence refers to the extent to which the elements of a research design have the same meaning and can be applied in the same way in different cultural contexts failure to establish data equivalence in cross cultural studies may bias empirical results and theoretical inferences although several authors have encouraged researchers to ensure high levels of data equivalence no study has assessed the status of the field in relation to compliance with data equivalence standards accordingly this study examines three aspects of data equivalence construct equivalence measurement equivalence and data collection equivalence within 167 studies that involve cross cultural data published in the journal of international business studies management international review journal of world business strategic management journal and the academy of management journal from 1995 to 2005 the findings indicate that international business researchers report insufficient information in relation to data equivalence issues thus limiting confidence in the findings of many cross cultural studies to enhance future research a guideline for procedures for researchers to follow and report in establishing data equivalence is offered