explaining agricultural productivity growth an international perspective this article presents multi output multi input total factor productivity tfp growth rates in agriculture for 88 countries over the 1970 2001 period estimated with both stochastic frontier analysis sfa and the more commonly employed data envelopment analysis dea we find results with sfa to be more plausible than with dea and use them to analyze trends across countries and the determinants of tfp growth in developing countries the central finding is that policy and institutional variables including public agricultural expenditure and proagricultural price policy reforms are significant correlates of tfp growth the most significant geographic correlate of tfp growth is distance to the nearest oecd country

institutions and the environmental kuznets curve for deforestation a crosscountry analysis for latin america africa and asia abstract the relationship between deforestation and income across 66 countries of latin america africa and asia is examined institutional characteristics as well as macroeconomic policies of each country are hypothesized to impact deforestation results show strong evidence of an environmental kuznets curve ekc relationship between income and deforestation for all three continents institutional structure and macroeconomic policy significantly affect the tropical deforestation process improvements in political institutions and governance significantly reduce deforestation the factors leading to deforestation differ across regions however and there is no one size fits all global policy recommendation for restraining the tropical deforestation process

investigating environmental kuznets curve from an energy intensity perspective empirical evidence from china abstract this study pioneers investigating the environmental kuznets curve ekc hypothesis and its possible regional differential characteristics in china based on 2003 2017 years of provincial panel data this research employs panel smooth transition auto regression pstr model to analyze the impact of income levels on environmental pollution and identify the ekc threshold of energy intensity then 30 chinese provinces were categorized by energy intensity to examine the inter provincial and interregional differences in the ekc threshold of energy intensity rather than the traditional threshold of income the results indicate that china s pollution emissions and energy intensities show a stepwise decreasing pattern from the western region to the eastern region in addition the impact of income levels on pollution emissions is non linear and the critical value of energy intensity is 0 9168 between the high and low regimes an inverted u shaped environmental kuznets curve is accepted for energy intensity with 0 7670 as its threshold value when the energy intensity is higher lower than the threshold value the income elasticity of pollution emission is positive negative the more developed provinces and municipalities mainly in the eastern region are proved to exceed the threshold than the provinces in the central and western regions within the sample period given these findings this study further divides china s provinces into eco friendly low pollution and high pollution provinces and accordingly the most important policy recommendations were discussed for policy makers and researchers this research can provide a new insight to investigate countries with unbalanced development levels within and a reference for environmental governance policies in sub regions

economic growth and pollutant emissions in tunisia an empirical analysis of the environmental kuznets curve abstract this paper investigates the relationship between economic growth and pollutant emissions for a small and open developing country tunisia during the period 1961 2004 the investigation is made on the basis of the environmental kuznets curve hypothesis using time series data and cointegration analysis carbon dioxide co 2 and sulfur dioxide so 2 are used as the environmental indicators and gdp as the economic indicator our results show that there is a long run cointegrating relationship between the per capita emissions of two pollutants and the per capita gdp an inverted u relationship between so 2 emissions and gdp has been found with income turning point approximately equals to 1200 constant 2000 prices or to 3700 in ppp constant 2000 prices however a monotonically increasing relationship with gdp is found more appropriate for co 2 emissions furthermore the causality results show that the relationship between income and pollution in tunisia is one of unidirectional causality with income causing environmental changes and not vice versa both in the short run and long run this implies that an emission reduction policies and more investment in pollution abatement expense will not hurt economic growth it could be a feasible policy tool for tunisia to achieve its sustainable growth in the long run

contributions of public and private science and technology to u s agricultural productivity the impact of public and private research to agricultural productivity in the us between 1950 and 1982 were assessed using an econometric model analysis of us aggregate measures of multifactor agricultural productivity was undertaken using imputation accounting statistical meta function and statistical productivity decomposition methods the study indicated that public sector research should be focused on general and pretechnology sciences while private sector resources should be channeled to applied research and technology advancement

hospital ownership and performance this study compares the performance of three ownership forms of hospitals for profit private nonprofit and public further classified according to whether or not the hospital is run by a hospital chain data come from a 1979 national survey of u s hospitals the authors find that hospital cost is quite similar among alternative ownership forms as is profitability the results do not provide much empirical support for standard property rights theory several reasons are suggested why this may be so

empirical study of the environmental kuznets curve and environmental sustainability curve hypothesis for australia china ghana and usa abstract this study examines environmental kuznets and environmental sustainability curve hypotheses for australia china ghana and the usa from 1971 to 2013 in order to examine the factors contributing to adverse greenhouse gas emission and economic impacts relative to their development the study revealed that the decline of carbon dioxide emissions in developed countries can be attributed to a paradigm shift and structural change from high energy intensive and carbon intensive industries to services and information intensive industries the increasing levels of carbon dioxide emissions in developing and least developing countries can be attributed to the economy driven by agriculture transport and services environmental policies and regulations in developing and least developing countries are weaker compared to developed countries as such they become a haven for high energy and carbon intensive industries the high awareness of environmental sustainability technological advancement stringent environmental regulations and policies in developed countries result in a decline in energy intensity and a decline in carbon dioxide emissions the environmental sustainability curve hypothesis shows that the affecting factors include economic growth energy consumption patterns and carbon dioxide emissions the study reveals electric power consumption as the main contributor of energy intensity in the selected countries decoupling economic growth from electric power consumption and improving energy efficiency in china ghana australia and the usa will enhance energy security and decline the economic related dynamics and activities on the environment

environmental kuznets curves new evidence on both panel and country level co2 emissions using data on per capita co2 emissions and per capita real gdp from fifteen countries spanning the period 1960 2013 this paper tests the validity of the environmental kuznets curve ekc using both panel based and time series based methodological approaches of cointegration given that the ekc hypothesis postulates an inverted u shaped relationship between emissions and output the study tests for cointegration between per capita co2 emissions per capita real gdp and the squared values of per capita real gdp the evidence from panel cointegration methodologies is mixed this result might arise due to time dependence of cointegrating coefficients the time varying cointegration approaches provide strong evidence in favor of time varying cointegration parameters furthermore based on the quantile cointegration approach the results indicate that the ekc hypothesis holds in 12 out of the 15 countries however even for these three countries the ekc hypothesis seems to hold at certain quantiles

co2 emissions renewable energy and the environmental kuznets curve a panel cointegration approach abstract this study combines a panel cointegration analysis with a set of robustness tests to assess the short and long run impacts of renewable energy on co2 emissions as well as the kuznets environmental curve hypothesis for 25 selected african countries over the period 1980 2012 the results provide no evidence of a total validation of ekc predictions however co2 emissions are found to increase with income per capita the overall estimations strongly reveal that renewable energy with a negative effect on co2 emissions coupled with an increasing long run effect remains an efficient substitute for the conventional fossil fuelled energy nonetheless the impact of renewable energy is outweighed by primary energy consumption in both the short and long run entailing more global synergy for outpacing the environmental challenges

bureau competition and inefficiency abstract this paper evaluates the claim that an increase in bureau competition will improve efficiency in the public supply of services it gives explicit consideration to the property rights characteristics of a public sector market and to the role of legislators as active demanders of bureau output rather than as passive monitors of bureau production the analysis demonstrates that bureau managers prefer nonprice competition to price competition a major prediction of the paper is that greater bureau competition may increase bureau output costs and budgets

does natural gas consumption mitigate co2 emissions testing the environmental kuznets curve hypothesis for 14 asia pacific countries abstract this study aims to investigate the nexus of per capita carbon dioxide co2 emissions per capita gross domestic product gdp and per capita natural gas consumption by examining the validity of the environmental kuznets curve ekc hypothesis and analyzing the effectiveness of natural gas consumption for a panel of 14 asia pacific countries for 1970 2016 to do so a granger causality framework covering panel unit root cointegration estimation and causality tests allowing for cross sectional dependence is employed the main findings are i the augmented mean group amg estimates provide strong evidence in favor of the ekc hypothesis as the ekc holds in 13 of the 14 countries the ekc exists independent of the individual country s per capita gdp ii the turning points tps lie between 1937 23 bangladesh and 58 235 90 australia while the turning years tys are estimated to stay between 2019 australia and 2048 bangladesh per capita gdp positively and negatively affects the tps and tys respectively iii natural gas consumption has a significantly negative effect on co2 emissions the significantly negative effect of natural gas consumption on co2 emissions is also independent of per capita gdp but conversely may be affected by the proportion of natural gas in the primary energy mix and iv bidirectional causality runs between natural gas consumption and co2 emissions in both the short run and long run important policy implications are highlighted for asia pacific countries policymakers with respect to halting global warming and promoting growth in the natural gas industry

environmental kuznets curve for co2 emissions the case of arctic countries abstract the main new contribution of this paper is to examine the environmental kuznets curve ekc hypothesis using time series data at individual country levels empirical focus is on the assessment of income per capita on co 2 emissions in the arctic countries by taking into account the role of energy consumption an autoregressive distributed lag ardl modeling approach to cointegration is applied to annual data for the period 1960 2010 the results provide little evidence of the existence of the ekc hypothesis for the arctic countries we also find that economic growth has a beneficial effect on the environment only in some arctic countries finally energy consumption is found to have a detrimental effect on the environment in most countries

prices and productivity in agriculture developing countries often tax agriculture heavily a practice that might affect the productivity as well as the quantity of resources allocated to agriculture a variable coefficient cross country agricultural production function is estimated with past price expectations among the determinants of the production coefficients productivity s responsiveness to those expectations implies that had these developing economies eliminated price interventions agricultural productivity would have increased on average by about a fourth copyright 1993 by mit press

supply and demand functions for multiproduct u s cash grain farms biases caused by research and other policies this study presents new estimates of supply and demand elasticities for u s multiproduct cash grain farms and estimates of input and output bias effects caused by public and private crop research extension and farmers schooling the study also shows that the social rate of return to public crop research is large about 62 percent

a theoretical basis for the environmental kuznets curve abstract this paper attempts to explain the environmental kuznets curve ekc or inverted u shaped relationship between income and environmental degradation in the framework of endogenous growth model considering a closed economy one part of capital is used for commodity production which generates pollution that degrades existing environment and the remaining part is used for abating pollution i e upgrading environment sufficient abatement activity improves restores environmental quality a sufficient abatement activity associated with commodity production could only lead optimally towards steady state the ratio of allocation of capital between two sectors production and abatement is fixed along the optimal path but it varies along the non optimal path that exists in the off steady state in the economy allocation of capital for abatement activity varies over time thus a change from insufficient to sufficient allocation of capital i e investment for abatement activity is the basis for an inverted u shaped relationship between environmental quality and economic growth

stoking the fires co2 emissions and economic growth abstract we examine the relationship between economic development and carbon dioxide emissions a greenhouse gas central to global warming predictions estimates derived from global panel data suggest a diminishing marginal propensity to emit mpe carbon dioxide as gdp per capita rises despite this global carbon dioxide emissions growth will continue at 1 8 percent per annum for the foreseeable future a result that is not sensitive to average output growth instead emissions growth continues because output and population will grow most rapidly in lower income nations with high mpes this latter feature emphasizes the distributional consequences of policies to reduce emissions

environment versus growth a criticism of degrowth and a plea for a growth in recent debates on environmental problems and policies the strategy of degrowth has appeared as an alternative to the paradigm of economic growth this new notion is critically evaluated by considering five common interpretations of it one conclusion is that these multiple interpretations make it an ambiguous and rather confusing concept another is that degrowth may not be an effective let alone an efficient strategy to reduce environmental pressure it is subsequently argued that a growth i e being indifferent about growth is a more logical social aim to substitute for the current goal of economic growth given that gdp per capita is a very imperfect indicator of social welfare in addition focusing ex ante on public policy is considered to be a strategy which ultimately is more likely to obtain the necessary democratic political support than an ex ante explicit degrowth strategy in line with this a policy package is proposed which consists of six elements some of which relate to concerns raised by degrowth supporters

economic growth and emissions reconsidering the empirical basis of environmental kuznets curves abstract recent empirical research indicates that certain types of emissions follow an inverted u or environmental kuznets curve ekc as income grows this regularity has been interpreted as a possible de linking of economic growth and patterns of certain pollutants for developed economies in this paper the empirical basis of this result is investigated by considering some statistical particularities of the various ekc studies performed it is argued that the inverted u relationship between income and emissions estimated from panel data need not hold for specific individual countries over time based on insights from intensity of use analysis in resource economics an alternative growth model is specified and estimated for three types of emissions co2 nox and so2 in four countries netherlands uk usa and western germany it is found that the time patterns of these emissions correlate positively with economic growth and that emission reductions may have been achieved as a result of structural and technological changes in the economy sustainable growth is defined as the rate of economic growth that does not lead to growth in emissions its rate is calculated for each type of emission and country based on estimated parameter values the resulting indicators reflect a balance between the positive influence of growth and negative influence of structural change and technological progress on emission levels

determinants of co2 emissions in a small open economy abstract the aim of the paper is to explore the relationship between economic development and carbon dioxide co2 emissions for a small open and industrialized country austria we test whether an environmental kuznets curve relationship also holds for a single country rather than concentrating on panel or cross section data for a set of countries a cubic i e n shaped relationship between gdp and co2 emissions is found to fit the data most appropriately for the period 1960 1999 and a structural break is identified in the mid seventies due to the oil price shock furthermore two variables are additionally significant import shares reflecting the well known pollution haven hypothesis and the share of the tertiary service sector of total production gdp accounting for structural changes in the economy emission projections derived from this single country specification support the widely held opinion that significant policy changes are asked for when implementing the kyoto protocol in order to bring about a downturn in future carbon emissions

ldc agriculture nonparametric malmquist productivity indexes abstract this paper examines changes in agricultural productivity in 18 developing countries over the period 1961 1985 we use the nonparametric output based malmquist index to examine whether the results from such an approach confirm results from other methods that have indicated declining agricultural productivity in less developed countries ldcs the results confirm previous findings indicating that at least half of these countries have experienced productivity declines in agriculture we also found that those countries that tax agriculture most heavily had the most negative rates of productivity change

investigating the environmental kuznets curve hypothesis in vietnam this study investigates the existence of the environmental kuznets curve ekc hypothesis in vietnam during the period 1981 2011 to realize the goals of this study a pollution model was established applying the autoregressive distributed lag ardl methodology the results revealed that the pollution haven hypothesis does exist in vietnam because capital increases pollution in addition imports also increase pollution which indicates that most of vietnam s imported products are energy intensive and highly polluted however exports have no effect on pollution which indicates that the level of exports is not significant enough to affect pollution moreover fossil fuel energy consumption increases pollution while renewable energy consumption has no significant effect in reducing pollution furthermore labor force reduces pollution since most of vietnam s labor force is in the agricultural and services sectors which are less energy intensive than the industrial sector based on the obtained results the ekc hypothesis does not exist because the relationship between gdp and pollution is positive in both the short and long run

an economic instrument for zero waste economic growth and sustainability if global problems such as climate change and waste remain unresolved society can choose either to continue attempting to incrementally reduce wastes and lessen impacts or to consider a more ambitious approach that paradoxically may be easier to implement this paper suggests how an approach designed to prevent waste and other global impacts could be based upon the established practices of precycling circular economic policy and recycling insurance a new economic instrument called precycling insurance is proposed so that decision making can be led by the market rather than by prescriptive regulation or educational campaigns the approach gains relevance now that china is developing a national law on the promotion of the development of circular economy 2006 elsevier ltd all rights reserved

bureaucratic discretion or congressional control regulatory policymaking by the federal trade commission this paper extends stigler and peltzman s approach to regulation by incorporating a legislature the model yields comparative statics results and hence testable implications the paper then tests between two opposing approaches about regulatory agency behavior the first assumes agencies operate independently of the legislature and hence exercise discretion the second assumes that congress controls agency decisions the recent behavior of the federal trade commission provides the empirical setting substantial evidence is found for the specific predictions of the model including the hypothesis of systematic congressional influence over ftc decisions

the industrial organization of congress or why legislatures like firms are not organized as markets this paper provides a theory of legislative institutions that parallels the theory of the firm and the theory of contractual institutions like market institutions legislative institutions reflect two key components the goals or preferences of individuals here representatives seeking reelection and the relevant transactions costs we present three conclusions first we show how the legislative institutions enforce bargains among legislators second we explain why given the peculiar form of bargaining problems found in legislatures specific forms of nonmarket exchange prove superior to market exchange third our approach shows how the committee system limits the types of coalitions that may form on a particular issue

economic growth and environmental degradation the environmental kuznets curve and sustainable development abstract in this paper we critically examine the concept of the environmental kuznets curve ekc it proposes that there is an inverted u shape relation between environmental degradation and income per capita so that eventually growth reduces the environmental impact of economic activity the concept is dependent on a model of the economy in which there is no feedback from the quality of the environment to production possibilities and in which trade has a neutral effect on environmental degradation the actual violation of these assumptions gives rise to fundamental problems in estimating the parameters of an ekc the paper identifies other econometric problems with estimates of the ekc and reviews a number of empirical studies the inference from some such ekc estimates that further development will reduce environmental degradation is dependent on the assumption that world per capita income is normally distributed when in fact median income is far below mean income we carry out simulations combining ekc estimates from the literature with world bank forecasts for economic growth for individual countries aggregating over countries to derive the global impact within the horizon of the bank s forecast 2025 global emissions of so 2 continue to increase forest loss stabilizes before the end of the period but tropical deforestation continues at a constant rate throughout the period

environmental kuznets curve for co2 in canada abstract according to the environmental kuznets curve hypothesis the relationship between per capita gdp and per capita pollutant emissions has an inverted u shape this implies that past a certain point economic growth may actually be profitable for environmental quality most studies on this subject are based on estimating fully parametric quadratic or cubic regression models while this is not technically wrong such an approach somewhat lacks flexibility since it may fail to detect the true shape of the relationship if it happens not to be of the specified form we use semiparametric and flexible nonlinear parametric modeling methods in an attempt to provide more robust inferences we find little evidence in favour of the environmental kuznets curve hypothesis our main results could be interpreted as indicating that the oil shock of the 1970s has had an important impact on progress towards less polluting technology and production

agenda control by budget maximizers in a multi bureau setting while the present extension of the single issue model of agenda control has permitted the examination of a wide array of questions within a consistent overall framework and has generated new insights some qualifications are in order first the analysis like niskanen s and romer and rosenthal s is strictly limited to one form of agenda control take it or leave it offers made relative to some reversion level second each of the bureaus in this extension are single activity bureaus as a result certain types of agenda control that might exist when there are several dimensions to each bureau s activity such as the mix chosen for various sub activities or the spatial distribution of the bureau s output are ignored see denzau and mackay 1980 and mackay and weaver 1979a b for analyses of these types of agenda control for the case of a single bureau third as a point of reference and for expositional simplicity the analysis for the most part was executed with a single decisive voter on all issues as a result certain complexities and perhaps additional ambiguities were avoided finally in an effort to isolate and study the effects of the supply side phenomenon of agenda control a simple traditional model of the demand side of the collective choice process was employed for the simplest demand side passive supply side models this has typically proved quite adequate as models of the collective choice process have become more complex however taking on more strategic features the weaknesses of certain of the standard assumptions implicit in this demand side model become more apparent in particular the assumption that voters vote sincerely and non strategically is likely to be strained by most specifications of the dynamics of the voting process since learning on the part of voters would condition expectations and perhaps alter choice the inclusion of expectations formation into the model of voter behavior would certainly seem at least at the intuitive level to introduce an interesting additional set of constraints on agenda setters that may limit to some extent the expansionary tendencies described in this paper in short each of these qualifications should provide fertile ground for future research

productivity growth and the effects of r d in african agriculture this article measures and compares total factor productivity growth in african agriculture under contemporaneous and sequential technology frontiers over the period 1970 2004 the sources of productivity growth are examined using a fixed effects regression model and a polynomial distributed lag structure for agricultural r d expenditures while conventional estimates show an average productivity growth rate of only 0 3 per year the improved measures under sequential technology show that african agricultural productivity grew at a higher rate of 1 8 per year technical progress rather than efficiency change was the principal source of productivity growth agricultural r d weather and trade reforms turned out to have significant effects on productivity in african agriculture with a rate of return of 33 per year r d is shown to be a socially profitable investment in african agriculture while a strong r d expenditure growth of about 2 per year in the 1970s led to strong productivity growth after the mid 1980s stagnation of r d expenditure in the 1980s and early 1990s led to slower productivity growth in the 2000s consistent with recent economic recovery in africa evidenced by stronger agricultural gdp growth rates results showed that policy reforms as well as improved weather contributed to the recovery of agricultural productivity after the mid 1980s

the interaction of population growth and environmental quality an important question for policy is whether holding constant per capita income and other relevant factors population pressures have a significant effect upon environmental degradation the authors examine the effect of population pressures upon deforestation in 64 developing countries in an attempt to provide relevant empirical findings data on deforestation were drawn from the food and agriculture organizations production yearbook results suggest that a relationship exists between per capita income and deforestation and that for africa rural population density shifts the relationship upward the increase in the rate of deforestation levels off as income increases the rate of growth in per capita income also has a significant negative impact upon deforestation although the magnitude of the effect is small the authors close in stressing that reducing the rate of population growth is not necessarily the best way to reduce the rate of deforestation deforestation in developing countries is really a problem of market failure since property rights are often neither defined nor enforced there is essentially no private cost of deforestation with no long term stake in the land people have no incentive to use land efficiently this situation must be addressed in conjunction with the problems of poverty and population growth

the environmental kuznets curve and sustainability a panel data analysis abstract in recent years sustainability has represented one of the most important policy goals explored in the environmental kuznets curve ekc literature but related hypotheses performance measures and results continue to present a challenge the present paper contributes to this ongoing literature by studying two different ekc specifications for 10 middle east and north african mena countries over the period 1990 2010 using panel data methods for the first specification namely ekc we show that there is an inverted u shape relationship between environmental degradation and income while for the second specification namely modified ekc mekc we show that there is an inverted u shape relationship between sustainability and human development hd the relationships are shaped by other factors such as energy trade manufacture added value and the role of law more interestingly findings from the estimation show that ekc hypothesis hd and sustainability are crucial to build effective environmental policies

industrial structure and monopoly power in the federal bureaucracy an empirical analysis industrial structure and monopoly power in the federal bureaucracy an empirical analysis i introduction in theories of public supply of services bureau monopoly power plays a key role in determining output budget and cost levels that bureaus have considerable monopoly power has generally been taken for granted 1 margolis 1975 and kaufman 1976 however question the validity of this assumption they suggest that bureaus compete not only in the broad sense of the invisible hand as proposed by mckean 1965 but also in the narrower economic sense of supplying substitutable services borcherding 1988 comments on the need to establish the strength and effectiveness of competition within the public sector in order to determine the role of competition in public sector resource allocation to date there has been no direct empirical test of the assertion that individual bureaus have monopoly power this paper presents such a test by first estimating the industrial structure of the federal sector and by next examining the relationship between measured industrial structure and bureau monopoly power this investigation is limited to estimating federal industrial structure as distinct from market structure that is the characteristics of bureau supply are examined but demand characteristics are not this approach is consistent with the focus of most existing theories that rely on the assumption of monopoly power these theories model bureaucratic managerial behavior in supply taking the legislative role to be primarily one of production monitoring 2 ii measuring industrial structure in the federal sector most bureaus are considered as independent organizations analogous to the firm in the private sector the concept of a public sector industry is also analogous to that of a private sector industry that is a collection of producing organizations that supply a similar service and then compete for funds a private sector industry is considered to be highly structured if the distribution of market shares or some other measure of size of the firms in the industry is significantly uneven 3 two commonly accepted measures of the degree of industry structure in the private sector are the concentration ratio and the herfindahl index of the two measures the concentration ratio is cited more frequently primarily because it is readily available the concentration ratio measures the combined market share of a given number usually four or eight of the largest firms in an industry because it is a partial and aggregate measure of industry structure the concentration ratio provides limited information on the firms included in the ratio the herfindahl index measures the dispersion of firm size within an industry by summing squared market shares of each firm it is generally considered a better indicator of overall industry structure and competitive level within an industry than the concentration ratio because it usually incorporates information on market shares of all firms in an industry rather than overall concentration of a few large firms the more limited use of the herfindahl index may be attributed to its extensive data requirements each of these measures is used to estimate industrial structure of the federal sector to determine public sector industry structure budget and expenditure data on federal funds general and special funds were obtained from the budget of the united states government appendix at the agency level for all bureaus active in either of two fiscal years fy 1985 and fy 1980 4 5 data on nearly 300 federal organizations have been examined for each fiscal year fy 1985 is the most recent fiscal year for which actual rather than estimated data are available fy 1980 was chosen because a five year interval should be reasonable for comparative purposes and is consistent with the practice for similar calculations made for the private sector

economic growth and atmospheric pollution in spain discussing the environmental kuznets curve hypothesis abstract the environmental kuznets curve ekc hypothesis posits an inverted u relationship between environmental pressure and per capita income recent research has examined this hypothesis for different pollutants in different countries despite certain empirical evidence showing that some specific environmental pressures have diminished in developed countries the hypothesis could not be generalized to the global relationship between economy and environment at all in this article we contribute to this debate analyzing the trends of annual emission flux of six atmospheric pollutants in spain the study presents evidence that there is not any correlation between higher income level and smaller emissions except for so2 whose evolution might be compatible with the ekc hypothesis the authors argue that the relationship between income level and diverse types of emissions depends on many factors thus it cannot be thought that economic growth by itself will solve environmental problems

modeling the length and shape of the r d lag an application to uk agricultural productivity this article updates total factor productivity tfp growth in uk agriculture from 1953 2005 and shows that public and private research and returns to scale explain tfp cointegration and causality tests are used to investigate the validity of attempts to explain uk agricultural productivity with r d and related technology variables then the length and shape of the lag structures are modeled and compared with the structures that are commonly imposed on the data the rates of return ror to r d using the data determined lags differ considerably from those obtained by imposing lag shapes these comparisons show that the ror to public r d are sensitive to the lag shape as well as its length and that the omission of other technology variables such as mechanical and chemical patents pertaining to agriculture and farm size can bias the ror

the environmental kuznets curve semi parametrically revisited this paper re examines the existence of an environmental kuznets curve ekc across countries using a semi parametric regression estimator which places no restrictions on the functional form our results using cross country panel data on sulfur and carbon dioxide strongly suggest that the relationship between wealth and environmental degradation is not bell shaped as suggested by an ekc rather that there is a positive link for the very poorest countries and no clear relationship for richer countries

is agricultural productivity in developing countries really shrinking new evidence using a modified nonparametric approach abstract nonparametric productivity analyses performed to date show that most developing countries are experiencing relatively rapid technical regress in agriculture we discuss the plausibility of these results and argue that they stem from the existence of biased technical change and the definition of technology used we reestimate the malmquist index for a group of developing countries using a different definition of technology and find that most developing countries in our sample are experiencing positive productivity growth with technical change being the main source of this growth

short and long run returns to agricultural r d in south africa or will the real rate of return please stand up abstract this paper briefly presents the results of a total factor productivity tfp study of south african commercial agriculture for 1947 1997 and illustrates some potential pitfalls in rate of return to research ror calculations the lag between r d and tfp is analyzed and found to be only 9 years with a pronounced negative skew reflecting the adaptive focus of the south african system the two stage approach gives a massive ror of 170 the predetermined lag parameters are then used in modeling the knowledge stock to refine the estimates of the ror from short and long run dual profit functions in the short run with the capital inputs treated as fixed the ror is a more reasonable 44 in the long run with adjustment of the capital stocks it rises to 113 which would reflect the fact that new technology is embodied in the capital items however the long run model raises a new problem since capital stock adjustment takes 11 years 2 years longer than the lag between r d and tfp if this is assumed to be the correct lag the ror falls to 58 a best estimate the paper draws attention to the possible sensitivity of rate of return calculations to assumed lag structure particularly when the lag between changes in r d and tfp is skewed

investigating environmental kuznets curve in china aggregation bias and policy implications abstract aggregation bias may lead to a wrongly estimated environmental kuznets curve ekc and misguide the policy makers this paper aims to test the existence of aggregation bias in the environmental kuznets curve with the sulfur dioxide so2 emission the empirical methods robust to cross sectional dependence and slope heterogeneity reveals that the estimation of so2 ekc in china suffers from aggregation bias the results with the disaggregate data cannot support the ekc estimated at the aggregate level the finding of aggregation bias has several policy implications first the government should not be misled by the false relationship between the pollutant emission and the real gdp per capita at the aggregate level second the local governments should play more important roles in making environmental protection policies since the more disaggregate data can mitigate the aggregation bias to provide enough incentives to the local government the chinese national government should align the interests of the local governments with those of the national government on the other hand the findings indicate that china can stick to the policy of encouraging foreign direct investment openness and financial development since they have not influenced the so2 emission in china

asymmetric information and excessive budgets in government bureaucracies abstract this paper develops an optimal sequential mechanism for setting the budget of a bureaucracy where the budget setter the principal has only partial information concerning the minimum required budget bureaucratic slack is constrained by the existence of managers who can replace the current manager but only at a cost due to the need to learn the job the principal s initial information and the cost of turnover of managers is related to the expected bureaucratic slack the principal gains information over the budget setting process so that a previous budget level provides important information for current budget setting

environmental kuznets curve in china new evidence from dynamic panel analysis this paper applies a panel of 28 provinces of china from 1996 to 2012 to study the impacts of economic development energy consumption trade openness and urbanization on the carbon dioxide waste water and waste solid emissions by estimating a dynamic panel model with the system generalized method of moments gmm estimator and an autoregressive distributed lag ardl model with alternative panel estimators respectively we find that the environmental kuznets curve ekc hypothesis is well supported for all three major pollutant emissions in china across different models and estimation methods our study also confirms positive effects of energy consumption on various pollutant emissions in addition we find some evidence that trade and urbanization may deteriorate environmental quality in the long run albeit not in the short run from policy perspective our estimation results bode well for chinese government s goal of capping greenhouse emissions by 2030 as outlined in the recent china us climate accord while containing energy consumption and harm effects from expanding trade and urbanization remains some environmental challenges that china faces

ownership versus competition efficiency in public enterprise certainly the introduction of product market competition into potentially competitive or at least contestable markets can improve performance to take just one example morrison and whinston 1986 1986 estimate that even in the imperfectly contestable u s airline industry the annual u s welfare gains from deregulation have been around 6 billion

the dynamic impact of renewable energy consumption on co2 emissions a revisited environmental kuznets curve approach this paper considers a revisited environmental kuznets curve ekc hypothesis with potential impact of renewable energy consumption on environmental quality to this end paper aims at investigating the validity of the ekc hypothesis employing the dependent variable of co2 emissions and regressors of gdp quadratic gdp and renewable energy consumption this paper hence analyzes this revisited ekc hypothesis to observe if i there exists an inverted u shaped relationship between environmental quality in terms of co2 emissions per capita income and per capita income squared and ii there exists a negative causality from renewables to co2 emissions within ekc model paper employs a panel data set of 17 oecd countries over the period 1977 2010 and launches panel fmols and panel dols estimations the findings support the ekc hypothesis for the panel and indicate that gdp per capita and gdp per capita squared have the impacts on co2 emissions positively and negatively respectively and that renewable energy consumption yields negative impact on co2 emissions another remark of this paper is that the validity of ekc does not depend on income level of individual countries of panel in which ekc hypothesis holds eventually paper argues that if countries carry out i policies i e for fair and easy access to the electricity from renewable sources and ii policies to increase renewables supply through i e improved renewable energy technologies they will be able to contribute to combating global warming problem as they increase their gdp s

the political economy of benefits and costs a neoclassical approach to distributive politics this essay offers a rational political explanation for the notorious inefficiency of pork barrel projects with an optimization model of legislative behavior and legislative institutions the model emphasizes the economically arbitrary from a welfare point of view importance of the geographic incidence of benefits and costs owing to the geographic basis for political representation we explore the implications of a legislator s objective function and derive conditions under which a representative legislature will select an omnibus of projects each of which exceeds the efficient scale

the congressional bureaucratic system a principal agent perspective with applications to the sec this paper provides the theoretical perspective and empirical support for congressional dominance of agency decisions my thesis is twofold first because much of the previous evidence on this question is not evidence at all many scholars intuition and conclusions are based on a logically flawed foundation second i have provided here and in previous work a look at a variety of different agencies and in each case have shown how the events can plausibly be interpreted as involving congress agency problems within the congressional bureaucratic system are real and substantial just as they are within corporations however as in the latter institutional forms develop within the congressional system to partially if not wholly mitigate these problems the logical perspective together with the evidence provide a strong case against the agency dominance hypothesis as typified by the early sections of niskanen 1971 and wilson 1980

the effects of multiple objectives in the theory of public sector supply this paper incorporates objectives of both legislators and bureaucrats in a model of public sector decisionmaking existing models assume that either bureaucrats control production information and decisions niskanen type models or legislators control production decisions legislative models my model explicitly incorporates imperfect agent behavior and corresponding preferences of both legislators and bureaucrats to reflect the bilateral nature of appropriations the analysis shows that output levels generally differ from politically and socially efficient levels and depend on the relative weights of legislative and bureaucratic interests accordingly niskanen type and legislative models are viewed as special cases of this more general approach

impact of urbanization growth on malaysia co2 emissions evidence from the dynamic relationship abstract urbanization is a phenomenon of economic and social modernization investigating the link between urbanization growth and co2 emissions is necessary and helpful for malaysia to achieve its pollution reduction targets ecological modernization and augmented cobb douglas production theories are used in order to gain the best understanding of interaction between co2 emissions and urbanization for the 1971 2015 period this study aims to examine the relationships among co2 emissions urbanization growth energy consumption gdp domestic investment and financial development the f bounds test and vecm granger causality are utilized the dynamic relationship among variables and the inverted u shaped relationship between co2 emissions and urbanization in the long run are examined the elasticity of co2 urbanization is found positive elastic in the early stage of urbanization but it turns to negative inelastic at the higher urbanization stage furthermore the unidirectional causality from urbanization to co2 emissions in the short run are at a 1 percent level of significance and the bidirectional causality between co2 emissions and urbanization is at a 5 percent level of significance in the long run also we captured bidirectional causality among energy consumption domestic investment gdp co2 emissions and unidirectional causality from financial development to co2 emissions at least at a 5 percent level of significance these findings could support policymakers in managing urbanization development and considering clean investment and other green aspects for urban sustainable development which can save many people from natural disaster

driving force of rising renewable energy in china environment regulation and employment abstract this paper studies the development of renewable energy in china by examining the driving force of environment quality regulation and employment on renewable energy generation we adopt renewable energy as a metric for environment quality and test the relationship between renewable energy and income using environment kuznets curve ekc theories the impact of employment on renewable energy is tested and dummy variables are used to indicate when the regulation was in effect the results show that there exists a quadratic relationship between renewable energy and income but the results fail to provide that the renewable energy generation is a job creator when the lagged unemployment rate is included as an explaining variable we consider the employment population and the finding shows that the employment can promote the development of renewable energy the regulation has significantly positive impacts on renewable energy the interaction of income and employment show that along with the income increases the impacts of employment on renewable energy decrease our findings are helpful for government to figure out the determinants for rising the renewable energy generation and take efficient measures to promote its development

industrial structure of the federal sector evidence from bureau market share data this paper examines the industrial organization of the federal sector by measuring the variation of bureau market shares of appropriations the two measures employed are rank shift analysis turnover and the hymer pashigian index of market share instability which have been used to indicate the level of competitiveness within private sector industries the results of both the rank shift and market share instability analyses strongly suggest that there is considerable competition among bureaus within the federal sector these results are consistent with the hypothesis and existing evidence that bureaus engage in nonprice competitive strategies

the structure of a contract and the theory of a non exclusive resource the process of arriving at a useful concept of analysis is not only slow and painful but also may go astray and attain nothing useful someone begins with one example or observation followed by a theory which is intuitively plausible a theoretical term associated with a vague concept is coined examples of a seemingly different type emerge which call for another theory the process goes on as examples and theories continue to accumulate the different categories under the same heading of analysis serve only to confuse and each associated theory becomes ad hoc such has been the fate of the concept of externality a more useful approach i think is via contractual conditions the example chosen for illustration is marine fisheries where the fishing right is taken

environment kuznets curve for co2 emissions a cointegration analysis for china abstract this study examines the long run relationship between carbon emissions and energy consumption income and foreign trade in the case of china by employing time series data of 1975 2005 in particular the study aims at testing whether environmental kuznets curve ekc relationship between co 2 emissions and per capita real gdp holds in the long run or not auto regressive distributed lag ardl methodology is employed for empirical analysis a quadratic relationship between income and co 2 emission has been found for the sample period supporting ekc relationship the results of granger causality tests indicate one way causality runs through economic growth to co 2 emissions the results of this study also indicate that the carbon emissions are mainly determined by income and energy consumption in the long run trade has a positive but statistically insignificant impact on co 2 emissions

bounds testing approach to analysis of the environment kuznets curve hypothesis abstract this paper examines the long run and the dynamic temporal relationships between economic growth energy consumption population density trade openness and carbon dioxide co 2 emissions in brazil china egypt japan mexico nigeria south korea and south africa based on the environment kuznets curve ekc hypothesis we employ the ardl bounds test to cointegration and cusum and cusumsq tests to ensure cointegration and parameter stability the estimated results show that the inverted u shaped ekc hypothesis holds in japan and south korea in the other six countries the long run relationship between economic growth and co 2 emissions follows an n shaped trajectory and the estimated turning points are much higher than the sample mean in addition the results indicate that energy consumption granger causes both co 2 emissions and economic growth in all the countries our results are consistent with previous studies that show that there is no unique relationship between energy consumption population density economic growth trade openness and the environment across countries

economic growth and co2 emissions in malaysia a cointegration analysis of the environmental kuznets curve this paper attempts to establish a long run as well as causal relationship between economic growth and carbon dioxide co2 emissions for malaysia using data for the years from 1980 to 2009 the environmental kuznets curve ekc hypothesis was tested utilizing the auto regressive distributed lag ardl methodology the empirical results suggest the existence of a long run relationship between per capita co2 emissions and real per capita gross domestic product gdp when the co2 emissions level is the dependent variable we found an inverted u shape relationship between co2 emissions and gdp in both short and long run thus supporting the ekc hypothesis the granger causality test based on the vector error correction model vecm presents an absence of causality between co2 emissions and economic growth in the short run while demonstrating uni directional causality from economic growth to co2 emissions in the long run

coexistence of public and private job agencies screening with heterogeneous institutions in response to the analysis of bureaucracies and the finding of inherent inefficiencies public choice theory argues for an increase in competition by contracting out government services and deregulation the paper explores the effect of coexisting public and private employment services in a model with private information of the worker about her ability and unobservable effort choice the employer s use of an efficient unemployment exchange and an efficient private agency may lead to optimal screening with first best contracts this is due to the assumption that good types of workers lose more human capital than bad types in periods of unemployment or mismatch in contrast to standard screening contracts a bad type of worker earns an information rent if the employment exchange is inefficient but the employer chooses not to use the private agency for good types

the rate of return to public sector agricultural r d in the uk 1965 80 1989 the rate of return to public sector agricultural r d in the uk 1965 80 applied economics vol 21 no 8 pp 1063 1086

economic growth energy and environmental kuznets curve the aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between income and carbon dioxide co2 emissions in the context of the environmental kuznets curve ekc which posits the existence of an inverted u shape relationship between environmental degradation and economic development for this purpose two empirical models are examined for both models the relationship between per capita income and per capita co2 emissions and the relationship among per capita income per capita energy use and per capita co2 emissions are analyzed respectively between 1980 and 2010 using the panel data estimation techniques with the application of driscoll kraay standard errors yet for the first model data are analyzed for 26 oecd countries with high income levels while for the second model data are examined for 52 emerging countries the results of both models show that n shape and an inverted n shape relationship for cubic functional form are observed thus the results do not support the ekc hypothesis which implies that environmental degradation cannot be solved automatically by economic growth

bureaucratic agenda control imposition or bargaining niskanen s economic model of bureaucratic behavior assumes that bureaucratic agenda control allows the bureau to impose upon a passive legislature its most preferred alternative from among the set of alternatives that dominate the status quo but does a monopoly on the agenda give bureaus this degree of influence over a voting body this article reports on experiments that demonstrate that a monopoly on the agenda puts the agenda monopolist in a position to bargain with a voting body without being able to impose his or her most preferred alternative on that body this evidence supports theories of bureaucratic legislative bargaining at the expense of theories of bureaucratic imposition

validating the environmental kuznets curve hypothesis in india and china the role of hydroelectricity consumption abstract the aim of this research is to examine the link between co 2 emissions hydroelectricity consumption urbanisation and real gdp in china and india during the period of 1965 2013 the long run cointegration is investigated by the autoregressive distributed lag ardl bounds testing approach which is augmented with structural breaks we employ the ardl cointegration test to establish long run relationship in the variables furthermore we use the ardl to show that real gdp and urbanisation have long run positive impact on emission while hydroelectricity consumption exerts long run negative impact on emission in both countries the results support the existence of environmental kuznets curve ekc hypothesis in china and india besides the paper assesses the causal link between the variables by using granger causality procedures and the results show that there is long run bidirectional relationship between the variables in both countries

decoupling co2 emission and economic growth in china is there consistency in estimation results in analyzing environmental kuznets curve china is one of the highest growth economies in the world and it has experienced a significant rise in energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions in recent decades its economic growth heavily depends on fossil fuels of coal and oil which led to huge amount of greenhouse gas emissions this study logically analyzes the nexus of co2 emissions economic growth and energy consumption by decoupling greenhouse gas emission of co2 and economic growth to provide more conclusive evidence on the phenomenon of the environmental kuznets curve ekc over the period 1970 2015 to achieve the objective of consistency in the estimation results the study applies different estimation techniques such as ardl auto regressive distributed lag model fmols fully modified ordinary least squares dols dynamic ordinary least squares and impulse response and variance decomposition in addition the business as usual inverted u shaped relationship between gdp per capita and an economy related co2 emission is hypothesized the result supports the environmental kuznets curve ekc hypothesis from different techniques the turning point hovers around 744665 the estimation result indicates that china ekc turning point shows some inconsistencies when compared to other turning points obtained from different studies the inconsistency of the ekc turning point is attributed to the sensitivity of the result to different data source variables selection different pollutants and scope of the data although the ekc turning point of this present research differs from other china ekc turning points it gives a clear policy roadmap on the pursuance of long run economic growth in favour of environmental quality besides significance of the turning point lies with the need to explore other structural policies such as articulated demographic and energy policies rather than passively waiting for the arrival of the inflexion point one interesting findings of the analysis is the consistency of the estimation results from the different estimation techniques

a test of environmental kuznets curve for haze pollution in china evidence from the penal data of 27 capital cities abstract the mounting environmental crisis especially the large scale and continuous haze pollution is the most pressing challenge for china during rapid urbanization process this study is aimed at examining the relationship between haze pollution and economic growth and its turning points for different regions in china based on the panel data of 27 capital cities and municipalities in china during 2011 2015 we constructed the parameter estimation model after conducting the unit root cointegration and hausman tests based on the basic and extended models we find that the relationship between haze pollution and economic growth in china is not a typical inverted u shaped environmental kuznet curve ekc by introducing variables such as industrial structure foreign trade and energy intensity this study demonstrates that adjusting industrial structure and improving energy efficiency are effective means for haze pollution control grouping regressions reveal that regional differences exist in the relationships between haze pollution and economic growth and their tuning points for instance there was a u shaped relationship for the central region while there were inverted n shaped relationships for eastern western and northeastern regions policy implications are thus summarized for different regions in terms of balancing economic growth and environmental protection

agricultural productivity in developing countries abstract this paper examines changes in agricultural productivity in 18 developing countries over the period 1961 1985 we use a nonparametric output based malmquist index and a parametric variable coefficients cobb douglas production function to examine whether our estimates confirm results from other studies that have indicated declining agricultural productivity in ldcs the results confirm previous findings indicating that at least half of these countries have experienced productivity declines in agriculture

is the environmental kuznets curve hypothesis a sound basis for environmental policy in africa achieving economic development and environmental sustainability simultaneously is one of the most important development challenges for africa today the relationship between economic growth and environmental sustainability is founded on the environmental kuznets curve ekc this paper examines the validity of the hypothesis and the driving factors of carbon dioxide co2 emission in five african countries using the stirpat empirical model panel cointegration and fully modified ordinary least squares unlike previous studies economic development is disaggregated into agriculture and industrial economic development the results show that there is no evidence of the validity of the hypothesis in africa regardless of whether economic development is driven by agriculture or industrialisation energy structure and energy intensity are the two major driving forces of co2 emissions in africa population growth and urbanisation have negative relationship with co2 emissions from our results the ekc is not a sound basis for environmental policy in africa rather environmental policy in africa specifically for co2 emissions mitigation should focus on encouraging energy efficiency enhancing the use of clean energy incorporating the impact of population growth and harnessing the positive impacts of urbanisation

an ekc pattern in historical perspective carbon dioxide emissions technology fuel prices and growth in sweden 1870 1997 the environmental kuznets curve ekc has been subject to research and debate since the early 1990s this articleexamines the inverted u trajectory of swedish co2 emissions during an extended time

taking the u out of kuznets a comprehensive analysis of the ekc and environmental degradation unlike most environmental kuznets curve ekc studies which focus on narrow measures of pollution as proxies for environmental quality we test the validity of the ekc using the ecological footprint ef a more comprehensive measure of environmental degradation we find no empirical evidence of an ekc relationship between the ef and economic development and only limited support for such a relationship among the components of the ef in addition we discover that energy is largely responsible for the lack of an ekc relationship and that energy consumption levels would have to be cut by over 50 in order for a statistically significant ekc relationship to emerge from the data overall these results suggest that growth alone will not lead to sustainable development

the impact of environmental regulation shadow economy and corruption on environmental quality theory and empirical evidence from china abstract mounting environmental pressures led china to focus on the effectiveness of the environmental regulation to control pollution since the shadow economy or underground economic activities that are not included in official statistics accounts for an increasing fraction of china s economy its impacts on environmental quality should be carefully evaluated in this study the main research questions are as follows 1 what is the extent of the effect of environmental regulation on environmental quality and 2 what are the factors that influence the impact of environmental regulation on environmental pollution a theoretical model is developed to explain the relationship among the environmental regulation shadow economy and environmental quality in china an empirical analysis is conducted to test the three propositions of the model thereby examining the explanatory power of the theoretical model concretely using panel data from 30 provinces for the period of 1998 2012 the generalized method of moments gmm method is employed to control for potential endogeneity and introduce dynamic effects the estimation results indicate that stringent environmental regulation and the level of the shadow economy are both positively related to china s environmental pollution however the results also indicate that tighter environmental control would help reduce pollution at a given level of the shadow economy moreover an increase in the proportion of corrupt officials may weaken the environmental regulation which would consequently lead to the increase in illegal production and total pollutant emissions besides many economic and social factors may also affect the environmental quality for instance the development of secondary industry contributes toward an increase in pollutant emissions however increased research and development r d spending on eco friendly industrial operations can help to reduce pollution

productivity growth technical progress and efficiency change in industrialized countries this paper analyzes productivity growth in 17 oecd countries over the period 1979 1988 a nonparametric programming method activity analysis is used to compute malmquist productivity indexes these are decomposed into two component measures namely technical change and efficiency change we find that u s productivity growth is slightly higher than average all of which is due to technical change japan s productivity growth is the highest in the sample with almost half due to efficiency change jel c43 d24 in this paper we apply recently developed

renewable non renewable energy consumption economic growth trade openness and ecological footprint evidence from organisation for economic co operation and development countries the purpose of this study is to examine the validity of environmental kuznets curve hypothesis for ecological footprint with the role of renewable energy use non renewable energy use and trade openness in 24 organisation for economic co operation and development countries for this purpose we investigate the period from 1980 to 2014 using with second generation panel data methodologies which allow to cross sectional dependence among countries the group mean results show that the inverted u shaped environmental kuznets curve hypothesis does not hold in organisation for economic co operation and development countries because we found the u shaped relationship between economic growth and ecological footprint in addition it is concluded that increasing renewable energy consumption reduces ecological footprint and increasing non renewable energy consumption increases environmental degradation

health benefits of tunneling through the chinese environmental kuznets curve ekc abstract in this paper we first add to what is a growing literature on the existence and nature of the environmental kuznets curve ekc model for developing countries by testing for the existence of an ekc for china using a panel data set of city specific annual ambient levels of so2 pollution we find some support for both the typical inverted u shaped relationship and an n shaped cubic configuration more significantly we then explore the possibility of china s tunneling through the ekc by using newer cleaner technologies and thereby avoiding some of the environmental degradation that had often accompanied economic growth specifically we estimate and economically value the health benefits realizable to chinese cities from successful efforts to tunnel under the ekc over the next generation

environmental kuznets curve time series application for turkey why controversial results exist for similar models abstract this paper investigates the environmental kuznets curve ekc hypothesis using 40 year spanned time series for the turkey case co 2 emission series representing environmental pressure and gdp per capita values representing economic development are used for the period 1968 2007 a cointegration has been determined among nonstationary series first phases of an inverted u form ekc relationship have been determined for turkey from the econometric estimations this result is conflicting with that of the similar models for turkey case on the other hand this conflict refers the important arguments in the literature and constitutes the main points of the paper sensitivity critiques for example ahking et al for cointegration tests johansen and engle granger tests have been supported in our study moreover we detected important diversion in results according to drift and trend assumptions both in ci vector and ekc model specifications we conclude that building ekc model according to cointegration ci equation restrictions can be important source for diversion when sensitivity exists in estimations and cointegration tests therefore ekc estimations should be held in non restrictive way the additional structural reasons have been also discussed for developing country ekc cases the most important one is that the narrow income sample of developing countries makes it possible to be defined by similar but different paths therefore policy implications to be drawn from those analyses should not ignore this feature of developing country analyses