engendering foreign direct investment family structure labor markets and international capital mobility abstract in this paper i develop a theoretical foundation for analyzing how gender roles in the household affect foreign direct investment in a developing country context it is argued that the extent to which women and men share the costs of social reproduction at the household level is a central determinant of women s labor supply and the profitability of investment i combine a model of family structure with a structuralist macroeconomic model to investigate the effects of various public policies on women s wages and employment a major goal is to specify the constraints imposed by international capital mobility on the prospects for increased equality and living standards for women

global feminization through flexible labor abstract the emphasis on structural adjustment and labor flexibility in both developing and industrialized economies is rapidly altering the nature of employment women are being substituted for men and many forms of work are being converted into the kinds of jobs traditionally geared to women international data on recent trends in female economic activity reveal that new types of labor data are needed to highlight the mechanisms of control over workers and the actual economic forms of vulnerability to which women are exposed the paper concludes by posing questions that challenge the traditional concerns of donors and policy makers in many developing countries

occupational self selection a human capital approach to sex differences in occupational structure a rich and diverse literature exists concerning the distribution of labor incomes one approach namely that of human capital concentrates on lifetime accumulation paths of earnings capacity units human capital individual variations in human capital imply differences in earnings power thereby yielding strong implications concerning earnings distribution within a population despite its explanatory power the human capital model has been widely criticized one criticism centers on its inability to obtain inferences concerning occupational distribution the purpose of this paper is to alleviate at least some such criticism by applying the hedonic price approach so as to embed occupational choice into the human capital framework the significance is that neoclassical economic theory can be used to obtain implications concerning the determinants of occupational structure excerpt

trends countertrends and gaps in women s employment abstract the factors driving global integration namely trade expansion technological change and the internationalization of production have altered production patterns and changed the composition of output in both developed and developing countries as global patterns and modes of production have changed there has been a general shift away from agriculture toward industry and services along with these output changes have come significant changes in regional and national employment in developing and developed countries these changes span divergent trends on the one hand there is the increased availability of more and better quality employment as workers shift out of agriculture and subsistence production and into waged employment in the expanding manufacturing and service sectors on the other hand there have been sectors where the trend has been away from formalization toward the informalization and semi formalization of production activities and employment practices women have generally benefited from improvements in the world economy this article demonstrates however that patterns of employment and income generation among women often diverge however from global trends in important ways that suggest that the forces shaping global integration effect women differently the article frames a policy discussion that the international center for research on women led to debate the implications of recent trends in women s employment in the developing and developed world the six articles in this section represent this discussion they span a range of empirical and theoretical inquiry exploring global employment trends and highlighting changes in women s participation in formal and informal economic activities

globalisation women s economic rights and forced labour economy s penetration by foreign direct investment by and large has no sta tistically significant impact globalisation might weaken the general bargaining position of labour such that outcome related la bour standards might suffer however being more open toward trade is likely to promote rather than hinder the realisation of t wo labour rights considered as core or fundamental by the international labour organisation namely the elimination of economic discrimination and of forced labour

labor issues in korea s future abstract the abundant supply of highly educated and motivated human resources extremely favorable to the rapid growth of an export led labor intensive manufacturing sector has been the primary source of korean economic development during the past quarter century now the korean economy is undergoing a tremendously rapid industrial structural change into an oecd type of mature economy this paper examines four sets of problems korean labor will face in the transition period of the 1990s changes in the age sex educational composition of the labor force changes in the structure of labor demand leading to possible skill mismatches rising labor costs and reform in the remuneration system moves toward participatory and democratic labor management relations

marriage specialization and the gender division of labor we consider why the gender division of labor is so often enforced by custom and why customary gender divisions of labor generally involve both direction and prohibition in our formal model agents first learn skills and then enter the marriage market we show that wasteful behavior may emerge due to strategic incentives in specialization choice and human capital acquisition and that both problems may be mitigated through a customary gender division of labor this division is not pareto improving both the distributional effects and welfare gains of a customary gender division of labor decrease as opportunities for market exchange increase

occupational segregation and the gender wage gap in a dynamic east asian economy labor markets in the east asian miracle economies have undergone profound changes in recent decades as their comparative advantage in low wage labor diminished and jobs shifted toward higher skill manufacturing and services this study uses an occupational decomposition technique to examine how such shifts in east asia s occupational structures have affected trends in their gender wage gaps the wage gap is decomposed into across occupation and within occupation factors that are each further separated into wage and employment components results based on a comprehensive labor force data set for taiwan show that within occupation pay discrepancies account for the bulk of gender wage inequity

an intergenerational model of population growth the problem of population growth has been only partially formulated in an intertemporal context therefore a link between population theory and economic growth theory is still missing this paper attempts to provide such a link by analyzing an intergenerational model of optimum population growth the model accommodates the idea that decisions on increases in population should consider the new population s quality of life this concept is elaborated upon in a static framework by gary becker and gregg lewis dennis de tray and robert willis other literature on population growth such as harold votey disregards this consideration altogether 2 more explicitly this paper assumes that the utility of each generation is a function of the level of its consumption and the number and utility of the newly born people we are thus led to consider the utility of an infinite number of generations this model differs from paul samuelson s intergenerational model of pure consumption in which the utility of each generation depends only on that generation s own consumption recently philip neher 1971 analyzed a model of fertility in primitive economies it is based on the assumption that parents use children as investments to insure future consumption needs neher s analysis focuses entirely on the pension motive for having children 3 our model assumes that fertility is determined so as to balance the parents welfare derived from additional children against that derived from the children s quality of life we first outline a general model of optimum population growth in order to discuss explicitly various economic aspects of population we use a simple case in the analysis section i sets up the basic model

structural change and economic growth this paper presents a model in which a country s measured average propensity to save endogenously rises when its economy industrializes the model has agricultural and manufacturing sectors only agriculture uses land if at early dates income per capita is low agricultural consumption is important land is valuable and capital gains on land may constitute most wealth accumulation leaving the country s nipa aps low if exogenous technological progress raises incomes over time engel s law shifts demand to manufactured goods then land s portfolio importance relative to reproducible capital diminishes and the national income and products account saving rate can rise this paper presents a model illustrating that structural change due to the operation of engel s law can systematically affect an economy s measured saving rate according to the model a country s national income and product account average propensity to save will rise naturally if and when technological progress sufficiently lifts its income per capita this suggests a new interpretation of time series evidence while saving rates historically tend to be higher after industrialization than before one cannot automatically infer that changing wealth accumulation behaviour led to modernization rather structural change accompanying growth may have caused the rise in saving rates this paper also warns that international trade could lead to a contrasting pattern in cross sectional data highincome nations might contemporaneously have lower measured saving rates than poor countries recent work by mankiw romer and weil 1992 islam 1995 mankiw 1995 and others investigates long run patterns the analyses assume that each economy has attained or is moving toward a steady state equilibrium as in solow 1956 a country s steady state level of per capita gdp depends on its average propensity to save aps its rate of population growth the efficiency of its production sector etc regression outcomes seem consistent with the solow model s prediction that a higher aps will ceteris paribus lead to a higher level of income per capita the idea is that heterogeneity of exogenous preferences leads to international differences in aps s and in turn to long run differences

gender wage inequality and export led growth in south korea this article investigates the relationship between gender wage inequality and export led growth in south korea the persistent gender wage gap in korea s manufacturing sector is found to be linked to women s segregation in the country s major export industries where real wage growth has lagged productivity growth despite favorable market conditions that might drive up women s wages relative to those of men the interaction of state and firm level hiring training and promotion practices that structure women s and men s employment opportunities differently appear to have resulted in a relatively weaker fall back position for women in labour markets econometric results are consistent with the hypothesis that women s weaker fall back position limits their ability to bargain for wage increases commensurate with productivity growth further evidence is presented which links gender wage inequality to the growth of korean exports

impacts of structural adjustment programs on african women farmers and female headed households the structural adjustment programs saps initiated by the international monetary fund imf and the world bank and supported by donors are stimulating many tropical african economies through an infusion of foreign exchange increased agricultural prices devaluation of overvalued currencies improved marketing policies trade liberalization and increased competition from the private sector recently however debates about the pros and cons of saps have ensued

gender and trade aspects of labour markets we provide a comprehensive up to date review of the large body of theory and evidence on the linkages between trade liberalisation and gender inequality in income as well as two of the latter s key underlying determinants wages and employment on balance the evidence for developing countries points to an overall beneficial impact of trade expansion on female employment both relative to male employment and in absolute terms although largely concentrated in unskilled manufacturing by contrast the bulk of the evidence suggests a widening gender wage gap as a result of freer trade

beyond balanced growth balanced growth models are commonly used in macroeconomics because they are consistent with the well known kaldor facts regarding economic growth these models however are inconsistent with one of the most striking regularities of the growth process the massive reallocation of labour from agriculture into manufacturing and services this paper presents a simple model consistent with both the kaldor facts and the dynamics of sectoral labour reallocation

changes in sectoral composition associated with economic growth in this paper the author uses dynamic general equilibrium methods to examine the interrelationship between sectoral composition and growth she shows that growth is affected by sectoral composition and vice versa the model is basically a solow model of sustained growth with multiple consumption goods and nonhomothetic preferences each consumption good is produced using different factor intensities the rate of exogenous technological change is different in each sector nonhomotheticity of preferences drives the result that sectoral composition affects growth rates copyright 1997 by economics department of the university of pennsylvania and the osaka university institute of social and economic research association

interindustry wage differentials and the gender wage gap using data from the march 1988 current population survey the authors find that the wages of female workers differ significantly by industry even when the analysis controls for workers productivity related characteristics although these interindustry wage differentials are at least as large as men s and are highly correlated with them as well there are statistically significant differences between the two of the overall gender wage gap the average female worker earns about 65 as much as the average male worker 12 22 can be explained by differences between the patterns of interindustry wage differentials of men and women and 15 19 by differences in the distribution of male and female workers across industries thus the combined industry effects explain about one third of the overall gender wage gap

achieving fair trade through a social tariff regime a policy thought experiment this paper pursues a fair trade policy thought experiment that i presents the social index tariff structure sits regime and ii simulates a multilateral sits regime using bilateral trade flow data a sits regime seeks to promote strong labour and environmental standards and other initiatives that engender human development equality and sustainability it does this by institutionalising both the incentives and means for countries to enhance their performance in these areas we demonstrate that a multilateral sits regime would generate substantial and stable flows of development funds while incentivising an international race to the top in labour and environmental standards and more broadly in human development equality and sustainability

the u s demographic transition between 1800 and 1940 the u s went through a dramatic demographic transition in 1800 the average woman had 7 children and 94 percent of the population lived in rural areas by 1940 the average woman birthed just 2 kids and only 43 percent of populace lived in the country the question is what accounted for this shift in the demographic landscape the answer given here is that technological progress in agriculture and manufacturing explains these facts

population technology and growth from malthusian stagnation to the demographic transition and beyond this paper develops a unied growth model that captures the historical evolution of population technology and output it encompasses theendogenous transitionbetween three regimes that have characterized economic development the economy evolves from amalthusianregime wheretechnologicalprogressis slow andpopulationgrowthprevents anysustainedriseinincomepercapita intoapost malthusianregime wheretechnological progress rises and population growth absorbs only part of output growth ultimately a demographic transition reverses the positive relationship between income and population growth andtheeconomyentersamoderngrowthregimewithreducedpopulationgrowth

the u s westward expansion the u s economic development in the 19th century was characterized by the westward movement of population and the accumulation of productive land in the west this article presents a model of migration and land improvement to identify the quantitatively important forces driving these phenomena the conclusion is that the decrease in transportation costs induced the westward migration whereas population growth was responsible for the investment in productive land

globalization and the empowerment of women an analysis of spatial dependence via trade and foreign direct investment summary this article tests the hypothesis that higher women s economic and social rights in foreign countries with which a country is connected via trade and foreign direct investment fdi spill over into higher rights among the laggards a phenomenon known as spatial dependence analyzing women s rights over the period 1981 2007 in a global sample and samples of countries at different stages of economic development we find consistent evidence for spill over effects via trade links with the exception of a sample of low income countries we also find some evidence for similar effects via fdi but only for economic rights and only in middle income countries

international trade and the gender wage gap new evidence from india s manufacturing sector summary this study examines how increasing competitive forces from india s trade liberalization have affected women s relative wages and employment neoclassical theory implies that costly discrimination against female workers should diminish over time with increased competition we incorporate this idea into a theoretical model of competition and industry concentration and test the model using repeated cross sections of india s national sample survey organization nsso household survey data merged with trade and production data from 1983 to 2004 estimates from ordinary least squares ols and fixed effects regressions at the industry level indicate that increasing openness to trade is associated with larger wage gaps in india s concentrated manufacturing industries

the effects of structural change and economic liberalisation on gender wage differentials in south korea and taiwan this paper investigates the sources of divergent trends in gender wage differentials in two important newly industrialised economies nies south korean and taiwan as these economies have entered the post industrial phase of development gender wage differentials in taiwan s manufacturing sector have widened while in korea they have narrowed decomposition analysis is used to broadly identify sources of change in gender wage differentials multivariate regression analysis is relied on to differentiate the impact on the gender wage gap of 1 macro levels policies 2 institutional factors and 3 shifts in labour demand and supply in addition to the predictable effects of several standard supply side variables in taiwan physical capital mobility is found to have contributed to a wider gender earnings gap women s greater concentration in industries where capital is mobile may explain this result the effects of capital mobility in korea appears to differ which may be due to the dissimilar characters of outward fdi from that country copyright 2000 by oxford university press

globalization and the feldstein horioka puzzle capital account liberalization and the integration of world financial markets should increase capital mobility across countries this article uses the feldstein horioka savings investment methodology to examine the impact of economic globalization on the degree of capital mobility in 99 countries over the period 1970 to 2005 our findings suggest that economic openness and financial market integration have led to increased capital mobility in developed as well as developing countries however their effect appears to be larger for the latter this also implies that countries with more financial openness can run higher current account deficits due to better access to external capital markets our results also support the previous findings that foreign aid supplements domestic savings for investment in developing countries