employer initiated job terminations recent interest in pension reform and mandatory retirement has led to a considerable body of literature on job separation the analysis has however focused primarily on the employee s reasons for and reaction to job separation much less attention has been paid to the theoretical factors influencing the employer s decision to terminate a person s employment much of the debate centers on questions concerning the productivity of older workers representatives of the elderly not only argue that members of their constituency want to continue to work but that they are highly productive the implication is that if employers terminate older workers it must reflect employer discrimination against equally productive but older workers becker 1 however argues that the case for discrimination is weak competitive markets would lead to nondiscriminating firms driving out the discriminatory firms furthermore since employers will someday become old they are less likely to discriminate on the basis of age than other factors such as race or sex the implication is that if older workers are being terminated this must reflect that their productivities have dropped below their wages this paper explores the relationship between productivities and compensation paid by a nondiscriminatory employer who terminates older workers the analysis yields answers to the following questions at what point will a firm decide to terminate the employment of a person embodying the employer s investment in specific training if productivities vary with age how does the productivity of an older terminated worker compare with that of a younger worker have older workers passed their peak productivity years

optimal job assignment and investment in specific human capital an application to professional teachers the purpose of this paper is to analyse the impact of asymmetric information upon labour market decisions first in the face of uncertainty concerning person specific information self selection employment contracts develop which induce sorting within the labour market second we show the existence of a smaller share in investment in specific human capital for those who accept the self selection contract relative to those who refuse such contracts thus the earnings of those who accept such contracts are less responsive to changes in specific human capital than the earnings of those who refuse these contracts third we applied the model to the market for professional teachers in british columbia canada the results of the empirical tests were shown to be consistent with the hypotheses proposed in addition once we controlled for the level of and the distribution to human capital the public independent earnings differential fell from 64 3 to 23 9

teacher testing teacher education and teacher characteristics school officials and legislators have long been concerned with the possibility of declining teacher quality see e g sean corcoran et al 2002 beginning in the 1960 s states began testing prospective teachers in a direct effort to ensure that teachers meet minimum standards for basic skills and subject knowledge by 1999 41 states required applicants to pass some sort of standardized certification test as a theoretical matter however the impact of such testing is ambiguous test requirements may establish a minimum achievement standard as their proponents hope on the other hand testing and other certification requirements may deter some qualified applicants from teaching if these requirements are perceived as costly this is the barriers to entry story first noted in the occupational licensing context by milton f friedman and simon kuznets 1945 another concern with job applicant testing is the possibility of an adverse impact on minority candidates who usually do worse on tests see david autor and david scarborough 2003 for a recent study paralleling increased state involvement in teacher certification is the increase in teachers educational credentials especially in public schools for example in 1971 over two thirds of public school teachers had a b a while only 27 percent had a master s or education specialist s degree by 1991 however over half of public school teachers 52 6 percent had a master s or education specialist s degree in contrast the proportion of private school teachers

job change patterns and the wages of young men this study uses data from the national longitudinal survey of youth to distinguish empirically between mover stayer search good and experience good models of job mobility we estimate wage models in which the pattern of overall job mobility affects both the level and tenure slope of the log wage path after controlling for the correlation between mobility patterns and time constant person and job specific unobservables we find that workers who undergo persistent mobility have lower log wage paths than less mobile workers this finding is consistent with models in which job mobility is driven by time varying unobservables such as experience good models where changes in perceived match quality cause turnover

electricity demand by time of use an application of the household aids model in this study we estimated the price and expenditure elasticities of peak and off peak electricity consumption using a micro data set on 220 households living in 19 swiss cities the household version of the almost ideal demand system model aids was used as a framework to incorporate household characteristics the aids model was expanded by specifying the intercept as a linear function of household characteristics variables results indicate that demand for peak and off peak electricity is elastic and that cross price effects are positive as well as the elasticity of substitution therefore peak and off peak electricity are substitutes in the hicks allen sense

measuring the costs of children an alternative approach abstract the cost of a child or the general equivalence scale as it is more commonly known is a concept of considerable importance in matters relating to public policy and welfare it has played a crucial part in numerous theoretical and empirical studies relating to poverty income distribution dietary needs income maintenance programs supplementary and child benefits and other forms of social security payments in a welfare state and in assessing the horizontal equity of income taxation in spite of a long tradition of estimating the scale from observed household budget data there remain severe problems in estimation and interpretation of the scales this paper proposes a new methodology for calculating the scale using a framework which is consistent with utility theory and which overcomes the identification problem without having to enforce the arbitrary prior assumptions of recent studies the proposed method allows easy calculation of not only the basic scale parameter but also how it varies with price and reference utility we illustrate the usefulness of the procedure by estimating on u k budget data at two different levels of aggregation and employing two sets of quite different functional forms the results are plausible compare favourably with one another and hence confirm the robustness and usefulness of the proposed procedure

demand for food fats and oils the role of demographic variables and government donations a systems model of u s food fats and oils demand is estimated using quarterly time series data for the period 1962 87 demographic scaling is used to incorporate demographic variables and per capita government butter donations in addition to price income and demographic demand elasticities dietary fat intake elasticities are calculated for each of the demographic characteristics included in the study all of the five own price elasticities are statistically significant as are fifteen of the twenty cross price elasticities fourteen of the fifteen demographic elasticities are statistically significant

an econometric study of co2 emissions energy consumption income and foreign trade in turkey abstract this study attempts to empirically examine the dynamic causal relationships between carbon emissions energy consumption income and foreign trade in the case of turkey using the time series data for the period 1960 2005 this research tests the interrelationship between the variables using the bounds testing to cointegration procedure the bounds test results indicate that there exist two forms of long run relationships between the variables in the case of first form of long run relationship carbon emissions are determined by energy consumption income and foreign trade in the case of second long run relationship income is determined by carbon emissions energy consumption and foreign trade an augmented form of granger causality analysis is conducted amongst the variables the long run relationship of co2 emissions energy consumption income and foreign trade equation is also checked for the parameter stability the empirical results suggest that income is the most significant variable in explaining the carbon emissions in turkey which is followed by energy consumption and foreign trade moreover there exists a stable carbon emissions function the results also provide important policy recommendations

estimation of turkey s ghg emissions from electricity generation by fuel types as a result of fossil fuel combustion in electricity generation significant amounts of co2 is emitted and the amount of emission differs based on fuel type in turkey a considerable amount of greenhouse gas ghg emission is related to electricity generation and co2 has the highest share among those a number of technical economic and social factors such as economic growth energy consumption types of energy sources seasonality employment and increase in population affect the changes in the emission rates an energy system based on fossil fuels is mainly responsible for high ghg emissions and there are some measures to reduce the emission of ghgs development of renewable energy sources and improvements in energy efficiency are among the most important measures market based mechanisms are among other measures that directly target ghgs considering the fossil fuels in the energy mix using fossil fuels with high heating values and efficient energy conversion technologies means less ghgs organizing training and information programs for raising people s energy awareness encouraging conservation and increasing energy efficiency would have a significant role in reducing ghgs as well this study attempts to estimate the annual co2 emission from electricity generation according to fuel types for the period between 2013 and 2017 electricity generation data according to fuel types were obtained from turkish electricity transmission co teia s 5 year electricity generation capacity projection 2013 2017 according to the estimations turkey s co2 emission values are expected to increase in the forthcoming years additionally estimated revenues from the carbon tax imposed on the electricity generated by fossil fuels were calculated for each year of the projection period this revenue creates a significant economic resource results of this study are expected to guide policy makers in developing energy and environmental policies and contribute to energy diversity studies

adverse selection without single crossing monotone solutions abstract the single crossing assumption simplifies the analysis of screening models as local incentive compatibility becomes sufficient for global incentive compatibility if single crossing is violated global incentive compatibility constraints have to be taken into account this paper studies monotone solutions in a screening model that allows a one time violation of single crossing the results show that local and non local incentive constraints distort the solution in opposite directions therefore the optimal decision might involve distortions above as well as below the first best decision furthermore the well known no distortion at the top property does not necessarily hold the results show that the decision can even be distorted above first best for all types sufficient conditions for existence strict monotonicity and continuity of the solution are presented a new necessary condition satisfied by such solutions is found an algorithm based on this condition can calculate continuous and strictly monotone solutions

what do we know about carbon taxes an inquiry into their impacts on competitiveness and distribution of income abstract the kyoto protocol to the united nations framework convention on climate change unfccc has set legally binding emissions targets for a basket of six greenhouse gases and timetables for industrialised countries it has also incorporated three international flexibility mechanisms however the articles defining the flexibility mechanisms carry wording that their use must be supplemental to domestic actions this has led to the open debates on interpretations of these supplementarity provisions such debates ended at the resumed sixth conference of the parties cop to the unfccc held in bonn july 2001 and at the subsequent cop 7 in marrakesh november 2001 the final wording in the bonn agreement reaffirmed in the marrakesh accords at least indicates that domestic policies will have an important role to play in meeting annex b countries emissions commitments carbon taxes have long been advocated because of their cost effectiveness in achieving a given emissions reduction in this paper the main economic impacts of carbon taxes are assessed based on a review of empirical studies on existing carbon energy taxes it is concluded that competitive losses and distributive impacts are generally not significant and definitely less than often perceived however given the ultimate objective of the framework convention future carbon taxes could have higher rates than those already imposed and thus the resulting economic impacts could be more acute in this context it has been shown that how to use the generated fiscal revenues will be of fundamental importance in determining the final economic impacts of carbon taxes finally we briefly discuss carbon taxes in combination with other domestic and international instruments

an equilibrium analysis of wage productivity gaps we develop a model in which each firm chooses a hiring standard as well as a wage schedule and an application fee we then characterize the set of nash equilibria and establish necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of equilibrium if the distribution of productivities within each ability type is gaussian workers who pass the test will be paid more than the value of their marginal product while workers who fail the test will receive a wage net of the application fee below the value of their marginal product

specific human capital and sorting mechanisms in labor markets three major avenues of research on employment contracts which incorporate asymmetric information have been pursued first researchers have considered contracts in which the supply of employee effort is costly to monitor 3 8 9 12 second the allocation of labor has been examined when innate person specific characteristics are unobservable 4 5 14 15 third employment contracts have been designed when economic agents are uncertain about the state of nature concerning the worker s marginal product and the employee s reservation wage 6 7 this research agenda has provided an elaborate array of models which yield employment contracts that reduce the distortionary effects of asymmetric information however these models have two major short comings first under uncertainty concerning personspecific information employers have an incentive to screen employees the existing literature has analyzed two distinct screening mechanisms guasch and weiss 4 5 consider screening through wages while white 15 has considered screening through specific human capital however each mechanism has been analyzed in isolation the present paper combines these screening mechanisms and examines the impact of each upon the optimal employment contract second although the existing literature on employment contracts offers a general framework for analysis it is not directly amenable to empirical verification the present paper rectifies these short comings by developing a model which incorporates both screening mechanisms under asymmetric information and thereby provides a model conducive to empirical verification in our analysis three major simplifying assumptions are made first because we assume employees have no choice regarding the effort they supply we abstract from the agency problem discussed in the literature cited above second we assume employees differ in their innate person specific characteristics the latter is assumed to be observed by

the testing and estimation of complete demand systems on household budget surveys a recent demand system aids is extended to include family size explicitly and then estimated on indian budget data the estimation using non linear fiml is performed first on pure time series and then on pooled cross section data within and across equation restrictions are imposed and tested the principal results include u a significant price and family size effects on the budget share of an item b sensitivity of test results on homogeneity and symmetry to i rural urban data ii time series cross section and iii inclusion omission of family size c considerable difference between pure time series and pooled cross section estimates and d difference between the expenditure responses of the rural and urban consumer

deferred compensation vs efficiency wages an experimental test of effort provision and self selection abstract we compare the ability of two common compensation structures efficiency wages ew and deferred compensation dc at inducing effort from workers we test predictions on effort provision and elicit preferences between the two wage structures the theoretical predictions on effort are generally well supported although we find over provision of effort with ew in consequence although the theoretical prediction that dc is more cost effective is supported the difference is small we also find a marked preference for ew that cannot be explained by risk aversion the two effects combine to largely dissipate any advantage that dc may have in inducing effort

explaining organizational diseconomies of scale in r d agency problems and the allocation of engineering talent ideas and effort by firm size the comparative efficiency and success of small firms in r d remains largely unexplained this paper empirically examines scale diseconomies in offering employment contracts as an explanation for diseconomies of scale in r d the paper argues that small firms more efficiently resolve the severe agency problems of hidden information and hidden behavior in r d small firms more efficiently offer contracts that reward performance than large firms and consequently small firms attract and retain engineers with higher ability and skill further small firms through these more performance contingent contracts induce higher levels of effort than large firms the study tests and generally confirms these hypotheses using data collected from 912 current and former engineering employees of two large high technology companies

co2 emissions energy consumption and economic growth in turkey abstract this paper examines the long run and causal relationship issues between economic growth carbon emissions energy consumption and employment ratio in turkey by using autoregressive distributed lag bounds testing approach of cointegration empirical results for turkey over the period 1968 2005 suggest an evidence of a long run relationship between the variables at 5 significance level in turkey the estimated income elasticity of carbon emissions per capita is 0 606 and the income elasticity of energy consumption per capita is 1 375 results for the existence and direction of granger causality show that neither carbon emissions per capita nor energy consumption per capita cause real gdp per capita but employment ratio causes real gdp per capita in the short run in addition ekc hypothesis at causal framework by using a linear logarithmic model is not valid in turkish case the overall results indicates that energy conservation policies such as rationing energy consumption and controlling carbon dioxide emissions are likely to have no adverse effect on the real output growth of turkey

energy efficiency assessment of fixed asset investment projects a case study of a shenzhen combined cycle power plant abstract the assessment of fixed asset investment projects of energy conservation is based on a scientific and systematic approach to analyze the energy production consumption and management and helps to analyze whether the use of energy is in line with the national and local industrial policies and whether the project design meets china s energy saving design outlines and industry standards the level of energy consumption is compared to the domestic and international advanced levels regarding the project energy use and process analysis in all aspects of energy production and energy consumption taking technically feasible economically reasonable and environmentally and socially responsible measures and effective and rational use of energy to reduce consumption and losses and to stop waste while investigating if the project has a certain advanced and rational use of energy this study provides a full consideration of whether there is a scientific and rational use of energy to avoid low level repetition construction to avoid blind expansion trends and to promote the upgrading of industrial structure this paper takes as an example a gas turbine power plant in shenzhen as an assessment case study of the potential energy savings the project is expected to have an annual power supply of 37 89 10 8 kw h and an annual heat supply of 5 43 10 4 gj the consumption of power generation in tons of coal equivalent units is expected to reach 208 g per kw h the comprehensive annual average thermal efficiency is 77 16 and the average heat to power ratio is 40 65 these technical indicators are thought to be one of the best compared to similar level projects in the country

demographic variables in demand analysis in this paper the authors discuss five procedures for incorporating demographic variables into theoretically plausible demand systems translating scaling and the gorman reverse gorman and implicit prais houthakker procedures these five procedures are used to incorporate a single demographic variable the number of children in a household into the generalized ces demand system using household budget data for the united kingdom for the period 1966 1972 excerpt

economic drivers of greenhouse gas emissions in china abstract for china greenhouse gas emissions increased by 0 075 gigatons gt in the period of 1995 2000 and increased by 4 23 gt from 2000 to 2009 then reached the amount of 8 61 gt in 2009 different from the traditional analysis focused on accounting sectors greenhouse gas emissions under the production based responsibility this paper investigates sectoral ghg emissions in china in the period of 1995 2009 from the perspective of consumption based and income based responsibility we found that different metrics yield very different ghg emission responsibilities the sector of electricity gas and water supply has the highest ghg emissions responsibility based on the production and income metrics while the sector of construction is the largest emitter under the consumption metric in the light of the key driver analysis of ghg emissions from 1995 to 2009 based on the consumption metric the change in the final demand volume is the largest driver of increase in china s consumption based ghg emissions 17 18 gt the changes in the production structure and the final demand structure are other contributors 0 53 gt 1 46 gt the improvement to the intensity of ghg emissions is the main force for ghg emissions mitigation 14 86 gt according to the income metric the contributions of input volume changes input structure changes and ghg intensity changes are similar to the effects of consumption based responsibility 19 11 gt 1 13 gt 14 95 gt the difference is that the change in the production structure is another force that offset ghg increase 0 98 gt results in this paper can give some recommendation on mitigating ghg emissions in china for policy makers from production side demand side and supply side

minimum wage effects on employment substitution and the teenage labor supply evidence from personnel data using personnel data from a large us retail firm i examine the firm s response to the 1996 federal minimum wage increase compulsory increases in average wages had negative but statistically insignificant effects on overall employment however increases in the relative wages of teenagers led to significant increases in the relative employment of teenagers especially younger and more affluent teenagers further analysis suggests a pattern consistent with noncompetitive models where the legislation affected mainly the wages of teenagers and so was only moderately binding it led both to higher teenage labor market participation and to higher absolute employment of teenagers

voluntary emission trading potential of turkey abstract climate change is likely to cause serious market failures and carbon trading as a market instrument can help correct its negative impacts the global carbon markets established to combat climate change include regulatory and voluntary markets turkey cannot utilise regulatory carbon markets under the kyoto protocol as a result of her unique position in the unfccc some offsetting projects in turkey have benefitted only voluntary emission trading for the reduction of ghg emissions due to on going climate change negotiation under the unfccc it seems that turkey will not use the current regulatory carbon markets thus turkey should promote the use of and participation in voluntary carbon markets in this article emission reduction potential via energy efficiency renewable energy and solid waste management and corresponding offsetting of credits with their estimated prices is investigated for the period between 2013 and 2020 the emission reduction potential for energy efficiency renewable energy and solid waste management projects are estimated at 403 312 and 356 million tons of co 2 equivalent emissions respectively totalling 1 071 million tons of co 2 equivalent the total revenue of the carbon certificates are estimated in the range of 19 775 33 386 million us dollars for the same period

an empirical look at franchising as an organizational form franchise contracts are identified as a hybrid form of economic organization motives for the dominance of franchise arrangements are identified by examining the theoretical literature on franchising and related literatures on the theory of the firm firm growth managerial and employee selection a nd brand name capital empirical tests are performed on the incidence of franchise contracts across states for three industries in which f ranchising is prominent and data are readily available the results s uggest that both principal agent incentives and informational incenti ves favor the use of franchise arrangements copyright 1988 by the university of chicago

optimal minimum wage legislation in this paper we present a model in which minimum wage legislation may be pareto optimal this arises because a higher wage would be preferred to the market clearing wage by demanders for and suppliers of labour even though unemployment is induced and minimum wage legislation is needed to support the preferred equilibrium consider a labour market where the quality of labour depends positively on the wage offered if labour quality is highly sensitive to wage increases effective unit labour cost will fall as the wage rises this would lead the representative firm to prefer paying an above market clearing wage and to ration job slots such an effect has been studied when quality depends on an individual firm s wage offer see for example weiss i980 or stiglitz i974 suppose however that labour quality depended not on any individual firm s wage offer but on the average market wage if firms were atomistic each invidual firm would have an incentive to undercut the optimal above marketclearing wage trying to get the quality benefits of high average wages while paying lower wages itself the high wage solution would not be viable legislation fixing minimum wages might be required to support the preferred equilibrium quality might depend on average market wages when workers must decide whether or not to enter a labour market before they can sample and obtain specific job offers migration into labour markets for example rural to urban migration in less developed countries provides one example as the decision to migrate and therefore the quality of the labour pool will depend on some average of expected wage offers the decision over which profession to enter at the beginning of the educational process provides another example of course imperfect information plays a key role here it is assumed that both firms and workers have imperfect information about the suitability of individual workers for jobs both before and to a lesser extent after employment has begun this lack of information will rule out both profitable selfselection mechanisms and wages strictly proportional to output so that firms will care about the quality of the labour pool the non optimality of market clearing prices which will be demonstrated makes this paper similar to a number of papers on the implications of adverse selection in labour and product markets one may mention two excellent papers on screening in labour markets by guasch and weiss i980 i98i this paper builds on some of the results in those papers stiglitz and weiss i98i show how credit rationing may arise from a similar type of argument wilson

a future for carbon taxes abstract carbon taxes have been frequently advocated as a cost effective instrument for reducing emissions however in the practice of environmental policies only six countries have implemented taxes based on the carbon content of the energy products in this paper we evaluate carbon taxes with regard to their competitiveness distributional and environmental impacts the evidence shows that carbon taxes may be an interesting policy option and that their main negative impacts may be compensated through the design of the tax and the use of the generated fiscal revenues

decomposition of co2 emissions over 1980 2003 in turkey abstract there is a multi dimensional need for studying the energy situation in turkey and to obtain insight into the development of co2 emissions on the one hand recent projections of the oecd show that turkey has a yearly gdp growth potential of over 7 on the other hand recent projections of undp and world bank indicate that the level of co2 emission is going to rise six fold by 2025 with respect to the level of emissions in 1990 it is a great challenge to both meet the growth target and keep the co2 under control thereupon this paper tries to unfold factors that explain co2 emissions by undertaking a complete decomposition analysis for turkey over the period 1980 2003 the analysis shows as is common to relatively fast growing economies that the biggest contributor to the rise in co2 emissions is the expansion of the economy scale effect the carbon intensity and the change in composition of the economy which nearly move in tandem also contribute to the rise in co2 emissions albeit at a slower rate the energy intensity of the economy which is decreasing is responsible for a modest reduction in co2 emissions hence in congruence with the scale effect a decoupling of carbon emissions and economic growth is not found in turkey over the period 1980 2003

theoretical foundations for sticky wages abstract the paper compares three different types of theoretical explanation of sticky wages they are implicit contracts efficiency wage models and insider outsider models it then reconsiders keynes rationale for sticky wages which focuses on relative wage issues finally the paper considers possible directions for future research

sectoral energy consumption by source and economic growth in turkey this paper provides a detailed analysis of the energy consumption in turkey during the last 40 years it investigates the causal relationships between income and energy consumption in two ways first the relationship is studied at the aggregate level then we focus on the industrial sector previous findings suggest that in the case of turkey there is a unidirectional causality running from energy consumption to growth however our findings suggest that in the long run income and energy consumption appear to be neutral with respect to each other both at the aggregate and at the industrial level we also find a strong evidence of instantaneous causality which means that contemporaneous values of energy consumption and income are correlated furthermore a descriptive analysis is conducted in order to reveal the differences in the use of energy resources we conclude that energy conservation policies are necessary for environmental concerns and our empirical results imply that such policies would not impede economic growth in the long term

a unified approach to incorporating demographic or other effects into demand systems a general method of introducing demographic effects into any demand system using modifying functions is described which permits complicated interactions of demographic variables with prices and expeditures theorems give properties the modifying functions must have to ensure integrability of the resulting system demand equations of the new system are given explicitly as functions of the original demand equations and the modifying functions the procedure is interpreted as altering a households technology and is shown to encompass adult equivalent scales and related methods examples of modifying functions are derived and applications of the technique to uses other than demographic variation are considered excerpt

migration selectivity and the effects of public programs abstract a model of the spatial distribution of mobile heterogeneous agents is formulated to assess how a price change or program subsidy that is location specific affects the composition of local residents via selective migration and thus biases evaluations of the effectiveness of the program based on its local consequences longitudinal data from colombia are used to test the implications of migration selectivity the findings confirm the existence of selective migration suggesting that local subsidies to human capital attract high income but within income groups low fertility households and those with low human capital endowments these migration patterns are shown to be consistent with the dominance of endowment over tastes heterogeneity in the population under plausible behavioral assumptions

budget share demographic translation and the aggregate almost ideal demand system abstract this paper introduces budget share demographic translation in the almost ideal demand system aids and explores its implications for aggregation over consuming units it os shown that under certain conditions the joint distribution of expenditure and demographic characteristics plays an explicit role in the aggregate aids empirical evidence based on italian data is provided and the implied expenditure pattern for a number of combinations of expenditures and household characteristics derived from the estimated aggregate aids the empirical results suggest that the usual rejection of the homogeneity restriction in aggregate demand systems might have to do with the improper treatment of the aggregation issue

strategic promotion and compensation within a hierarchical firm structure this paper details how the composition of a worker s skills and the non observability of a worker s ability affect wage and promotion paths promotionbased compensation schemes derive naturally from the worker s asymmetrically observed ability promotion takes place over time and is inefficient since employers strategically exploit their knowledge of an able worker s ability conversely employers may be unable to efficiently demote and retain bad managers without paying bonuses employers are led to promote educated employees before their equally or more able but uneducated counterparts explanations for fast track promotions plans and other empirical regularities are provided

energy consumption economic growth and carbon emissions challenges faced by an eu candidate member abstract this paper investigates the long run granger causality relationship between economic growth carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption in turkey controlling for gross fixed capital formation and labor the most interesting result is that carbon emissions seem to granger cause energy consumption but the reverse is not true the lack of a long run causal link between income and emissions may be implying that to reduce carbon emissions turkey does not have to forgo economic growth