property rights externalities and resource degradation locating the tragedy abstract resource degradation in the third world is largely driven by the demands of farm households for fuelwood and land for agriculture since resources are often controlled through indigenous systems of property the tragedy of the commons has been used to explain resource degradation as a result private property is suggested as a solution to resource degradation a dynamic model capable of examining household incentives for resource use under private and common property is developed results of the model reject the conventional wisdom that gives rise to the presumed optimality of private individual property in natural resources and the correlated indictment of group management regimes

agents of change or cogs in the machine reexamining the influence of female managers on the gender wage gap do female managers act in ways that narrow or instead act in ways that preserve or even widen the gender wage gap although conceptual arguments exist on both sides of this debate the empirical evidence to date has favored the former view yet this evidence comes primarily from cross establishment surveys which do not provide visibility into individual managers choices using longitudinal personnel records from an information services firm in which managers had considerable discretion over employee salaries we estimate multilevel models that indicate no support for the proposition that female managers reduce the gender wage gap among their subordinates consistent with the theory of value threat we instead find conditional support for the cogs in the machine perspective in the subsample of high performing supervisors and low performing employees women who switched from a male to a female supervisor had a lower salary in the following year than men who made the same switch

temporal change in occupational earnings attainment 1970 1980 we investigate change in occupational earnings in the united states during the 1970s by comparing similar models at either end of the decade since the 1970s were years of relative economic stagnation we anticipated that they would not be favorable to women the authors find that although earnings attainment generally appeared less dependent on workers status characteristics in 1980 than in 1970 incomes increased less for occupations where concentrations of women were high earnings returns to human capital increased during the interval largely owing to stronger returns among males in addition female earnings were more sensitive than male earnings to workers status characteristics data are from a variety of official and other published sources excerpt

population growth and savings in ldcs a survey article both population growth and savings have traditionally taken a certain place of pride among models of growth and development the purpose of this paper is to examine the literature concerning the hypothesis that the savings rate itself is a function of the population growth rate and this effect exacerbates the negative effect of population on economic growth the evidence is examined from three perspectives i macroeconomic effects of variations in the age structure of the population ii choice theoretic models of family decision making particularly the joint determination of fertility decisions and savings decisions and iii market level interactions of variables which determine individual decisions the paper concludes that both population growth and savings rates are inextricably tied up in the process of economic development there are many ways in which the two variables may interact but no generalizations can be safely made across countries

manager impartiality worker firm matching and the gender wage gap using a rich matched employer employee data set from sweden the author examines whether female managers in a firm narrow the gender pay gap the study s main contribution is its ability to account for unobserved heterogeneity among both workers and firms that is potentially correlated with manager gender the results show a substantial negative association between the representation of female managers and the establishment s gender wage gap estimates that account for sorting on unobserved worker skills however do not support the conclusion that managers favor same sex workers in wage setting additional results show that organizations with more female managers recruit more nonmanagerial high wage women together these findings suggest that associations between manager gender and male female wage gaps should be interpreted with caution as worker sorting seems to be a crucial component behind this relationship

interorganizational determinants of promotion client leadership and the attainment of women attorneys explanations of gender inequality typically emphasize individual characteristics the structure of internal labor markets or pressures from the institutional environment extending the structuralist and institutional perspectives this article argues that the demographic composition of an organization s exchange partners can influence the demographic composition of the focal organization when the focal organization is dependent upon its partners specifically law firms with women led corporate clients increase the number of partners who are women attorneys data on elite law firms and their publicly traded clients support a bargaining power hypothesis whereby law firms promote women attorneys when their corporate clients have women in three key leadership positions general legal counsel chief executive officer and board director these effects are stronger when the law firm has few clients reinforcing the hypothesis that interorganizational influence is more vital when a focal organization is depe

getting deals done the use of social networks in bank decision making economic actors confront various forms of uncertainty making decisions and how they deal with these obstacles may affect their success in accomplishing their goals this study examines the means by which relationship managers in a major commercial bank attempt to close transactions with their corporate customers it is hypothesized that under conditions of high uncertainty bankers will rely on colleagues with whom they are strongly tied for advice on and support of their deals drawing on recent network theory it is also hypothesized that transactions in which bankers use relatively sparse approval networks are more likely to successfully close than are transactions involving dense approval networks both hypotheses are supported bankers are faced with a strategic paradox their tendency to rely on those they trust in dealing with uncertainty creates conditions that render deals less likely to be closed successfully this paradox represents an example of unanticipated consequences of purposive social action

discrimination competition and loan performance in fha mortgage lending this study tests for the presence of prejudicial or noneconomic discrimination on the part of mortgage lenders by evaluating the performance of home mortgage loans the approach differs from that of previous studies of loan performance in that it is based on the proposition that noneconomic discrimination should be more pronounced in less competitive lending environments while statistical discrimination should not using a rich set of fha insured loan records and measures of local market concentration to proxy the competitive environment we test for the prediction of better loan performance by minority borrowers relative to white borrowers in more concentrated markets we argue that this approach substantially reduces the potential for omitted variable bias that has cast a shadow on previous studies of lending discrimination results fail to reject the null hypothesis of no noneconomic discrimination

cut to the bone hospital takeovers and nurse employment contracts the authors examine changes in the wages employment and effort of nurses in california hospitals following takeovers by large chains in the 1990s the market for nurses has been described as a classic monopsony so that one might expect increases in firm market power to be associated with declines in wages however a basic contracting model predicts effects on effort rather than on wages which is what this analysis finds nurses experienced few declines in wages following takeovers but did see increases in the number of patients per nurse the measure of effort used here the authors show that their results are also consistent with an extended version of the monopsony model that considers effort and allows for revenue shifts following a takeover finally they find that these changes were similar in the largest for profit and non profit chains suggesting that market forces are more important than institutional form

hazards of the market the continuity and dissolution of interorganizational market relationships the authors propose a theory of the market as an intertemporal process that integrates multiple theoretical perspectives using event history methods thery analyze the dissolution of interorganizational market ties between advertising agencies and their clients as a function of three forces competition power and institutional forces the informal rules of exchange institutionalized in the emergence phase of the advertising services market include exclusivity sole source and loyalty infrequent switching they find that most exchange relationships between advertising agencies and their clients are indeed exclusive and most last for several years but competition power and institutional forces support or undermine these rules most institutional forces reduce the risk of dissolution of agency client ties powerful advertising agencies mobilize resources to increase tie stability but powerful clients mobilize resources to increase or decrease stability competition is the weakest market force but it has a consistent and substantial effect on tie dissolution competition always increases the risk of dissolution they conclude that the market is institutionalized as imperfectly repeated patterns of exchange because competition and changing norms about the duration of market ties destabilize market relationships

product market competition and gender discrimination award winning work by the call for competition in the markets a partnership between the office for strategy and studies of the ministry of economy gee and the associacao mutualista montepio

institutional sources of boundary spanning structures the establishment of investor relations departments in the fortune 500 industrials the authors analyze the coercive and mimetic conditions leading to the establishment of investor relations departments among fortune 500 industrial firms during the 1984 1994 period the results show that antimanagement resolutions brought to a vote by social movement activists significantly contributed to the establishment of investor relations departments intense scrutiny by financial analysts also impelled firms to create such departments whereas social movement activists framed shareholder rights as a problem and compelled organizations to uphold them professional analysts subtly coerced organizations to signal their commitment to investor rights by creating boundary spanning structures that solution was transmitted through board interlocks to other organizations

an analysis of glass ceiling perceptions in the accounting profession access to a deep pool of talent is essential to the success of every professional services firm the supply of that talent is contingent upon the available rewards for the exercise of that talent and both the existence of the potential rewards and the beliefs that individuals hold about the existence of the rewards affect the decision to remain in the field one structural factor that may affect the judgment about whether to remain in a profession concerns promotions based on the gender of the employee i e the glass ceiling in this study we examine the glass ceiling within the context of the accounting profession while advances have been made within the accounting profession to address the glass ceiling the continued existence and perceptions about the continued existence of the issue exert adverse effects upon the available talent pool and may create long term problems for the profession in this study we investigate glass ceiling perceptions among a large sample of female accounting professionals employed in accounting the sample includes both public accountants and those employed in industry accounting our study yields the finding of beliefs in bias driven effects e g a bias against female promotions to the top level structural effects e g a lack of mentoring opportunities networking opportunities and high profile job assignments and cultural effects e g a lack of social support from the male leaders within the organization among these accounting professionals glass ceiling perceptions are also influenced by several demographic factors furthermore accounting professionals employed by industry are more likely to report a glass ceiling within their firms than accounting professionals employed by public accounting firms the findings are of interest to researchers who explore gender related issues in professional service firms such as the field of accounting and to senior members of practice who are tasked with ensuring the integrity and quality of the talent pool and the equitable distribution of rewards to employees

the gender gap in pay in company boards the aim of this study is to analyze whether a gender wage gap exists in the boards of directors bd of companies listed on the madrid stock exchange from 2004 to 2011 we hypothesize that the percentage of female directors on a bd the presence of female directors on the nomination and compensation committee the presence of well qualified independent women directors on bd the sector and the geographical region have an effect on the gender wage gap the results show that the percentage of female directors on a bd and the geographical region have no effect on the gender wage gap on the other hand the finding reports that women s presence on the nomination and compensation committee increases the gender gap in pay and it is reduced when there are independent female directors who have gained a degree on the bd and when the company operates in the finance and real estate services sector in addition the results also demonstrate that the seniority of the female directors decreases the gender gap in pay while there is a rise when the companies are bigger and the size of the bd and the return on assets increase these conclusions should encourage regulatory bodies to adopt forceful rules to mitigate the gender gap in pay

hierarchical rank and women s organizational mobility glass ceilings in corporate law firms this article revives the debate over whether women s upward mobility prospects decline as they climb organizational hierarchies although this proposition is a core element of the glass ceiling metaphor it has failed to gain strong support in previous research the article establishes a firm theoretical foundation for expecting an increasing female disadvantage with an eye toward defining the scope conditions and extending the model to upper level external hires the approach is illustrated in an empirical setting that meets the proposed scope conditions corporate law firms in the united states results confirm that in this setting the female mobility disadvantage is greater at higher organizational levels in the case of internal promotions but not in the case of external hires

the labor market effects of sex and race discrimination laws westudytheeffectsofstatesexandracediscriminationlawsthatwerepassedprior to federal antidiscrimination legislation state sex discrimination laws targeted discrimination in pay only because an equal pay constraint raises the relative price of female labor we would expect the relative employment of females to decline we find robust evidence that state equal pay laws for women reduced relative employment of both black women and white women we also find some evidence of positive effects of race discrimination laws on earnings of blacks relative to whites although no evidence of employment effects jel j15 j16 j18 j23 i introduction public policies to narrow the gaps in labor market outcomes between men and women and between whites and minorities have a long and controversial history two pieces of federal legislation stand out as perhaps the most significant such policies the first was the equal pay act of 1963 which requires equal pay for equal work noting some exceptions but explicitly prohibiting a worker s sex as one of them the second was title vii of the civilrightsactof1964 makingitillegaltodiscriminate in hiring discharge compensation and so on on the basis of race color religion sex or national origin two other important landmarks in the evolution of these policies at the federal level were amendments to title vii embodied in the equal employment opportunity act eeoa of 1972 which expanded coverage and increased the enforcement powers of the equal employment opportunity commission eeoc and executive orders 10925 1961 11246 1965 and 11375 1967 which laid the groundwork for affirmative action although the phrase has its origins in title vii 1

a primer on cardinal versus ordinal tournaments i introduction the tournament literature has considered primarily two relative performance evaluation schemes that are consistent with what we observe in practice the rationale behind each of these incentive schemes is that relative performance evaluation is useful when agent performance is subject to common shocks in which case individual performance is not a sufficient statistic for individual effort that is the performance of other agents can enhance the inference of the effort exerted by an individual agent one important difference between these schemes is that under rank order or ordinal tournaments the prizes are prespecified and agents compete for rank by contrast under two part piece rate or cardinal tournaments the total prize is fixed and agents compete for a share of the pie 1 each agent receives a base payment and a bonus depending on the difference of his performance from the average performance of his peers 2 average performance provides an informative signal about the value of common shocks inflicted on agents ordinal tournaments are prevalent in contests where rank is more important than individual performance for instance sports contests where contestants compete for medals or fixed prizes or when individual performance data are not readily available for instance promotion contests where the individual contribution of contestants cannot easily be separated from that of their co workers or subordinates by contrast cardinal tournaments are popular in several occupations or industries where cardinal performance data are readily available e g salesmen contracts physician contracts with hmos and agricultural contracts 3 both ordinal and cardinal tournaments are relatively simple to design even though they are only proxies of theoretically optimal schemes 4 prior literature has contrasted the efficiency properties of either ordinal or cardinal tournaments against those of piece rates under piece rates each agent is evaluated according to his absolute performance thus agents receive a base payment and a bonus which is based typically linearly on their individual output 5 piece rates are sometimes expressed as fixed performance standards when an agent s performance is evaluated against a fixed standard instead of the average output obtained lazear and rosen 1981 green and stokey 1983 and nalebuff and stiglitz 1983 have shown that ordinal tournaments are superior to piece rates when agent activities are subject to common shocks that affect performance 6 more recently marinakis and tsoulouhas 2012 2013 investigated and verified this result for cardinal tournaments relative performance evaluation via tournaments constitutes a pareto superior move by removing common uncertainty from the responsibility of agents and by charging a premium for this insurance the principal increases his profit without hurting the agents moreover by providing this type of insurance tournaments enable the principal to implement higher power incentives than under piece rates what is still an open question in the literature above is a comparison of ordinal to cardinal tournaments the consensus among tournament theorists is that even though ordinal tournaments are informationally wasteful as in holmstrom 1982 by ignoring the agents cardinal performance data if available they are however more general because they are less restrictive on the functional form of the contract i e they are step functions with a linear or non linear trend part of the appeal is that the founders of tournament theory focused on ordinal tournaments nevertheless a significant part of the current tournament literature has analyzed cardinal tournaments instead 7 this paper fills in this gap in theory by developing a framework that can be used to analyze both cardinal and ordinal tournaments as well as piece rates and in doing so it provides a primer on tournaments and piece rates

cumulative gender disadvantage in contract employment women s wages do not grow with experience or tenure as much as men s do many accounts of this cumulative gender disadvantage attribute it to women s underinvestment in firm specific skills yet if that were true this disadvantage would not exist where firm specific skills are not rewarded by the labor market this article investigates this argument in the context of contract employment where demand for firm specificity is minimal contrary to expectations men still receive higher rewards than women over time drawing on quantitative evidence and qualitative fieldwork using job histories of high skill contractors affiliated with a staffing firm the author finds support for two sources of women s disadvantage lower rates of movement across clients on the supply side and unmeasured demand side factors by which similar levels of tenure and client transitions accrue lower rewards to women implications for research on gender stratification and career advancement in nonformalized labor markets are discussed

a meta analysis of the international gender wage gap abstract since the early 1970s a number of authors have calculated gender wage differentials between women and men of equal productivity this meta study provides a new quantitative review of this vast amount of empirical literature on gender wage differentials as it concerns not only differences in methodology data and time periods but also different countries we place particular emphasis on a proper consideration of the quality of the underlying study which is done by a weighting with quality indicators the results show that data restrictions i e the limitation of the analysis to new entrants never marrieds or one narrow occupation only have the biggest impact on the resulting gender wage gap moreover we are able to show what effect a misspecification of the underlying wage equation like the frequent use of potential experience has on the calculated gender wage gap over time raw wage differentials worldwide have fallen substantially however most of this decrease is due to better labor market endowments of females

sex discrimination and competition in product and labour markets theoritical explanations for wage discrimination collapse in the long run because competition should drive discriminations firms out of the market in product markets with imperfect competition em

organizational failure and intraprofessional status loss we examine variation in intraprofessional status changes for employees displaced by organizational failure we propose that failure related reductions in bargaining power are moderated by individual status characteristics that influence potential employers evaluations of job candidates and therefore individuals status loss risks treating a prominent law firm s failure as a quasi experiment we test our arguments by analyzing 224 firm partners transitions to subsequent employers most partners regained employment at firms of lower status than the failed firm but independent of their demonstrated productivity a partner s likelihood of status loss increased with tenure in the failed firm s partnership and decreased with educational prestige these results suggest not only that organizational failure can diminish cumulative career advantages but also that status characteristics that enable attainment such as education can protect individuals against status loss

competition and the racial wage gap evidence from brazil abstract we look at the natural experiment represented by the brazilian trade liberalization from the early 1990s to study the effect of increased competition in the market for final goods on the racial wage gap we focus on local labor markets as the unit of analysis and use the initial structure of employment to calculate the relevant tariff reduction from the perspective of each local labor market we show that the conditional racial wage gap fell more between 1991 and 2000 in regions associated with larger reductions in tariffs or in other words in regions that experienced larger increases in exposure to international competition a reduction in tariffs equivalent to the average observed in the sample was associated with a reduction in the racial wage gap of 18 our results are broadly consistent with theories of employer discrimination that predict that reductions in pure economic rents should lead to reductions in labor market discrimination

competition and gender prejudice are discriminatory employers doomed to fail according to becker s famous theory on discrimination gary becker 1957 the economics of discrimination university of chicago press entrepreneurs with a strong prejudice against female workers forgo profits by submitting to their tastes in a competitive market their firms lack efficiency and are therefore forced to leave we present new empirical evidence for this prediction by studying the survival of start up firms in longitudinal matched employer employee data we find that firms with strong preferences for discrimination approximated by a low share of female employees relative to the industry average have significantly shorter survival rates this is especially relevant for firms starting out with female shares in the lower tail of the distribution competition at the industry level additionally reduces firm survival and accelerates the rate at which prejudiced firms are weeded out we also find evidence for employer learning as highly discriminatory start up firms that manage to survive submit to market powers and increase their female workforce over time

introduction to the special issue on tournaments and contests the papers in this special issue represent several of the directions taken by current research on tournaments and contests two surveys provide useful insight into promotion contests and into contest functions other papers analyze the implications of limited liability incomplete information cross shareholding and non binding side payments and two papers investigate dynamic incentives and momentum

reducing public private sector pay differentials the single spine pay policy as a natural experiment in ghana empirical studies have documented the existence of the public private pay differentials in both developed and developing countries the implementation of policies aiming to reduce this gap has however been mitigated or inconclusive this paper exploits the single spine pay policy sspp in ghana as a natural experiment to examine the effectiveness of wage policies in developing countries the sspp was implemented in 2010 by the government of ghana to address the public private sector wage gap and improve productivity in the public sector using a quantile treatment effect approach based on a difference in difference did estimation we show that the sspp has yet to reduce the wage gap between the public and private sectors across the entire distribution of earnings in ghana the improvement observed is only at the lower tail of the distribution of earnings however the sspp has a larger effect on the earnings of female workers than that of males in the education and health services sector suggesting that the policy was successful in reducing the gender wage gap in that sector moreover the sspp has decreased the productivity of workers across the distribution of earnings mainly due to a decrease in the effort of female public sector workers nevertheless the sspp has had some successes and could be improved by putting in place a good managerial quality in the government agencies in addition it is important that the government pays much attention to various macroeconomic factors that have challenged the success of the sspp

job assignments signalling and efficiency this article analyzes a model in which information about a worker s ability is only directly revealed to the firm employing the worker other firms however use the worker s job assignment as a signal of ability three results recur throughout the analysis first wage rates tend to be more closely associated with jobs than with ability levels second there is frequently an inefficient assignment of workers to jobs i e even when a firm has complete information about a worker s output third the severity of this inefficiency tends to be negatively correlated with the level of firm specific human capital in the economy

you can t always get what you need organizational determinants of diversity programs while some u s corporations have adopted a host of diversity management programs many have done little or nothing we explore the forces promoting six diversity programs in a national sample of 816 firms over 23 years institutional theory suggests that external pressure for innovation reinforces internal advocacy we argue that external pressure and internal advocacy serve as alternatives such that when external pressure is already high increases in internal advocacy will not alter the likelihood of program adoption moreover institutional theory points to functional need as a driver of innovation we argue that in the case of innovations designed to achieve new societal goals functional need as defined in this case by the absence of workforce diversity or the presence of regulatory oversight is less important than corporate culture our findings help explain the spotty coverage of diversity programs firms that lack workforce diversity are no more likely than others to adopt programs but firms with large contingents of women managers are more likely to do so pro diversity industry and corporate cultures promote diversity programs the findings carry implications for public policy

sex discrimination and product market competition the case of the banking industry this paper examines the relationship between product market competition and employment discrimination using an especially constructed data set that links microeconomic data on female employment with measures of market concentration in the banking industry the use of firm specific data drawn from this one industry allows estimation of this relationship in a manner that avoids the problems of interindustry differences that have troubled previous studies the results provide strong support for a negative relationship between market concentration and the relative employment of women further we find that individual market shares are unrelated to female employment suggesting that the relationship is due primarily to differences across markets rather than individual firms

the effects of competition and equal treatment laws on gender wage differentials discrimination if it is inefficient can be eliminated by competition in most countries it is also forbidden by law this paper evaluates the influence of economic and legal factors on the portion of male female wage differentials that is not explained by other worker characteristics and may be due to discrimination we use a new international data set of suitable gender wage gap measures constructed from the results of existing studies meta analysis of the data shows that increased competition and adoption of international conventions concerning equal treatment laws both reduce gender wage gaps while legislation that prevents women from performing strenuous or dangerous jobs tends to increase it doris weichselbaumer and rudolf winter ebmer

the economics of real superstars the market for rock concerts in the material world beginning in 1997 the price of concert tickets took off and ticket sales declined from 1996 to 2003 for example the average concert price increased by 82 while the cpi increased by 17 explanations for price growth include 1 the possible crowding out of the secondary ticket market 2 rising superstar effects 3 baumols and bowen s disease 4 increased concentraion of promoters and 5 the erosion of complementarities between concerts and album sales because of file sharing and cd copying the article tentatively concludes that the decline in complementarities is the main cause of the recent surge in concert prices

social capital and finding a job do contacts matter does social capital affect labor market outcomes the prevalent use of job contacts to find work suggests that who you know is an important means of getting a good job network theories of social capital argue that well connected workers benefit because of the job information and influence they receive through their social ties although a number of studies have found a positive relationship between measures of social capital and wages and or occupational prestige little is known about the causal effect of social networks on labor market outcomes four data sets are used to reassess findings on the role of social capital in the labor market a test of causality is proposed based on the argument that if social capital variables do have a causal effect on job outcomes then workers with high levels of social capital should be more likely to use contacts to find work all else being equal results suggest that much of the effect of social capital in the existing literature reflects the tendency for similar people to become friends rather than a causal effect of friends characteristics on labor market outcomes

once in the door gender tryouts and the initial salaries of managers although women pursue managerial credentials at nearly the same rate as men gender disparities in wages exist because of the shortfall in wages women sustain relative to men at the onset of their careers this article develops a tryout approach to test for the presence of demand side contributions to initial wage inequality while also developing and testing theory on why it may be lessened through internships using detailed data on graduates from an elite management program from 2009 2010 our analyses reveal that internships are associated with the gap in men s and women s initial salaries for men there is no difference in salary offers from employers where an internship occurs versus one where an internship does not occur however women receive higher salaries from employers where an internship first takes place this paper was accepted by olav sorenson organizations

children and savings in less developed countries abstract a commonly cited motive for childbearing in ldcs is the support in old age provided by one s children alternative means of retirement support become available as a country develops this paper presents a simple two period model in which financial institutions are allowed to substitute for children in the provision of this service the quality of financial institutions is given an operational definition and the hypothesis of the model are tested on a cross section sample of countries

racial wage inequality job segregation and devaluation across u s labor markets1 despite decades of research showing greater black white inequality in local areas where the black population is relatively large little is known about the mechanisms for this effect using a unique data set of individuals nested within jobs across labor markets this article tests two possible mechanisms for the black concentration effect on wage inequality job segregation and devaluation results show that black population size is associated with greater segregation of black workers into black dominated jobs on the other hand no evidence is found that the penalty for working in a black dominated job the devaluation effect increases as a function of black population size the article concludes that discrimination against workers especially exclusion from better paying jobs is an important mechanism for the effect of black population size on the racial wage gap

peasants procreation and pensions producers and consumers durable goods yielding a stream of benefits which are compared with a stream of costs births occur if the present value of the benefits exceeds the present value of the costs the theory has been used by malthusians to rationalize the casual observation that population growth rates increase during the early stages of economic development and then perhaps fall later on as

local industrial dominance and earnings attainment drawing on the ecological concept of local industrial dominance we examine how the industrial distribution of the metropolitan labor force influences workers earnings industrial dominance is defined as the proportional overrepresentation of the local labor force in a given industry or industrial sector a contextual analysis of census microdata for the largest 125 smsas shows that within industries and sectors workers in metropolitan areas in which their industry is dominant have significantly higher earnings than workers in areas in which that industry is less dominant these results holdfor two different measures of dominance andfour racelsex groups the effects of local dominance on earnings appear stronger for industries in the core and state sectors for financial business and personal service functions andfor public administration the influence of dominance is partly explained by the tendency of locally dominant industries to be composed of larger establishments

interindustry wage differentials and the gender wage gap using data from the march 1988 current population survey the authors find that the wages of female workers differ significantly by industry even when the analysis controls for workers productivity related characteristics although these interindustry wage differentials are at least as large as men s and are highly correlated with them as well there are statistically significant differences between the two of the overall gender wage gap the average female worker earns about 65 as much as the average male worker 12 22 can be explained by differences between the patterns of interindustry wage differentials of men and women and 15 19 by differences in the distribution of male and female workers across industries thus the combined industry effects explain about one third of the overall gender wage gap

the electronic mail game strategic behavior under almost common knowledge the paper addresses a paradoxical game theoretic example which is closely related to the coordinated attack problem two players have to play one of two possible coordination games only one of them receives information about the coordination game to be played it is shown that the situation with almost common knowledge is very different from when the coordination game played is common knowledge

bending the pipeline executive search and gender inequality in hiring for top management jobs we study the sources of women s underrepresentation in hiring for top management jobs by focusing on the context of executive search using data that include proprietary information on 10 970 individuals considered by a search firm we examine the sources of the low proportion of women placed in senior roles contrary to received wisdom we find limited evidence that demand side screeners strongly contribute to gender disadvantage in this setting what gender differences exist tend to play out at the start of the hiring process and are driven both by supply side and demand side actors once considered for a position women are no less likely than men to be hired though they are slightly less likely to be interviewed by the search firm our findings highlight the theoretical importance of disentangling candidates self steering behavior from the pipeline bending of hiring agents we discuss the implications of our results for understanding gender inequality at upper echelons of the labor market this p

the class pay gap in higher professional and managerial occupations this article demonstrates how class origin shapes earnings in higher professional and managerial employment taking advantage of newly released data in britain s labour force survey we examine the relative openness of different high status occupations and the earnings of the upwardly mobile within them in terms of access we find a distinction between traditional professions such as law medicine and finance which are dominated by the children of higher managers and professionals and more technical occupations such as engineering and it that recruit more widely moreover even when people who are from working class backgrounds are successful in entering high status occupations they earn 17 percent less on average than individuals from privileged backgrounds this class origin pay gap translates to up to 7 350 11 000 lower annual earnings this difference is partly explained by the upwardly mobile being employed in smaller firms and working outside london but it remains substantial even net

anticipatory sorting and gender segregation in temporary employment we examine the roots of gender segregation in the screening process by using a longitudinal data set of candidates considered for temporary projects at a staffing firm and following their progress through the hiring pipeline theories invoked to explain gender segregation across jobs traditionally rely on firm specific human capital and expectations of future commitment to explain this phenomenon these do not apply in this setting yet we find that the staffing firm is more likely to shortlist women for low paid projects and less likely to do so for high paid ones these effects are due to women being considered for different projects than men and associated at least partially to the level of competition within vacancies although client companies also exhibit some gender sorting behavior in the later steps of the hiring process they are more likely to prefer women and less likely to sort them into lower paid projects our findings are consistent with anticipatory gender sorting mechanisms by which first screeners generate segregation when narrowing down the pool of candidates for later decision makers we discuss the implications of this case for theories of gender stratification and workplace inequality especially in mediated labor markets this paper was accepted by jesper sorensen organizations

male female wage differentials and policy responses without implicating them for any of the contents of the paper i am grateful to the following for helpful discussions or comments andrea beller university of illinois david bloom harvard and columnbia glen cain university of wisconsin ron ehrenberg cornell victor fuchs stanford bob gregory australian national university jonathan leonard university of california berkeley roberta robb brock university and paul weiler harvard financial support of the humanities and social sciences committee of the research board of the universitu of toronto is eratefullu acknowlede ed

accounting for the gap a firm study manipulating organizational accountability and transparency in pay decisions great progress has been made in documenting how employer practices may shape workplace inequality less research attention however has been given to investigating which organizational strategies are effective at addressing gender and racial inequality in labor markets using a unique field study design this article identifies and tests for the first time whether accountability and transparency in pay decisions two popular organizational initiatives discussed among scholars and practitioners may reduce the pay gap by employee gender race and foreign nationality through a longitudinal analysis of a large private company i study the performance based reward decisions concerning almost 9 000 employees before and after high level management adopted a set of organizational procedures introducing accountability and transparency into the company s performance reward system before such procedures were introduced there was an observed gap in the distribution of performance based rewards where women ethnic minorities and non u s born employees received lower monetary rewards compared with u s born white men having the same performance evaluation scores and working in the same job and work unit with the same manager and the same human capital characteristics analyses of the company s employee performance reward data after the adoption of accountability and transparency procedures show a reduction in this pay gap i conclude by discussing the implications of this study for future research about employer strategies targeting workplace inequality and diversity

female led firms and gender wage policies using a longitudinal data set covering the period 1987 2000 the authors explore the impact of female employers and gender segregation on wages in portugal in the context of becker s 1957 taste for discrimination theory they investigate whether the gender of a firm manager affects gender wage differences they find that females benefit from higher wages in female led firms than in male led firms further when females lead the wage gap between female and male workers is reduced by 1 5 regardless of the gender composition of the workforce at the same time the higher the share of females in a firm the lower the wages overall for both female and male workers the authors results are compatible with the notion that job promotion is an important factor in wage increases the more females are mentored and promoted the less men will be however as more females in the firm compete for promotion opportunities for both females and males to be promoted diminish author s abstract

individual dynamic managerial capabilities influence over environmental and social commitment under a gender perspective abstract the current business market is characterized by rapid and continuous changes companies should adapt to new situations to guarantee sustainable development managers need to have capabilities to understand the new environment s requirements managers individual dynamic capabilities idc help them face these unpredictable changes in the market however few authors have analysed individual dynamic capabilities to ensure business sustainability this study aims to shed light on the relationship between a manager s idc and business sustainability from a gender perspective a survey of 339 managers was conducted and structural equation modelling sem was applied to study the impact of the relationship the results show that managers individual dynamic capabilities help them detect changes in the market earlier and promote a greater social and environmental commitment from those managers in addition significant differences in the environmental and social commitment between men and women were found therefore this paper first provides advice for developing business sustainability to provide an advantage for organizations second individual dynamic managerial capabilities appear to be important for promoting sustainability finally another step in the construction of gender and sustainability is provided thus this paper provides useful empirical evidence for managerial practice from a strategic management viewpoint

the impact of female managers on the gender pay gap evidence from linked employer employee data for germany abstract we find that increasing the female share in first level management by 10 points decreases the unexplained within job gender pay gap by 0 5 log points the effect is more pronounced for the female share in second level than in first level management

markets in hierarchies organizational and market influences on gender inequality in a state pay system a pivotal issue in sociological theories of labor markets as well as legal and policy debates on pay equity is the relative importance of market and organizational forces in determining pay differences between jobs held predominantly by men and those held predominantly by women this article develops two models of the market organization relationship an administered efficiency model and a bureaucratic politics model quantitative analyses of individual and job level data in a state government pay system indicate that the administered efficiency model does not adequately explain malefemale earnings differences documentary testimonial and interview data strongly suggest the significance of bureaucratic politics in the pay determination process we conclude that market forces influence wage rates but are heavily mediated by organizational factors unrelated to efficiency considerations in the type of organization studied here

sex discrimination in the promotion process previous research has suggested that intra occupational earnings differences are the principal source of the long standing earnings gap between men and women following that line of research this study examines the extent of gender differences in the incidence of and returns to promotions drawing on the quality of employment panel the authors compare the earnings and promotion experience of men and women over the period 1973 1977 after controlling for unmeasured differences in job level and constant individual ability in a fixed effect model they conclude that the returns to promotion are comparable for men and women further analysis indicates however that women are held to higher promotion standards than men and therefore receive fewer promotions than men with equal measured abilities although the female male wage ratio in this sample increased by nearly 6 percent over four years the increase could have been as much as 9 2 percent if women and men had been held to the same promotion standards

is there less discrimination in occupations where recruitment is difficult the authors empirically test the cross sectional relationship between hiring discrimination and labor market tightness at the level of the occupation to this end they conduct a correspondence tes

working for the woman female managers and the gender wage gap most previous research on gender inequality and management has been concerned with the question of access to managerial jobs and the glass ceiling we offer the first largescale analysis that tur

hiring preferences in online labor markets evidence of a female hiring bias online labor marketplaces facilitate the efficient matching of employers and workers across geographical boundaries the exponential growth of this nascent online phenomenon holds important social and economic implications as the hiring decisions made on these online platforms implicate the incomes of millions of workers worldwide despite this importance limited effort has been devoted to understanding whether potential hiring biases exist in online labor platforms and how they may affect hiring outcomes using a novel proprietary data set from a leading online labor platform we investigate the impact of gender based stereotypes on hiring outcomes after accounting for endogeneity via a holistic set of job and worker controls a matched sample approach and a quasi experimental technique we find evidence of a positive hiring bias in favor of female workers an experiment was used to uncover the underlying gender specific traits that could influence hiring outcomes we find that the observed hiring bi

bargaining sorting and the gender wage gap quantifying the impact of firms on the relative pay of women there is growing evidence that rm specic pay premiums are an important source of wage inequality these premiums will contribute to the gender wage gap if women are less likely to work at high paying rms or if women negotiate worse wage bargains with their employers than men using longitudinal data on the hourly wages of portuguese workers matched with balance sheet information for rms we show that the wages of both men and women contain rm specic premiums that are strongly correlated with employer productivity we then show how the impact of these rm specic pay dierentials on the gender wage gap can be decomposed into a combination of bargaining and sorting eects consistent with the bargaining literature we nd that women receive only 90 of the rm specic pay premiums earned by men notably we obtain very similar estimates of the relative bargaining power ratio from our analysis of between rm wage premiums and from analyzing changes in

viewpoint male female wage differentials how can that be abstract the paper outlines the main empirical procedures that are used to document the male female wage differential and the extent to which it reflects discrimination it then discusses the evidence on male female wage differentials their existence the extent to which they reflect discrimination their changes over time and the factors that influence the gap particular attention is paid to more recent studies that control for a wider range of conventionally unobserved factors theoretical perspectives are then outlined focusing on the issue of how discriminatory wage differentials can survive given the forces of competition the impacts of policy initiatives are also discussed

gender and job performance evidence from wall street this study concerns the relationship between gender and job performance among brokerage firm equity analysts women s representation in analyst positions dropped from 16 percent in 1995 to 14 percent in 2005 the study found significant gender based differences in performance on various dimensions for example women cover roughly 9 stocks on average as compared with 10 for men and women s earnings estimates tend to be less accurate than men s estimates but the study also found that women are significantly more likely than men to be designated as all stars which indicates that they outperform men in other aspects of job performance

competition small business financing and discrimination evidence from a new survey we analyze credit applications loan denials and interest rates paid by small businesses across owner gender race and ethnicity in addition we examine data from owners who said they did not apply for credit because they believed that their applications would have been turned down after controlling for a rich set of explanatory variables including personal and business credit histories substantial differences in denial rates between firms owned by african americans and white males remain moreover consistent with becker s classic theories 1957 we find evidence that increases in competition in the firm s local banking market reduces these differences