efficiency and deregulation of the electricity market in singapore this study examines production efficiency of electricity generation in the new electricity market of singapore nems where deregulation is currently proceeding singapore is reliant on foreign direct investments and exports so competition from countries with lower costs such as china and india is exerting pressure on the government to reduce the costs of doing business here electricity cost is one of these deregulation is believed to be able to bring about lower electricity costs due to the various efficiency gains possible this study concerns itself mainly with production efficiency and attempts to calculate possible production efficiency gains by using linear programming model production efficiency gains are quantified by the base case scenario of continued regulation versus four counterfactual deregulation scenarios the results indicate that cost gains could be about eight per cent of current production cost and this is possibly a lower bound estimate however whether the purported efficiency gains are realized is to be seen as the deregulation proceeds

china s balance of emissions embodied in trade approaches to measurement and allocating international responsibility international trade is characterized not only by the flow of capital and goods but also by the energy and emissions embodied in goods during their production this paper investigates the evolving role that chinese trade is playing in the response to climate change by estimating the scale of emissions embodied in china s current trade pattern and demonstrating the magnitude of the difference between the emissions it produces some of which are incurred to meet the consumption demands of the rest of the world and the emissions embodied in the goods it consumes estimating china s emissions on a consumption rather than a production basis both lowers its responsibility for carbon dioxide co2 emissions in 2006 from 5 500 to 3 840mtco2 and reduces the growth rate of emissions from an average of 12 5 per cent p a to 8 7 per cent p a between 2001 and 2006 the analysis indicates that a reliable consumption based accounting methodology is feasible and could improve our understanding of which actors and states are responsible for emissions for example recent emissions reductions by developed countries may lack credibility if production has merely been displaced to countries such as china moreover in the current institutional context production methodologies encourage leakages through trade that may do more to displace than to reduce emissions both equity and efficiency concerns therefore suggest that emissions embodied in trade should receive special attention in the distribution of post kyoto abatement burdens

examining the global environmental impact of regional consumption activities part 2 review of input output models for the assessment of environmental impacts embodied in trade this paper offers a detailed review of recently described single and multi region input output models used to assess environmental impacts of internationally traded goods and services it is the second part of a two part contribution in part 1 turner k lenzen m wiedmann t and barrett j in press examining the global environmental impact of regional consumption activities part 1 a technical note on combining input output and ecological footprint analysis ecological economics we describe how to enumerate the resource and pollution content of inter regional and inter national trade flows with the aim to illustrate an ideal accounting and modelling framework for the estimation of ecological footprints a large number of such environment economic models have been described but only in the last few years models have emerged that use a more sophisticated multi region multi sector input output framework this has been made possible through improvements in data availability and quality as well as computability we identify six major models that employ multi sector multi region input output analysis in order to calculate environmental impacts embodied in international trade results from the reviewed studies demonstrate that it is important to explicitly consider the production recipe land and energy use as well as emissions in a multi region multi sector and multi directional trade model with global coverage and detailed sector disaggregation only then reliable figures for indicators of impacts embodied in trade such as the ecological footprint can be derived

the increase in brazilian household income and its impact on co2 emissions evidence for 2003 and 2009 from input output tables abstract in recent years brazil has experienced economic growth and a recovery of income that has had a positive impact on the consumption of goods in this paper we evaluate the impact of brazilian household consumption on the co2 emissions for 2003 and 2009 using input output tables from the world input output database we used a semi closed model with eight household groups in order to apply the hypothetical extraction method in the consumption structure of each group further we use the result from the hypothetical extraction to evaluate the impacts of the structure consumption of each household group in terms of co2 emissions we find that there is a trade off between the households greater satisfaction from consumption and the increasing setback in emissions from the restructuring and modification of the consumption basket thus this study contributes to the research on emissions by mapping the recent behavior of the brazilian economy in terms of increased income changes in the consumption structure and their impacts on emissions the paper s aggregated results by income and consumption structure based on the intensity of the emissions and their systemic effects add to the discussions on less polluting production processes more conscious consumption of goods and more rational uses of energy and transportation

energy overview for globalized world economy source supply chain and sink abstract energy use of the globalized world economy is comprehensively overviewed by means of a systems input output analysis based on statistics of 2010 emphases are put on the sources of primary energy exploitation inter regional trade imbalance of energy use via global supply chains and sinks of energy use in final demand the largest final user turns out to be the united states compared with china as the leading energy exploiter the global trade volume of energy use is shown in magnitude up to about 90 of the global primary energy exploited the united states is recognized as the world s biggest energy use importer in contrast to russia as the biggest exporter approximately one third of global primary energy exploited is shown to be embodied in inter regional net trade japan and russia are respectively illustrated to be the world s leading net importer and leading net exporter of energy use for china as the leading energy exploiter about 30 of its exploited energy is for foreign regions final use and 70 for its own final use for the european union as the largest sink region nearly 80 of the energy required in its final use is from foreign regions led by russia as reflected in the results the conventional perspective based only on the direct energy consumption by region inevitably leads to inter regional energy grabbing and carbon leakage which raises a serious concern of regional decrease at the expense of global increase in current context of energy shortage and climate change this global energy overview can provide essential strategic implications at the international national and regional scales for sustainable energy policy making

the pace of mnes sequential entries cumulative entry experience and the dynamic process this study examines the pace with which multinational enterprises undertake sequential entries in a foreign market we focus on learning effects from cumulative entry experience of different modes within a host market moreover we investigate the dynamic process of entry mode switch and how cumulative entry experience reduces the expansion constraint using a dataset of sequential entries by us firms in china during 1979 2002 we find that the impact of cumulative entry experience on the pace of sequential entries varies across different modes further firms with more cumulative entry experience can cope with the constraint of entry mode switch

the impact of domestic trade on china s regional energy uses a multi regional input output modeling to systematically reveal how domestic trade impacts on china s regional energy uses an interprovincial input output modeling is carried out to address demand derived energy requirements for the regional economies in 2007 based on the recently available data both the energy uses embodied in final demand and interregional trade are investigated from the regional and sectoral insights significant net transfers of embodied energy flows are identified from the central and western areas to the eastern area via interregional trade shanxi is the largest energy producer and interregional embodied energy deficit receiver in contrast to guangdong as the largest energy user and surplus receiver by considering the impacts of interregional trade the energy uses of most eastern regions increase remarkably for instance shanghai hainan zhejiang beijing jiangsu and guangdong have their embodied energy requirements 87 49 19 97 13 64 12 60 6 46 and 6 38 times of their direct energy inputs respectively in contrast the embodied energy uses of some central and western regions such as inner mongolia shanxi xinjiang shaanxi and guizhou decrease largely the results help understand the hidden network linkages of interregional embodied energy flows and provide critical insight to amend china s current end reduction oriented energy policies by addressing the problem of regional responsibility transfer

examining the efforts of a small open economy to reduce carbon emissions the case of denmark abstract it is generally understood that greenhouse gasses produced by human activities are having a warming effect on the climate discussions concerning efforts to curb carbon dioxide emissions often focus on large countries however considerable resources have been spent to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by relatively small open economies although these economies are small players in international markets international trade has an important influence on their economies investigating the outcome of efforts to curb emissions by these small open economies provides insights into the situation faced by a large set of the world s economies this paper has three objectives 1 investigate the outcome of denmark s efforts to reduce its carbon emissions by characterizing the relationship between denmark s macroeconomic activity and carbon emissions 2 determine the carbon content of danish trade and document the important effects that growing trade with china has had on danish consumption emissions and 3 investigate the robustness of measures of consumption emissions under varying information requirements our analysis of the outcomes of danish efforts to reduce carbon emissions suggest two related lessons first small open economies should track both production and consumption emissions when evaluating their progress towards reducing carbon emissions second international trade should be considered in the design of environmental policy the danish experience indicates that increasing trade with a much larger and more emission intensive country can have substantial influence on consumption emissions

co2 emissions from household consumption in india between 1993 94 and 2006 07 a decomposition analysis abstract co 2 emission from anthropogenic activities is one of the major causes of global warming india being an agriculture dependent country global warming would mean monsoon instability and consequent food scarcity natural disasters and economic concerns however with proper policy interventions co 2 emissions can be controlled input output analysis has been used to estimate direct and indirect co 2 emissions by households for 1993 94 1998 99 2003 04 and 2006 07 complete decomposition analysis of the changes in co 2 emissions between 1993 94 and 2006 07 has been done to identify the causes into pollution energy intensity structure activity and population effects according to broad household consumption categories results indicate that activity structure and population effects are the main causes of increase in co 2 emission from household fuel consumption to identify the causes at the sectoral level a second decomposition has been done for changes between 2003 04 and 2006 07 to identify the causes in the next stage finally alternative energy policy options have been examined for each consumption category to reduce emissions combined strategies of technology upgradation fuel switching and market management in order to reduce co 2 emissions for sectors like batteries other non electrical machinery construction and electronic equipments including television for which all the effects are positive need to be adopted

primary energy and greenhouse gases embodied in australian final consumption an input output analysis input output modeling of primary energy and greenhouse gas embodiments in goods and services is a useful technique for designing greenhouse gas abatement policies the present paper describes direct and indirect primary energy and greenhouse gas requirements for a given set of australian final consumption it considers sectoral disparities in energy prices capital formation and international trade flows and it accounts for embodiments in the gross national expenditure as well as the gross domestic product primary energy and greenhouse gas intensities in terms of mj and kg co2 e are reported as well as national balances of primary energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions

the effects of direct trade within china on regional and national co2 emissions curbing national carbon emissions and clarifying regional carbon reduction responsibility are two challenges faced by china both of which are influenced by interregional trade to exclude the influence of trade balance this paper proposes a methodology to parcel the pollution haven hypothesis into a multi regional input output model applies it to a longer time gap which is made up of two representative periods of chinese economy 1997 2002 and 2002 2007 and clarifies the provincial and sectoral contributions to national emissions we find that 1 embodied co2 emissions first remain relatively stable and then increase sharply for the two periods and the changing trends are mainly determined by the decreasing carbon intensity and the expanding trade scale respectively 2 with the secondary industry as the main contributor regional carbon spillover is mainly concentrated in the coastal provinces but it contributes to an increase of co2 emissions in the central and western regions 3 the coastal and inland provinces contribute to the increase of national carbon emissions through interregional imports and exports respectively but the pollution haven hypothesis is not obvious and is only observed in 2002

specification and aggregation errors in environmentally extended input output models this article considers the specification and aggregation errors that arise from estimating embodied text co 2 emissions and embodied water use with environmentally extended national input output io models instead of with an environmentally extended international io model model specification errors result from the use of domestic environmental and domestic technology coefficients to estimate emissions or resources that are embodied in international trade for text co 2 footprints unacceptably large overestimations arise from using domestic emission coefficients which are only partly canceled out by using domestic technology coefficients for water use footprints both specification errors are smaller but hardly cancel out sectoral aggregation errors occur when combining the 129 exiopol industries to 59 eu industries and 10 broad sectors the latter aggregation creates the largest errors spatial aggregation errors arise from combining 43 individual exiopol countries in four broad regions and the rest of the world substantial unacceptable errors occur again now especially in relation to water use

the evolution of household induced value chains and their environmental implications abstract the growing fragmentation of production processes and expansion of international trade in the last decades have increased the scope and complexity of value added chains worldwide causing a rearrangement of sectoral linkages intra and inter regionally in terms of economic spillovers this implies that a dollar entering a particular economy nowadays follows a different path than a decade before permeating in longer interregional feedback loops and creating additional multiplier effects outside its region of origin however it also implies that the environmental burden that such this dollar generates has changed in scale and spatial distribution in this paper we explore the evolution of these paths over the period 1997 2008 and highlight the main drivers of observed structural changes that contribute to the surge or decline of the spatial distribution of economic spillovers and greenhouse gases emissions we specifically study the effects of an increase in income in the united states the country with the largest trade volume in the world we introduce an extended version of the temporal leontief inverse tli framework that allows tracing the evolutionary path of the american households multiplier in a quasi dynamic fashion isolating the contribution of expenditure patterns income trade and foreign structural change to the temporal evolution we find similar growing multiplier effects inside and outside the us due to services and manufacturing respectively but a declining local environmental burden due to changes in interindustry relations inside the us with declining manufacturing and a reduced emission intensity we also highlight the fragmentation process with declining foreign intraregional spillovers and increasing trade spillovers

delving into the carbon footprints of singapore comparing direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions of a small and open economic system abstract small and open economic systems like cities face specific challenges for greenhouse gas accounting they typically import most of their energy requirements as secondary energy products based on conversion processes which caused emissions elsewhere emission estimates therefore already require attention not only to direct on site activities moreover for a comprehensive approach it is suggested to include upstream and downstream processes of connected socioeconomic systems and the indirect life cycle related emissions of imported and exported goods singapore is used in this longitudinal study as an example of an urban scale economy accounts for direct emissions are compared with trade corrected estimates of indirect emissions results indicate that direct emissions account for only about 20 of the overall upstream emissions necessary to sustain the input side of the economic production process domestic emissions plus indirect emissions embodied in imported goods if indirect emissions embodied in exports are considered and subtracted from the previous figure the trade corrected accounts for direct and indirect emissions still exceed direct emission accounts although by less than 40 given the increasing trends in world trade and urbanisation indirect pressures of urban systems should be included in discussions of effective and fair adaptation and mitigation strategies

the indirect energy consumption and co2 emission caused by household consumption in china an analysis based on the input output method in recent decades china s rapid economy development has been coupling with the steadily increasing household consumption which in turn leads to ever growing energy consumption and co2 emission with a focus on the decade of 2000 2010 this study examines the energy consumption and co2 emission caused by household consumption using the input output method as well as the influencing factors of the indirect co2 emission the results show that first the indirect energy consumption and co2 emission appear the main parts of total energy consumption and co2 emission caused by household consumption accounting for 69 77 and 77 84 respectively second the indirect co2 emission indicates an increasing trend mainly driven by per capita household consumption and energy intensity finally the five sectors with relatively higher direct or total co2 emission intensity are the key sectors for reducing co2 emission in china i e 1 production and distribution of electric power and heat power pdeh 2 smelting and pressing of metals spm 3 processing of petroleum coking processing of nuclear fuel ppcpn 4 manufacture of non metallic mineral products mnm and 5 manufacture of chemical materials mcm

energy and carbon embodied in the international trade of brazil an input output approach abstract all goods and services produced in an economy are directly and or indirectly associated with energy use and according to the type of fuel utilized with co2 emissions as well international trade is an important factor in shaping the industrial structure of a country and consequently in affecting a country s energy use and co2 emissions this study applies input output techniques to the brazilian economy to evaluate the total impacts of international trade on its energy use and co2 emissions a commodity by industry io model in hybrid units energy commodities in physical units and non energy commodities in monetary units is applied to the brazilian economy in 1995 results show that total energy embodied in the exports of non energy goods of brazil equals 831 pj while total carbon embodied is 13 5 mtc these amounts are larger than the relevant amounts embodied in the imports of non energy goods respectively 679 pj and 9 9 mtc these figures are better understood by contrasting them with the total energy use and the corresponding total carbon emissions of the brazilian economy in 1995 estimated by this work 6781 pj and 99 4 mtc respectively this means that international inflows and outflows of energy embodied in non energy goods are in the order of 10 and 12 of the total energy use while inflows and outflows of carbon embodied in non energy goods are approximately 10 and 14 of the corresponding total carbon emissions of the brazilian economy in 1995 the general picture is that brazil is not only a net exporter of energy 153 pj and of carbon 3 6 mtc embodied in the non energy goods internationally traded by the country in 1995 but also that each dollar earned with exports embodied 40 more energy and 56 more carbon than each dollar spent on imports these findings suggest that brazilian policy makers should be concerned about the extra impacts international trade policy may have on energy use and carbon emissions of the country

a further assessment of the hong kong government s proposed post 2008 regulatory regime for local electricity utilities abstract the current regulatory contract between the hong kong government and the two local power suppliers will expire in 2008 to elicit constructive ways to refine this regulatory contract upon its expiration in two years the hong kong government recently issued a public consultation paper an earlier viewpoint by woo horowitz and tishler 2006 warns that if the proposals provided in this consultation paper are fully adopted it will do more harm than benefiting the industry while its concern is valid that viewpoint has not suggested specific improvements of the existing arrangement and how incumbent firms incentives to invest will not be harmed under the new arrangement hence this viewpoint contributes to hong kong electricity policy debate by filling this gap with the hope of aiding the regulator to better regulate the market in the years after the current contract s expiration

examining the global environmental impact of regional consumption activities part 1 a technical note on combining input output and ecological footprint analysis in recent years there have been a number of attempts to develop a more comprehensive approach to the issue of measuring resource use and or pollution generation embodied in trade flows including contributions that combine input output techniques and ecological footprint analysis in this two part paper we describe how to enumerate the resource and or pollution content of inter regional and inter national trade flows part 1 and we present a literature review of recent methodological and empirical developments part 2 it is straightforward in principle to extend the basic input output approach to capture international trade flows however in practice problems of data availability and compatibility and of computability of extended input output matrices mean that simplifying assumptions are generally applied but with the implications of these assumptions often not made fully explicit what appears to be absent from previous applications is an account of the analytical method by which ecological footprints should ideally be estimated in an international input output accounting analysis this allows an explicit analysis of the problems that prevent the application of the full method and identification of the most appropriate short cut methods in a transparent way the objective of this paper is to provide such an account

regional differences in electricity distribution costs and their consequences for yardstick regulation of access prices abstract in this paper we estimate an average cost function for a panel of 59 swiss local and regional electricity distribution utilities as a basis for yardstick regulation of the distribution network access prices shleifer 1985 proposed yardstick competition in terms of price to regulate local monopolies producing a homogeneous good the regulated price for the individual firms depends on the average costs of identical firms the yardstick competition concept can also be applied to firms that produce heterogeneous goods if these goods differ only in observable characteristics to correct the yardstick for heterogeneity the regulator can use a multivariate estimation of an average cost function in the case of electricity distribution the heterogeneity of output consists mainly of different characteristics of the distribution service areas in this paper we follow shleifer s suggestion to estimate a multivariate average cost function that can be employed by the regulatory commission to benchmark network access prices at the distribution level several exogenous variables measuring the heterogeneity of the service areas were included in the cost model specification we find that the regional differences of the service areas e g area shares of forests agricultural areas or unproductive land and population density significantly influence electricity distribution costs

the carbon content of japan us trade we analyze the greenhouse gas emissions embodied in trade between japan and the us extending the japanese government s linked japan us input output model to include carbon emission coefficients for each sector we estimate that in 1995 japan us trade reduced us industrial emissions by 14 6 million tons of co2 equivalent and increased emissions in japan by 6 7 million tons for a global savings of 7 9 million tons these quantities are less than one percent of each country s total emissions trade with the rest of the world reduced emissions by much larger amounts roughly four percent of each country s emissions the sectoral patterns of carbon intensity are strongly correlated between japan and the us in addition greater carbon intensity has a small but significantly positive effect on net exports policies that tax or otherwise regulate carbon emissions are needed to discourage this destructive route to competitiveness however the most important policy implication may be that us industry could cut its carbon emissions by more than half if it matched the environmental performance of industry in japan r 2007 elsevier ltd all rights reserved

while visitors conserve residents splurge patterns and changes in energy consumption 1997 2007 abstract this study analyzes changes in energy consumption in hawai i between 1997 and 2007 using input output analysis residents increase their energy use by 33 in electricity and 18 in fuel largely due to direct consumption in contrast visitors contract energy demand by 9 and 4 in electricity and fuel respectively the findings are robust at per capita levels key drivers are the significant drops in energy intensity of primarily three industries air transportation hotels and restaurants further analysis decomposes the change to evaluate the underlying factors

electricity tariffs in hong kong what went wrong and what can we do about it the hong kong economy has undergone radical changes over the past two decades and as a result profoundly affected the electricity supply industry the level of excess capacity maintained by the two vertically integrated utilities and the tariffs they charged are both one of the highest among all developed countries and they are the adverse results of the scheme of control regulation what happened in the local electricity market has drawn much criticism among researchers and consumer groups and major reform of the entire market is being suggested this paper outlines the structure of the electricity supply industry and its regulatory arrangement in hong kong and discusses the problems and inefficiencies caused by the specific type of regulation without compromising efficiency a number of policy alternatives are proposed with a view to rectify the current problems

a critical assessment of the hong kong government s proposed post 2008 regulatory regime for local electricity utilities abstract in december 2005 the hong kong government issued a consultation paper on future development of the electricity markets in hong kong stage ii consultation proposing a post 2008 regulatory regime upon the expiration of the existing regulatory contract between the hong kong government and each of the two local electricity utilities we assess the proposal using the criteria of safe reliable and environmentally friendly service at the lowest rates that will allow the utilities reasonable returns on their investments we caution that if fully adopted the highly risky proposal may lead to less reliable service without the compensating benefits to the environment

consistent and unbiased carbon dioxide emission multipliers performance of danish emission reductions via external trade abstract climate change research is currently a topic of great interest for economic researchers in particular environmental input output analysis increasingly plays an important role in measuring the economic and environmental effects of sustainable development policies in europe other approaches also exist such as econometric modelling in which impacts are quantified on statistical grounds and with certain desirable properties efficient estimates confidence intervals hypothesis testing etc that are not found in the input output approach consequently this paper merges the two approaches to address the calculation of unbiased and consistent carbon dioxide emission multipliers for denmark and their respective confidence intervals the use of the supply and use system instead of the symmetric input output table also presents the opportunity to avoid the common problems associated with the construction of technical coefficients technology assumptions negatives etc moreover a new policy relevant application of these multipliers is introduced the quantification of the performance of the carbon dioxide emission reductions carried out by industries via external trading

the embodied energy in trade what role does specialization play abstract many industrialized countries are net importers of embodied energy and emissions while many developing countries are net exporters we examine the role of specialization in driving these trade patterns by conducting a spatial index decomposition analysis on the embodied energy in net exports for 41 economies the results reveal that industrialized countries have generally offshored energy intensive production which many developing countries specialize in we find that specialization on average makes the biggest contribution accounting for roughly 50 of a country s embodied energy in net exports however other factors namely energy intensity and the trade balance combine to make an equally important contribution in summary specialization despite its significant role is not the only cause of the embodied energy trade patterns observed between industrialized and developing countries

a combined input output and sensitivity analysis approach to analyse sector linkages and co2 emissions abstract this paper proposes a methodology which identifies the main productive linkages between activity branches in terms of co2 emissions and applies this methodology to the spanish case it suggests that emissions are related to the input output productive relationships within an economy to the co2 emissions intensity of sectors and to the structure of final demand of different sectors a formal analysis of these factors is carried out by means of an input output framework combined with sensitivity analysis and lineal programming the most co2 emissions intensive productive relationships in spain are shown this consideration of the main linkages contributes to the identification of the key sectors and facilitates the design of effective policy measures aimed at co2 emissions abatement

energy intensity and embodied energy flow in australia an input output analysis abstract decoupling energy use from economic growth is critical for improving energy productivity and mitigating climate change input output databases have been increasingly utilised for consumption based energy accounting and for exploring both the direct and indirect influence of energy use this study performed an environmentally extended input output analysis of energy use in australia from 2006 to 2015 to investigate the total energy intensity of industry sectors and the embodied energy flow from sources of energy use to the final consumption of commodities between 2006 and 2015 the national direct energy intensity reduced by an average of 2 per annum nearly all industry sectoral groups reduced their total energy intensity because of direct energy intensity reduction from other or within industry sectoral groups the difference between the embodied energy use in the import and the export had widened making australia a greater net importer of embodied energy with significant outsourcing of direct energy use and associated greenhouse gas emissions despite a slight reduction in per capita direct household energy use 3 the per capita indirect energy use embodied in household commodity consumption increased by 7 as indirect household energy use is more than three times direct household energy use improving end use energy efficiency should also consider the embodied energy in commodities structural decomposition analysis shows that for the studied period population growth and per capita demand for imported commodities are two major contributors for the increased total embodied energy in australia