the male marital wage premium sorting vs differential pay the authors examine whether male marital and parenthood premia arise due to differential pay by employers or from differential sorting of employees on occupations and establishments they investigate these premia using matched employee employer data from the period 1979 96 in norway a country with increased pressures on men to be more active in the family sphere and in which public policy has aimed at remaking the family institution we find that the effect of marriage and to a lesser extent of children occurs mostly through sorting on occupations and occupation establishment units the role of differential pay from employers is marginal in explaining the marital and parenthood premia results assessing within individual changes in wages suggest that about 80 of the marital premium is due to selection the men who eventually marry and or have children sort into the higher paying occupations and occupation establishment units even prior to marriage and parenthood

glass ceilings or glass doors the role of firms in male female wage disparities i use canadian linked employer employee data to examine whether women face a glass ceiling in the labour market i also measure the extent to which the glass ceiling comes about because women are segregated into lower paying firms or because they are segregated into lower paying jobs within firms i find clear evidence that women experience a glass ceiling that is driven by their disproportionate sorting across firm types glass doors rather than within firms i find no evidence that these results are supply driven however my results are consistent with predictions of an efficiency wage model where high paying firms discriminate against females

is there a glass ceiling in sweden using 1998 data we show that the gender log wage gap in sweden increases throughout the wage distribution and accelerates in the upper tail we interpret this as a strong glass ceiling effect we use quantile regression decompositions to examine whether this pattern can be ascribed primarily to gender differences in labor market characteristics or in the rewards to those characteristics even after extensive controls for gender differences in age education both level and field sector industry and occupation we find that the glass ceiling effect we see in the raw data persists to a considerable extent

marching to the beat of the drum the impact of the pace of life in us cities on entrepreneurial work effort founders face a variety of challenges while working to establish a viable start up in order to successfully overcome the many pressures that they face founders must make difficult choices about how to allocate their time and how much effort to exert in their ventures these founders are also embedded in a broader social context and their efforts are influenced by external conditions in this study we examine one particular social condition pace of life and its relationship on entrepreneurial work effort we argue that the pace of life in the region where founders launch and run their ventures affects their work effort over and above other individual and firm level characteristics we also argue that this direct relationship can strengthen or weaken depending on founding team size or entrepreneurial experience our longitudinal analyses of nearly 2600 us new ventures from 2004 to 2011 support our arguments our work advances prior research on the determinants of entrepreneurial work effort enhances the literature on social norms and entrepreneurial action and provides additional insights into the multilevel influences of entrepreneurial activity while entrepreneurs are commonly perceived as non conformists who march to the beat of their own drum we find evidence suggesting that regional pace of life actually sets the tempo for business owners and influences the amount of effort that they allocate to their ventures

sources of intra industry wage dispersion how much do employers matter observed human capital explains less than half of wage variation in bls industry wage surveys establishment based wage differentials controlling for occupation account for 20 70 percent of intra industry wage variation this corresponds to a standard deviation in wages of 14 percent of the mean almost as large as interindustry wage variation investigation suggests that establishment wage differentials are not random variations or returns to usual measures of human capital

the structure of the female male wage differential is it who you are what you do or where you work the efficacy of policies to narrow the malelfemale wage differential depends partly on the size of the portion s of the gap targeted previous research finds no between sex wage gap within occupations within employer job cell this is the first study to disentangle segregation by occupation from that based on employer or on job cell in five industries controlling for other forms of segregation occupational segregation produces a gap of 11 percent manufacturing to 26 percent services the wage gaps from establishment and job cell segregation are about 6 percent each since comparable worth acts on the occupation and job cell components it has a potentially large impact

the higher returns to formal education for entrepreneurs versus employees how valuable is formal education for entrepreneurs income relative to employees and if the income returns to formal education are different for entrepreneurs vis a vis employees what might be a plausible explanation to explore these questions we analyze a large representative us panel we show that entrepreneurs have higher returns to formal education than employees we refer to this as the entrepreneurship returns puzzle we run post hoc analyses to explore a number of potential explanations of this puzzle indirectly our analysis indicates that the higher returns to formal education for entrepreneurs might be due to the fewer organizational constraints they face leading to more personal control over how to use their human capital compared to employees

regulatory environments and the location decision evidence from the early foreign market entries of new technology based firms new technology based firms ntbfs embarking on a strategy of rapid internationalisation choose foreign market entries that minimise transaction costs and the related risks of failure means to reduce the young firms vulnerability to the appropriation of intellectual capital are particularly important influences on early foreign market choices we explore the effect of the institutional dimension specifically the national regulatory environment on the location choices and the speed of internationalisation by british and german ntbfs we provide evidence that entrepreneurial young firms choose to enter country markets offering better regulatory protection for their intellectual property this decision is moderated by a home regulatory regime bias in contrast we observe that the speed of internationalisation is influenced less by the foreign regulatory regime and more by industry and firm characteristics we also observe that managerial experience influences the location choices of ntbfs facing regulatory hazards

where are all the self employed women push and pull factors influencing female labor market decisions previous research focuses on factors that influence self employment participation in part because entrepreneurship has been associated with economic growth this literature has tended to focus only on men or the comparison of women to men while ignoring substantial heterogeneity in employment decisions among women by investigating the impact of individual household and local economic and cultural characteristics on the labor market outcomes of different groups of women we get a more comprehensive picture of their self employment decision recognizing self employment as one of multiple labor market choices we use multinomial logit and two confidential geocoded micro level datasets to study women s career choices in urban areas we find that the effects of various push and pull factors differ between married and unmarried women in particular more progressive gender attitudes pull married women into self employment while household burdens associated with children push them into self employment for unmarried women the local business climate and individual characteristics have the strongest influence in both cases the motivations for women are quite different than men

experiential knowledge and cost in the internationalization process using a behavioral approach this study identifies and delineates components of experiential knowledge in the internationalization process three hypotheses are developed and tested they center ar

foreign entry cultural barriers and learning this paper examines the longevity of foreign entries hypotheses are developed on the mode start ups vs acquisitions and ownership structure wholly owned vs joint ventures in relation to cultural distance the hypotheses are tested within a framework of organizational learning using data on 225 entries that 13 dutch firms carried out from 1966 onwards results show that the presence of cultural barriers punctuates an organization s learning cultural distance is a prominent factor in foreign entry whenever this involves another firm requiring the firm to engage in double layered acculturation we also identify locational paths of learning the longevity of acquisitions is positively influenced by prior entries of the firm in the same country similarly the longevity of foreign entries in which the firm has a majority stake improves whenever the expanding firm engaged in prior entries in the same country and in other countries in the same cultural block

examining the formation of human capital in entrepreneurship a meta analysis of entrepreneurship education outcomes abstract effective human capital formation through the medium of entrepreneurship education and training eet is of increasing concern for governments as eet is growing rapidly across the world unfortunately there is a lack of consistent evidence showing that eet helps to create more or better entrepreneurs we undertake the first quantitative review of the literature and in the context of human capital theory find that there is indeed support for the value of eet based on 42 independent samples n 16 657 we find a significant relationship between eet and entrepreneurship related human capital assets r w 217 and entrepreneurship outcomes r w 159 the relationship between eet and entrepreneurship outcomes is stronger for academic focused eet interventions r w 238 than for training focused eet interventions r w 151 we find evidence of heterogeneity in many of our correlations and recommend that future studies examine potential moderators to more clearly delineate eet effect sizes we also find a number of methodological weaknesses among the studies analyzed and that those studies with lower methodological rigor are overstating the effect of eet recommendations to improve the quality of future work in the field are provided

steve jobs or no jobs entrepreneurial activity and performance among danish college dropouts and graduates are college dropouts successful entrepreneurs other than anecdotal evidence on illustrious college dropouts who managed to become self made billionaires there is only limited empirical evidence to answer this question this paper addresses this issue by investigating the relationship between college dropout or graduation and entrepreneurship activity as well as performance using information from the danish labor market register we identify college students whether these students graduate and if they registered a new venture we find that a larger share of dropouts starts a business but this reflects the endogeneity of the decision to exit from college on average becoming an entrepreneur does not allow dropouts to escape from their punishment in the labor market

is there a glass ceiling over europe exploring the gender pay gap across the wages distribution using harmonised data from the european union household panel we analyse gender pay gaps by sector across the wages distribution for ten countries we find that the mean gender pay gap in the raw data typically hides large variations in the gap across the wages distribution we use quantile regression qr techniques to control for the effects of individual and job characteristics at different points of the distribution and calculate the part of the gap attributable to differing returns between men and women we find that first gender pay gaps are typically bigger at the top of the wage distribution a finding that is consistent with the existence of glass ceilings for some countries gender pay gaps are also bigger at the bottom of the wage distribution a finding that is consistent with sticky floors third the gender pay gap is typically higher at the top than the bottom end of the wage distribution suggesting that glass ceilings are more prevalent than sticky floors and that these prevail in the majority of our countries fourth the gender pay gap differs significantly across the public and the private sector wages distribution for each of our eu countries

swimming upstream floating downstream comparing women s relative wage progress in the united states and denmark applying a new decomposition method to u s psid and danish longitudinal sample data the authors compare how u s and danish gender wage gaps developed between 1983 and 1995 in denmark they find the wage gap widened because the worsening in women s relative returns to observable human capital attributes as well as in their ranking relative to men in unobserv able productive attributes more than offset their wage gains from improved observable qualifications relative to men s in the united states in contrast the gender convergence in qualifications offset adverse influences including in creasing wage dispersion throughout the labor market to result in a narrowing of the gap the largest increase in the gap in denmark was experienced by women in the top earnings decile and the largest decline in the gap in the united states affected those at the top and in the middle of the distribution

social ties and international entrepreneurship opportunities and constraints affecting firm internationalization international entrepreneurship involves the identification and exploitation of opportunities for international exchange yet little is known about the entrepreneurial methods used for opportunity recognition while previous work emphasizes effects operating at the level of the business network i propose that the recognition of exchange opportunities is a highly subjective process shaped by entrepreneurs existing ties with others based on interview data collected from 41 managers i develop a comprehensive measure for classifying different methods of opportunity recognition i then use this measure to classify 665 international exchange ventures set up by entrepreneurs in four chinese cities in contrast with past research i find virtually no role for blind luck although the majority of exchange opportunities were discovered rather than sought these discoveries were intentional rather than accidental i also find that entrepreneurs idiosyncratic connections with others both promote and inhibit international exchange tie based opportunities lead to higher quality and more valuable exchanges that are constrained in terms of geographic psychic and linguistic distance from this i conclude that entrepreneurial networks have distinct opportunity horizons that limit the reach of tie based exchanges and potentially lead to sub optimal internationalization trajectories

density dependence of entrepreneurial dynamics competition opportunity cost or minimum efficient scale this paper reports on a new examination of the well established negative effect of localized density on survival in established industries we attempt to discriminate between three competing but not necessarily mutually exclusive explanations resource competition variations in the opportunity costs of entrepreneurship and geographic variations in minimum efficient scale mes we construct a model of firm growth and survival in which each of these potential causes of density dependence has a transparent parametric effect and we derive six predictions that collectively allow for discriminating empirical tests empirical results using confidential geocoded data from the national longitudinal survey of youth consistently favor the opportunity cost mechanism this paper was accepted by toby stuart entrepreneurship and innovation

estimating tax noncompliance with evidence from unaudited tax returns this article estimates the degree of tax noncompliance using evidence from unaudited tax returns measurements of noncompliance are derived from the relationship between reported charitable contributions and reported income from wages and salary as compared to alternative reported income sources such as self employment farm and other small business income assuming that the source of one s income is unrelated to one s charitable inclinations and that the ratio of true income to taxable income does not vary by income source any difference in the relationship between charitable contributions and the source of income can be attributed to relative underreporting by the individual we find that the implied amount of noncompliance is significant and that it varies by source of income as well as between positive and negative values of each type of income tax evasion creates horizontal inequity and if opportunities for evasion are correlated with income complicates the attempt to achieve vertical equity evasion also imposes economic costs because taxpayers expend resources to facilitate evasion and the tax agency expends resources to contain it the equity and efficiency implications of tax evasion and optimal policy to address it depend on its magnitude and nature which for obvious reasons is difficult to ascertain this article contributes to that effort by developing a new method for estimating the extent and nature of tax noncompliance based on evidence from unaudited tax returns this evidence is derived from the relationship between reported charitable contributions and reported taxable income from various sources such as wages and salaries selfemployment nonfarm small business and farm income and is based on the assumptions that the source of one s income is unrelated to one s charitable inclinations and that the ratio of true income to taxable income does not vary by income source we find that the implied amount of noncompliance on non wageand salary income is substantial and that it varies among these sources of income as well as between positive and negative values of each type of income on average reported positive self employment nonfarm small business and farm income must be multiplied by a factor of 1 54 4 54 and 3 87 respectively in order to obtain true income even those individuals who report zero income for a specific income source but file the schedule for that source are estimated to have true positive income finally those households that report negative schedule income may actually have greater true income than those households that report positive income

the founding of specialist firms in a global fragmenting industry the study examines what drives the founding of specialist firms two theoretical explanations are tested for the founding of specialists density dependence and resource partitioning the study finds that specialists foundings are dependent on the population s density at the global level but not at the united states level the evidence from a fragmented industry does not support the resource partitioning hypothesis either at the global level or the united states national level the study shows how multi level analyses can suggest if an industry is multi domestic or globally integrated

how optimal distinctiveness affects new ventures failure risk a contingency perspective abstract in this article we apply the concept of optimal distinctiveness to test whether category spanning has a nonlinear effect on new ventures risk to fail we argue that by being optimally distinct i e by attaining a level of category spanning that allows new ventures to benefit from balancing the competing needs of conformity with and differentiation from competitors new ventures can improve their survival chances in addition we argue that the relevance of optimal distinctiveness varies with a venture s age and a category s density we tested our hypotheses using data from 1668 metal bands that were founded in the united kingdom between 1967 and 2005 the results indicate that optimal distinctiveness is relevant to new ventures failure risk moreover we show that venture age attenuates the relevance of optimal distinctiveness whereas category density strengthens that factor s relevance

a critical exploration of sponsorship infrastructure and new organizations this research focuses on the effects of public sponsorship and regional infrastructure on the emergence and survival of new organizations propositions are tested regarding the joint effects of sponsorship and infrastructure on industrial development in a randomly selected sample of fourteen regions the data include six measures of infrastructure sponsorship as measured by the total dollars spent for economic development and their individual and joint effects on the number of firms and employees in high technology industries for the years 1965 1970 1975 1980 and 1984 this preliminary analysis suggests that variation in the infrastructure and level of sponsorship within a region is related to the birth and survival of new organizations

the ecology of organizational mortality american labor unions 1836 1985 this research analyzes the disbanding rates of the full population of american national labor unions for the period 1836 1985 it tests the hypothesis drawn from population ecology theory that di

analysis of the effectiveness of the first european pollutant emission register eper abstract the aim of this paper is to examine the effectiveness of the first european pollution emissions register eper a regulatory instrument based on the publication of the environmental performance of firms exceeding specified pollution limits the multivariate regression model mvrm is applied to capture the disciplinary effect of the eper so we first perform an analysis to determine whether the publication of the eper has a negative effect on the market value of the listed firms secondly we consider the possibility of the publication of the eper affecting the market value of firms which could be included in the eper but are not because their emissions do not exceed the specified pollution limits finally we prepare an index to compare the environmental results of the firms and analyse whether the consequences of publishing the eper are worse for firms with high relative pollution records

firm survival and industry evolution in vertically related populations this paper examines how the density and governance of vertically related populations affect the life chances of organizations we integrate the literatures on organizational ecology and vertical integration to develop a theory of how 1 specialized upstream industries affect downstream survival rates 2 the prevalence of different governance forms among upstream and downstream organizations moderates this relationship and 3 different forms of governance exert differential competitive pressures on focal organizations we find evidence supporting our hypotheses in an empirical examination of the downstream laser printer industry and upstream laser engine industry this paper was accepted by jesper sorensen organizations

evidence on the glass ceiling effect in france using matched worker firm data in this article we investigate the relevance of the glass ceiling hypothesis in france according to which there exist larger gender wage gaps at the upper tail of the wage distribution using a matched worker firm data set of about 1 30 000 employees and 14 000 employers we estimate quantile regressions and rely on a principal component analysis to summarize information specific to the firms our different results show that accounting for firm related characteristics reduces the gender earnings gap at the top of the distribution but the latter still remains much higher at the top than at the bottom furthermore a quantile decomposition shows that the gender wage gap is mainly due to differences in the returns to observed characteristics rather than in differences in characteristics between men and women

wage tenure and wage growth variation within and across establishments we estimate employer specific wage tenure and wage growth differentials using a unique bureau of labor statistics establishment survey of full time white collar workers employer wage and tenure differentials conditional on worker characteristics are substantial in these data education potential experience and tenure are highly correlated within an establishment high wage establishments generally employ higher quality workers and the most skilled men and professionals typically work with the most skilled women and nonprofessionals there is significant variation in wage growth rates across employers and high wage growth establishments tend to have longer tenure all else equal

a community level analysis of sources and rates of technological variation in the microprocessor market this research sought to identify the sources and rates of technological variation in an industry using a community level framework using data on all merchant producers of microprocessors from 1971

the big bug the legitimation of the edible insect sector in the netherlands abstract this study analyzes the legitimation process of an emerging novel food sector in the european union eu current eu policies are cautious with regard to new food sources and new food technology and we aim to determine how the sector is addressing both this caution as well as a general public that may be skeptical of its products by utilizing a legitimacy strategy framework and conducting 19 semi structured interviews with actors and experts in the dutch edible insect sector we assess the sector s progress and limitations with regard to its legitimacy journey the findings show that sector focus has thus far been on organization intraindustry and interindustry legitimacy strategies and that additional emphasis on institutional strategies will be imperative to securing more accommodating legislation in addition the lack of a common vision a strategic communication plan and interfirm linkages may also be hindering sector legitimation the framework and conclusions presented here may prove useful to other sectors introducing novel foods

new evidence on sex segregation and sex differences in wages from matched employee employer data we use new matched employer employee data to estimate the contributions of sex segregation and wage differences by sex within occupation industry establishment and occupation establishment cells to the overall sex gap in wages in contrast to earlier data used to study this question our data cover all industries and occupations across all regions of the united states we find that segregation of women into lower paying occupations industries establishments and occupations within establishments accounts for a sizable fraction of the sex gap in wages nonetheless approximately one half of the sex gap in wages remains attributable to the individual s sex

the impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurship skills and motivation this paper analyzes the impact of a leading entrepreneurship education program on college students entrepreneurship skills and motivation using an instrumental variables approach in a difference in differences framework we exploit that the program was offered to students at one location of a school but not at another location of the same school location choice and thereby treatment is instrumented by the relative distance of locations to parents place of residence the results show that the program does not have the intended effects the effect on students self assessed entrepreneurial skills is insignificant and the effect on the intention to become an entrepreneur is even negative

financing new venture exporters this paper investigates the demand for and access to financing for young small and medium sized enterprises smes the work compares theoretically and empirically two sets of new firms those that export and those that do not export as to the frequency with which they seek and obtain external financing the work hypothesizes that new growth firms and new exporter firms are especially likely to seek external financing yet less likely to obtain financing empirical findings confirm these expectations demonstrating that young growth firms were more likely than non growth firms to seek all forms of capital and exporters were particularly likely to apply for equity and trade credit commercial lenders were less likely to approve loan applications from early stage growth firms and especially so for applications from young growth oriented sme exporters the implications of these results for research and public policy are discussed

estimates of the black economy based on consumer demand approaches we propose a consumer demand system approach to estimating the size of the black economy where alternative hypotheses affecting the empirical results can be tested in a nested framework this approach allows for the estimation of the under reporting of household income from various sources dispensing with the need to use arbitrary criteria to classify households by their main source of income it also avoids potential bias in black economy estimates arising from mistaking preference heterogeneity substitution as income effects we illustrate these arguments by estimating the extent to which self employment income in the uk is underreported using parametric and nonparametric techniques the black economy broadly defined as the economic activities that are hidden from public authorities to avoid taxation has recently received increased attention in the literature due to arguments that the rising tax burden and state regulation is driving economic activity underground tanzi and schuknecht 1997 enste and schneider 1998 the usefulness of attempts to estimate the size of the black economy however is a controversial issue the sceptics emphasise the difficulties associated with the precise definition of black economy activities and point to the widely different estimates of the size of these activities resulting from alternative methods dixon 1999 tanzi 1999 thomas 1999 authors approaching the subject in an optimistic frame of mind emphasise positive aspects of estimating the size of the black economy such as the correct measurement of gdp and other macroeconomic variables e g employment and the design of policy and econometric models bhattacharyya 1999 giles 1999 the controversy on estimation issues however does not subtract from the widespread concern about the undesired consequences of the black economy undeclared economic activities reduce the tax base thereby undermining the financing of public goods and social protection a country trying to curtail the loss of tax revenue by raising tax rates can create a vicious cycle as this reinforces the incentive not to declare economic activities to the public authorities high tax rates have a distorting effect resulting in inefficient allocation of resources due to unequal opportunities and willingness to evade in different sectors of the economy and can undermine the ability of the country to compete internationally distortions in the labour market can also arise because individuals working in the black economy may have difficulty in moving from one job to another furthermore in countries where health pension and other social security payments are not universal individuals working in the black economy and their families are outside the

beyond categorization new directions for theory development about entrepreneurial internationalization categorizations emphasizing the earliness of internationalization have long been a cornerstone of international entrepreneurship research here we contend that the prominence of categories has not been commensurate with theory development associated with them we draw on categorization theory to explain why earliness based categories are persistent and argue that a greater focus on notions related to opportunity can open new avenues of research about the entrepreneurial internationalization of business we propose and discuss three directions for opportunity based research on entrepreneurial internationalization involving context dynamics and variety

density dependence in the evolution of populations of newspaper organizations a model of density dependence is proposed to explain regularities in the growth and decline of organizational populations density the number of organizations is assumed to be a function of the social processes of legitimation and competition at low density the model predicts that the legitimation process will dominate and will lead to high organizational founding rates and low organizational mortality rates at high levels of density competition will dominate and consequently founding rates will decline and mortality rates will rise the model is tested with hazard function models using data from nine newspaper populations spanning the 19th and 20th centuries and covering over 5200 newspapers analysis offounding rates provides strong empirical support for the model analysis of mortality rates reveals that the model holds for large populations

to be different or to be the same it s a question and theory of strategic balance this paper addresses the performance consequences of firm level strategic similarity past research observed that firms face pressures to be different and to be the same by differentiating firms reduce competition by conforming firms demonstrate their legitimacy both reduced competition and legitimacy improve performance this paper begins building a theory of strategic balance by synthesizing the differentiation and conformity perspectives the theory directs attention to intermediate levels of strategic similarity where firms balance the pressures of competition and legitimation empirical support for the theory is found in a longitudinal study of commercial banks several suggestions for developing a theory of strategic balance conclude the paper the theory s major implication is that firms should be as different as legitimately possible copyright 1999 john wiley sons ltd

internationalization and the performance of born global smes the mediating role of social networks this paper offers a social network explanation for the purported relationship between internationalization and firm performance in the context of born global small and medium enterprises smes we argue that home based social networks play a mediating role in the relationship between inward and outward internationalization and firm performance the mediating mechanism is attributed to three information benefits of social networks 1 knowledge of foreign market opportunities 2 advice and experiential learning and 3 referral trust and solidarity using survey data from smes in the largest emerging economy of china we found some support for this mediating role of social networks in the form of guanxi the results imply that international business managers should consider social networks as an efficient means of helping internationally oriented smes to go international more rapidly and profitably

estimates of the economic returns to schooling from a new sample of twins this paper uses a new survey to contrast the wages of genetically identical twins with different schooling levels multiple measurements of schooling levels were also collected to assess the effect of reporting error on the estimated economic returns to schooling the data indicate that omitted ability variables do not bias the estimated return to schooling upward but that measurement error does bias it downward adjustment for measurement error indicates that an additional year of schooling increases wages by 12 to 16 percent a higher estimate of the economic returns to schooling than has been previously found copyright 1994 by american economic association

crowding out the role of state companies and the dynamics of industrial competitiveness in india this article examines growth patterns of government companies in india whether their presence has crowded out private entrepreneurial activity and whether there has been a decline in the competitiveness of india s industry measured as relative productive efficiency for a 45 year period from 1957 1958 to 2001 2002 there was a significant growth in the number of government companies in india that effectively crowded out the entry and growth of private enterprise this took place from the mid to late 1950s to the late 1980s and early 1990s correspondingly the amount of private equity capital invested in firms declined until the late 1980s and early 1990s when there was an upsurge of private investment activity another feature was that a small number of government companies absorbed most of the corporate sector equity investment in india the growth in the share of government companies in india that crowded out the entry and growth of private enterprises has had a significantly negative effect on india s industrial competitiveness after the introduction of reforms in 1991 there has been a significant crowding in by private enterprises displacing the government companies from their key position as holders of a very large portion of equity capital and also reversing the trend in the decline of competitiveness of indian industry as a whole copyright 2009 oxford university press

does compulsory school attendance affect schooling and earnings we establish that season of birth is related to educational attainment because of school start age policy and compulsory school attendance laws individuals born in the beginning of the year start school at an older age and can therefore drop out after completing less schooling than individuals born near the end of the year roughly 25 percent of potential dropouts remain in school because of compulsory schooling laws we estimate the impact of compulsory schooling on earnings by using quarter of birth as an instrument for education the instrumental variables estimate of the return to education is close to the ordinary least squares estimate suggesting that there is little bias in conventional estimates every developed country in the world has a compulsory schooling requirement yet little is known about the effect these laws have on educational attainment and earnings 1 this paper exploits an unusual natural experiment to estimate the impact of compulsory schooling laws in the united states the experiment stems from the fact that children born in different months of the year start school at different ages while compulsory schooling laws generally require students to remain in school until their sixteenth or seventeenth birthday in effect the interaction of school entry requirements and compulsory schooling laws compel students born

mimetic and experiential effects in international marketing alliance formations of us pharmaceuticals firms an event history analysis alliances are recognized as an indispensable tool for managers operating in a global business environment and as a fundamental stage of the internationalization process of the firm drawing on a co evolutionary framework this article investigates the mimetic and experiential effects in international alliance formation we focus on a critical unresolved issue in the literature what is the role of mimetic behavior and previous alliance experience in mitigating the uncertainty associated with engaging in cross border operations an event history analysis of 792 international marketing alliance formations initiated by 317 firms in the us pharmaceutical industry is employed to test the hypotheses the findings of two different hazard rate models reveal significant complex effects of density and cross border alliance experience on the propensity to engage in new international marketing alliances

a theory of dual labor markets with application to industrial policy discrimination and keynesian unemployment this paper develops a model of dual labor markets based on employers need to motivate workers in order to elicit effort from their workers employers may find it optimal to pay more than the going wage this changes fundamentally the character of labor markets the model is applied to a wide range of labor market phenomena it provides a coherent framework for understanding the claims of industrial policy advocates it also can provide the basis for a theory of occupational segregation and discrimination that will not be eroded by market forces finally the model provides the basis for a theory of involuntary unemployment

interdependent behavior in foreign direct investment the multi level effects of prior entry and prior exit on foreign market entry this paper examines the interdependent foreign market entry decisions of multinational corporations mncs based on the argument that legitimacy and competition are two important forces in foreign market entry decisions we hypothesize that an mnc s market entry decisions are influenced by its own prior entry and prior exit decisions and those of other mncs we examine this general proposition at four levels of analysis the host country global industry an industry that spans host countries local industry an industry that is separately defined within each host country and parent firm level our analysis of a panel data of over 4000 market entry decisions that were made by japanese mncs shows that an mnc s market entry decision has a stronger inverted u shaped relationship with the prior entry and exit decisions of other mncs at the local industry level than the prior entry and exit decisions of other mncs at the host country and global industry levels we also find that both the prior entry and prior exit decisions of an mnc have a marginal influence on its own subsequent market entry decisions at the parent firm level

small firm internationalisation unveiled through phenomenography phenomenography is proposed here as a qualitative methodology for investigating how owner managers practise internationalisation in small firms and it is applied in an empirical study of internationalising owner managed small australian wineries the findings show a common internationalisation activity cycle but four qualitatively different ways in which these owner managers practise internationalisation we reveal that this variation in owner manager internationalisation practices is determined by their understandings of internationalisation which produce differences in the ways activities within their internationalisation activity cycle are orchestrated in particular phenomenography has enabled new insights into the multiplicity of firm internationalisation practices not able to be captured through other qualitative methodologies such as ethnography or semiotics as they are not designed to capture such variation based on our findings we propose an understanding based theory to explain the idiosyncratic nature of owner managed small firm internationalisation furthermore we suggest that phenomenography used independently or in conjunction with other qualitative methodologies also has potential to reveal the varying practices of internationalising large mnes by enabling an investigation of the collective or shared understanding of firm internationalisation within mnes finally we point out how phenomenography can be extended beyond firm internationalisation practices to investigate other topics within international business

foreign direct investment in industrial research in the pharmaceutical and electronics industries results from a survey of multinational firms abstract this paper examines motives location characteristics inter temporal characteristics and modes of entry for foreign direct investment fdi in research and development r d the paper is based on a detailed empirical survey of laboratory sites established by 32 large multinational companies domiciled in 5 countries findings indicate that fdi in r d has risen considerably over the last 40 years and that firms invest in r d sites abroad in order to augment their knowledge base or in order to exploit it the former motive leads to establishment of facilities primarily close to universities while the latter type leads to establishment of facilities close to existing manufacturing facilities and markets the paper also finds that greenfield investments are the dominant mode of entry and that firms establish multiple r d sites in their home countries before investing in such sites abroad

the dynamics of rapid industrial growth evidence from sweden s information technology industry 1990 2004 sweden s information technology it industry expanded through an inflow of new entrants during the 1990s its evolution was analyzed using ecological models of organizational founding and disbanding controlling for the effects of economic conditions this study analyzed the effects of density dependence age imprinting rate dependence and the origin of new entrants on the industry the results indicate that the inflow was comprised of start ups that proved to be relatively short lived in contrast new entrants that originated as part of incumbent firms that were diversifying in it stabilized the industry by depressing its disbanding rate and facilitating the entry of new firms in explaining the dynamics of the industry the analysis supports the established models of density dependence age dependence imprinting and organizational origin copyright 2009 the author 2009 published by oxford university press on behalf of associazione icc all rights reserved oxford university press

density dependence versus population dynamics an ecological study of failings in the california wine industry in this ecological study we show that the particular curvilinear formulation of the relationship between density and the failing rate of organizations proposed by hannan and freeman does not hold for the california wine industry between 1940 and 1985 we demonstrate instead that an alternative model focusing on prior foundings and prior failings gives a superior account of the failing rate in this population we argue that hannan and freeman s density dependent model of organizational mortality systematically overstates the negative effects of illegitimacy on business organizations we argue further that their model underestimates business organizations ability to avoid elimination by migrating to neighboring niches and by enlarging their initial niche

equal pay for equal work evidence from sweden and a comparison with norway and the u s using a new data set covering most privately employed workers in sweden we compare gender wage differences to those previously reported for norway and the u s the central finding is that the wage gap is small when comparing men and women working in the same type of occupation for the same employer segregation of men and women by occupation accounts for more of the gap in sweden than in the other two countries in all three countries we find that segregation by occupation explains more than segregation by establishment and that institutional changes over the past two decades aimed at improving the status of women had little effect on the gender wage gap jel classification j16 j71

returns to education evidence from u k twins we use a new sample of uk female identical twins to estimate private economic returns to education we report findings in three areas first we use identical twins to control for family effects and genetic ability bias and the education reported by the other twin to control for schooling measurement error our estimates suggest a return to schooling for uk females of about 7 7 second we investigate within twin pair ability differences by examining within twin pair and between family correlations of education with observable correlates of ability including birthweight ability tests and reading scores our findings suggest lower ability bias in within twin pair regressions than pooled regressions third using data on twins smoking we show smoking reflects family background and using it as an instrument exacerbates ability bias this abstract was borrowed from another version of this item

does more mean less the male female wage gap and the proportion of females at the establishment level we examine the theoretical empirical and public policy implications of the pro portion of females in the establishment arrow s model of heterogeneous employer discrim ination provides predictions that are tested empirical results indicate support for the theory using establishment data but a contradiction is obtained with the individual data it is es timated that the proportion of females in the establishment accounts for 26 per cent of the gender log wage gap implications for employment equity are considered in the context of a new method of decomposing the log wage gap and indicate that such public policy can reduce this gap by 20 per cent jel classification j71 and j78

the returns to education microeconomics in this paper we focus on education as a private decision to invest in human capital and the estimation of the rate of return to that private investment while the literature is replete with studies that estimate the rate of return using regression methods where the estimated return is obtained as the coefficient on a years of education variable in a log wage equation that contains controls for work experience and other individual characteristics the issue is surrounded with difficulties we outline the theoretical arguments underpinning the empirical developments and show that the evidence on private returns to the individual is compelling despite some of these issues surrounding the estimation of the return to schooling our evidence based on estimates from a variety of datasets and specifications is that there is an unambiguously positive effect on the earnings of an individual from participation in education moreover the size of the effect seems large relative to the returns on other investments

the structure of competition how competition between one s rivals influences imitative market entry this paper investigates how the pattern of encounters between a firm s competitors affects the firm s inclination to follow its competitors into a new market we theorize that direct encounters between a firm s rivals lead to a herding effect making imitative market entry more likely past mutual forbearance between a firm s competitors resulting from asymmetric multimarket competition further strengthens this herding effect by enhancing the firm s expectations of market attractiveness in contrast aggressive past rivalry between the competitors resulting from symmetric multimarket contact dampens these expectations producing a competition effect that makes herding less probable we test our idea in two distinct contexts the chinese pharmaceutical industry and the taiwanese computer hardware industry and find consistent support in both settings we discuss how our analysis of what we call the structure of competition can be extended to research on other forms of firm behavior

getting to global an evolutionary perspective of brand expansion in international markets the globalization of brands is an evolutionary process that is determined by environmental and firm level factors including a brand s position in the firm s global brand architecture a framework is developed incorporating aspects of environmental uncertainty mimetic behavior and experiential learning as they relate to the globalization of brands global brand architecture is introduced as an important strategic consideration of a brand s position and stage of internationalization the hypotheses are tested within the context of the global automotive industry employing an event history analysis with time varying covariates the results reveal complex effects with respect to the role of market attractiveness experiential learning and mimetic behavior in globalization patterns overall this study suggests that firms can accelerate the process of creating global brands if they enter the three major continents in the early stages of international expansion

the effects of human capital interventions on entrepreneurial performance in industrialized countries this paper provides a systematic review of studies on the effects of human capital interventions on entrepreneurial performance in industrialized countries we identify 21 experimental and quasi experimental studies published before september 2018 these studies examine the effects of business training formal education and entrepreneurship education their performance outcomes include firm profits firm size and entrepreneurial earnings the main finding across these studies is that these interventions do not have statistically significant effects formal education is the only exception showing positive effects on firm profits and entrepreneurial earnings yet these effects are small in magnitude evidence is inconclusive regarding effect duration these findings stand in stark contrast to correlational studies which tend to find large positive correlations between human capital interventions and entrepreneurial performance we therefore conclude that correlational studies tend to overestimate the benefits of human capital interventions moreover our estimates show that the interventions are associated with moderately low additionality

international entrepreneurship the pursuit of entrepreneurial opportunities across national borders in this editorial for the special issue on international entrepreneurship we inter relate key concepts about the pursuit of opportunities from the entrepreneurship and international business literatures in doing so we consider the assessment of opportunities as an individual level cognitive activity the construction of opportunity as a firm level innovative activity and the shaping of opportunity as an institutional level structuring activity we then extend the discussion to explore the notion of a distributed global ecosystem of opportunities and opportunity seekers which we believe may provide a platform for valuable future research

the imprint of labor markets on entrepreneurial performance abstract using the 1979 2010 waves of the national longitudinal survey of youth our study tracks the earnings of individual entrepreneurs from the beginning of their entrepreneurial careers examining the effects of labor markets on their earnings trajectory results show that apart from self selection labor markets impose a penalty on the initial earnings of entrepreneurs who start a business in adverse economic conditions a disadvantage that persists for up to a decade we also identify two factors expected to alleviate the imprinting effect of labor markets migration outside the imprinting environment and serial entrepreneurship

dynamic capabilities and new product development in high technology ventures an empirical analysis of new biotechnology firms abstract in industries populated by entrepreneurial high technology firms the rapid development of new products is viewed as a key determinant of success developing a portfolio of new products is necessary to gain early cash flows external visibility and legitimacy early market share and increase the likelihood of survival schoonhoven eisenhardt and lymman 1990 in addition recent research has shown that new product development improves a firm s ability to raise money through an initial public offering deeds decarolis and coombs 1997 this paper develops a model of new product development which is tested on a sample of 94 pharmaceutical biotechnology companies we hypothesize that new product development capabilities are a function of a firm s scientific technological and managerial skills to test this relationship we develop several firm specific measures in an attempt to triangulate in on the core construct of firm specific new product development capabilities some important implications for entrepreneurs managers of high technology firms flow from our results first entrepreneur managers need to view the choice of geographic location as an important strategic decision which will impact their firm s access to the skilled technical personnel and the streams of knowledge our results indicate that a choice location has a significant concentration of similar firms but the level has not yet reached a point where competition for resources in the local environment offsets any advantages of the location in the case of biotechnology this would seem to indicate that the prime locations would be expanding areas such as san diego seattle and philadelphia rather then the established locations of silicon valley and boston second as scientific knowledge plays an ever more important role in a firm s success the quality of the firm s scientific team is a critical ingredient in a firm s new product development capability but how do you evaluate the quality of scientific personnel our results indicate that there is a strong positive relationship between the impact as measured by citations of a team s prior research in the academic community and the productivity of that team in a commercial research laboratory therefore the judgement of a scientific field captured by citations or perhaps expert judgement should prove to be a useful tool when evaluating personnel for a firm s research team third the results from our measures of ceo experience and the percentage of the top management team with a ph d are interesting as expected the prior experience of ceo in managing a commercial research facility enhances a firm s new product development capabilities however results for our top management team variable appears to indicate that the over reliance on technical personnel in the management of the organization detracts from the product development process taken together these results seem to imply that it is important that the leadership of the organization have knowledge of and experience in managing the new product development process but that diverting the firm s scientific personnel s energies away from the laboratory and into the management of the organization maybe counter productive therefore what a high technology venture appears to need is leadership that understands and has experience in the new product development process but which is separate and distinct from the scientific team this type of leadership keeps the scientific team focused on research and development and out of the boardroom

on the internationalization process of firms a critical analysis even though international marketing has been challenged because of theoretical and methodological shortcomings very few researchers have actually attempted to analyze the weaknesses based on principles of theory evaluation in this article the author examines two types of models addressing the individual firm s internationalization process a theory evaluation is performed based on the explanation and the falsification criteria in order to improve the internationalization models some measures are proposed

analyzing unexpected density dependence effects on organizational births in new york s life insurance industry 1842 1904 organizational ecologists argue that numbers of firms density dependence significantly affect industrial development rising numbers of firms are thought to legitimize a young industry leading persons to launch new firms in the industry but in a more crowded older industry increasing numbers of companies are expected to intensify competition producing a decline in organizational births since this argument dominates ecological theory results that challenge it must be explained i identify six reasons for such results only a few of these explanations have been evaluated empirically and the ideas rarely have been assessed with respect to organizational births therefore i address these explanations in order to resolve unexpected density dependence effects on foundings in new york s life insurance industry from 1842 to 1904 measuring numbers of life insurance operators at both the state new york and national u s levels of analysis resolves the unexpected density dynamics in this study and produces a coherent pattern of density findings further numbers of mutual savings banks and numbers of small life insurers in new york created competitive pressures in the life insurance business leading persons to abandon carrier entrepreneurship entrepreneurship also suffered when the life insurance industry was dominated by a few large sellers more generally the evidence shows that new york was divided into two insurance submarkets and that carrier organizers reacted to legitimation and competition trends in the submarket occupied by domestic insurers i conclude that once we consider the reasons for unexpected density dynamics the core model of density dependence offers a cogent explanation for industrial evolution

racial differences in self employment exits using detailed work history data in the 1979 national longitudinal survey of youth i investigate the reasons behind the racial gap in self employment my analysis of an age uniform sample of men all of whom are observed from age 22 to 40 years reveals that racial differences in cross sectional self employment rates are largely due to the fact that minority workers self employment spells are relatively short lived moreover i find that minority workers relatively high exit rates are driven primarily by transitions to nonemployment estimates from a multinomial logit model of self employment exits suggest that minority workers weak attachment to the labor market prior to entering self employment is an important determinant of their transition from self employment to nonemployment while lack of prior industry and self employment experience contributes to minorities transitions to wage employment when i assign blacks and hispanics the same mean work histories as whites the predicted black white gap in the first year self employment survival rate decreases by 31 and the hispanic white gap decreases by 14

experiential knowledge and costs in the internationalization process using a behavioral approach this study identifies and delineates components of experiential knowledge in the internationalization process three hypotheses are developed and tested they center around the lack of knowledge in the areas of foreign business foreign institutions and firm internationalization as well as the effect that this lack of knowledge has on managers perceived cost in the internationalization process with the help of a lisrel based structural model the three hypotheses are tested on a sample of 362 service firms the analysis shows that lack of internationalization knowledge has a strong impact on the lack of both business and institutionalization but there is no direct effect of lack of internationalization knowledge on perceived cost of internationalization

the more the merrier the effect of family size and birth order on children s education there is an extensive theoretical literature that postulates a tradeoff between child quantity and quality within a family however there is little causal evidence that speaks to this theory using a rich dataset on the entire population of norway over an extended period of time we examine the effects of family size and birth order on the educational attainment of children while we find a negative correlation between family size and children s education when we include indicators for birth order and or use twin births as an instrument family size effects become negligible in addition birth order has a significant and large negative effect on children s education we also study adult earnings employment and teenage childbearing and find strong evidence for birth order effects with these outcomes particularly among women these findings suggest the need to revisit economic models of fertility and child production focusing not only on differences across families but differences within families as well

male female wage differentials in job ladders much of the male female wage differential exists because men and women are assigned to different jobs within narrow job categories there is no male female differential only a tortured taste theory of discrimination can reconcile these facts we argue that differential movement along job ladders entails comparative advantage so the ability standard for promotion is higher for women this implies that more able women will be passed over in favor of less able men women assumed to have the same ability distribution as men earn less the differential reflects females lower promotion probability not within job discrimination

explaining the formation of international new ventures the limits of theories from international business research abstract international new ventures invs represent a growing and important type of start up an inv is defined as a business organization that from inception seeks to derive significant competitive advantage from the use of resources and the sale of outputs in multiple countries oviatt and mcdougall 1994 their increasing prevalence and important role in international competition indicates a need for greater understanding of these new ventures oviatt and mcdougall 1994 logitech as described in a case study by alahuhta 1990 is a vivid example of an inv its founders were from two different countries and had a global vision for the company from its inception the venture which produces peripheral devices for personal computers established headquarters in both switzerland and the u s manufacturing and r d were split between the u s and switzerland and then quickly spread to taiwan and ireland the venture s first commercial contract was with a japanese company using 24 case studies of invs we found that their formation process is not explained by existing theories from the field of international business specifically neither monopolistic advantage theory product cycle theory stage theory of internationalization oligopolistic reaction theory nor internalization theory can explain the formation process of invs these theories fail because they assume that firms become international long after they have been formed and they therefore highlight large mature firms they also focus too much on the firm level and largely ignore the individual and small group level of analysis i e the entrepreneur and his or her network of business alliances we propose that an explanation for the formation process of invs must answer three questions 1 who are the founders of invs 2 why do these entrepreneurs choose to compete internationally rather than just in their home countries and 3 what form do their international business activities take who are the founders of invs we argue that founders of invs are individuals who see opportunities from establishing ventures that operate across national borders they are alert to the possibilities of combining resources from different national markets because of the competencies networks knowledge and background that they have developed from their earlier activities following the logic of the resource based view of the firm we argue that the possession of these competencies is not matched by other entrepreneurs only the entrepreneur possessing these competencies is able to combine a particular set of resources across national borders and form a given inv why do these entrepreneurs choose to compete internationally rather than just in their home countries the founders of invs recognize they must create international business competencies from the time of venture formation otherwise the venture may become path dependent on the development of domestic competencies and the entrepreneur will find it difficult to change strategic direction when international expansion eventually becomes necessary as the founder of one inv explained the advantage of starting internationally is that you establish an international spirit from the very beginning mamis 1989 38 what form do their international business activities take founders of invs prefer to use hybrid structures i e strategic alliances and networks for their international activities as a way to overcome the usual poverty of resources at the time of start up this study has important implications for the practice of management in financing decisions relating to invs venture capitalists and other venture financiers should look for entrepreneurs who have a global vision international business competence and an established international network when entrepreneurs start invs they should create hybrid structures to preserve scarce resources finally given the path dependence of competence development founders of new ventures should consider whether establishing a domestic new venture with plans to later internationalize will be as successful a strategy as establishing a new venture that is international from inception

the life cycle of a competitive industry firm numbers first rise then later fall as an industry evolves this nonmonotonicity is explained using a competitive model in which innovation opportunities fuel entry and relative failure to innovate prompts exit equilibrium time paths for price and quantity also share features of the data the model is estimated using data from the u s automobile tire industry a particularly dramatic example of the nonmonotonicity in firm numbers

the network dynamics of international new ventures this study uses multi site case research to advance a set of propositions regarding the network dynamics of early stage international new ventures the investigative approach builds on arguments that network theory and analysis are fundamental to international entrepreneurship in the spirit of cross disciplinary research perspectives from the entrepreneurship literature are embraced to help inform our understanding of international new venture networks

industry competition and firm human capital this paper argues that objective and subjective human capital may have substantial impact upon organizational performance in a competitive context objective human capital pertains to such features as education and experience whereas subjective human capital relates to personality characteristics the argument is illustrated by presenting the results of two empirical studies 1 a cross section 1990 1991 analysis of about 50 incumbents in the flemish furniture industry concentrating on the impact of subjective human capital particularly the chief executive officer s ceo s locus of control personality on financial performance and 2 a longitudinal 1970 1992 analysis of a cohort of 100 entrants into the dutch audit industry focusing on the influence of objective human capital particularly education and experience on exit by merger and acquisition m a or diaspora both studies support the claim that objective and subjective human capital matters for example flemish furniture firms headed by a ceo with an internal locus of control trait reach higher levels of financial performance and dutch audit firms with a high proportion of personnel with business experience are more likely to exit the industry over the years as a result of diaspora finally the data of the flemish furniture and dutch audit industries are re analyzed so as to compare the impact of human capital variables on small firm performance in both industries this re analysis reveals that in both industries the impact of human capital variables is more pronounced in large firms compared to small businesses

are entrepreneurship and cognitive skills related some international evidence do national differences in cognitive skills cs predict a nation s likelihood of generating high quality entrepreneurs who create and expand high value businesses we answer this question by estimating cross country regressions that use the acs and szerb global entrepreneurship development index gedi and a measure of national cs after including conventional controls we find for a sample of 60 countries that our measure of cs robustly predicts the gedi unconditional correlation 0 65 standardized beta 0 42 an index that gives weight to both entrepreneurial attitudes within a nation and the institutional and economic prerequisites for creating high value high growth firms we find that this result also holds for an alternative measure of entrepreneurship

decomposing uncertainty and its effects on imitation in firm exit decisions this study examines the effects of different uncertainty types on interorganizational imitation in firm exit decisions we draw on herding models to conceptualize exit decisions as being based on a firm s private information which the firm updates with information inferred from observing the actions of others we posit that different types of uncertainty differentially affect this observational learning process in particular we propose that certain uncertainty types attenuate rather than foster observational learning and subsequent imitation we test this theory using a 29 year panel data set on the exit of private venture capital firms our results indicate that observational learning does influence imitation in firm exit decisions and they also suggest that a common belief that uncertainty enhances imitation does not apply to all types of uncertainty specifically we find that uncertainty fosters imitation only when it is idiosyncratic to the firm uncertainties that are common to all firms in contrast actually reduce reliance on observational learning by decomposing uncertainty into different types and explicating their effects on imitation we demonstrate that this relationship is more nuanced than previously assumed and in addition highlight the role of deliberate information processing in imitation

omitted ability bias and the increase in the return to schooling over the 1980s there were sharp increases in the return to schooling estimated with conventional wage regressions we explore whether the relationship between ability and schooling changed over this period in ways that would have increased the schooling coefficient in these regressions our empirical results reject the hypothesis that an increase in the bias of the schooling coefficient due to a change in the relationship between ability and schooling has contributed to observed increases in the return to schooling we also find that the increase in the schooling return has occurred for workers with relatively high levels of academic ability

transition to entrepreneurship from the public sector predispositional and contextual effects studies of career dynamics implicitly claim that government employees are not entrepreneurial utilizing longitudinal data from the u s panel study for income dynamics we investigate the reasons for the low rate of entrepreneurship from the public sector we conjecture that it is due to labor market matching processes and the bureaucratic nature of public organizations and bureaucratization of individuals our life course analysis identifies labor market matching as a major determinant nonentrepreneurial types choose public sector employment we also uncover tenure and context effects which decrease and increase the hazard rate of entrepreneurial exit respectively whereas the former effect points toward adaptation and internal labor market sorting the latter draws attention to exits due to frustration

searching locally and globally applying daniel levinthal s scholarship to international business daniel a levinthal has made several important contributions to the fields of strategy and management his research has been pivotal in enhancing our understanding of interactions between the internal and external contexts that organizations face as well as the roles of experience search and learning processes despite substantial overlap between the core issues in international business ib and levinthal s work the ib field has yet to fully embrace key tenets of his research we aim to bridge this gap by providing a number of concrete suggestions for areas in which ib research may benefit from levinthal s work and vice versa

creative tension the significance of ben oviatt s and patricia mcdougall s article toward a theory of international new ventures the article by oviatt and mcdougall threw the spotlight on international entrepreneurs on international new ventures and on their importance in the globalising world economy recognising the rich theoretical implications of this phenomenon they mounted a challenge to received internationalisation process theories and established a new and exciting research theme that of international entrepreneurship this article reviews the impact of their contribution and discusses new research themes raised by their challenge to the process theories of internationalisation

viewpoint male female wage differentials how can that be abstract the paper outlines the main empirical procedures that are used to document the male female wage differential and the extent to which it reflects discrimination it then discusses the evidence on male female wage differentials their existence the extent to which they reflect discrimination their changes over time and the factors that influence the gap particular attention is paid to more recent studies that control for a wider range of conventionally unobserved factors theoretical perspectives are then outlined focusing on the issue of how discriminatory wage differentials can survive given the forces of competition the impacts of policy initiatives are also discussed

estimating average and local average treatment effects of education when compulsory schooling laws really matter the change to the minimum school leaving age in the united kingdom from 14 to 15 had a powerful and immediate effect that redirected almost half the population of 14 year olds in the mid twentieth century to stay in school for one more year the magnitude of this impact provides a rare opportunity to a estimate local average treatment effects late of high school that come close to population average treatment effects ate and b estimate returns to education using a regression discontinuity design instead of previous estimates that rely on difference in differences methodology or relatively weak instruments comparing late estimates for the united states and canada where very few students were affected by compulsory school laws to the united kingdom estimates provides a test as to whether instrumental variables iv returns to schooling often exceed ordinary least squares ols because gains are high only for small and peculiar groups among the more general population i find instead that the benefits from compulsory schooling are very large whether these laws have an impact on a majority or minority of those exposed

the uppsala internationalization process model revisited from liability of foreignness to liability of outsidership the uppsala internationalization process model is revisited in the light of changes in business practices and theoretical advances that have been made since 1977 now the business environment is viewed as a web of relationships a network rather than as a neoclassical market with many independent suppliers and customers outsidership in relation to the relevant network more than psychic distance is the root of uncertainty the change mechanisms in the revised model are essentially the same as those in the original version although we add trust building and knowledge creation the latter to recognize the fact that new knowledge is developed in relationships