jobless spells and re employment wages many studies of job loss attribute the earnings losses associated with layoffs to the loss of job occupation and industry specific human capital this paper estimates the effect of jobless spells on post layoff wages using data from the 1984 panel of survey on income participation for a sample of adult white male workers who were permanently laid off between 1974 and 1984 the estimated impact of jobless spells on starting wages and survey date wages several years after re employment are controlled for separations layoffs and quits and for individual and job characteristics the estimates show that jobless spell durations reduce starting wages wage growth in the new job is lower for workers who experience long spell durations a result that suggests acceptance of jobs which are poor matches compared to other workers who spend less time out of work following a layoff the findings support labour force policies which minimize the amount of time a person is out of work

the school to work transition a cross national perspective school to work patterns and issues are discussed for seven economies france germany japan the netherlands sweden the united kingdom and the united states the emphasis is placed on differences across countries in the current labor market position of young people and recent trends therein along with the institutions that regulate youth education training and employment the power of public policies including labor market deregulation labor market programs vocationalization of education and apprenticeship to improve youth outcomes is discussed drawing on national evaluation literatures evidence of extensive policy failure points up the need to develop nationally appropriate institutions to improve school to work transitions

a micro analytic threshold model for the timing of first purchases of durable goods a micro analytic threshold model to describe the timing of household purchases of consumer durable goods is developed and tested the model incorporates unobserved heterogeneity via a generalized gamma distribution and accounts for time varying covariates further we employ estimation methods applicable or purchase data observed at periodic intervals of time the model outperforms other competing models for predicting the timing of purchase of durable goods in terms of fit and predictive ability in particular this model outperforms the logit model and the diffusion model the generalized gamma timing model predicts well the time to purchase the durable good we show how it can be employed for micro segmentation of households several research directions and applications are described

estimation and decomposition of technical efficiency for sugarbeet farms this study computes technical efficiency for idaho sugarbeet farms and decomposes it into pure technical efficiency scale efficiency and congestion efficiency using nonparametric procedures the results indicate that the average efficiency is 0 88 with 45 of the farms in the sample exhibiting full efficiency improper scale operation and input overutilization are the major sources of inefficiency for remaining farms technical efficiency is independent of farm size a tobit model was used to examine the impacts of variables such as farm size specialization tenancy position hired labour location and managerial ability on efficiency inefficiency in sugarbeet production results in a shortfall of potential revenues not only for producers but also for landlords and processors

effects of the minimum wage on the employment status of youths an update the large decline in the relative value of the minimum wage during the 1980s makes that period a valuable one for identifying the impact of variation in the minimum wage on youth employment this study produces the robust finding that when the experience of the 1980s is included a 10 percent increase in the minimum wage is estimated to reduce teen employment by less than 1 percent the lower end of the range of previous estimates because this small employment effect is offset by a labor force withdrawal effect the study finds no discernible effect on measured unemployment the study also finds no apparent effect of the minimum wage on the employment of young adults aged 20 24

measuring technical efficiency in the greek agricultural sector this paper measures the degree of technical efficiency of greek farms at discrete points in time stochastic frontier production functions are estimated from four annual farm accountancy data network fadn surveys of the 1992 1995 period from the results a measure of technical efficiency is calculated for each farm for each year the four distributions of technical efficiency values are examined and compared all four samples show a wide range of farm specific technical efficiency but efficiency is improving over the period the paper also presents frontier estimates for small and large farms classified according to economic size in that case technical efficiency measures are calculated and their distributions are examined and compared the results show that large farms are more efficient than small farms however efficiency is improving in both size farms over the period in general the results of this study indicate that there is substantial scope for improving technical efficiency of greek farms

relative wages wage growth and quit behavior using italian social security records for male workers from a sample of firms in turin from 1981 to 1983 we show that conditional on the worker s own wage the average wage in the establishment for similar workers is negatively related to quits we also find that this variable predicts future wage growth this is consistent with an economic model in which workers compare the longrun value of employment opportunities when making quit decisions

dynamic analysis of consumer response to marketing strategies this paper develops a methodology for modeling consumer response that integrates previous research in stochastic brand selection diffusion of innovation test market analysis and new product design the methodology makes it practical to extend brand selection models to include diffusion phenomena such as awareness trial and information flow purchase timing and brand selection are interdependent and both phenomena depend jointly on managerial controls such as advertising coupons price off promotion product positioning and consumer characteristics within this general structure we provide practical estimation procedures a least squares approximation to the maximum likelihood estimates to determine the parameters which link managerial controls to consumer response closed form solutions are derived for cumulative awareness cumulative trial penetration expected sales and purchases due to promotion all as a function of time we also provide simplified expressions for equilibrium t market share tradeoffs among complexity of the diffusion process number of managerial variables nonstationarity complexity of purchase timing consumer segmentation and sample size are made explicit so that the marketing scientist can customize his analyses to the managerial problems that he faces the effects of sample size data interval frequency and collinearity in the explanatory variables are investigated with simulations based on a five state consumer response process which depends on 8 10 marketing variables the paper closes with a brief description of the application and predictive test of a consumer response model based on the methodology

complicated dynamics in a flow model of the labor market abstract we develop a worker flow model with a nonlinear and endogenous outflow rate from unemployment inconsistent claims on the output lead to changing inflation rates which feedback on job offers through the real money supply via simulations one can show that the nonlinear outflow rate causes asymmetric adjustment of unemployment to the equilibrium rate of unemployment in addition and depending on the parameters the equilibrium rate of unemployment may also become locally unstable then there is a downward sloping phillips curve but no trade off between unemployment and inflation in the short run as there is none in the long run

local underemployment and the discouraged worker effect summary the effect of poor local labour market opportunities on occupational achievement is an important aspect of the spatial mismatch hypothesis much of the research has concentrated on the direct link between geographical access to jobs and employment outcomes in contrast little attention has been given to the discouraging effect of poor chances on job search activities the discouraged worker effect is dee ned as the decision to refrain from job search as a result of poor chances on the labour market discouragement effects can arise from a lack of individual qualie cations from discrimination in the labour market or from a high local level of underemployment the empirical e ndings of this paper based on the netherlands labour force surveys 1994 97 show that discouragement can enter the job search process both at the stage of deciding to enter the labour force and at the stage of deciding to engage actively in a job search gender differentials in discouragement are revealed in the process of self selection into the labour force poor labour market chances lead to less activity in both off the job and on the job search indicating a role of discouragement in the spatial mismatch individual qualie cations and ascribed characteristics turn out to be more decisive than the local level of underemployment

an empirical study of the patterns and sources of technical inefficiency in traditional and hyv rice cultivation in bangladesh production frontiers are estimated from survey data from a village in bangladesh to examine the technical efficiency of farmers in the cultivation of traditional and high yielding variety hyv rice in spite of much higher yields hyv cultivation displays lower technical efficiency and much greater variability in efficiency also efficiency is not independent of household endowments in that small farmers and or those with the least education and growing experience are least efficient policies that promoted education and provided smaller farmers with greater access to public services would promote efficiency and equity and help reduce hyv yield variability

the returns to mobility and job search by gender using data from the national longitudinal survey of youth the authors estimate the returns to job search mobility and the interaction of search and mobility for young men and women they find st

trends and projections for bangladeshi food production an alternative viewpoint abstract this article analyses growth in bangladeshi food production and yields by reviewing past evidence and critically examining the contribution of james k boyce general statistical evidence is considered on whether the past growth rate is being sustained the evidence suggests that past growth is unlikely to continue data from a recent field survey in two different areas of bangladesh add weight to this view on both ecological and economic grounds it seems likely that bangladesh s ability to feed its population will continue to decline

the spanish beef sector in the 1990s impact of the bse crisis on efficiency and profitability the beef sector has undergone a series of changes as a result of successive food scares and agricultural policy reforms the purpose of the paper is to analyse technical efficiency and profitability in spanish livestock enterprises during the 1990s focusing on the possible impact of the bse crisis and the 1992 cap reform on each of these variables the main findings reveal the existence of technical inefficiency during the sample period some factors have a positive impact others a negative impact on efficiency as far as the effects of cap reform and the bse crisis are concerned the results show the ineffectiveness of agricultural policy regulation to promote efficiency in the sector and the improvement in the efficiency as a consequence of the bse crisis the profitability analysis reveals the importance of direct subsidies however in their absence a large percentage of holdings is unable to remunerate either own or rented factors analysis shows therefore that there are two counteracting effec

frontier production functions and technical efficiency measures the concept of technical efficiency is central to measuring the firm performance the measurement of technical efficiency has proved difficult and complex and the literature provides a range of methodologies this paper reviews the various methodologies for measuring technical efficiency and offers a comparison between established methods of measurements the discussion is literary with less mathematical jargons and equations the objective of this paper is not to be exhaustive but to be up to date and to provide a significant discussion on some of the core methods of measuring technical efficiency

farm household efficiency in bangladesh a comparison of stochastic frontier and dea methods this study compares estimates of technical efficiency obtained from the stochastic frontier approach and the data envelopment analysis dea approach using farm level survey data for rice farmers in bangladesh technical inefficiency effects are modelled as a function of farm specific socioeconomic factors environmental factors and irrigation infrastructure the results from both the approaches indicate that efficiency is significantly influenced by the factors measuring environmental degradation and irrigation infrastructure

the pre programme earnings dip and the determinants of participation in a social programme implications for simple programme evaluation strategies the key to estimating the impact of a programme is constructing the counterfactual outcome representing what would have happened in its absence this problem becomes more complicated when agents such as individuals firms or local governments self select into the programme rather than being exogenously assigned to it this paper uses data from a major social experiment to identify what would have happened to the earnings of self selected participants in a job training programme had they not participated in it we investigate the implications of these earnings patterns for the validity of widely used before after and difference in differences estimators

the effectiveness of yts as a manpower policy using data from the 1985 and 1986 scottish people s surveys this paper attempts to measure the effectiveness of the youth training scheme by estimating the impact of youth training scheme participation on both the subsequent probability of employment and the subsequent earnings potential the youth training scheme is found to have a positive impact on the probability of employment after allowing for possible sample selection bias owing to participation being nonrandom there are indications that the youth training scheme may have a positive impact on subsequent wages but the estimates are so imprecise that it was not possible to draw any statistically significant conclusions about wage effects copyright 1990 by the london school of economics and political science

too small to be beautiful the farm size and productivity relationship in bangladesh this paper examines the agricultural productivity farm size relationship in the context of bangladesh features of bangladesh s agriculture help overcome several limitations in testing the inverse farm size productivity relationship in other developing country settings a stochastic production frontier model is applied using data from three rounds of a household panel survey to estimate simultaneously the production frontier and the technical inefficiency functions the correlated random effects approach is used to control for unobserved heterogeneous household effects methodologically the results suggest that the stochastic production frontier models that ignore the inefficiency function are likely mis specified and may result in misleading conclusions on the farm size productivity relationship empirically the findings confirm that the farm size and productivity relationship is negative but with the inverse relationship diminishing over time total factor productivity growth driven by technical change is found to have been robust across the sample across farm size groups the relatively larger farmers experienced faster technical change which helped them to catch up and narrow the productivity gap with the smaller farmers

trends and projections for bangladeshi food production rejoinder to m alauddin and c tisdell abstract this rejoinder considers the issues raised in an article by m alauddin and c tisdell on foodgrain production in bangladesh a comparison of official output statistics and a revised data series constructed by j k boyce methodological problems in growth rate estimation and the ustainability of bangladeshi foodgrain production in the author s view the key constraint on agricultural growth in bangladesh is the inability of cultivators to achieve effective water control within the framework of an inequitable agrarian structure

the impact of youth unemployment on adult unemployment in the ncds using the national child development survey this paper looks at cumulated experience of unemployment highlighting how unemployment experience is concentrated on a minority of the workforce over extended periods low educational attainment ability not captured by education financial deprivation and behavioural problems in childhood raise a person s susceptibility to unemployment there is strong evidence of structural dependence induced by early unemployment experience for men but only minor persistence for women attacking low educational achievement and preventing the build up of substantial periods in unemployment as youths may reduce the extent to which a minority of men spend a large part of their working lives unemployed

potential of china s grain production evidence from the household data abstract this study investigates whether china has achieved its potential in grain production fully with the existing technology a stochastic varying coefficients frontier approach is applied on recent household survey data of 1000 grain farmers covering the periods 1993 1995 the results indicate that on average the actual grain outputs are about 15 35 lower than the potential output the analysis has identified households human capital stock land size and market oriented reform as important factors contributing positively to grain production efficiency

liberalization of agricultural input markets in bangladesh process impact and lessons abstract the study takes a historical perspective to trace the path of evolutionary reforms in agricultural input markets of bangladesh it estimates the magnitude of the impact of these reforms on rice production the most important crop in bangladesh agriculture it is estimated that the production of rice could have been 20 32 lower than the level of 1992 1993 depending on the rice price that would have prevailed under alternative scenarios the 20 credit to market reform relates to a real rice price level 19 higher than the actual 1992 1993 prices the 32 credit to reform relates to the actual 1992 1993 price levels the lower contribution of reform 20 to increased production implies a loss to consumers not accounted for in the production benefit of reform while the higher contribution 32 of reform entails no loss to consumers the bottom line conclusion is that bangladesh without the market reforms described in the paper would have reverted back to the situation of regular food crisis and high rice prices as was the case historically the analysis of the process of reform provides interesting lessons for developing countries a gradual process based on a well designed sequencing of various steps of market reform particularly in the case of fertilizer was a crucial factor for success careful monitoring during the period of transition is another crucial factor that has to be institutionalized in the system second generation problems of market reforms particularly the emergence of an oligopolistic market structure are possible and warrant a cautionary watch

the effect of implicit contracts on the movement of wages over the business cycle evidence from micro data in this paper we address the question of whether wages are affected by labor market conditions in a manner more consistent with a contract approach than with a standard spot market model from a simple implicit contract model we derive implications about the links between wages and past labor market conditions using individual data from the current population survey and the panel study of income dynamics we find that an implicit contract model with costless mobility describes these links better than either a simple spot market model or an implicit contract model with costly mobility

estimating farm level input demand and wheat supply in the indian punjab using a translog profit function application of the translog profit function to farm level data from punjab india allowed a more disaggregated analysis of the farm production structure compared to the case of cobb douglas formulation the flexibility afforded by translog formulation permitted measurement of the different impacts that exogenous variables have within and across input demand and output supply functions policy relevant elasticity estimates with respect to variable inputs and output prices fixed inputs a few soil related state of nature variables measured by soil analysis and education which are usually considered constraints to farm production were obtained and two examples of policy applications were developed

wages and job mobility of young workers this paper presents a discrete time version of jovanovic s model of worker firm matching descriptive evidence is presented that supports the notion that unobserved worker firm heterogeneity is an important component in the intertemporal structure of wages for young workers a structural econometric model of wage dynamics under worker firm sorting is developed and estimated finally a formal test of the matching model is carried out and the matching structure on intertemporal covariances of wages is not rejected my results indicate the necessity of jointly considering processes of turnover and wage growth when analyzing the labor market experiences of young workers

the wage effects of cumulative job mobility this analysis of data from the national longitudinal survey of youth shows that cumulative job mobility had statistically significant effects on wages in the years 1979 88 the direction of the wage effects positive or negative and their magnitude varied depending on the type of cumulative mobility examined employee initiated versus employerinitiated separations economic versus family related quits layoffs versus discharges the results also indicate that although men and women had different mobility histories men for example had been discharged more often than women and women had quit for family related reasons more often than men the wage effects of each type of cumulative mobility economic quits family related quits layoffs and discharges were similar for men and women tn this paper we examine the impact of cumulative job mobility on the subsequent wages of young men and women most previous work on this subject has focused on the impact of specific mobility events such as quits or layoffs rather than on the impact of total job history on wages researchers looking at single mobility decisions have consistently reported evidence that a change in employers does affect a worker s subsequent wage therefore it is reasonable to ask whether the impact ofjob change is cumulative that is does a worker s current wage reflect the impact of all past mobility decisions quits layoffs and discharges also since most of the

identifying the hand of past distinguishing state dependence from heterogeneity a basic problem in social science is to ascertain the importance of initial endowments on subsequent outcomes of a dynamic process interest in this topic centers on two distinct issues a do initial endowments have a temporally persistent effect on outcomes i e is there heterogeneity b are the effects of initial endowments attenuated or accentuated by subsequent experiences of the process being studied or by related processes i e is there state dependence these two questions show up in a variety of contexts 1 the importance of family background on a person s subsequent education and earnings is a hotly debated topic do market or nonmarket mechanisms reinforce or diminish initial endowments 2 the incidence of criminal activity is concentrated among a small population of repeated offenders are certain persons prone to criminality or does crime breed crime 3 are persons who experience unemployment more likely to experience future unemployment due to loss of work experience or market stigma 4 does early entry into an industry confer an advantage of incumbency or does it merely proxy the basic managerial and innovative ability of early entrants many formal models of state dependent processes or processes with persistent effects of initial conditions have been formulated invariance of steady states to initial endowments was viewed as a desirable feature of an economic model in the 1960 s and 1970 s path dependent synergism and nonergodicity are fashionable features of models today is the choice between models with long run dependence on initial conditions and those without solely a matter of intellectual esthetics can data discriminate between these two classes of models how many economically extraneous statistical regularity conditions have to be imposed in order to distinguish between these models how many and what kind of maintained assumptions are required in order to let the data speak on these important questions in this paper i focus on one nonergodic model that receives much attention in the literature the model of duration dependence and heterogeneity discussed by herbert silcock 1954 and also examined by tony lancaster 1979 chris elbers and geert ridder 1982 myself and burton singer 1984 and myself and bo honore 1989

earnings unemployment and the allocation of time over time since an individual s labour market history can be described by a markov chain in state space it is possible to calculate the steady states it is natural to interpret the steady state proportion in unemployment for a group of identical workers as the natural rate of unemployment for this group i e it is the expected proportion that would be employed if the environment were to remain constant it is shown how the natural rate of unemployment is different for different groups the model is estimated using data from a large u s income maintenance experiment the predictions of the model with some exceptions bear up well to confrontation by data the empirical findings also accord well with existing evidence on cross section studies of labour supply we find that labour force participation rates implied by the estimated models are positively related to earnings for all age sex and race groups as expected we demonstrate that the elasticities of the unemployment rates for all groups with respect to expected wage rates are negative and large in absolute value in the case of adults while the role of the wage in allocation of time is not novel the existing neoclassical labour literature uses static labour supply models to interpret participation rate studies

the job search behavior of employed youth an employed worker s search strategies include 1 employed not searching 2 employed searching and 3 unemployed searching the last requires that the worker quit to search under plausible assumptions on search costs the optimal algorithm involves a dual reservation wage strategy burdett 1978 the probability of on the job search increases as the current wage decreases relative to the distribution of alternative wages if the wage is sufficiently low the searcher quits to search substituting time for financial outlays estimates based on the national longitudinal survey of youth indicate that these calculations characterize the search strategies of young workers copyright 1991 by mit press

market deregulation trade liberalization and productive efficiency in bangladesh agriculture an empirical analysis the impact of trade liberalization and of market deregulation in general on the performance of agriculture remains contentious and empirical issue in the literature following the random coefficient frontier modelling framework this paper attempts to contribute to this debate by computing the farm specific productive efficiency indices in bangladesh agriculture before and after reform it also examines the impact of some farm specific and policy variables on productive efficiency the empirical results show that there are wide variations in productive efficiency across farms and regions and the average efficiency of all regions increased modestly by 8 percentage points from the pre reform to post reform period the efficiency differentials are largely explained by farm size infrastructure households off farm income and the reduction of government anti agricultural bias in relation to trade and domestic policies the implication of these results suggests the need for further policy reform to augment p

job security provisions and employment european countries have enacted various job security provisions over the last 30 years employers are required to pay workers on separation or to give advance notice of termination in anything less than a perfectly functioning market there are effects of the provisions on employment incumbents are more likely to retain their jobs but new workers are less likely to be hired an examination of the european data suggests that severance pay requirements reduce employment

an experimental investigation of moral hazard in costly investments frequently parties make sequential decisions regarding investments for which the probability of success or failure is dependent on the amount of total investment this paper reports a series of experiments involving a costly investment game that is derived from the catalytic finance model of morris and shin global games theory and applications in advances in economics and econometrics proceedings of the eighth world congress of the econometric society edited by m dewatripont l hansen and s turnovsky cambridge ma cambridge university press pp 56 114 the sequential nature of investments is such that the second investment could function as a complement to the initial investment or simply serve as a substitute to it thereby creating moral hazard the features of this game are similar to those of the ultimatum game however there are several key differences between the games that may account for the high frequency of materially self interested behavior that we observe particularly among second movers

risk attitudes in large stake gambles evidence from a game show this article estimates the degree of risk aversion of contestants appearing on vas o no vas the mexican version of deal or no deal we consider both dynamic agents who fully backward induct and myopic agents that only look forward one period further we vary the level of forecasting sophistication by the agents we find substantial evidence of risk aversion the degree of which is more modest than what is typically reported in the literature

profit efficiency among bangladeshi rice farmers abstract production inefficiency is usually analyzed by its three components technical allocative and scale efficiency in this study we provide a direct measure of production efficiency of the bangladeshi rice farmers using a stochastic profit frontier and inefficiency effects model the data which are for 1996 include seven conventional inputs and several other background factors affecting production of modern or high yielding varieties hyvs of rice spread across 21 villages in three agro ecological regions of bangladesh the results show that there are high levels of inefficiency in modern rice cultivation the mean level of profit efficiency is 77 suggesting that an estimated 23 of the profit is lost due to a combination of technical allocative and scale inefficiency in modern rice production the efficiency differences are explained largely by infrastructure soil fertility experience extension services tenancy and share of non agricultural income

false promise or false premise the experience of food and input market reform in eastern and southern africa abstract the literature on the effects of agricultural market reform in africa is sharply divided and inconsistent this article attempts to reconcile opposing viewpoints on the effects of food and input market policy reform in eastern and southern africa drawing from studies of ethiopia kenya malawi zambia and zimbabwe we argue that a major source of the controversy stems from assumptions that countries have actually moved to a liberalized market environment we find that many of the most fundamental elements of the reform programs either remain unimplemented were reversed within several years or were implemented in such a way as to negate private sector investment incentives a framework is developed for explaining why some countries have been able to liberalize their food and fertilizer markets while others have not these findings have implications for how donor assistance and policy oriented research can more constructively contribute to an improved policy environment

analysing incomplete individual employment histories using indirect inference in this paper we apply the indirect inference method to estimate the parameters of a semi markov transition model when the data are subject to a complex form of censoring there is no explicit expression for the likelihood function and therefore maximum likelihood estimation is computationally burdensome the econometric methodology of indirect inference is first tested on simulated data under various assumptions about the distribution of spell durations and transitions then it is applied to labour market transitions between self employment wage work and unemployment using the 1986 1988 french labour force survey although the analysis is basically a reduced form analysis we motivate our transition model in terms of a structural search model

assessing the impact of economic liberalization across countries a comparison of dairy industry efficiency in canada and the usa this paper examines and compares the technical efficiency measures of ontario and new york dairy producers for the period 1992 to 1998 a nonparametric stochastic frontier model is introduced to estimate technical efficiency the backfitting algorithm of breiman and friedman is used to estimate the frontier empirical results indicate that during the period of study new york dairy farmers produced milk more efficiently than ontario dairy producers but the magnitude of the difference was small the estimated mean technical efficiency for the former group is 0 602 as compared to 0 532 for the latter the results also indicated that over time dairy farms in both regions improved their level of technical efficiency furthermore no correlation was found between farm size and estimated technical efficiency

catalytic finance when does it work in a model of debt crisis caused partly by creditor coordination failure we show that bailouts that reduce ex post inefficiency will sometimes enhance the incentives for governments to take costly adjustment effort this model helps us understand a debate about the role of the imf in catalyzing lending to developing countries

determinants of technical efficiency of crop and livestock farms in poland la pologne est l un des pays d europe de l est candidats a une accession a l union europeenne qui rencontre de graves problemes de restructuration agricole l article etudie l efficacite technique en 2000 d exploitations agricoles individuelles polonaises specialisees en elevage et en grandes cultures l efficacite est estimee par la methode de frontiere stochastique et sa variabilite statistique evaluee par la construction d intervalles de confiance l article examine egalement les determinants de l efficacite les resultats obtenus pas la methode de frontiere stochastique sont compares avec ceux obtenus par la methode de data envelopment analysis dea en moyenne l efficacite technique des exploitations d elevage est superieure a celle des exploitations de grandes cultures pour les deux specialisations la relation entre l efficacite et la taille des exploitations est positive les grandes exploitations sont les plus efficaces les resultats obtenus par la methode de frontiere stochastique sont generalement confirmes par la methode dea la qualite de la terre et le degre d integration dans les marches d aval sont d importants determinants de l efficacite la faible education est un obstacle majeur a l efficacite en particulier pour les exploitations de grandes cultures de plus celles ci utilisent beaucoup les marches de facteurs terre et travail alors que les exploitations d elevage utilisent plutot leurs propres terres et le travail familial