a first empirical comparison of energy footprints embodied in trade mrio versus plum abstract the ecological footprint as an indicator that accounts for human demand on global bioproductivity sets out to quantify the impacts associated with consumption in a given country including the impacts associated with trade the national footprint accounts nfa by global footprint network gfn calculate trade embodied footprints by multiplying yield and embodied energy factors with mass volumes of traded goods in a product land use matrix plum this article compares energy footprints embodied in trade from and to the united kingdom in 2002 as calculated by the nfa plum with the results from a recently developed multi region input output model mrio for the uk although totals for imports and exports are comparable breaking down the results by economic sectors reveals large differences and hardly any correlation between the two methods the omission of trade in services especially transport services and upstream impacts of energy goods fossil fuels and the use of inappropriate embodied energy factors in the nfa plum method are identified as the main reasons for these differences in the light of the results it seems that a comprehensive footprint account of trade can better be achieved with an input output based approach i conclude that mrio models once fully developed will be particularly suitable in the future to estimate the ecological footprints of imports and exports of nations with the possibility to track their origin via inter industry linkages international supply chains and multi national trade flows

examining the efforts of a small open economy to reduce carbon emissions the case of denmark abstract it is generally understood that greenhouse gasses produced by human activities are having a warming effect on the climate discussions concerning efforts to curb carbon dioxide emissions often focus on large countries however considerable resources have been spent to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by relatively small open economies although these economies are small players in international markets international trade has an important influence on their economies investigating the outcome of efforts to curb emissions by these small open economies provides insights into the situation faced by a large set of the world s economies this paper has three objectives 1 investigate the outcome of denmark s efforts to reduce its carbon emissions by characterizing the relationship between denmark s macroeconomic activity and carbon emissions 2 determine the carbon content of danish trade and document the important effects that growing trade with china has had on danish consumption emissions and 3 investigate the robustness of measures of consumption emissions under varying information requirements our analysis of the outcomes of danish efforts to reduce carbon emissions suggest two related lessons first small open economies should track both production and consumption emissions when evaluating their progress towards reducing carbon emissions second international trade should be considered in the design of environmental policy the danish experience indicates that increasing trade with a much larger and more emission intensive country can have substantial influence on consumption emissions

analyzing co2 emissions flows in the world economy using global emission chains and global emission trees abstract because of the increasing international trade monitoring tools are required that quantify and analyze co2 emissions at a global level this paper contributes to this literature by adopting a consumer oriented approach and using two tools based on multi regional input output tables i e the global emissions chains gecs and the global emissions trees gets the gec is proposed with an industry level perspective so as to provide detailed information about the extent to which the final demand of an industry of a country drives indirect co2 emissions by any industry of any other country the get is defined as a simplified graphical structure of the gec which includes only the industries providing the highest contribution of co2 emissions the tools are described and new indices are developed with the aim of conducting multiple analyses with different purposes applications are given with specific emphasis to the different analyses that can be carried out in particular the gec and the get of a specific italian industry are presented and comparisons with gecs and gets of different countries are discussed how to use the tools to develop more effective decarbonization strategies at both country and global levels is also described

a review of recent multi region input output models used for consumption based emission and resource accounting abstract the interest in consumption based emission and resource accounting has grown significantly many studies juxtapose consumer emissions carbon footprint and producer territorial emissions of greenhouse gases in order to demonstrate the effects of trade on the national emission budget to this end a respectable number of studies have been undertaken worldwide in order to estimate emissions embedded in international trade of numerous countries and world regions input output approaches and increasingly multi region input output mrio models are commonly chosen as they provide an appropriate methodological framework for complete carbon footprint estimates at the national and supra national level with increasing processing capabilities of computers and a wider availability of economic accounts environmental accounts and trade data such models are now being implemented on a wide scale after a brief overview of salient single region input output studies i provide an in depth review of the most recent multi region input output models used for the purpose of consumption based environmental accounting the main methodological features and important results are described for around twenty studies covering the years 2007 to 2009 this is followed by a detailed review of studies dealing with uncertainty in mrio analysis an area which has not received a lot of attention so far i conclude that further research is mainly needed in two areas a improvements in data availability and quality and b improvements in the accuracy of mrio modelling

constructing long term 1948 2011 consumption based emissions inventories accompanying the boom in the global economy co2 emissions have soared over the past several decades with the developing world exhibiting higher emission growth rates than the developed world emissions transfers between regions which represent a significant fraction of total emissions are assumed to be a primary factor contributing to this difference it is important to understand these transfer figures and the resulting consumption based emissions in order to evaluate the emissions drivers and establish climate policies existing studies however have merely estimated figures over a 20 years span post 1990 using a traditional input output analysis ioa framework to broaden the data coverage to pre 1990 of these transfer figures and to further analyze their impacts on total emissions in the long term a new model called the long term consumption based accounting model lcba which is directly based on statistics is developed to span the period from 1948 to 2011 the results are consistent with the magnitudes and trends of existing studies over the validation post 1990 period we use monte carlo methods to calculate upper and lower bounds on the lcba for each country and year and find that 3 existing time series are almost fully included within these boundaries from 1990 furthermore the lcba model is succinct enough to be easily expanded for future ghg estimations or to analyze other ecological footprints related to the flow of materials it can be assumed that the soaring emissions transfers will seriously jeopardize the current climate policies such as kyoto protocol the durban platform for enhanced action adp under which all parties are legally bound will require a consumption based accounting method together with the territorial one in order to achieve an equitable agreement however more researches are still needed to facilitate the use of these figures to better support decision making

emergy based ecological footprint analysis for a mega city the dynamic changes of shanghai abstract to move towards sustainable urban development interactions between economic and ecological systems should be further investigated due to their coupled relations in this study we propose an emergy based ecological footprint eef analysis framework shanghai was selected as a case study city to see its dynamic changes from 2007 to 2016 the results show that shanghai had a large ecological deficit an extremely high ecological footprint intensity and a poor coordination relationship between its ecological system and its economic system indicating a great ecological challenge that it is facing the uneven distribution of its emergy ecological footprint is mainly due to the large share of fossil fuels land type but with the city s great efforts the overall ecological pressure has been reduced and the coordination relationship has also been improved while the local economy is still booming pearson correlation analysis further indicates that the city s policy on developing tertiary industry has resulted in a positive effect on improving the coordinating relationship the ratio between the output value of heavy industry and gross industrial output value has the most negative correlation with the coordinating relationship finally policy recommendations are raised by considering the local realities these recommendations can also provide valuable insights to other megacities with similar challenges

primary energy and greenhouse gases embodied in australian final consumption an input output analysis input output modeling of primary energy and greenhouse gas embodiments in goods and services is a useful technique for designing greenhouse gas abatement policies the present paper describes direct and indirect primary energy and greenhouse gas requirements for a given set of australian final consumption it considers sectoral disparities in energy prices capital formation and international trade flows and it accounts for embodiments in the gross national expenditure as well as the gross domestic product primary energy and greenhouse gas intensities in terms of mj and kg co2 e are reported as well as national balances of primary energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions

estimation of embodied co2 emissions by general equilibrium model abstract this study estimates the extent to which embodied co2 emissions are increased or reduced when a socioeconomic structural change occurs embodied co2 emissions were estimated by input output models i o models and a general equilibrium model ge model and the respective results were compared the embodied co2 emissions differ greatly depending on the assumptions of the total system the embodied co2 emissions obtained by i o models are much larger than those obtained by the ge model in some cases the total co2 emissions increase even if less intermediate inputs are required owing to technological improvement it is shown that taking i o type embodied emissions alone into consideration is insufficient for the estimation of policy effects careful consideration is necessary to effectively reduce emissions when production and consumption are interconnected in a complex way

structural decompositions of energy consumption between 1995 and 2009 evidence from wiod abstract energy is key to achieving sustainable development this paper explicitly distinguishes between the supply side of energy consumption and demand side of energy consumption and investigates the factors that affect the energy consumption across economies using data from the world input output database wiod this paper decomposes the relative changes of energy consumption into intensity effect production structure structural change in final demand total final demand effect and household consumption then it further decomposes production structure into inter industry structural effect and trade effect in intermediate inputs overall energy consumption growth is mainly driven by total final demand 55 04 increase at the world level but can be significantly reduced by intensity effect due to technological change 21 02 decrease at the world level there is heterogeneity of structure related effects across economies and within the same economy in both aspects of energy consumption in addition the trade effect and household effect are relatively small this paper provides an empirical framework for analyzing energy consumption in a globalizing world and suggests tailored and integrated energy policies

an overview of the driving forces behind energy demand in china s construction industry evidence from 1990 to 2012 abstract the rapid urbanization in china has produced a large demand for energy in the past decades it is therefore urgent to have an understanding of the driving forces behind the energy increase in the construction industry this study applies structural decomposition analysis sda to quantify the effects of driving factors from insight into consumption and production the results show that the energy consumption trajectory of china s construction industry is the result of competition between the effect of increasing final demand and improvement in energy efficiency although the effect of consistent efforts in structure optimization by the central government was significant from 2007 to 2012 the potential to save much energy still lies in structure optimization in energy production and final demand according to the projection structural upgrades in economy would be the most important factor for energy reduction in 2020 scenario analysis further indicated that the percentage change of energy increments in 2020 can be reduced at 22 of 2010 level under the optimistic scenario sector aggregation analysis revealed that more aggregates would increase uncertainty to some extent and result in a misinterpretation of the importance of the underlying factors according to the quantitative analysis in this study the percentage change of total embodied energy consumption in the construction industry should be limited below 25 of 2010 level at the end of the 13th five year plan

assessing the energy intensities of imports embodied energy intensities denote the amount of energy direct and indirect that is required to produce one unit of economic output these embodied energy intensities should include imports the energy intensities of imports are in most cases unknown and are therefore often neglected or assumed to be equal to the domestic energy intensities of similar products both assumptions introduce errors in the indigenously calculated embodied energy intensities this certainly applies to countries with a relatively high contribution of imports and a specific economic structure this article advocates to estimate the energy intensities of imports by means of the average energy intensities of the region in which the country is situated in this context different estimation procedures for the embodied energy intensities of imports are presented for a number of countries within oecd europe

energy and carbon embodied in the international trade of brazil an input output approach abstract all goods and services produced in an economy are directly and or indirectly associated with energy use and according to the type of fuel utilized with co2 emissions as well international trade is an important factor in shaping the industrial structure of a country and consequently in affecting a country s energy use and co2 emissions this study applies input output techniques to the brazilian economy to evaluate the total impacts of international trade on its energy use and co2 emissions a commodity by industry io model in hybrid units energy commodities in physical units and non energy commodities in monetary units is applied to the brazilian economy in 1995 results show that total energy embodied in the exports of non energy goods of brazil equals 831 pj while total carbon embodied is 13 5 mtc these amounts are larger than the relevant amounts embodied in the imports of non energy goods respectively 679 pj and 9 9 mtc these figures are better understood by contrasting them with the total energy use and the corresponding total carbon emissions of the brazilian economy in 1995 estimated by this work 6781 pj and 99 4 mtc respectively this means that international inflows and outflows of energy embodied in non energy goods are in the order of 10 and 12 of the total energy use while inflows and outflows of carbon embodied in non energy goods are approximately 10 and 14 of the corresponding total carbon emissions of the brazilian economy in 1995 the general picture is that brazil is not only a net exporter of energy 153 pj and of carbon 3 6 mtc embodied in the non energy goods internationally traded by the country in 1995 but also that each dollar earned with exports embodied 40 more energy and 56 more carbon than each dollar spent on imports these findings suggest that brazilian policy makers should be concerned about the extra impacts international trade policy may have on energy use and carbon emissions of the country

measuring progress towards carbon reduction in the uk the uk climate change bill proposes to establish legally binding targets for a 60 reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2050 this paper discusses the challenges posed by measuring progress towards this target it takes as a premise that the conventional productionbased accounting framework enshrined in the unfccc emissions accounting guidelines is inappropriate for this task because it fails to account for the carbon traded across the uk national boundary accordingly it sets out a consumption based accounting framework using a two region environmental input output eio model which could in principle measure progress in reducing the emissions attributable to final consumers in the uk it illustrates the use of this framework to measure the reduction in carbon dioxide achieved by the uk between 1990 the kyoto base year and the year 2004 and compares this against the production perspective the results indicate that any progress towards the uk s carbon reduction targets visible under a production perspective disappears completely when viewed from a consumption perspective but the robustness of this conclusion depends critically on the accuracy of underlying economic and environmental data sets as well as specific assumptions concerning imports by analysing the consistency of uk input output data we conclude that eio is still some way from being able to answer the critical question of the carbon trade balance for the uk in these circumstances measuring real progress towards carbon reduction in the uk remains elusive

quo vadis mrio methodological data and institutional requirements for multi region input output analysis abstract in order to understand wider sustainability impacts of consumption and to successfully promote and implement sustainable consumption and production policies there is a need to capture the whole life cycle impact of products and services across international supply chains multi region input output mrio databases are a well described and suitable foundation for global sustainability analyses addressing a wide range of policy and research questions in this paper we reflect on the reasons for the recent boom in mrio compilation summarise the current state of development and discuss future options for mrio analysis we list in detail the requirements for efficient and effective mrio research and propose systemic and institutional changes we deliberately try to go beyond existing ambitions for mrio compilation and thus intend to stimulate discussion and to lay out the options for the future of mrio research

carbon tariffs on chinese exports emissions reduction threat or farce abstract 1 we estimate co2 implicitly exported via commodities relative to a region s total emissions we find 15 for the industrialized 12 for the developing region and 24 for china 2 we analyze a contraction and convergence climate regime in a cge model including international capital mobility and technology diffusion when china does not participate in the regime and instead a carbon tariff is imposed on its exports it will likely be worse off than when participating this result does not hold for the developing region in general meanwhile the effect on emissions appears small

long range dependence in daily stock volatilities recent empirical studies show that the squares of high frequency stock returns are long range dependent and can be modeled as fractionally integrated processes using for example long memory stochastic volatility models are such long range dependencies common among stocks are they caused by the same sources of variation in this article we classify daily stock returns of standard and poor 500 companies on the basis of a company s size and its business or industrial sector and estimate the strength of long range dependence in the stock volatilities using two different methods almost all of the companies analyzed exhibit strong persistence in volatility we then use a canonical correlation method to identify common long range dependent components in groups of companies finding strong evidence in support of common persistence in volatility finally we use a chi squared test to study the effects of company size and sector on the number of common long range dependent volatility components detected in g

economic structure and strategies for greenhouse gas mitigation abstract greenhouse gas ghg emission mitigation policy impacts the economic system directly in the short term by altering relative prices and indirectly in the long term by shifting the structure of the economy there may also be adjustments to economic structure independent of policy intervention due to changes in population consumption patterns and global markets the overall effectiveness of specific mitigation policy will partly depend on these indirect and exogenous changes to economic structure this study develops a new measure linking economic development with its environmental effects the technical cost of ghg mitigation under economic growth in an economy is calculated by combining traditional input output io analysis and a linear programming based sensitivity analysis the approach is applied to northern ireland ni producing an isoemission matrix that maps emission neutral expansion paths for the economy the measurement provides an indicator of the demand for technical improvement to achieve ghg mitigation at a national or regional level the flexibility and transparency of the approach make it useful for evaluating potential ghg mitigation strategies

energy embodied in the international trade of china an energy input output analysis abstract growing international trade has not only positively affected the people s republic of china s china s economic development but also expanded the exportation of energy embodied in goods during their production this energy flow out will pose risks to china s rational utilization of natural resources as well as environmental protection in this paper we evaluate the energy embodied in goods produced in china during 1992 2005 and use input output structural decomposition analysis to identify five key factors causing the changes of energy embodied in exports direct primary energy efficiency primary energy consumption structure structure of intermediate inputs structure of exports and scale of exports for the three sub periods of 1992 1997 1997 2002 and 2002 2005 results show that china is a net exporter of energy and the energy embodied in exports tends to increase over time the expanding total volume of exports and increasing exports of energy intensive goods tend to enlarge the energy embodied in exports within all three sub periods but these driving forces were offset by a considerable improvement of energy efficiency and changes in primary energy consumption structure from 1992 to 2002 and the effects of structure of intermediate input only in the sub period from 1992 to 1997 from 2002 to 2005 the sharp augmentation of energy embodied in exports was driven by all the five factors our research has practical implications for the chinese economy results of this study suggest that the energy embodied in trade should receive special attentions in energy policies design to limit the energy resource out flow and pollution generation

evaluating energy embodied in national products through input output analysis theoretical definition and practical application of international trades treatment methods abstract production activities of modern economies are ultimately sustained by depletion of non renewable fossil fuels in the perspective of non renewables displacement an accurate evaluation of energy embodied in goods and services is crucial in order to select among alternative products or policies economic based input output models are widely used for this purpose however due to the increasing amount of international trades of products definition of appropriate methods to account for the energy embodied in trades is nowadays crucial in this paper international trades treatment methods in input output analysis are comprehensively formalized and applied to a case study based on the world input output database wiod energy embodied in final demand and in detailed products of key national energy sectors have been evaluated for the wiod countries according to single region and multi regional models it is found that an inappropriate use of international trades treatment models may produce very inaccurate estimations of numerical values of embodied energy three country groups has been identified characterized by different ranges of fractions of imported exported primary fossil fuels single region method a returns best results for countries of group 1 with high values of fossil exports and low values of fossil imports multi regional method c is to be preferred for countries of group 2 with high values of fossil imports and low values of fossil exports finally single region method b returns lower deviations compared to other methods for countries of group 3 with low values of fossil imports and exports this paper aims at supporting researchers in the field of life cycle assessment in the application of environmentally extended input output analysis finding the best trade off between the efforts due to data collection and the accuracy of results

uncovering resource losses and gains in china s foreign trade abstract natural resource storages and flows play an important role in economic and social processes in this paper we explore the trade of primary commodities between china and its main trade partners during the years 2000 and 2008 emergy accounting is used to assess the environmental support associated with the resources exchanged mass emergy and financial capital export to import ratios confirm that economy level trade advantages should not just rely on capital flow a holistic evaluation of the trade process including resource environmental value should be performed to identify trade balance and stability results show that while china s imports monetary value is much larger than exports monetary value china receives more emergy environmental support in trade than it gives benefiting from the ability of primary resources to drive its economy developed economies characterized by a low emergy to money ratio gain more from trade of primary commodities with china developing and underdeveloped economies with higher emergy to money ratio lose in the environmental support balance to china indicating the existence of a potentially unsustainable trade imbalance

will economic restructuring in china reduce trade embodied co2 emissions we acknowledge the support of the national social science foundation of china project no project no 09 zd029 and the institute for energy environment and economy at tsinghua university which is supporting tianyu qi s doctoral research as a visiting scholar at the massachusetts institute of technology we further acknowledge the support of eni s p a icf international and shell international ltd initial sponsors of the china energy and climate project in the mit joint program on the science and policy of global change at mit none of the sponsoring organizations played a role in the study design collection analysis or interpretation of the data used for this study nor did they influence our decisions to submit the article for publication and all errors are our own we also acknowledge general industrial and government sponsors of the joint program on the science and policy of global change http globalchange mit edu sponsors all

tracing co2 emissions in global value chains abstract this paper integrates two lines of research into a unified conceptual framework trade in value added and embodied emissions in trade this allows both value added and emissions to be systematically traced at the country sector and bilateral levels through various routes in global value chains by combining value added and emissions accounting in a consistent way the potential environmental cost along global value chains can be estimated from different perspectives like production consumption and trade using this unified accounting framework we trace value added and co 2 emissions in global production and trade networks among 41 economies in 35 sectors from 1995 to 2009 based on the world input output database and show how they improve our understanding of the impacts of cross border production sharing on the environment

does the current trade liberalization agenda contribute to greenhouse gas emission mitigation in agriculture abstract this paper contributes to the literature on the trade liberalization climate change nexus by investigating the impact of the current free trade agenda of the european union eu on the effectiveness of a possible greenhouse gas ghg reduction policy for its agricultural sector for the analysis we implement scenarios with a carbon tax on non co2 emissions and trade liberalization both individually and combined in capri a global partial equilibrium model for agriculture scenario results indicate that the simulated trade liberalization by itself has only modest effects on agricultural ghg emissions by 2030 pricing agricultural non co2 emissions in the eu triggers the adoption of mitigation technologies which contributes to emission reductions emission leakage however partially offsets the eu emission savings as production increases in less emission efficient regions in the world the combination of agricultural trade liberalization and carbon pricing increases emission leakage and therefore further undermines global mitigation gains our results hinge on the key assumptions that future trade agreements between non eu countries are not considered and that the climate actions are limited to the eu only despite these limitations we conclude that from a global ghg mitigation perspective trade agreements should address emission leakage for instance by being conditional on participating nations adopting measures directed towards ghg mitigation

coal use for world economy provision and transfer network by multi region input output analysis concerns surrounding climate change and environmental challenge make the coal utilization network essential not only for understanding the pattern of energy provision and transfer but also for illustrating the interaction between anthropogenic activities and ecological systems at global level this paper fills the research gap by dint of multi regional input output model to outline coal embodied routes from natural boundaries to economic activities and to identify the central hubs in the global coal supply chain based on the most recent available statistics for 2011 as the economic value and environmental influences of different kinds of coals could be remarkably diverse the separation of coal categories in systematic analysis could provide fundamental information regarding the displacement and teleconnection of coal utilization in the world the estimation shows that in weight 64 99 of coal direct supply is ultimately embodied in international trade indicating the crucial roles of trade interlinks in global coal utilization apart from this the findings pertinent to sectoral structure regional supply chain and per capita characteristics of coal embodied utilization could be valuable to identify the global energy routes driven by international trade as well as to facilitate energy and environmental policy

why ecological economics needs to return to its roots the biophysical foundation of socio economic systems abstract ecological economics was formally established in 1989 with the ambitious vision of developing a new economic paradigm embedding the social and economic systems in the biophysical world ecological economics had its roots in the biophysical understanding of economics that pioneers of the field georgescu roegen 1971 odum 1971 daly 1977 jansson 1984 martinez alier 1987 and others developed while studying the thermodynamic bedrocks shared by natural and social systems subsequently however ecological economics has explicitly but controversially adopted a big umbrella approach to methodological pluralism focusing more on topics such as valuing nature and its functions rather than attempting to understand and quantify the biophysical roots of economic activities biophysical economics was established in response to these concerns focusing more on developing analyses and models of the transformations of nature to generate wealth and approached mostly from an energy and material flows perspective the present paper argues that to achieve its original vision ecological economics must return to its biophysical roots collaboration between the two fields will help the next generation of thinkers to address the socio ecological challenges of the 21st century requiring an energy transformation called for by aspirations such as the green new deal and the un sustainable development goals

how does income redistribution affect households material footprint abstract this paper presents a study of the evolution of spanish households material footprint for the period 2006 to 2013 the method proposed combines the multiregional input output model with spanish national data on household consumption according to social group material footprint has been affected by the 2008 economic crisis in relative terms the share of spanish households material footprint with respect to total material footprint decreased drastically from 70 7 in 2006 to 50 8 in 2011 this reduction can be mainly attributed to the construction sector crash 34 4 of the reduction is due to construction materials followed by biomass 29 metals 27 1 and fossil fuels 26 1 by type of household the material footprint exhibits a scale effect while consumption and income levels grow and this is accompanied by a global teleconnection effect which varies from 62 for biomass to 64 for metals to 82 for construction materials to 95 for fossil fuels given the context of increasing income inequality we perform one redistribution simulation from high to middle and low income households finding a material footprint increase in all cases the most materialized consumer basket is that corresponding to households with incomes between 1500 and 1999 euros above that income level the growing weight of expenditures on services reduces the use of materials importantly social income redistribution and environmental material footprint sustainability will become incompatible if responsibility is transferred only to households

sources and flows of china s virtual so 2 emission transfers embodied in interprovincial trade a multiregional input output analysis abstract china faces immense difficulties caused by its domestic regional air pollution caused by atmospheric diffusion of pollutants across administrative boundaries because of the closer interregional economic connections that have formed in this study we focus on the virtual flows of pollutants embodied in interprovincial trade we compared two methods embodied emissions in bilateral trade eebt and the multiregional input output mrio model to determine emission flows for 2002 and 2007 and found that the results between these two approaches differed significantly particularly for the year 2007 this indicates that the choice of the accounting method has obvious impacts on subsequent decisions further analysis based on the mrio method which captures the complete interregional supply chains and is more applicable to consumption based studies showed that the embodied so 2 emissions in interprovincial trade accounted for 27 58 of the total so 2 emissions in china in 2002 and 35 25 in 2007 inner mongolia shanxi and guizhou were the major embodied emission exporting regions with sources mainly from the electricity nonmetal mineral production chemicals and metal smelting sectors the exported emissions mainly ended up in rich provinces including beijing tianjin shanghai and guangdong due to those provinces final demands for products of the construction food production and transport equipment manufacturing sectors furthermore rich provinces were net importers in interprovincial trade with a pollution terms of trade value less than one the results yield important implications for china s air pollution controls emission reduction tasks should be reasonably distributed among provinces to prevent developed provinces from outsourcing more pollution emissions to less developed provinces through interprovincial trade regulation of consumption in developed provinces would help to control national pollution financial and technical support for pollution control should favor the less developed regions

decomposing multipliers for economic systems involving regional and world trade this paper is concerned with the analysis of linkages between economic systems and the spillover and possible feedback effects one system may have on another it is not a new topic the initial stimulus in the literature coming from machlup i943 and the seminal papers by metzler i950 and chipman i950 almost precisely the same questions raised by these authors have been readdressed subsequently by many writers and in a variety of contexts most recently goodwin i983 has developed a world matrix multiplier with much the same overall objectives as machlup and metzler in mind metzler s proposition was to understand the mechanism by which an expansion or contraction of income in one region or country is transmitted to other regions or countries in addition he assumed that the conclusions apply without modification to the regions within a single country or indeed to any regional classification of the world economy such as the economies comprising eastern europe western europe latin america and similar regions 2 in fact the question has also long occupied the attention of many regional economists working in the context of sub national regions the question of interdependence between sub national regional economies generally assumes a special importance simply because such regions are relatively open economies and are subject to fewer natural and artificial barriers to commodity trade and factor movements than may exist between countries 3 even so interest has focused almost exclusively on regional interdependence through commodity trade and within the framework of multiregional input output systems 4 however there are some exceptions klein and glickman i 9 77 have developed a multiregional model of a fairly aggregative nature which incorporates other regional interdependencies a review of this and similar models has been carried out by glickman i97 7 paralleling this interest in inter regional interdependence at the sub national level there has been a revived interest in questions of linkage at the international level with the advent of the project link model pioneered by klein and hickman 5 the united nations model of the world economy leontief et al

international trade in carbon emission rights and basic materials general equilibrium calculations for 2020 restrictions on co emissions affect international trade and the pattern of comparative advantage this paper based on calculations with a static general equilibrium model suggests that international trade in carbon rights is a substitute for trade in energy intensive goods and thus international trading in carbon rights reduces sectoral effects of emission reductions in our model we surprisingly find that free riding by non signatory countries may not render unilateral action ineffective if the oecd unilaterally cuts global emissions by 5 per cent from 1990 levels by the year 2020 emissions by non oecd regions increase but offset less than 15 per cent of this cutback moreover carbon taxes depress international oil prices and create incentives for increased tradc in natural gas

targeted carbon tax reforms abstract in the presence of intersectoral linkages sector specific carbon tax changes can have complex general equilibrium effects in particular a carbon tax on the emissions of a sector can lead to an increase in aggregate emissions we analytically characterise how incremental taxes on the emissions of any set of sectors affect aggregate emissions we show that carbon tax reforms that target sectors based on their position in the production network can achieve a greater reduction in aggregate emissions than reforms that target sectors based on their direct emissions alone we illustrate the effects of carbon tax reforms by calibrating our intersectoral network model to the economies of two countries

examining the global environmental impact of regional consumption activities part 1 a technical note on combining input output and ecological footprint analysis in recent years there have been a number of attempts to develop a more comprehensive approach to the issue of measuring resource use and or pollution generation embodied in trade flows including contributions that combine input output techniques and ecological footprint analysis in this two part paper we describe how to enumerate the resource and or pollution content of inter regional and inter national trade flows part 1 and we present a literature review of recent methodological and empirical developments part 2 it is straightforward in principle to extend the basic input output approach to capture international trade flows however in practice problems of data availability and compatibility and of computability of extended input output matrices mean that simplifying assumptions are generally applied but with the implications of these assumptions often not made fully explicit what appears to be absent from previous applications is an account of the analytical method by which ecological footprints should ideally be estimated in an international input output accounting analysis this allows an explicit analysis of the problems that prevent the application of the full method and identification of the most appropriate short cut methods in a transparent way the objective of this paper is to provide such an account

input output and structural decomposition analysis of singapore s carbon emissions singapore is an island city state it lacks conventional energy resources and is alternative energy disadvantaged in the past decade 2000 2010 its energy related carbon emissions increased from 37 8 to 44 4 million tonnes of co2 this paper analyses the city state s carbon emissions from the demand perspective using the input output i o method and investigate the drivers of emission changes using structural decomposition analysis sda it is the first comprehensive analysis of singapore s emissions using the i o framework the results obtained show that exports accounted for nearly two thirds of its total emissions and growth in its emissions in the last decade was largely export driven emissions increased as export oriented industries and export volume expanded fuel switching and energy efficiency however helped to lower growth in emissions besides exports household related emissions accounted for about a quarter of singapore s total emissions the emissions related to different household groups remained fairly stable as increases in embodied indirect emissions were offset by decreases in direct emissions the high income household group registered the largest increase in direct emissions while the middle income household group registered the largest increase in embodied emissions the policy implications of our findings are discussed

the carbon content of japan us trade we analyze the greenhouse gas emissions embodied in trade between japan and the us extending the japanese government s linked japan us input output model to include carbon emission coefficients for each sector we estimate that in 1995 japan us trade reduced us industrial emissions by 14 6 million tons of co2 equivalent and increased emissions in japan by 6 7 million tons for a global savings of 7 9 million tons these quantities are less than one percent of each country s total emissions trade with the rest of the world reduced emissions by much larger amounts roughly four percent of each country s emissions the sectoral patterns of carbon intensity are strongly correlated between japan and the us in addition greater carbon intensity has a small but significantly positive effect on net exports policies that tax or otherwise regulate carbon emissions are needed to discourage this destructive route to competitiveness however the most important policy implication may be that us industry could cut its carbon emissions by more than half if it matched the environmental performance of industry in japan r 2007 elsevier ltd all rights reserved

an assessment of greenhouse gas emissions and material flows caused by the finnish economy using the envimat model abstract an environmentally extended input output ee io analysis environmental impacts of material flows caused by the finnish economy was carried out in order to improve data on production and consumption in finland the study resulted in the envimat model which can be used to analyze the relationship between material flows environmental impacts and the economy the model is based on monetary and physical input output tables and an environmental life cycle impact assessment this article summarizes the main methodological aspects and findings regarding the material flows and climate impacts caused by the finnish economy in 2002 and 2005 the finnish model has relatively detailed input data with 150 industries and 918 products and the data on imports was assessed according to a mixed approach with the help of life cycle inventory data the results of the model showed that the finnish economy uses imported material resources as much as domestic resources life cycle greenhouse gas ghg emissions caused by imports were equivalent to 70 80 of domestic emissions the ghg emissions embodied in imports emissions abroad and exports emissions within finland were of the same magnitude the analysis showed that the service sector accounted for 44 of ghg emissions caused by the domestic final use of products analysis of the results also showed that the indicator of total material requirement tmr should not be used for environmental impact comparisons of products and services in the future the aim is to use the envimat model for assessing temporal changes in the economy for monitoring sustainable development for planning climate change mitigation and for identifying important factors in the economy and assessing their impacts

the role of co2 embodiment in us china trade abstract this study examines the influence of us china trade on national and global emissions of carbon dioxide co2 the three basic questions are as follows 1 what amount of co2 emissions is avoided in the us by importing chinese goods 2 how much are co2 emissions in china increased as a result of the production of goods for export to the us and 3 what are the impacts of us china trade on global co2 emissions our initial findings reveal that during 1997 2003 1 us co2 emissions would have increased from 3 to 6 if the goods imported from china had been produced in the us 2 about 7 14 of china s current co2 emissions were a result of producing exports for us consumers and 3 us china trade has increased global co2 emissions by an estimated 720 million metric tons we suggest that the export of us technologies and expertise related to clean production and energy efficiency to china could be a win win strategy for both countries for reducing their trade imbalance and mitigating global co2 emissions improved international accounting methodologies for assigning responsibility for co2 emissions must be designed to account for the dynamic nature of international trade

socioeconomic effects of aviation biofuel production in brazil a scenarios based input output analysis derived from renewable feedstocks aviation biofuel is generally perceived as inherently sustainable however its production involves a wide range of sectors and interacts with different actors in society it is therefore important to understand and evaluate not only the environmental impacts of that process but also its socioeconomic effects at present empirical studies assessing socioeconomic aspects of aviation biofuel are rare in scientific literature the aim of this study therefore is to assess key effects of aviation biofuel production on employment gdp and trade balance a scenarios based input output io analysis was used to evaluate these socioeconomic effects taking brazilian aviation biofuel production to 2050 as an example to address the uncertainty of io analysis we have proposed a stochastic simulation approach for the technical coefficients in the io model four distinct scenarios were developed in each three potential combinations of technologies and feedstocks for producing aviation biofuel were evaluated sugarcane via alcohol to jet atj macauba via hydro processed esters and fatty acids hefa and eucalyptus via fischer tropsch ft among other things we found that the production of aviation biofuel would create around 12 000 65 000 jobs while contributing us 200 1100 million to brazil s gdp under different scenarios with different supply chains the socioeconomic effects calculated deterministically were generally higher than the stochastic outcomes which can be explained by factors such as technological learning and economic growth aviation biofuel production showed large positive net socioeconomic effects on employment and gdp although some of the fossil sectors would be negatively affected overall the macauba hefa chain with the highest effects on employment and gdp and the lowest effects on imports seemed to be the most favorable of the scenarios studied despite the relatively high level of uncertainty associated with it

co2 emissions of international freight transport and offshoring measurement and allocation abstract the growing offshoring process is the result of the fragmentation of production processes and the creation of global supply chains this process has increased final and intermediate imports but also the distance that goods travel in different stages until they reach the final consumer as well as the requirements of transport per unit of output and the volume of co 2 emissions generated in transporting them nowadays there is no generally accepted criterion for international transport pollution allocation no single country has the responsibility for emissions of international bunkers provided by ipcc in this paper we propose a new methodology for quantifying by sector the impact of international freight transport on total pollution and assigning responsibility to consumers this methodology considers the distance and the means of transport as key elements and uses input output methodology we apply this to the spanish economy combining data from input output tables import data and co 2 emission data the results show that the proportion of total co 2 emissions accounted for by emissions from international freight transportation allocated via the consumer criterion increase up to 4 16 between 1995 and 2000 as expected the industries where this offshoring process is more intense show the greatest increases in carbon emissions related to international transport these emissions are significantly higher than emissions embodied in domestic inputs in some of those industries where international fragmentation of production is relevant and increasing

examining the global environmental impact of regional consumption activities part 2 review of input output models for the assessment of environmental impacts embodied in trade this paper offers a detailed review of recently described single and multi region input output models used to assess environmental impacts of internationally traded goods and services it is the second part of a two part contribution in part 1 turner k lenzen m wiedmann t and barrett j in press examining the global environmental impact of regional consumption activities part 1 a technical note on combining input output and ecological footprint analysis ecological economics we describe how to enumerate the resource and pollution content of inter regional and inter national trade flows with the aim to illustrate an ideal accounting and modelling framework for the estimation of ecological footprints a large number of such environment economic models have been described but only in the last few years models have emerged that use a more sophisticated multi region multi sector input output framework this has been made possible through improvements in data availability and quality as well as computability we identify six major models that employ multi sector multi region input output analysis in order to calculate environmental impacts embodied in international trade results from the reviewed studies demonstrate that it is important to explicitly consider the production recipe land and energy use as well as emissions in a multi region multi sector and multi directional trade model with global coverage and detailed sector disaggregation only then reliable figures for indicators of impacts embodied in trade such as the ecological footprint can be derived

the increase in brazilian household income and its impact on co2 emissions evidence for 2003 and 2009 from input output tables abstract in recent years brazil has experienced economic growth and a recovery of income that has had a positive impact on the consumption of goods in this paper we evaluate the impact of brazilian household consumption on the co2 emissions for 2003 and 2009 using input output tables from the world input output database we used a semi closed model with eight household groups in order to apply the hypothetical extraction method in the consumption structure of each group further we use the result from the hypothetical extraction to evaluate the impacts of the structure consumption of each household group in terms of co2 emissions we find that there is a trade off between the households greater satisfaction from consumption and the increasing setback in emissions from the restructuring and modification of the consumption basket thus this study contributes to the research on emissions by mapping the recent behavior of the brazilian economy in terms of increased income changes in the consumption structure and their impacts on emissions the paper s aggregated results by income and consumption structure based on the intensity of the emissions and their systemic effects add to the discussions on less polluting production processes more conscious consumption of goods and more rational uses of energy and transportation

embodied carbon in china s foreign trade an online sci e and ssci based literature review abstract this paper systematically presents a survey of the empirical literature studying the embodied co2 emissions in china s foreign trade ecct based on the bibliometric method and the online version of science citation index expanded sci e and social sciences citation index ssci this study summarizes the latest publications regarding ecct in peer reviewed journals in terms of quantities most productive countries institutions authors citations and disciplines by using synthetic analysis of keyword frequency this study reveals the most popular methodologies applied in measuring ecct discusses the variation of numerical results in the literature and reasons and countermeasures for the results uncertainties continuous investigation of the literature releases the methodology employed for measuring ecct becoming more reasonable and the results more critical however the numerical results of ecct are of great discrepancies within given year by different considerations on methodology specification accounting principles and data sources and processing for instance the estimates of co2 embodied in china s exports changed from 478 mt to over 3000 mt and those of in china s imports ranged from 140 mt to over 1700 mt in 2007 therefore overcoming data inherent limitations and reducing discrepancies among available databases should be urgently considered the results imply that the prospective research tendencies on ecct are to 1 improve china s regional input output data and energy intensity data to more precise estimates under global perspective 2 estimate china s carbon emission at firm level by different firm ownerships in production and consumption worldwide 3 assess china s carbon emission from processing or non processing trade by compiling more detailed multi regional input output table 4 evaluate city level carbon mitigation capacity in china under global mrio model 5 explore new carbon management experience in china s carbon trading market and new trade expansion policy of one belt and one road in her new growth era

the role of consumption patterns demand and technological factors on the recent evolution of co2 emissions in a group of advanced economies changes in production structures and modifications of patterns of consumption are key factors in the fight against environmental harm initiatives such as agenda 21 promoted by the un highlight the need to evaluate the relationships among factors of production and consumption innovation and demographics and the environment in the attainment of sustainable development in this context our work studies in depth those factors underlying the economic activity of households in a representative group of european union countries and the us within the framework of an input output model a structural decomposition analysis is considered in order to identify the weight that growth in demand changes in patterns of consumption changes in the distribution of income the substitution of inputs and changes in energy intensity have all had on the evolution of co2 emissions the work specifically seeks to identify common patterns and differential behaviors among productive sectors in the european social environment the results show that growth in demand and therefore in production largely absorbs the limited effect of technological and efficiency improvements and the incipient changes observed in consumption patterns

pathways to a resource efficient and low carbon europe abstract various environmental footprint concepts have already been developed and applied in sustainability research however these analyses tend to remain restricted to historical observation samples at least in comparison with related research activities in other environmental policy domains like e g climate policy it seems that applications of integrated assessment tools represent rather seldom exceptions within the resource policy domain our paper is therefore intended to strengthen the related evidence base we present recent projections from the dynamic multi region input output mrio simulation model ginfors global inter industry forecasting system which provide an outlook on global development trends until the year 2050 our detailed material footprint and climate policy assessment indicates that a global agreement on a policy mix will allow a clear turnaround towards climate protection and a sustainable use of natural resources without deteriorating economic performance if the eu decides unilaterally to lead the way then this turnaround could also be achieved for the eu while the eu would also benefit economically from this pioneering role a third pathway towards a resource efficient and low carbon europe quantifies the environmental and economic impacts of a strong transitional change induced by european citizens commitments to far reaching sufficiency objectives

impact of household consumption on co2 emissions danish household consumption increased by 58 over the period 1966 1992 while co2 emissions only increased by 7 using decomposition analysis we investigated the global co2 impact of danish household consumption from 1966 to 1992 our conclusion is that overall growth in private consumption but not changes in the composition of consumption is the key to understanding the increase in co2 emissions however the effect of growth in private consumption has been partly offset by substantial energy conservation in the energy supply and manufacturing sectors

embodied pollution in trade estimating the environmental load displacement of industrialised countries abstract the present paper sets out to aid in the development of environmental load displacement indicators developing the notion of the environmental memory of physical flows we estimated embodied pollution in trade of 18 industrialized countries with a the rest of the world and b developing countries from 1976 to 1994 we found that in the last years of analysis total imports of japan usa and western europe have entailed in general larger air pollutant emissions than local exports the balance of embodied emissions in trade beet seems to follow an inverted u shape across time in japan and western europe and an n shape in the us in the period of analysis japanese and european environmental terms of trade with developing countries improved from the japanese and european point of view whereas american environmental terms of trade with developing countries deteriorated over time although there is no statistical trend between income and embodied emissions in imports in a cross section analysis there does seem to be a positive relationship between both variables at a national level the results suggest that despite many shortcomings this type of assessment may shed useful insights on the international aspects of sustainable development

international trade and the sustainability footprint a practical criterion for its assessment a simple and minimal criterion for sustainability is that the value of natural capital plus manufactured capital be not decreasing on the basis of any individual country or region the above simple comparison may be misleading as it does not take account of the production of goods for consumption in other countries regions via international trade in other terms the full environmental footprint of a country may not be properly assessed a method of calculating a weak sustainability criterion has been established for both a closed economy approach and an open economy approach there are significant differences between the open and closed economies measures for several regions particularly the middle east overall global sustainability on this criterion has been positive and increasing using a difference equation approach a further analysis has been made of the average proportional rate of change of global sustainability between 1980 and 1990 and its various regional and structural components have been determined these indicate that most of global sustainability growth can be attributed to western europe other asia and japan particularly through high savings ratios the usa on the other hand has made a very small net contribution to the growth in global sustainability

input output analysis of co2 emissions embodied in trade and the driving forces processing and normal exports in recent years energy related co2 emissions embodied in international trade and the driving forces have been widely studied by researchers using the environmental input output framework most previous studies however do not differentiate different input structures in manufacturing processing exports and normal exports using china as an example this paper exemplifies how implications of results obtained using different export assumptions differ the study posits that the utilization of traditional i o model results in an overestimation of emissions embodied in processing exports and an underestimation in normal exports the estimate of co2 emissions embodied in china s exports drops by 32 when the extended i o model is used the choice of export assumption has more impact on the decomposition results for processing exports the study further highlights that for a country with an export structure similar to china it is meaningful to look into the impact of export assumption in embodied emission studies

analysis of the ecological relationships within the co 2 transfer network created by global trade and its changes from 2001 to 2010 with the increasing scale and scope of global trade the magnitude of the co2 flows embodied in goods and services through international trade has aroused great concern among researchers and governments in this study we established a global network model of these co2 transfers from 2001 to 2010 using ecological network analysis and data from the world input output database for 40 selected countries whose gdp accounted for more than 85 of the total global gdp based on the utility analysis we determined the ecological relationships among the countries involved in the global trade network and their changes during the study period the analysis revealed that competition and exploitation control relationships dominated the global network with each accounting for more than 40 of the total relationships throughout the study period mutualism accounted for the smallest proportion less than 4 more than 80 of the competition and 75 of the exploitation control relationships were within europe or involved flows from europe to north america or asia finland france japan greece and spain had the largest proportions of competition relationships in denmark luxembourg malta and switzerland exploitation was dominant whereas in russia indonesia and india control was dominant our analysis identifies the key nodes of the many adverse ecological relationships within the global co2 network and those with more mutual relationships our work provides a scientific basis for developing more ecologically sustainable national and global co2 flows through trade

food regimes and their trade links a socio ecological perspective abstract the concept of food regimes has become a prominent theory in political economy we here provide socio ecological underpinning of the food regimes theory and thereby connect it closer to an ecological economics perspective we quantify physical trade with main agricultural commodities between world regions from the mid 19th century to 2016 and ask how trade patterns relate to issues of resource use in particular to land use soil fertility and the energetic basis of agriculture agricultural exports rose from a few million t yr around 1870 to 1 4 billion t yr in 2016 growth in trade and production did not follow a continuous trend periods of accelerated growth alternating with phases of relative stability can be distinguished rather than directed modernization we observe shifts in unequal relations of power physical exchange and environmental pressure between changing centers and peripheries the periods of growth in trade match with the periodization of food regimes we find that regime shifts are closely related to changes in societies energy metabolism in the resource base of agricultural production and also to agro ecological crisis our analysis emphasizes that food regimes not only reflect changes in power relations in the world system but also changes in societies natural relations

consumer and producer environmental responsibility comparing two approaches abstract two different indicators of environmental responsibility were independently proposed by rodrigues et al rodrigues j domingos t giljum s schneider f 2006 designing an indicator of environmental responsibility ecological economics 59 3 256 266 and lenzen et al lenzen m murray j sack f wiedmann t 2007 shared producer and consumer responsibility theory and practice ecological economics 61 27 42 these indicators are both supposed to reflect the indirect effects of consumer and producer behavior in the generation of environmental pressure in this paper we compare their mathematical properties and interpretation we conclude that they have different implications for environmental policy

sharing resources the global distribution of the ecological footprint abstract this paper examines how the human demand on bioproductive lands as measured by the ecological footprint is distributed across the globe using methods commonly used to measure the distribution of income measuring the distribution of natural resource use will be necessary to achieve an economy that is sustainable just and efficient currently different nations place different demands on the environment i e the ecological footprint is not evenly distributed across the globe calculation of the gini coefficient for total ecological footprint and its components explains the sources of inequality in overall resource use calculation of the atkinson index shows how inequality in the ecological footprint is related to the inequality of income and environmental intensity

assessment of regional trade and virtual water flows in china the success of china s economic development has left deep marks on resource availability and quality some regions in china are relatively poor with regards to water resources this problem is exacerbated by economic growth flourishing trade activities on both domestic and international levels have resulted in significant amounts of water withdrawal and water pollution hence the goal of this paper is to evaluate the current inter regional trade structure and its effects on water consumption and pollution via virtual water flows virtual water is the water embedded in products and used in the whole production chain and that is traded between regions or exported to other countries for this assessment of trade flows and effects on water resources we have developed an extended regional input output model for eight hydro economic regions in china to account for virtual water flows between north and south china the findings show that the current trade structure in china is not very favorable with regards to water resource allocation and efficiency north china as a water scarce region virtually exports about 5 of its total available freshwater resources while accepting large amounts of wastewater for other regions consumption by contrast south china a region with abundant water resources is virtually importing water from other regions while their imports are creating waste water polluting other regions hydro ecosystems

specification and aggregation errors in environmentally extended input output models this article considers the specification and aggregation errors that arise from estimating embodied text co 2 emissions and embodied water use with environmentally extended national input output io models instead of with an environmentally extended international io model model specification errors result from the use of domestic environmental and domestic technology coefficients to estimate emissions or resources that are embodied in international trade for text co 2 footprints unacceptably large overestimations arise from using domestic emission coefficients which are only partly canceled out by using domestic technology coefficients for water use footprints both specification errors are smaller but hardly cancel out sectoral aggregation errors occur when combining the 129 exiopol industries to 59 eu industries and 10 broad sectors the latter aggregation creates the largest errors spatial aggregation errors arise from combining 43 individual exiopol countries in four broad regions and the rest of the world substantial unacceptable errors occur again now especially in relation to water use

input output analysis of co2 emissions embodied in trade the effects of sector aggregation abstract energy related co2 emissions embodied in international trade have been widely studied by researchers using the environmental input output analysis framework it is well known that both sector aggregation and spatial aggregation affect the results obtained in such studies with regard to the latter past studies are often conducted at the national level irrespective of country or economy size for a large economy with the needed data studies may be conducted at different levels of spatial aggregation we examine this problem analytically by extending the work of su et al su b huang h c ang b w zhou p 2010 input output analysis of co2 emissions embodied in trade the effects of sector aggregation energy economics 32 1 166 175 on sector aggregation we present a numerical example using the data of china and by dividing the country into eight regions it is found that the results are highly dependent on spatial aggregation our study shows that for a large country like china it is meaningful to look into the effect of spatial aggregation

national natural capital accounting with the ecological footprint concept abstract there is a growing consensus among natural and social scientists that sustainability depends on maintaining natural capital however progress to put this ecological condition to practice has been slow not least because of the inability of making these objectives measurable therefore to overcome this obstacle assessment frameworks for natural capital are needed this study presents a simple framework for national and global natural capital accounting it demonstrates using the example of italy an accounting framework which tracks national economies energy and resource throughput and translates them into biologically productive areas necessary to produce these flows this calculation has been applied to over 52 countries with this framework based on the ecological footprint concept human consumption can be compared with natural capital production at the global and national level using existing data

multiplicative structural decomposition analysis of aggregate embodied energy and emission intensities abstract aggregate intensity indicators such as the ratio of a country s energy and emissions to its gdp are often used by researchers and policymakers to study energy and environmental performance this paper analyzes the relationship between energy or emissions and value added or gdp from a different viewpoint namely from the demand rather than the production perspective using the input output i o framework the aggregate embodied intensity aei defined as the ratio of embodied energy or emissions to embodied value added can be defined at the aggregate final demand category and sectoral levels the total aggregate intensity can be presented as a weighted sum of the aeis at the final demand category or sectoral level changes of the aei at different levels can be decomposed to identify the driving forces using multiplicative sda a study using the latest 2007 and 2012 datasets of china indicates that a its aggregate intensity of co 2 emissions was mainly determined by the aei in investment and b the emission intensity effect generally contributed the most to the aei ratio changes at different levels the proposed framework can be applied to other aggregate intensity indicators and extended to multi country region analysis

scale technique and composition effects in trade related carbon emissions in china this study applies structural decomposition analysis to evaluate the scale composition and technique effects of trade related carbon emissions in china mainland from 1987 to 2007 the initial findings indicate that the increasing magnitude of china s trade both in terms of the carbon emissions embodied in exports and the carbon emissions avoided via imports had large scale effects during the whole period the technique effect caused by changes in input mix sector energy intensity fuel mix and carbon coefficients effectively offset part of the scale effect during the entire period but failed to do so during some sub periods changes in trade composition caused a relative small increase in the carbon emissions created by exports but a relative small decrease in the carbon emissions avoided via imports during the whole period

carbon dioxide emissions and international trade at the turn of the millennium we present a new dataset of geographical production final embodied production and consumption based carbon dioxide emission inventories covering 78 regions and 55 sectors from 1997 to 2011 we extend previous work both in terms of time span and in bridging from geographical to embodied production and ultimately to consumption we analyse the recent evolution of emissions the development of carbon efficiency of the global economy and the role of international trade as the distribution of responsibility for emissions across countries is key to the adoption and implementation of international environmental agreements and regulations the final production and consumption based inventories developed here provide a valuable extension to more traditional geographical production based criteria

accounting for the carbon associated with regional tourism consumption this paper examines the carbon footprint associated with tourism spending in a regional economy using an input output framework the method adopted permits an analysis of the carbon embodied in both domestically produced and imported goods and services consequent on tourism consumption in the region in this way the analysis comprises a statement of environmental externalities which can be set beside a developing tourism satellite account tsa framework and which also provides useful information on selected externalities associated with tourism consumption

network perspective of embodied pm2 5 a case study abstract economic growth due to social activities such as industrialization urbanization population growth and transportation in countries like india is coupling with an increase in pm 2 5 emissions which are main contributors to air pollution in this paper the embodied pm 2 5 emissions generated from economic activities in india were investigated we quantified the pm 2 5 emissions from each economic sector based on input output analysis ioa also the control relations within these economic sectors were identified based on ecological network analysis ena to determine the dominance and dependency of each sector the results showed that 86 4858 kt of total pm 2 5 emissions were direct and 14 812 kt were indirect in 2010 furthermore ena based results represented the pairwise control relationships among sectors by finding that sale maintenance and repair of motor vehicles retail sale of fuel chemicals and chemical products smelting of nonmetal mineral products and ordinary special machinery equipment were the dominant sectors that controlled the flow of embodied pm 2 5 emissions from other sectors such as construction agriculture mining and dressing catering services and waste manufacturing and recycling it is suggested that ena be adopted as a more systematic approach to uncover pm 2 5 flow pattern among the economic sectors as compared to traditional methods

from production based to consumption based national emission inventories abstract under the united national framework convention of climate change unfccc countries are required to submit national emission inventories nei to benchmark reductions in greenhouse gas ghg emissions depending on the definition and system boundary of the nei the mitigation options and priorities may vary the territorial system boundary used by the unfccc has been critiqued for not including international transportation and potentially causing carbon leakage to address these issues past literature has argued in favour of using consumption based nei in climate policy this article discusses several issues in moving from the standard production based nei to consumption based nei first two distinct accounting approaches for constructing consumption based nei are presented the approaches differ in the allocation of intermediate consumption of imported products second a consistent method of weighting production based and consumption based nei is discussed this is an extension of the previous literature on shared responsibility to nei third due to increased uncertainty and a wide system boundary it may be difficult to implement consumption based nei directly into climate policy several alternative options for incorporating consumption based inventories into climate policy are discussed

a framework to account for the tourism carbon footprint at island destinations abstract given concerns over greenhouse gases and the role of tourism in generating such environmental externality a consistent carbon measurement framework is needed this paper combines principles derived from production and consumption accounting measures to better allocate the responsibility for carbon emissions utilizing a boundary that includes domestic tourism expenditure inbound tourism expenditure and local spending associated with outbound travel this paper a proposes a framework to measure the domestic total carbon effect and foreign sourced effect and b applies the analytical framework to taiwan the empirical study indicates that the carbon emissions for domestic tourism industries international aviation and imports accounted for 47 28 and 25 of the tourism carbon footprint it is suggested that an island s dependence on both aviation and international trade leads to a larger share of emissions outside their geographic territory with respect to tourism development

austria s co2 responsibility and the carbon content of its international trade abstract seeking to limit global warming to 2 c puts narrow restrictions on the remaining carbon budget while the prevalent accounting framework for carbon emissions is production based production based principle pbp we here quantify the co2 emissions on the basis of the consumption based principle cbp for austria at a methodological level a multi regional input output model with full linkages is used to account for austria s co2 responsibility on a global scale estimates are carried out for the years 1997 and 2004 results show that during 1997 co2 responsibility based on cbp were 36 larger than those based on pbp this relation has increased through time the cbp indicator of 2004 was 44 larger than the pbp in terms of carbon emission location for each euro spent on austrian final demand in 2004 it is estimated that two thirds of the co2 emissions occur outside austrian borders regarding the origin of the emissions embodied in imports it is estimated that about one fourth originated in non annex i countries in 1997 this proportion increased to one third by 2004 due to this divergence between cbp and pbp indicators there is a need to re think current accounting bases in order to properly assign co2 responsibilities

revisiting china africa trade from an environmental perspective international trade patterns can be seen as ways to redistribute natural resources and manufactured products by means of convergence and divergence pathways in support of production and consumption processes worldwide by making needed resources to potential users individuals and economies trade acts as a driver of resource extraction processing degradation especially if this is facilitated by market dynamics in which prices are determined by contingent factors that have no links to the environmental dynamics of resource generation and do not match the real quality of natural capital and ecosystems services involved a fair trade relationship should take these aspects into proper account in so promoting additional criteria for resource value and as a consequence towards efficient resource use and cleaner production processes a comprehensive cost and benefit evaluation to consider the economic and ecological impacts is therefore a much needed prerequisite for a balanced trade relationship to conduct this evaluation we firstly choose the trade data of china with south africa sudan algeria nigeria egypt and morocco in the years 2001 2004 2008 and 2012 as sample set then we apply the emergy accounting approach to the international trade dynamic between china and above selected african countries to quantify the exchange of natural capital and ecosystem services among partners including resources that support know how and technology exchange as well as to identify benefits and compensation measures that may increase trade balance and equity via the prevention of uncompensated resource exploitation by accounting for the environmental support embodied in traded resources and their capability to support an economic process the emergy approach applied in this study provides a complementary tool to economic evaluation which enables a more comprehensive understanding of trade beyond the monetary terms of trade in terms of the total emergy exchange the investigated african countries with the exception of south africa and sudan receive more emergy from china over the investigated period which appears to suggest a reversal of the typical trend in which industrialized economies exploit african countries and return small or no benefit to their economies however the composition of the emergy trade indicates that china s import from africa is mainly composed of primary products whereas manufactured products dominate its export this composition is likely to promote the chinese economy supporting resource processing and jobs as well as increase the lifestyle of the wealthy fractions of the african population as a result of increased access to consumer goods however in turn it may contribute to heavier pollution in china and certainly does not favor the development of local industry in africa thus more balanced import and export relations and trade structure that simultaneously involves human and natural capital will be helpful to construct a cooperative relationship

applying physical input output analysis to estimate land appropriation ecological footprints of international trade activities in the last few years some studies have been presented which link land use accounting and input output analysis based on monetary input output tables miots for the calculation of direct and indirect land appropriation of production and consumption activities the compilation of the first comprehensive physical input output tables piots for some western european countries in the 1990s opened new possibilities for linking physical accounting and input output analysis using a physical multiplier for this kind of calculation is more appropriate as the most land intensive sectors are also the sectors with the highest amounts of material flows physical input output analysis illustrates land appropriation in relation to material flows of each of the sectors which is more appropriate from the point of view of environmental pressures than land appropriation in relation to monetary flows of a miot physical input output analysis has so far not been applied for any land related studies based on a physical input output model of the eu 15 physical input output analysis is applied in this paper in order to calculate direct and indirect land requirements for the production of exports from eu 15 to the rest of the world

production based and consumption based national greenhouse gas inventories an implication for estonia two national greenhouse gas ghg inventories were prepared for estonia 1 an inventory that includes ghg emissions from the production of goods and services i e commodities within its national territory and 2 an inventory of ghg emissions occurring within and outside its national boundaries due to estonia s consumption of commodities whether produced domestically or traded bilaterally the inventories included estimates of energy related and non energy related carbon dioxide co2 methane ch4 and nitrous oxide n2o emissions converted to co2 equivalent co2eq associated with the production and consumption of commodities grouped in three main sectors energy industrial processes and agriculture input output io analysis emissions embodied in bilateral trade eebt approaches and the basic methods of the 2006 ipcc guidelines were used to perform the estimates the results of the study illustrated that the total co2eq emissions associated with consumption in estonia in 2005 were 18 higher than those associated with production primarily due to the net import of co2eq emissions from countries outside of the european union

identifying the economic and environmental impacts of china s trade in intermediates within the asia pacific region abstract using value added and employment as the representatives of economic benefits and carbon emissions as the proxy of environmental costs of trade this study analyzes the impacts of china s trade in intermediates with major trading partners in the asia pacific region australia canada japan korea mexico taiwan and the usa on its economy and environment during 2000 2014 through hypothetical extraction method and structural decomposition analysis results show that china s trade in intermediates within the region induced a higher share of carbon emissions than those of value added and employment the economic and environmental impacts of china s trade in intermediates with the seven trading partners were mainly driven up by the intensifying international industrial linkages technical factors induced considerable negative effects on the impacted carbon emissions and employment at the sectoral level the expanding intermediate trade of heavy industries brought the major part of increasing impacts on carbon emissions value added and employment the impacted employment shifted toward high skilled occupations especially in heavy industries and services and the impacted low skilled employment decreased in most sectors finally related policy implications are deduced

the effects of direct trade within china on regional and national co2 emissions curbing national carbon emissions and clarifying regional carbon reduction responsibility are two challenges faced by china both of which are influenced by interregional trade to exclude the influence of trade balance this paper proposes a methodology to parcel the pollution haven hypothesis into a multi regional input output model applies it to a longer time gap which is made up of two representative periods of chinese economy 1997 2002 and 2002 2007 and clarifies the provincial and sectoral contributions to national emissions we find that 1 embodied co2 emissions first remain relatively stable and then increase sharply for the two periods and the changing trends are mainly determined by the decreasing carbon intensity and the expanding trade scale respectively 2 with the secondary industry as the main contributor regional carbon spillover is mainly concentrated in the coastal provinces but it contributes to an increase of co2 emissions in the central and western regions 3 the coastal and inland provinces contribute to the increase of national carbon emissions through interregional imports and exports respectively but the pollution haven hypothesis is not obvious and is only observed in 2002

the carbon footprint of greek households 1995 2012 abstract the goal of this paper is twofold i to investigate the carbon footprint of greek households throughout the period 1995 2012 in order to identify the main socio economic factors that affect ghg emissions and ii to evaluate the effectiveness of the implemented policies to tackle climate change in this a consumption based emissions inventory approach is applied the analysis is based on an environmentally extended input output model including direct co2 emissions from households indirect co2 emissions from electricity consumption and indirect co2 emissions from energy used in the production of goods and services purchased by households domestic or imported statistical analysis and appropriate regression models were developed in order to identify the main factors influencing the carbon footprint of greek households the results indicate that the observed trends during the period 1995 2008 can be attributed to the effect of high economic growth this trend is partially counterbalanced by favorable weather conditions and the implementation of greenhouse mitigation policies and measures mainly in the supply side since 2008 the shrinking household income is the dominant driver in addition the effectiveness of energy conservation policies and measures in place is rather low while the effect of imports is limited

measuring structural change and energy use decomposition of the us economy from 1997 to 2002 abstract the steadily increasing focus on energy production and consumption has led to growing research attention to patterns of energy use within economies of particular interest has been comparing the driving forces of increasing efficiency and economic structural change input output analysis ioa and decomposition analysis have become critical tools for performing such analyses this study analyzes aggregate energy use in the united states in 1997 and 2002 to discover the causes of changing energy usage and flows results show that rising population and household consumption acted to drive up energy demand but this driving force was offset by considerable structural change within the economy particularly related to a quickly increasing trade deficit in manufacturing goods thus while total energy intensity the ratio of energy use to economic output declined by approximately 12 between 1997 and 2002 changes in the structure of the economy explain this drop more than increased energy efficiency the level of aggregation at which decomposition analyses are run was identified as a crucially sensitive parameter for the determination of structural change and future studies should specifically address the amount of detail necessary to adequately measure changes in economic structure

input output analysis of co2 emissions embodied in trade competitive versus non competitive imports energy related co2 emissions embodied in international trade have been widely studied by researchers using the environmental input output framework in the literature two different approaches to deal with emissions embodied in a country s imports can be found one of the approaches is based on the assumption of competitive imports while the other is based on the assumption of non competitive imports we show that the implications of the results obtained using different imports assumptions are not the same the approach using the competitive imports assumption gives estimates larger than those obtained using the non competitive import assumption the differences between the two embodiment estimates come from the transition of embodied emissions in china s imports for intermediate consumption to those in china s exports this explains why relatively high estimates of co2 emissions embodied in china s exports are reported in several recent studies appearing in energy policy

emergy network analysis of chinese sectoral ecological sustainability abstract ecological sustainability of the chinese economy is vital for china as well as for the world by integrating environmental input output analysis emergy theory and a complex network model into one framework this paper explores chinese sectoral ecological sustainability with the most recent 2012 input output table the results show that there are significant differences in emergy intensities among sectors the non metal mining sector is the most emergy intensive sector at 6 06e 17 sej 10000 yuan followed by the metal mining sector additionally output connections have a positive impact on the emergy yield ratio input connections exert a negative impact on the emergy yield ratio and pagerank centrality has a positive effect on the environmental loading ratio this paper updates the chinese sectoral emergy assessment identifies key sectors in the chinese ecological network and analyzes the impact of network indicators on sectoral emergy performance these analyses will be useful in updating the guide for adjusting industrial structure in china

global warming agreements international trade and energy carbon embodiments an input output approach to the italian case abstract in the kyoto protocol the absence of green house gases ghgs commitments of developing countries non annex i and the more flexible terms of implementation which are allowed to countries shifting toward a market economy transition economies naturally lead to the absence or to less constraining national measures and policies of reduction of the ghgs emissions which in turn may determine a comparative advantage in the production of the highest energy carbon intensive commodities for these countries these arguments are valid also considering the future implementation of the european emission allowance trading scheme eats thus developing countries may become a haven for the production of not environmental friendly commodities in this case the so called pollution haven hypothesis stating that due to freer international trade the comparative advantage may change the economic structure and consequently the trade patterns of the countries linked by trade relationships could occur this would lead to the increase of the transfers of energy and carbon embodied in traded commodities from developing countries and transition economies toward kyoto or eats constrained countries the aim of this paper is to verify if for italy as a kyoto and eats complying country evidence of a change in the trade patterns occurred on the basis of the pollution haven hypothesis does exist and to estimate the magnitude of the under estimation of the carbon actually emitted the carbon leakage the input output model has been used to calculate the intensities of energy consumption and the related green house gases emission for each italian economic sector

international trade and shared environmental responsibility by sector an application to the spanish economy abstract the aim of this paper is to define a shared responsibility criterion for analysing the impact of international trade on co 2 emissions applied to sectors with the approach proposed it is possible for sectors in a country to account for only a part of the emissions associated with exported and imported goods the agents considered as responsible for pollution are sectors two fold as producers and suppliers of intermediate inputs and final demand accounting for direct emissions linked to production and as consumers of intermediate inputs required for production accounting for direct and indirect emissions linked to consumption of inputs and the countries and foreign sectors that trade with these industries the responsibility of emissions is shared by all the participants along the global product chain depending on the value added of each step the criterion is applied to the spanish economy for the period 2000 to 2005 and proves useful for determining what economic policies may be suitable for mitigating anthropogenic impact on the environment and for including all the agents of the supply chain in the development of sustainable supply chain management

the short run comparative statics of a rental housing market abstract this paper examines the short run effects of changes in exogenous variables including several government policies on the schedule relating market equilibrium rent to quality level the basic model differs from sweeney econometrica 42 147 167 1974 by use of a bid rent closed city approach rather than a supply and demand partially open city approach the mathematics changes completely the analytics simplify and the results change somewhat housing is treated as a durable quality differentiated good but frictional forces and the multidimensionality of the housing package are ignored the exception is an extension to a monocentric city context so that housing units vary in both quality and location

temporal change of china s pollution terms of trade and its determinants abstract based on the world input output database wiod this study employed a revised pollution terms of trade ptt indicator to investigate the temporal change of china s environmental cost relative to its economic gains from international trade from 1995 to 2009 the results show that china has ptt larger than 1 indicating that china emits more emissions to obtain each unit of value added from exports than its trade partners over the period china s ptt first decreased from 1995 to 2001 and then increased from 2001 to 2009 the further decompositions show that improving technology is the leading driving force to decrease ptt while the change in global trade pattern is the leading force increasing ptt especially after 2001 we further decomposed the temporal change of china s ptt by income group of the trading partners the results show that the change in the global trade pattern is the crucial driving force behind the different changes of ptt by income group

applying input output analysis to scenario analysis of ecological footprints abstract application of input output analysis to ecological footprints efs is shifting from an ex post static calculation toward an ex ante scenario analysis for enhancing the policy relevance of ef analysis this change in application prompts two issues requiring careful examination 1 what is measured by leontief inverses or extended environmental leontief inverses and 2 whether a sector s land multiplier or compositions of land multiplier can appropriately reflect the effect of delivering one unit of the sector s output to final demand on the required area s of production lands used by the sector itself and by other producing sectors whose products are contributed directly and indirectly to its production the underlying message of these two questions is whether the assumed linear marginal relationship between a sector s output and its intermediate inputs input output coefficients a critical assumption made by w leontief to transform a transactions table from an accounting framework into the input output model can be extended to assume that the marginal relationship between a sector s output and the area of production land it uses for generating output is fixed land output marginal coefficient equal to average coefficient by reviewing the literature on input output analysis and its application to environmental issues and by theoretically and empirically examining the relation between sector output and land appropriation this study advises against the use of land multipliers or their compositions in the ef scenario analysis to apply the input output model to ef scenario analysis for enhancing policy relevance with due attention to the relationship between sector output and land appropriation this study suggests a two stage ef calculation procedure in the first stage the input output application estimates only the required raw materials or generated pollutants for meeting a given consumption pattern which is the objective of environmental input output analysis in the second stage the estimated amount of raw materials or pollutants is converted into land water area and a choice of conversion methods is suggested according to the research questions and the availability of conversion methods and required data

international trade related food miles the case of canada abstract at the beginning of the 21st century imports of agricultural and food commodities have become a major part of many nations food baskets indeed the global food system has several merits for nations businesses and individual consumers well being however as increasing evidence suggests that we are approaching an era of climate change and scarcity of cheap energy sources the sustainability of that system must be examined one part of any food commodity chain is its food miles the distance the commodity travels from point of production to point of consumption the required energy and resulting emissions this paper presents a 1 year snapshot of canada s total import related food miles it presents an analysis of the distance imported foods traveled from around the world to major points of consumption in canada and documents the equivalent carbon dioxide emissions related to those imports it presents both a macro scale picture of the equivalent emissions related to transportation of imported food and a micro scale picture which focuses on specific commodities consumed in various parts of the country it then discusses policy implications for food sustainability overall the research highlights that about 30 of the agricultural and food commodities consumed in canada are imported resulting in food miles of over 61 billion tonnes km leading to annual emissions of 3 3 million metric tonnes of co 2 of the various agriculture and food commodities studied fruits and vegetables had the highest food miles related emissions

measuring emissions avoided by international trade accounting for price differences abstract net emissions avoided by trade nea are the difference between the pollution that would have been produced in a country if it had not exported any products and all the imports required to satisfy its domestic demand had been produced internally and its actual emissions the domestic technology assumption dta applied to an input output model is the appropriate method to estimate the nea the usual implementation of the dta involves that the country analyzed should produce a quantity of products equivalent to the monetary value of the imports required to satisfy its final demand i e monetary dta however due to price differences the same physical quantity of goods in different countries could have a different monetary value and the estimation of the nea would be biased we show that a physical dta focused on the pollution to produce domestically the imports measured in physical units would be a better approach we have applied both methodologies to analyze greenhouse gas emissions in spain 1995 2007 both methodologies show that spain is avoiding emissions through trade however the nea increases up to three times when applying the physical dta showing that results from the monetary dta are biased by price differences