measuring entrepreneurship over time abstract this article is a review of three measurement issues that impact the study of entrepreneurship over time 1 level of analysis difference between firms and individuals 2 differences between rate and stock measures and 3 the effects of choosing particular time frames on subsequent analytical results based on theory that views entrepreneurship as depending on ownership rights hawley 1907 this article develops a longitudinal measure of entrepreneurship in the united states the number of organizations per capita the problems and advantages of using a measure based on organizations per capita as an indicator of entrepreneurship is examined understanding how and what is being measured in studies of changes in entrepreneurship over time is an important issue for academic researchers and public policy makers measurement of changes in entrepreneurship over time can shed light on important research questions and public policy issues about entrepreneurship for example is entrepreneurship increasing in the united states if entrepreneurship is increasing is this trend comparable to any previous time periods or is the current increase in entrepreneurship a new or unique social phenomenon what influences changes in entrepreneurship over time the choice of certain measures of entrepreneurship is likely to influence the answers to these questions for example the measures used in an entrepreneurship study are an implicit specification of one s views of entrepreneurship e g entrepreneurship as self employment or firm creation and few measures of entrepreneurship reflect critical changes in important environmental influences e g technological change because of short measurement time frames therefore determining the contribution of entrepreneurship to the well being of an economy is dependent on understanding what measures of entrepreneurship are utilized for making these evaluations and the time frame used for these measures we review three measurement issues that impact the study of entrepreneurship over time 1 level of analysis differences between firms and individuals 2 differences between rate and stock measures and 3 the effects of choosing particular time frames on subsequent analytical results based on theory that views entrepreneurship as depending on ownership rights hawley 1907 this article develops a longitudinal measure of entrepreneurship in the united states the number of organizations per capita studies of entrepreneurship focus on either individual level activity e g self employment or on firm level activity e g new incorporations self employment research focuses on individuals who employ themselves that is individuals who report wages but not wages paid to them by other individuals or organizations in most studies of the self employed firm founders would therefore be classified as wage earners and not as entrepreneurs new firm research focuses on the rate of new firm entrants typically measured as new incorporations so such businesses as proprietorships or partnerships will not be counted a rate is a change from one state to another e g the number of people who become self employed for a specific year or the number of new firms created for a specific year whereas a stock specifies a particular level e g much like a stock of inventory such as the number of self employed or a particular number of firms for a specific time period it is important to recognize that entry into business does not necessarily guarantee remaining in business for example although the number of people who become self employed may increase for a specific year the number of people who remain self employed may actually decrease if more of the self employed fail to remain in business than those that enter the stock of the self employed can decrease if the outflow of self employed is greater than the inflow for those persons interested in whether entrepreneurial activity results in wealth creation either individually or societally the realization that entry into business may not lead to a sustainable business and therefore no creation of wealth should be a signal that measuring rates of business formation and rates of self employment may not be appropriate for this type of research the factors that drive changes in the rate of entrepreneurship are not likely to be manifest over short timeperiods changes in values attitudes technology government regulations and world economic and social changes have a significant influence on changes in entrepreneurship over time studies that have measured entrepreneurship over recent time periods are therefore likely to miss the influence of these variables we introduce a measure of entrepreneurship organizations per capita based on a theory of entrepreneurship as ownership this measure shows the stock of organizations in the u s economy over time from 1857 to 1992 the problems and advantages of using a measure based on organizations per capita as an indicator of entrepreneurship is examined we conclude with some suggestions for improving entrepreneurship research by recognizing the limitations of particular longitudinal entrepreneurship measures and by challenging the field to seek convergent validity among measures

local market and national components in house price appreciation abstract we analyze real home price appreciation using a long time series 1971 1989 and large cross section 56 metro areas our findings yield important new insights into two outstanding issues in real estate finance and economics the first deals with the implications for investment opportunities in housing across metro areas a striking result is that we cannot reject the null hypothesis of equal appreciation rates across locales a priori the results are suggestive of equal expected appreciation across the different local markets however it is noteworthy that we find significant serial correlation in some local appreciation series this is consistent with previous findings by case and shiller 6 and suggests that prescient market timers might have been able to make money in selective markets we then consider the potential implications of equal appreciation rates across cities for housing market equilibrium in light of the fact that price levels do materially differ across metro areas we argue that equal real appreciation rates starting from different price levels imply increasingly divergent prices of local traits in terms of foregone consumption without special assumptions with respect to income and productivity differentials across locations or to local trait income elasticities of demand the appreciation rates in high housing price level areas ultimately have to fall below those in low price level areas preliminary evidence indicates that higher priced areas tend to have significantly lower appreciation rates controlling for local fixed effects and a common time varying effect

the pervasive effects of family on entrepreneurship toward a family embeddedness perspective families and businesses have often been treated as naturally separate institutions whereas we argue that they are inextricably intertwined long term changes in family composition and in the roles and relations of family members have produced families in north america that are growing smaller and losing many of their previous role relationships such transformations in the institution of the family have implications for the emergence of new business opportunities opportunity recognition business start up decisions and the resource mobilization process we suggest that entrepreneurship scholars would benefit from a family embeddedness perspective on new venture creation d 2003 elsevier science inc all rights reserved

implementing city level carbon accounting a comparison between madrid and london abstract a change of focus from the current production based greenhouse gas ghg emissions inventory to an integrated production consumption carbon accounting system would improve the quality of city level inventories london is one of the few cities in the world which has reported its ghg emission inventory using consumption based cb methodologies although madrid has adopted the global protocol for community scale greenhouse gas emission inventories gpc to report their ghg emissions the city has never officially reported its ghg inventory using cb methodologies thus the goal of this study is to analyze the challenges that must be faced by the production based ghg emission inventory of madrid in order to estimate ghg emissions from their supply chains and final consumers using the london s ghg emissions inventory experience from the comparison between the 2010 ghg emission inventories of madrid and london some challenges could emerge that madrid s decision makers might need to face regarding urban carbon accounting practices as results this paper shows that if ghg emissions from urban supply chains and final consumers are considered the total ghg emissions reported by the madrid inventory could double this increase is similar to what london experienced when comparing production based and integrated production consumption ghg inventories besides some difficulties related to lack of information were found when estimating ghg emissions associated with those goods and services consumed in madrid it would be useful to develop a full cb inventory using environmentally extended input output eeio matrices more city level primary data and local cradle to grave factors following the methodology applied by the london inventory these actions would allow a more accurate calculation of urban supply chains and final consumer ghg emissions in madrid finally further research is recommended in order to improve the current knowledge about the contributions of the energy transport and waste sectors to ghg emissions in both madrid and london

resource partitioning the founding of specialist firms and innovation the american feature film industry 1912 1929 past research has established that large bureaucratic firms are less innovative than other firms this reduced innovativeness is likely to be exacerbated when large firms engage in market control in cultural industries the effects can be especially pernicious resulting in the failure to provide audiences with artistic quality or product diversity we investigate the population dynamics of one cultural industry the early american feature film industry specifically we examine the hypothesis that concentration among large generalist firms will be associated with higher rates of foundings of specialist producers and specialist distributors we also investigate the question of whether these specialists are more innovative specifically we examine the hypothesis that specialists were more active than were generalists in the creation of new film genres in the early years of the american film industry we find that increased concentration among generalists had a positive effect on foundings of specialist producers and specialist distributors and that the specialists were more active in the creation of new film genres implications of these findings for future research both on cultural industries and on the population dynamics of the founding of specialist firms are discussed

mapping the university technology transfer process abstract transfer of technologies from the universities to the private sector is increasingly regarded as playing a significant role in new business starts growth of existing businesses and new job creation further there are monerous models describing the process of technology transfer some of the existing models represent this process as a linear progression of steps from idea generation and technology development at the university to patenting the technology and then establishing a university private firm link through a formal search process the process culminates in patent rights transfer other models describe technology transfer in terms of networking arrangements and emphasize not so much formal search as the role of long term relationships between the two parties still other studies indicate that it is possible to combine the two approaches formal search and informal networking arrangements to ensure successful transfer business firms involved in transfer also may be classified into several groups transfer could occur between the university and an established firm between the university and a recently created new venture or transfer could result in the creation of a new company technology for example could be transferred to a large company that uses the transferred technology as a basis for just one of many product lines or to a small firm that makes the transferred technology a cornerstone of its product strategy are there any differences among the transfer processes used when large or small firms are involved or when technology is transferred to an existing company or results in the creation of a new firm to address these questions we mapped the technology transfer processes of 23 different technologies developed at the university of minnesota from 1983 to 1993 more than half of the technologies studied went to large companies and were used either to upgrade existing products or to extend existing product lines in eight cases technologies were transferred to small firms in three cases technologies were transferred to venture capital firms or intermediaries and had not been commercialized at the time the study was completed in the rest of the cases new firms were created by the inventors university scientists themselves and served as vehicles for marketing their inventions none of the firms of the latter group have grown beyond a part time employment opportunity for the inventors and only one firm provided evidence that additional hiring would be necessary in the near future only four cases involved transfers of technologies that have been developed and patented by the university to firms that did not have any relationships with the university prior to the transfer in these four cases the firms used some form of search strategy to find a needed technology however there is no evidence that any of the firms had a well developed formal search procedure in the overwhelming majority of cases some form of relationship existed between the university or individual inventors and the private firm prior to the transfer these relationships ranged from long term friendships and or cooperation to such less involved forms as interaction at research seminars and university sponsored events further in four cases the technologies were initially developed by private companies whereas the university s role was to assist in refinement or testing of the technology the research yielded a number of additional findings that deserve further investigation and discussion specifically the study did not provide any evidence that the successfully completed technology transfers made any substantial contribution to either new business creation or the generation of new jobs this finding suggests that scholars and policy makers should proceed with caution before accepting a notion that new or high technology firms will have any direct economic impact the study findings hold specific implications for entrepreneurial behavior and public policy the formal search and shopping for a technology model suggests that both business and academic government laboratories publicize respectively their requirements and offerings and that opportunities for creative brokerage ought to exist we found that in the majority of cases technology was transferred not through formal search but through some prior relationships among individuals this observation suggests that the ability to build extended networks of relationships not only within the business world but also with the university community is an important skill that owners and managers of the technology based businesses need to possess entrepreneurs seeking to start businesses based on new technologies may need to reevaluate how much of their limited time to allocate to build and maintain networks and cooperative relationships and how much time to shop for new technologies through formal channels further public policy and the efforts of the university transfer agencies intended to facilitate transfer may need to shift their emphasis from facilitating shopping by organizing and or paying for publicity which is currently the major emphasis to providing assistance in network building and relationship marketing efforts

have iras increased u s saving evidence from consumer expenditure surveys the vast majority of individual retirement account contributions represent net new saving based on evidence from the quarterly consumer expenditure surveys ces the results are based on analysis of the relationship between ira contributions and other financial asset saving the data show almost no substitution of iras for other saving estimates are based on a flexible constrained optimization model with the ira limit the principal constraint the implications of this model for saving in the absence of the ira option match very closely the actual non ira financial asset saving behavior prior to 1982 ira saving does not show up as other financial asset saving in the pre ira period

a community level analysis of sources and rates of technological variation in the microprocessor market this research sought to identify the sources and rates of technological variation in an industry using a community level framework using data on all merchant producers of microprocessors from 1971

discontinuance among new firms in retail the influence of initial resources strategy and gender abstract women owned businesses represent one of the fastest growing segments of the u s economy their rate has increased more than six fold since 1970 despite this growth rate the number of firms owned by women still lags behind that of men and the sales and income of women owned firms are significantly lower than those of men owned firms the discrepancy between the number of businesses owned by women and men and their economic success has been a popular theme among researchers some have suggested that performance differentials result from disparate structural positions women and men occupy in work and society whereas others attribute the differences to deep rooted interpersonal orientations this study examines whether the performance differences can be explained by variations in initial resources and founding strategy we test whether women have fewer start up resources and if they do whether they can compensate for these deficiencies through their founding strategy recent work in social psychology argues that strategic choice is shaped by experiences to which individuals have been subjected and that women and men have fundamentally different socialization experiences we test the assumption that if the strategy that women owners adopt exploits the unique capabilities they derive from their socialization they can improve the performance of their firms and ward off discontinuance we examine the discontinuance pattern of 203 new firms in the retail industry this industry was selected because women entrepreneurs often choose to operate in this industry giving us a basis for comparing women owned and men owned firms we classify the firms into six strategy archetypes the arche types range from a broad focus where founders emphasize multiple strategic foci simultaneously to narrowly targeted differentiation strategies we assume that the experiential base of women entrepreneurs limits their successfully executing pricing strategies we hypothesize that women led firms decrease the odds of discontinuing by adopting one of two strategy types 1 narrow differentiation strategies that seek to satisfy a narrow segment of the market and that do not rely on pricing or 2 broad generalists strategies that emphasize service and quality but not pricing and take advantage of women s capability for handling multiple stakeholders simultaneously the results offer support for using an integrative model to explain the performance of women owned firms women owned firms have higher odds of discontinuing than men owned firms and women appear to have fewer resources to start their businesses women owners were less likely to have instrumental experience from working in the retail industry and start their businesses on a smaller scale then men but were no less likely then their male counterparts to have access to credit from formal financial institutions or to be disadvantaged by starting fewer other new businesses despite some apparent situational disadvantage resource deficiencies do not appear to affect the odds of women owned businesses discontinuing as much as they do men owned initiatives the findings indicate support for the supposition that women owners can use founding strategy to decrease the odds of discontinuing business a broad generalists strategy that represents a multi focused approach was found to benefit women owned businesses most overall the results suggest that men use prior business experience and human capital to affect the survival status of their businesses women appear to find strategic choice more beneficial future research is recommended to further elaborate the integrative model special attention should be given to developing alternatives to measures traditionally used in gender research many researchers charge that those typically used reflect male derived measures similarly greater attention should be given to understanding why the scale of women owned businesses at start up is substantially smaller than that of men since scale has been shown to be related to subsequent growth and survival

the development of an infrastructure for entrepreneurship abstract this paper takes a macroperspective of entrepreneurship and focuses on the issues and events involved in constructing an industrial infrastructure that facilitates and constrains entrepreneurship this infrastructure includes 1 institutional arrangements to legitimate regulate and standardize a new technology 2 public resource endowments of basic scientific knowledge financing mechanisms and a pool of competent labor as well as 3 proprietary rd numerous entrepreneurial actors in the public and not for profit sectors play crucial roles it motivates one to examine the different roles played by these actors and how their joint contributions interact to develop and commercialize a new technology this in turn makes it possible to understand how the risk time and cost to an individual entrepreneur are significantly influenced by developments in the overall infrastructure for entrepreneurship it also explains why the entrepreneurs who run in packs will be more successful than those that go it alone to develop their innovations

benchmarking urban energy efficiency in the uk this study asks what is the best way to measure urban energy efficiency there has been recent interest in identifying efficient cities so that best practices can be shared a process known as benchmarking previous studies have used relatively simple metrics that provide limited insight on the complexity of urban energy efficiency and arguably fail to provide a fair measure of urban performance using a data set of 198 urban uk local administrative units three methods are compared ratio measures regression residuals and data envelopment analysis the results show that each method has its own strengths and weaknesses regarding the ease of interpretation ability to identify outliers and provide consistent rankings efficient areas are diverse but are notably found in low income areas of large conurbations such as london whereas industrial areas are consistently ranked as inefficient the results highlight the shortcomings of the underlying production based energy accounts ideally urban energy efficiency benchmarks would be built on consumption based accounts but interim recommendations are made regarding the use of efficiency measures that improve upon current practice and facilitate wider conversations about what it means for a specific city to be energy efficient within an interconnected economy

revealed preferences for property taxes an empirical study of perceived tax incidence voting in an election over removal of a homestead exemption is examined to determine different groups perceptions of the incidence of the property tax homeowners in two categories appear to evaluate accurately the effects on them of the homestead exemption renters with higher cost rental contracts are more likely to believe they are significantly affected by the change in the property tax structure these results demonstrate the ability of local governments to discriminate in tax share price across groups of voters copyright 1992 by mit press

energy requirements of sydney households supporting the lifestyles of the populations of modern cities requires vast quantities of natural resources and leads to environmental stresses such as air and water pollution research into the metabolism of cities therefore aims at understanding the physical flows into within and out of cities with a view to reducing the use of resources and the environmental impacts one important physical indicator is energy use most studies on cities only consider direct or end user energy consumption since the function of cities is to serve the lives of their residents indirect energy use in cities or energy embodied in the consumption of goods and services by its residents can be regarded as being as important as direct energy use however physical models of cities are extremely complex and have difficulty in dealing with boundary issues and hence the indirect resource requirements in this paper we use input output analysis and detailed household expenditure data to yield comprehensive energy use breakdowns for the 14 statistical subdivisions of sydney multivariate regression and structural path analysis spa are used to interpret the results clear correlations can be drawn between energy use and income household size age and degree of urbanity the structural path analysis is used to demonstrate how significant differences in lifestyles between inner and outer areas of sydney leads to different energy use characteristics this final consumption based approach to analysing the energy requirements for households has important implications for measures aimed at reducing energy use which tend to only consider direct energy use d 2004 elsevier b v all rights reserved

primary energy and greenhouse gases embodied in australian final consumption an input output analysis input output modeling of primary energy and greenhouse gas embodiments in goods and services is a useful technique for designing greenhouse gas abatement policies the present paper describes direct and indirect primary energy and greenhouse gas requirements for a given set of australian final consumption it considers sectoral disparities in energy prices capital formation and international trade flows and it accounts for embodiments in the gross national expenditure as well as the gross domestic product primary energy and greenhouse gas intensities in terms of mj and kg co2 e are reported as well as national balances of primary energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions

how national institutions influence technology policies and firms knowledge building strategies a study of fuel cell innovation across industrialized countries abstract the central thesis advanced in this study is that firms knowledge building strategies can be usefully explained by the variations in their national institutional contexts using an inductive approach a study of fuel cell innovation across the u s france japan and norway demonstrates how countries socio political institutions characterized by their levels of statism and corporatism contribute to variations in technology policies pertaining to investment collaboration internationalization and diversity these technology policies are sources of advantages and disadvantages for firms with implications for their knowledge building strategies the proposed theoretical framework is especially relevant in the context of industry emergence and r d internationalization

a multivariate analysis of the energy intensity of sprawl versus compact living in the u s for 2003 abstract we explore the energy intensity of sprawl versus compact living by analyzing the total energy requirements of u s households for the year 2003 the methods used are based on previous studies on energy cost of living total energy requirement is calculated as a function of individual energy intensities of goods and services derived from economic input output analysis and expenditures for those goods and services we use multivariate regression analysis to estimate patterns in household energy intensities we define sprawl in terms of location in rural areas or in areas with low population size we find that even though sprawl related factors account for about 83 of the average household energy consumption sprawl is only 17 19 more energy intensive than compact living based on how people actually lived we observe that some of the advantages of reduced direct energy use by people living in high density urban centers are offset by their consumption of other non energy products a more detailed analysis reveals that lifestyle choices household type number of vehicles and family size that could be independent of location play a significant role in determining household energy intensity we develop two models that offer opportunities for further analysis

comparison of household consumption and regional production approaches to assess urban energy use and implications for policy assessment of urban energy use may proceed by a number of methods here we derive an energy account from local statistics and compare them with an input output io analysis as applied to melbourne australia these approaches highlight different aspects of urban energy use and comparable outputs are presented together to assess consistency to identify complementarities and discuss the insight each approach brings to understanding urban energy the io method captures the direct and embodied primary energy requirements of local household expenditure 235 8 gj capita year while the regional assessment more directly accounts for local production activity 258 1 gj capita year the parity of these results is unexpected for a developed city with a strong tertiary sector sectoral detail reveals differences between the primary energy required by melbourne s economic structure and that ultimately required through the full supply chain relating to household expenditure this is accompanied by an io analysis of the geography of melbourne s energy catchment it is suggested that the io consumption and regional production approaches have particular relevance to policies aimed at consumption behaviour and economic re structuring respectively their complementarity further suggests that a combined analysis would be valuable in understanding urban energy futures and economic transitions elsewhere

emissions in a decarbonised economy global lessons from a carbon footprint analysis of iceland abstract decarbonisation of stationary energy supply particularly electricity grids is the current focus of climate change mitigation policy however studies have suggested that this narrow policy focus is insufficient to achieve meaningful global emissions reductions using iceland as a case study this paper demonstrates that significant emissions arise from transport and imported products which are often not fully captured in territorial ghg inventories this results in high greenhouse gas emissions per capita regardless of the nation s domestic energy supply the result is a low carbon illusion in which rich economies believe they are reducing their ghg responsibility whilst global emissions continue to grow this paper presents the first consumption based carbon footprint cbcf analysis for iceland a nation where the stationary energy supply is 99 renewable and could be viewed as a decarbonisation future case for rich nations globally the study combines icelandic household expenditure data with the multi regional input output database eora to calculate the cbcf of icelandic households the average annual cbcf of icelandic households was 10 4 tco2eq capita similar in magnitude to other eu nations despite iceland s unique energy supply ghg emissions from transport food and goods dominated the household cbcf the national cbcf was higher than most european nations and 55 higher than the territorial emissions inventory approximately 71 of household emissions were attributed to imported goods which were mapped globally revealing that the ghg emissions burden of icelandic consumption falls primarily on developing nations the findings suggest that a broader ghg accounting framework and resulting policy focus is required both in iceland and globally that incorporates both supply and demand based ghg reduction strategies

new firm survival industry strategy and location abstract how important is the physical location of a new firm for its chances of survival location of a new firm whether in urban metro or rural vicinities can have important impacts on performance outcomes urban locations often contain a wealth of diverse resources but may also have a greater number of competitors rural locations may lack diversity but can enable the firm to exploit a niche with limited competition we suggest that a simple examination of new firm location will not adequately predict survival chances rather the impact on location of the new firm will be influenced by the industry in which the new firm operates and by the strategy the new firm pursues the industry of the new firm is examined by focusing on where the new firm is located in the value chain we predict that a new firm upstream in the industry value chain will have better chances of survival than new firms downstream in the industry value chain new firms with broadly focused strategies are hypothesized to have greater survival chances than new firms strategically positioned to exploit a narrow market focus and we predict that new firms in urban locations will have greater chances for survival than new firms in rural locations

growth in global materials use gdp and population during the 20th century the growing industrial metabolism is a major driver of global environmental change we present an assessment of the global use of materials since the beginning of the 20th century based on the conceptual and methodological principles of material flow accounting mfa on the grounds of published statistical data data compilations and estimation procedures for material flows not covered by international statistical sources we compiled a quantitative estimate of annual global extraction of biomass fossil energy carriers metal ores industrial minerals and construction minerals for the period 1900 to 2005 this period covers important phases of global industrialisation and economic growth the paper analyses the observed changes in the overall size and composition of global material flows in relation to the global economy population growth and primary energy consumption we show that during the last century global materials use increased 8 fold humanity currently uses almost 60 billion tons gt of materials per year in particular the period after wwii was characterized by rapid physical growth driven by both population and economic growth within this period there was a shift from the dominance of renewable biomass towards mineral materials materials use increased at a slower pace than the global economy but faster than world population as a consequence material intensity i e the amount of materials required per unit of gdp declined while materials use per capita doubled from 4 6 to 10 3 t cap yr the main material groups show different trajectories while biomass use hardly keeps up with population growth the mineral fractions grow at a rapid pace we show that increases in material productivity are mostly due to the slow growth of biomass use while they are much less pronounced for the mineral fractions so far there is no evidence that growth of global materials use is slowing down or might eventually decline and our results indicate that an increase in material productivity is a general feature of economic development

integrating sustainability into city level co2 accounting social consumption pattern and income distribution abstract from a sustainability perspective city level co2 emissions require reconsiderations correspondingly the economy environment society nexus should be incorporated into city scale co2 accounting therefore in this study the semi closed io model is integrated with a hem to calculate co2 emissions arising from the social consumption pattern and income distribution and to explore economic drivers behind co2 variations this method is applied to a case study of beijing result demonstrate that beijing in 2012 witnessed something different from that in 2005 1 co2 emissions centred in the internal linkages of a broader class of consumption terms with high economic output mainly driven by interprovincial exports 2 imports increasingly helped decarbonize the mixed net forward and backward co2 linkages of consumption items and 3 income driven co2 emissions excluding demand side parts persisted which were more obvious on the supply side where households have more economy wide effects besides urban households played an essential role in household wide co2 reductions this paper ended with corresponding conclusions policy implications and directions for future work

uncovering the influence of social venture creation on commercial venture creation a population ecology perspective abstract this study takes a population ecology perspective to uncover the influence that social venture creation exerts on commercial venture creation data from 88 ohio counties during 2003 2007 uncovered a negative relationship suggesting that social ventures compete for resources with commercial ventures at the time of founding additionally we found that income levels in the county affected the inter population dynamics between social and commercial ventures specifically lower income levels exacerbated the competitive relationship between social and commercial ventures low levels of government spending on welfare were found to suppress commercial start up rates

a bibliometric review energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions in the residential sector residential sector has been one key sector for reducing its greenhouse gas emissions due to its significant contribution to global warming researchers in different countries have studied household energy consumption patterns and greenhouse gas emissions in order to promote low carbon lifestyles however few review papers have been published in this regard leading to a lack of systematic understanding on the related research achievements hence by using a bibliometric approach this paper aims to review the existing literature and examine the evolution of such a field so that the research trends can be uncovered including popular research methods citation analysis is performed to assess the influence of most productive journals countries territories and authors network analysis is also conducted to evaluate the relationship among different countries territories authors and keywords research outcomes of this paper present a comprehensive research picture on residential energy consumption and corresponding greenhouse gas emissions ree related papers published from 1997 to 2016 the most productive journals countries territories authors are also analyzed based on citation analysis and network analysis in addition results also revealed that behavioral analysis input output analysis life cycle assessment and cost benefit analysis are the most commonly used methods in this field results obtained from this study can provide valuable information for researchers interested in the ree related field

the economics of formal business networks abstract this paper analyzes the under researched issue of formal business networks comprising voluntary groupings of entrepreneurs who share knowledge and experiences between themselves economic analysis is used to show how formal business networks which enable entrepreneurs to share good and bad practice can improve efficiency and social welfare the paper also derives conditions for the existence and equilibrium size of formal business networks two principles of network design are proposed to promote their stability and to avoid their collapse

the material basis of the global economy worldwide patterns of natural resource extraction and their implications for sustainable resource use policies abstract material flow accounting and analysis mfa has been established as an influential framework for quantifying the use of natural resources by modern societies so far however no reference data for overall scale and trends of global extraction of natural resources and their distribution between different world regions has been available this paper presents the first comprehensive quantification of the material basis of the global economy i e used domestic extraction in a time series from 1980 to 2002 we analyse time trends for major material groups fossil fuels metals industrial and construction minerals and biomass disaggregated into seven world regions this allows for a an illustration of the global economy s physical growth driven by worldwide processes of economic integration over the past decades and b an indication of the worldwide distribution of environmental pressures associated with material extraction the results show that annual resource consumption of the world economy increased by about one third between 1980 and 2002 this indicates that scale effects due to economic growth more than compensated for other effects such as the relative increase of the service sectors contribution to gdp structural effect and the use of new production technologies with higher material and energy efficiency technology effect the observed growth of natural resource extraction is unevenly distributed over the main material categories with metals showing the highest growth rate the regional analysis shows the increasing importance of asia and latin america in global resource extraction on the global level material intensity i e resource extraction per unit of gdp decreased by about 25 indicating relative decoupling of resource extraction from economic growth the paper concludes with policy recommendations for a more sustainable use of natural resources

comparing a territorial based and a consumption based approach to assess the local and global environmental performance of cities abstract in the framework of pressing local and global environmental challenges it is essential to understand that cities are complex systems dependent on and linked to the rest of the world through global supply chains that embody an array of environmental flows cities are thus a complex articulation that intertwine local and global challenges which rely at their extended hinterland for their resource use and pollution emission to assess the environmental sustainability of an urban area in a comprehensive manner it is not only necessary to measure its local and direct environmental performance but also to understand and take into account its global and indirect environmental counterparts this paper presents a comparative analysis of a territorial based and a consumption based approach to estimate both direct and embodied resource use and pollution flows for the case of brussels capital region belgium the territorial based approach is based on local energy water and material consumption measured data as well as measured data on waste generation and pollution emissions the estimation of indirect resource use and pollution emissions or consumption based approach is based on the regional io tables of the city region of brussels extended with multi region input output tables taking into account the global flows of consumption the comparison of these two approaches is particularly relevant in the case of cities that have limited productive activities and limited or no extraction of materials as the impact on the hinterland is often underestimated or neglected by local environmental policies which are only based on territorial based figures the results show that the indirect primary energy use ghg emissions and material use estimated by the consumption based approach is more than three times higher than local measures indicate the embodied water use estimated via ioa was over 40 times higher than the local water consumption these results show that territorial based approach using local data underestimate the resource needs and pollution emissions of a city and can therefore be insufficient or even be misguiding by mapping the origin of embodied flows it is in fact possible to illustrate the open character of an urban economy and its dependence on the global hinterland finally this paper discusses the possibility and relevance to combine these two approaches to create a hybrid framework that measures the full environmental performance of cities both accurately and comprehensively

homeownership and investment in risky assets abstract this paper uses the 1989 survey of consumer finances to show that committed expenditures related to homeownership cause agents to hold their financial assets in a safe form this work follows theoretical results by fratantoni 5 which show that the mortgage commitment leads to reduced risky asset holding and empirical results by guisoet al 7 which show that agents with uncertain labor income hold fewer risky assets i find that doubling the median homeowner s mortgage payment income ratio leads to a 15 decrease in the risky share

global gatekeeping representation and network structure a longitudinal analysis of regional and global knowledge diffusion networks this paper argues that structural characteristics of knowledge diffusion networks such as density levels centralization levels and the presence of global knowledge brokers contribute to the emergence of dominant designs and the competitiveness of countries firms and industries it further suggests that national institutional structures and firm specific attributes influence the development of these knowledge diffusion networks six propositions developed from examination of one industry s networks and previous scholarly literature specify these arguments

energy requirements of consumption urban form climatic and socio economic factors rebounds and their policy implications household consumption requires energy to be used at all stages of the economic process thereby directly and indirectly leading to environmental impacts across the entire production chain the levels structure and determinants of energy requirements of household consumption therefore constitute an important avenue of research incorporating the full upstream requirements into the analysis helps to avoid simplistic conclusions which would actually only imply shifts between consumption categories without taking the economy wide effects into account this paper presents the investigation of the direct and indirect primary energy requirements of australian households contrasting urban suburban and rural consumption patterns as well as inter and intra regional levels of inequality in energy requirements furthermore the spatial and socio economic drivers of energy consumption for different categories of energy requirements are identified and quantified conclusions regarding the relationships between energy requirements household characteristics urban form and urbanization processes are drawn and the respective policy implications are explored

energy requirements of households in brazil abstract in this study we determine the total direct plus indirect energy requirements of a given set of brazilian households we use a generalized input output model in order to calculate the energy embodied in goods and services purchased by households of different income level in 11 capital cities of brazil our results show that on average the total energy intensity of household expenditure increases with income level although there is a considerable spread in energy intensities within income classes as well as disparities between regions of the country the total yearly average energy requirement per household in brazil in 1995 96 was 173 6 gj 61 of which was indirect with 32 8 gj for the lower income level 66 of which was indirect and 602 2 gj for the higher income level 62 of which was indirect of this total average energy requirement 76 was required for only three consumption categories utilities 31 mobility 28 and shelter 17 this analysis calls for the attention that has to be given not only to the direct energy consumption as motor fuels and electricity for example but also to the consumption categories that encompass an important part of the indirect energy requirement of households in capital cities in brazil

the community dynamics of entrepreneurship the birth of the american film industry 1895 1929 the study of entrepreneurship has traditionally focused on the founders of new organizations especially those that emerge as leaders in the creation of new industries much of this work follows what gartner 1989 called the traits approach studies of this type posit a causal link between the founding and success of new organizations and the personal attributes of the entrepreneurs however more recent research has documented the many ways in which successful entrepreneurship requires more than just the right person a multitude of factors operating at both the organizational and evironmental levels of analysis also affect the success of entrepreneurial efforts examples include technological change shane 1996 changes in sources of firm capital cable and shane 1997 changes in strategic alliances eisenhardt and schoonhoven 1996 personal networks ostgaard and birley 1996 national environments shane and kolvereid 1995 location choice stearns carter reynolds and williams 1995 and national culture shane 1992

why are there nimbys an owner occupied home is an un usual asset because it cannot be diversi ed among locations and because it is the onlysizable asset that most owners possess among the unin sured risks of homeownership is devaluation by nearby changes in land use opponents of land use change are called nimbys not in my back yard this article submits that nimbyism is a rational response to the uninsured risks of home ownership it explores the possibilities and draw backs of providing an insurance market to cover such risks it concludes that some progress is being made towards developing such markets jel r52 residents who strenuously oppose devel opment of land in their immediate area are often called nimbys the acronymic per soni cation of the expression not in my backyard the oppositionof neighbors is an importantproblemin americanland use reg ulation itcanfrustrate the implementationof carefully planned residential development locally desired industrial development and placement of the necessary nuisances of ur ban life such as power plants and land lls downs 1994 fischel 1991 nelson 1999 portney 1991 rephann forthcoming nimbys sometimes appear to be irratio nal in theiroppositionto projects in the sense that they express far fetched anxieties or doggedly ght projects whose expected neighborhood effects seem small or even be nign i submit in this note that such anxieties might not be irrational if we consider that most nimbys are homeowners and that homeowners cannot insure their major and often only asset against devaluation by neighborhood effects nimbyism mightbet ter be viewed as a risk averse strategy i con clude with a few notes about how an insur ance market might be developed to head off

the social and private micro level consequences of homeownership abstract this paper reviews the literature that describes the micro level economic and social consequences of homeownership we adopt an interdisciplinary approach and include studies from economics sociology geography political science psychology and other disciplines our focus is on the set of consequences of homeownership in developed countries our list of potential outcomes of homeownership includes the impact on household wealth and portfolio choice mobility labor force participation urban structure and segregation home maintenance political and social activities health demographics self esteem and child outcomes there is substantial evidence that homeownership has important effects on some household behaviors and outcomes however we find that much of the past 30 year s literature on consequences of homeowning is deficient from a theoretical or econometric perspective we suggest solutions and identify research gaps present in the literature

joining the pack or going solo a dynamic theory of new firm positioning abstract the question of new firm positioning in the marketplace and entrant s subsequent long term performance lies at the heart of strategic entrepreneurship we suggest a dynamic theory of new firm positioning that hinges on an important feature of the competitive environment industry level product diversity the key argument is that industry level product diversity drives imitation or differentiation at entry which in turn shapes the exit likelihood of new entrants so in our theory the extent of the new entrant s product portfolio overlap with all the industry s incumbents takes center stage support for our logic is obtained from the analysis of the life histories of 640 british motorcycle producers during the period 1899 1993

the evolution of new technology ventures over 20 years patterns of failure merger and survival abstract relatively few studies of entrepreneurs have examined the evolution of business ventures over a long period of time this paper summarizes the fate of 250 technology based companies founded in northern california during the 1960s the three outcomes studied are failure merger and continued operation in addition interviews with a dozen founders of firms that survived the entire 20 year period shed light on the founders own interpretations of why they succeeded by 1988 50 of the firms in the sample had failed 32 had merged or been acquired and 18 had survived as independent businesses there was a steady and occasionally sharp erosion in the number of survivors throughout the period a striking finding was that fully 78 of the surviving firms in 1988 still had one or more of the original founders in place among the factors predicting failure were product market problems such as product timing difficulties problems of product design or inappropriate distribution channels financial difficulties such as initial undercapitalization or problems with the venture capital relationship and managerial key employee problems such as imbalance in the management team or succumbing to the trappings of success the firms in the data base which were subsequently merged or acquired exhibited a number of macro and micro characteristics from a macro point of view the merger acquisition rates seem to have been lower than the national rate in the late 1960s higher in the later 1970s and similar in the 1980s from a micro point of view discernible patterns existed among acquired firms such as size and year since founding interviews with surviving founders suggested that relations between founders banking and credit problems attempted takeovers and international expansion were among the key crises that had to be overcome by the surviving firms of particular interest was the diversity of motives for founding the business reported by the survivors in addition to the desire to achieve wealth or to be independent we heard mentioned loyalty to a product or technology which would otherwise disappear and commitment to satisfying a customer group also noted were founders who indicated that their career as an entrepreneur came about primarily by accident five themes emerging from the interviews were characterized by the surviving founders as business lessons learned 1 know yourself 2 love your product 3 honor your customer 4 treat your people well and 5 keep your integrity the interviews in conjunction with the data on surviving firms are useful in expanding our understanding of the type of person that starts a business and why some start ups succeed over the long term particularly noteworthy is the number affirms who survived without ever growing larger theories of long term entrepreneurial success may need to take risk aversion into account

energy intensity and embodied energy flow in australia an input output analysis abstract decoupling energy use from economic growth is critical for improving energy productivity and mitigating climate change input output databases have been increasingly utilised for consumption based energy accounting and for exploring both the direct and indirect influence of energy use this study performed an environmentally extended input output analysis of energy use in australia from 2006 to 2015 to investigate the total energy intensity of industry sectors and the embodied energy flow from sources of energy use to the final consumption of commodities between 2006 and 2015 the national direct energy intensity reduced by an average of 2 per annum nearly all industry sectoral groups reduced their total energy intensity because of direct energy intensity reduction from other or within industry sectoral groups the difference between the embodied energy use in the import and the export had widened making australia a greater net importer of embodied energy with significant outsourcing of direct energy use and associated greenhouse gas emissions despite a slight reduction in per capita direct household energy use 3 the per capita indirect energy use embodied in household commodity consumption increased by 7 as indirect household energy use is more than three times direct household energy use improving end use energy efficiency should also consider the embodied energy in commodities structural decomposition analysis shows that for the studied period population growth and per capita demand for imported commodities are two major contributors for the increased total embodied energy in australia

firm entry and institutional lock in an organizational ecology analysis of the global fashion design industry few industries are more concentrated geographically than the global fashion design industry we analyze the geography and evolution of the fashion design industry by looking at the yearly entry rates at the city level in contrast to other industry studies we find that legitimation processes operate locally and competition processes globally this result points to the rapid turnover of ideas in the fashion design industry on the one hand and the global demand for fashion apparel on the other hand we attribute the decline of paris in the post war period to institutional lock in which prevented a ready to wear cluster to emerge despite the presence of the haute couture cluster an extended organizational ecology model provides empirical support for this claim