supply security and short run capacity markets for electricity the creation of electricity markets has raised the fundamental question as to whether markets create the right incentives for the provision of the reserves needed to maintain supply security in the short run or whether some form of regulation is required in some states in the us electricity distributors have been made responsible for providing such reserves by contracting capacity in excess of their forecasted peak demand the so called installed capacity markets provide one means of contracting reserves and are the subject of this paper under monopoly as well as under perfect competition we identify firms short run opportunity costs of committing resources in the capacity market and the costs of inducing full capacity commitment the long run investment problem is not considered from a welfare viewpoint we also compare the desirability of providing reserves either through capacity markets or through the demand side i e power curtailments at the optimum capacity obligations equal peak demand plus expected outages and the capacity deficiency rate which serves as a price cap is set at firms opportunity costs of providing full capacity commitment

energy vulnerability around the world the global energy vulnerability index gevi abstract vulnerability has garnered an increasing attention from academia international community and industry nonetheless formal definition mainstreaming and measurement of vulnerability are still flawed in the economic literature energy vulnerability intended as the exposure of an energy system to adverse events and change often overlaps with other energy policy concepts such as resilience security poverty justice and sustainability this paper improves understanding of vulnerability in economics energy and sustainability studies by i constructing a dataset on energy vulnerability made of 180 000 observations ii formally defining energy vulnerability while considering the regulatory framework and development agenda iii building a composite indicator on energy vulnerability iv analyzing and ranking the energy vulnerability of a vast number of oecd and non oecd countries v testing for robustness checks the analysis suggests that gdp is not necessarily a leading driver for energy vulnerability whilst resource embedment is since fossil and renewable energy producers are less vulnerable eventually the paper validates that green countries are less vulnerable differently from cold heavily industrialized and highly consuming countries

res and risk renewable energy s contribution to energy security a portfolio based approach abstract during the first decade of the 21st century renewable energy sources res had been gaining momentum due to environmental issues concerns about pollution and climate change have raised public awareness encouraging governments to adopt policies to preserve and protect the environment regarding energy res promotion together with energy efficiency measures has been the main policy response to address such concerns as a consequence res development during the first decade of the 21st century has been remarkable although res deployment has been mainly focused on achieving environmental goals its potential contribution to energy security went not unnoticed however it is worth noting that while the trade off between environmental goals and the use of res to accomplish them and competitiveness has been widely explored the relationship between energy security and res has received less attention both at the conceptual and energy policy levels this article tries to address such a relationship the present article focuses on renewable electricity imports as illustrated by the case of the mediterranean solar plan after introducing the energy security energy risk concept and its dimensions the article focuses on the contribution of res in terms of security of supply for a given energy mix using the portfolio theory most of the analyses of the interactions between res and energy security focus on the national level with res being mainly conceived as a substitute for fuel imports to produce electricity and reduce so called energy dependence however new transmission technologies allow the import of electricity directly from neighbouring countries far out of the range of regular electricity lines therefore this article tries to broaden the analysis of energy security to international res trade flows applying the previous discussion to the main project involving significant international green electricity trade the mediterranean solar plan

security of supply and regulation of energy networks abstract in recent years the security of energy supplies has re emerged as a central issue in the energy policy arena in the uk and elsewhere this re emergence takes place against a backdrop of increased liberalisation of the energy markets so that security of supply needs to be revisited within this context security of supply is multifaceted but is often discussed in terms of physical availability of energy sources and their commodity price risk this paper discusses the relationship between security of supply and network regulation that is how the energy networks and appropriate regulation of them can contribute to security of supply in liberalised energy sectors energy networks are predominantly natural monopolies and as a result are generally subject to regulatory oversight we discuss a range of issues and trends that pose challenges and opportunities to network regulation and which call for new and innovative measures the paper identifies a number of areas where network regulation can play a significant role in increasing the security of supply of future energy systems

measuring the energy security implications of fossil fuel resource concentration abstract economic assessments of the welfare effects of energy insecurity are typically uncertain and fail to provide clear guidance to policy makers as a result governments have had little analytical support to complement expert judgment in the assessment of energy security this is likely to be inadequate when considering multiple policy goals and in particular the intersections between energy security and climate change mitigation policies this paper presents an alternative approach which focuses on gauging the causes of energy insecurity as a way to assist policy making the paper focuses on the energy security implications of fossil fuel resource concentration and distinguishes between the price and physical availability components of energy insecurity it defines two separate indexes the energy security price index espi based on the measure of market concentration in competitive fossil fuel markets and the energy security physical availability index espai based on the measure of supply flexibility in regulated markets the paper illustrates the application of espi and espai with two case studies france and the united kingdom looking at the evolution of both indexes to 2030

oil vulnerability index of oil importing countries abstract this paper assesses the relative oil vulnerability of 26 net oil importing countries for the year 2004 on the basis of various indicators the ratio of value of oil imports to gross domestic product gdp oil consumption per unit of gdp gdp per capita and oil share in total energy supply ratio of domestic reserves to oil consumption exposure to geopolitical oil market concentration risks as measured by net oil import dependence diversification of supply sources political risk in oil supplying countries and market liquidity the approach using the principal component technique has been adopted to combine these individual indicators into a composite index of oil vulnerability such an index captures the relative sensitivity of various economies towards developments of the international oil market with a higher index indicating higher vulnerability the results show that there are considerable differences in the values of individual indicators of oil vulnerability and overall oil vulnerability index among the countries both inter and intraregional

energy security and renewable energy deployment in the eu liaisons dangereuses or virtuous circle abstract a large body of literature estimates the effect of energy security drivers on renewable energy deployment using import dependence as a proxy for energy security which is an approach that ignores the potential effect of other energy security strategies such as the diversification of energy sources using panel data for the energy sector across 21 eu member states we investigate the effect of different energy security concepts on the development of renewable energies we compare the results of applying different energy security indicators including the ones used in eu energy policymaking unlike previous studies this study reports a long term relationship between energy security and renewable deployment our findings suggest that the relationship between energy security policies and renewable energy sources res deployment is far from straightforward and depends on the chosen energy security strategy which is usually linked to different energy security conceptualizations our primary findings confirm i that res deployment is a consequence of a combination of energy security strategies including environmental concerns rather than being solely caused by a shift towards more sustainable energy policies and ii that among the different energy security strategies the diversification of energy sources through renewable energy deployment is a more coherent strategy than using res to reduce dependency

assessing the risk profile to security of supply in the electricity market of great britain security of electricity supply has been an important topic of growing concern in the united kingdom as the margin of supply over demand tightens and the risk to security of supply widens the risk profile to security of supply is presented in the united kingdom in terms of the conventional metrics capacity margin and loss of load expectation however increasing levels of disruption in the power sector arising from a combination of policy technological and customer change challenge this traditional approach to characterise the risk to security of supply the paper presents a framework to evaluate the risk profile to security of supply through a series of probabilistic metrics that establish the expected magnitude power and energy likelihood frequency and duration of encountering supply shortfalls this detailed characterisation of the risk profile enables risks to be fully identified assessed and prioritised facilitating effective risk management

linking consumer energy efficiency with security of supply most modern energy policies seek to achieve systematic ongoing incremental increases in consumer energy efficiency since this contributes to improved security of supply favourable environmental outcomes and increased economic efficiency yet realised levels of efficiency are typically well below the most cost effective equilibrium due to variety of behavioural and organisational barriers which are often linked to information constraints in addition efficient users are normally unrewarded for collective benefits to system security and to the environment thus reducing the incentives for energy consumers to invest in efficiency improvements this paper examines the dichotomies and symmetries between supply and demand side solutions to energy security concerns and reviews opportunities to overcome barriers to improved consumer efficiency a security market is identified as a mechanism to promote both demand and supply side investments that support electricity system security such a market would assist in setting the optimal quantity of reserves while achieving an efficient balance between supply and demand side initiatives it would also help to smooth overall investment throughout the energy system by encouraging incremental approaches such as distributed generation and demand side alternatives where they provide competitive value although the discussion is applicable to energy systems in general it focuses primarily on electricity in new zealand

assessing the energy vulnerability case of industrialised countries the emergence of new big consumer countries on the energy markets and the perspective of oil and gas depletion at the end of the current century raise the concerns about fair distribution of the remaining resources for the common and sustainable wellbeing of the mankind high volatility of energy prices discourages the investment and delays the energy technology transition voluntary measures are needed mainly in industrialised countries in order to develop alternative and sustainable energy sources to enable technology transfer towards emerging and developing countries and to avoid struggle for energy procurement in this paper a composite index of energy demand supply weaknesses is defined as a proxy of energy vulnerability the proposed index is based on several indicators such as energy intensity oil and gas import dependency co2 content of primary energy supply electricity supply weaknesses and non diversity in transport fuels the assessment of this composite index for selected industrialised countries is discussed as well as the sensitivity to various factors

strategies against shocks in power systems an analysis for the case of europe abstract electricity systems are constantly exposed to geopolitical techno economic and natural uncertainties that may endanger security of supply therefore it is crucial that policy makers concerned about it consider a variety of possible futures and not only the one that is perceived as the most likely in particular they should account for the possibility of sudden shocks in their decisions with the goal of making the system more robust however long term power system models which are an important pillar of policy decision making are typically designed to determine the cost minimal power system for a specific expected future such a system is not necessarily the most robust one by combining the classic investment optimization approach with the tools of robust decision making we analyze the viability of different strategies that may potentially increase the robustness of a power system for the case of the european power system we pursue a dedicated analysis with the european power system model limes eu based on a total of more than 40 000 model runs we find that strategies promoting the ability of countries to always produce at least 95 of their electricity demand domestically significantly help to reduce the loss of load in case of shocks such a strategy is not cost optimal for the expected future without shocks but the additional costs about 0 1 of total system costs are low compared to the benefits of significantly increasing the power system s robustness

diversity and security in uk electricity generation the influence of low carbon objectives abstract we explore the relationship between low carbon objectives and the strategic security of electricity in the context of the uk electricity system we consider diversity of fuel source mix to represent one dimension of security robustness against interruptions of any one source and apply two different diversity indices to the range of electricity system scenarios produced by the uk government and independent researchers our results show that low carbon objectives are uniformly associated with greater long term diversity in uk electricity generation with reference to data on wind generation we also consider the impact of source variability on a second dimension of security the reliability of generation availability we conclude that this does not undermine our fundamental conclusion that low carbon scenarios are associated with greater strategic security of supply in uk electricity we discuss reasons for this result explore sensitivities and briefly discuss possible policy instruments associated with diversity and their limitations

exploring public perceptions of energy security risks in the uk along with climate change and affordability concerns about energy security are key drivers behind proposals for major energy system change in the uk and numerous other countries unlike climate change we know very little about how the public thinks and feels about this aspect of sustainability and energy policy beyond engaging critically with conceptual and theoretical discussions empirical data from two surveys cardiff postal survey n 520 online uk survey n 499 using a ten item energy security scale are presented and discussed here we show that aspects of energy security are certainly of concern to the uk public with particularly high concern around dependence on fossil fuels imports and relatively lower expressed concern for actual disruption of energy supply however public concerns around energy security are only emerging and likely to change depending on the context in which it is discussed e g in comparison to climate change in addition findings from public interviews are used to further contextualise the survey findings showing unfamiliarity among the uk public with regards to the term energy security we discuss implications and further work that would be useful for understanding public perceptions in more depth

ena based evaluation of energy supply security comparison between the chinese crude oil and natural gas supply systems abstract energy has become a scarce global strategic resource and energy supply security is receiving increasing attention a common evaluation platform is necessary to systematically understand the supply security levels of different energy sources and help make the national energy strategy ecological network analysis ena is thus regarded as a useful common tool to systematically simulate evaluate and compare the supply security for different energy sources when considering the fact that modern energy systems have formed a complex global energy network through extensive energy trading based on the established ena platform we evaluated and compared china s crude oil and natural gas supply security from 2000 to 2012 to this end we assessed the overall security level investigated the relationship among different compartments within the network system determined the system s structure and analyzed the system s properties it was found that the chinese crude oil supply security level was higher than that of the natural gas supply and that the crude oil supply system was more mature in terms of multiple properties suggestions are proposed to improve the chinese energy supply security based on further scenario analysis including increasing domestic energy production controlling energy consumption diversifying foreign supply sources and strengthening the strategic reserve the ena based common platform can be used for the systematic evaluation and improvement of energy supply security and further support national energy policymaking for both developed and developing countries both energy importers and exporters

a framework to evaluate security of supply in the electricity sector security of electricity supply soes has become a major concern for regulators and policymakers over the last decade however most work focusses either more generally on energy security or on a single fuel we develop a comprehensive but flexible framework to assess the soes for a single jurisdiction taking into the account the specificities of electricity this framework has two aims i provide a snapshot of the situation to understand current weaknesses and determine what actions are required ii capture the evolution over time to evaluate progress and identify potential problems before they materialise the framework based on an extensive literature review consists of twelve dimensions that are critical for soes we develop metrics that capture the state and evolution of each dimension this framework is intended to be a management information tool for all stakeholders aimed at organising data and structuring its analysis to enable monitoring the evolution of the soes while also functioning as an early warning system by flagging potential future problems

assessment and regulation of urban crude oil supply security a network perspective abstract a stable energy supply is essential to support urban socioeconomic activities and to ensure urban sustainable development a quantitative systematic method is necessary to evaluate and improve the security level or urban energy supply ecological network analysis ena is thus applied as a useful general analysis tool to systematically simulate evaluate and compare energy supply security in different cities based on the established ena model we evaluated and compared the crude oil supply security for beijing shanghai and tianjin from 1997 to 2012 via sustainability stability and structure analyses the results indicate that the overall levels of crude oil supply security for the three cities showed similar features and increase trends during the study period whereas the key influencing compartments were different correspondingly related suggestions were proposed to improve urban crude oil supply security based on further scenario analysis including diversifying supply sources maintaining domestic supply improving internal crude oil production increasing consumption within a certain range and strengthening strategic reserves with different emphases for different cities the ena based general method provides a new perspective on the systematic evaluation and regulation of urban energy supply security which can support urban energy policymaking

energy security and improvements in the function of diversity indices taiwan energy supply structure case study abstract facing the risk and uncertainty inherent in social and economic development many countries have adopted an energy supply diversification strategy in their energy security policy to control the energy import risk and cost to ensure that sufficient energy can be obtained at an affordable price level diversification helps the energy system respond to external changes and shocks diversification can also lessen the vulnerability of a single energy source to supply shocks and the market power of various energy supply sources this study develops the diversity reliability index and co vary diversity reliability index based on the hirschman herfindahl and shannon wiener indices investigates the contribution of different energy sources to the energy system and analyzes the covariance between various energies and their impacts on energy security to determine the impact of energy diversity in reducing the risk of energy supply shortages and cost fluctuations

indicators of energy security in industrialised countries energy security has become a popular catch phrase both in the scientific arena as well as in the political discussion yet in general the applied concepts of energy security are rather vague this paper sheds some light on concepts and indicators of energy security first we conceptually discuss the issue of energy supply security and explain why it is not to handle by one science alone and what economics may contribute in order to structure the topic after providing a brief survey of existing attempts to define or measure energy security we suggest an additional dimension along which indicators of energy security may be classified ex post and ex ante indicators finally we illustrate our concept on the basis of several simplified indicators while ex post indicators are mostly based on price developments ex ante indicators are to a greater extent aimed at illustrating potential problems our illustration suggests that it is worthwhile to take into account the market structure along with the political stability of exporting countries

energy security externalities and policies abstract in this paper we review conceptual arguments and empirical evidence related to two potential sources of market failure involving energy security in doing so we consider several questions involving the distinction between externality and market inefficiency and the distinction between market failures that are amenable or not amenable to correction given our current understanding of the workings of an economy several conclusions follow from our analysis regarding the potential sources of market failure and possible remedies the problem of excess wealth transfer from exporter market power may be an issue but current knowledge of oil market behaviour is too weak to support a strong conclusion other supposed costs of oil import dependence also are not well grounded including externalities related to the vulnerability of the economy to energy price shocks

identifying the main uncertainty drivers of energy security in a low carbon world the case of europe abstract this analysis contributes to recent efforts to better understand the evolution of energy security in a low carbon world our objective was to assess how energy security may change over the course of the century and to what extent these changes depend on the uncertainty of the factors that drive the evolution of energy systems including future technologies improved energy efficiency fossil fuel resources and markets and economic growth to this end we focused on europe and on a set of energy security indicators based on three perspectives sovereignty robustness and resilience a database of scenarios allowed us to account for the large uncertainties surrounding the determinants of future energy systems we then analyzed the way energy security indicators evolve over time and how their trajectories vary across scenarios we identified the indicators that vary the most between scenarios i e the indicators whose future evolution is the most uncertain for these indicators we performed an analysis of variance to estimate the contribution of each driver to the uncertainty of the indicators the paper shows that the european double target of significantly decreasing co 2 emissions and increasing the security of the supply of energy may be difficult to reach nevertheless some levers could facilitate the transition to a low carbon society while improving energy security or by limiting its degradation the results emphasize not only the importance of policies in favor of low or zero carbon technologies in power generation but also the differences in their contributions to the complete uncertainty of the indicators policies promoting energy efficiency also play a role but only in the resilience of tpes these policies are thus important levers for mitigating the negative impacts of climate policies on energy security

russian gas price reform and the eu russia gas relationship incentives consequences and european security of supply in order to provide a comprehensive picture on the relationship between russia and the eu the focus should be on both the external energy relationship as well as russia s internal organization this paper sets out to do this by combining both strands of research in order to arrive at recommendations for europe on the way to adjust its energy policy towards russia the emphasis is on whether or not russia should impose unified gas pricing main conclusions are that the perceived advantages of unified russian gas pricing to russia as well as europe are in fact overstated and that eu security of supply might worsen under unified gas prices three policy recommendations are that eu policy should 1 more explicitly acknowledge the interdependence between russia and europe 2 not push russia towards unified gas pricing and 3 not take for granted any increase in russian exports flowing to europe

energy security under de carbonization scenarios an assessment framework and evaluation under different technology and policy choices abstract how would a low carbon energy transformation affect energy security this paper proposes a framework to evaluate energy security under long term energy scenarios generated by integrated assessment models energy security is defined as low vulnerability of vital energy systems delineated along geographic and sectoral boundaries the proposed framework considers vulnerability as a combination of risks associated with inter regional energy trade and resilience reflected in energy intensity and diversity of energy sources and technologies we apply this framework to 43 scenarios generated by the message model as part of the global energy assessment including one baseline scenario and 42 low carbon scenarios where the global mean temperature increase is limited to 2 c over the pre industrial level by and large low carbon scenarios are associated with lower energy trade and higher diversity of energy options especially in the transport sector a few risks do emerge under low carbon scenarios in the latter half of the century they include potentially high trade in natural gas and hydrogen and low diversity of electricity sources trade is typically lower in scenarios which emphasize demand side policies as well as non tradable energy sources nuclear and renewables while diversity is higher in scenarios which limit the penetration of intermittent renewables

conceptual proposals for measuring the impact of international regimes on energy security abstract the paper proposes two concepts to assess the effect of international regimes on energy security existing indicators focus mainly on state level factors excluding international influences international relation scholars on the other hand see a clear connection between international regimes and stable energy relations international regimes stabilise energy relations by providing frameworks for negotiations defining controlling and sanctioning compliance and allowing the actors to engage in package deals the researcher needs to include these factors in a complete assessment of political energy security risks as first step the paper uses the effectiveness of control mechanisms as basis for such consideration it refers specifically to international arbitration as the most important control mechanism in international energy relations the simplest measurement option is the share of a county s energy imports covered by a certain regime the paper applies the oslo potsdam solution to account for outcome effectiveness it applies a variant of the international regimes data base protocol to account for effective regime structures in a last section the paper proposes some possible paths for future research

long term energy services security what is it and how can it be measured and valued abstract the paper reviews some recent approaches towards measuring the extent of long term energy security and security externality valuation it starts out to discuss the contextual connotations of notions of energy security in medium to long term time frames and reviews some indicators that have been proposed to quantify it special attention is paid to two of these approaches which the authors helped to develop i e diversity based indices and the supply demand index the paper takes issue with conventional welfare economic approaches that neglect i the scope on the demand side for raising security and ii negative feedback mechanisms of socio political impacts of international rent transfers in fossil fuels exporting countries the concept of energy services security is proposed with a demand side focus this enables application of an integrated approach to gauge the resilience of a society to meet the needs of its population for energy services over longer timescales ahead from various interrelated perspectives propositions are made on the attribution of security externalities to the use of fossil fuels policies and suggestions for further improvements of measures for energy services security

liberalisation and the security of gas supply in the uk abstract this paper contests the view held by the current uk government and its industry regulator ofgem that liberalisation is good for security of supply focusing on the downstream aspects of the security of uk gas supply on system security it considers the impact of the different aspects of liberalisation of legal governance supply competition de integration market simulation regulation and the interaction of liberalised gas and electricity markets categorising these impacts in terms of security threats and threats to security response it finds that individually and as a complex collectivity they have increased the risks of supply failure either potential or already realised in a variety of ways from creating increased uncertainty and failing to signal adequate or appropriate investment to legal ambiguity which divorces responsibility from liability and renders legal liability indeterminate ex ante moreover one of the uk government s responses to these increased dangers which it does appear to perceive is revealed as itself paralysed by the liberalisation paradigm the government can only intervene pre emptively with information in attempt to persuade the market to behave as it thinks it should meanwhile however the government has also had to recognise its default responsibility for security of supply and make preparations to intervene in an emergency situation liberalisation can only be challenged when it is already too late

indicators for energy security the concept of energy security is widely used yet there is no consensus on its precise interpretation in this research we have provided an overview of available indicators for long term security of supply sos we distinguished four dimensions of energy security that relate to the availability accessibility affordability and acceptability of energy and classified indicators for energy security according to this taxonomy there is no one ideal indicator as the notion of energy security is highly context dependent rather applying multiple indicators leads to a broader understanding incorporating these indicators in model based scenario analysis showed accelerated depletion of currently known fossil resources due to increasing global demand coupled with increasing spatial discrepancy between consumption and production international trade in energy carriers is projected to have increased by 142 in 2050 compared to 2008 oil production is projected to become increasingly concentrated in a few countries up to 2030 after which production from other regions diversifies the market under stringent climate policies this diversification may not occur due to reduced demand for oil possible benefits of climate policy include increased fuel diversity and slower depletion of fossil resources

labour market responses to immigration evidence from internal migration driven by weather shocks we study the labour market impact of internal migration in indonesia by instrumenting migrant flows with rainfall shocks at the origin area estimates reveal that a one percentage point increase in the share of migrants decreases income by 0 97 and reduces employment by 0 24 percentage points these effects are different across sectors employment reductions are concentrated in the formal sector while income reduction occurs in the informal sector negative consequences are most pronounced for low skilled natives even though migrants are systematically highly skilled we suggest that the two sector nature of the labour market may explain this pattern

macroeconomic and political aspects of energy security exploratory data analysis abstract although the issue of energy security stands high on the scale of the european union s priorities there has been no single accepted definition of energy security thus far in light of the global economic crisis and political instability the issue of energy security is directly linked to geopolitical and macroeconomic stability this paper offers a new method of measuring energy security which unlike the existing indicators of energy stability in addition to economic and environmental indicators also includes the political and social aspects within the composite indicator of country risk the new energy security index esi is defined based on the application of principal component analysis pca analysis of the values of a new esi indicator shows that energy security is greatly influenced by gdp per capita country risk carbon intensity energy intensity final energy consumption per capita and electricity prices while the least importance rests with the share of renewable sources in energy consumption and energy dependence the values of the index by country are stable over the entire observed period but significant differences are noticeable between countries the highest index values are reported in luxembourg sweden finland and denmark and the lowest in bulgaria romania estonia and poland with the aim of robustness check the results of eu member states rankings were compared to country rankings based on the energy trilemma index compared to country rankings based on the energy trilemma index three countries recorded the same rank denmark check republic and bulgaria and the biggest deviation of 9 ranking position was reported by luxembourg the results of the research show that there is a statistically important difference in the value of energy security index between the observed groups of countries classified according to the level of macroeconomic stability

conceptualizing energy security abstract energy security 1 is one of the main targets of energy policy however the term has not been clearly defined which makes it hard to measure and difficult to balance against other policy objectives we review the multitude of definitions of energy security they can be characterized according to the sources of risk the scope of the impacts and the severity filters in the form of the speed size sustention spread singularity and sureness of impacts using a stylized case study for three european countries we illustrate how the selection of conceptual boundaries along these dimensions determines the outcome this can be avoided by more clearly separating between security of supply and other policy objectives this leads us to the definition of energy security as the continuity of energy supplies relative to demand

energy security measurement a sustainable approach abstract the main objective of this paper is to define new energy security indicator with the long term sustainability and to test it in a sample of 28 european union countries for the period 1990 2012 as well as to determine the level of impact of six different indicators on energy security the previous methodologies for measuring of energy security have been mainly focused on security of supply while not taking into account environmental indicators and the social component the newly proposed indicator energy security index differs from the existing measuring methods precisely in a way that it includes environmental and social aspects energy security index recorded a decline in values in most countries in the period 1990 2000 in the period 2000 2008 the values became positive and after 2008 some countries reported again gradual deterioration the index value varies by year and the biggest positive changes were recorded in the case of the netherlands slovenia and spain the four economically strongest eu countries the united kingdom france germany and italy recorded significantly less fluctuations in energy security over 23 years compared to other countries the data for france and denmark show that an increased share of energy from nuclear and renewable sources can compensate even increased energy import dependence the assessment of impact of individual indicators on energy security index was conducted by using principal component analysis and showed that energy intensity gdp per capita and carbon intensity have the greatest impact the countries of the former eastern bloc are facing particular challenges of energy security which is primarily related to the rapid economic growth and at the same time a high degree of dependence on import of energy generating products in terms of energy security the most stable transition was reported in hungary and poland

anticipation and environmental regulation abstract when agents expect a change in regulation to change the relative price of new durable goods they may shift purchases forward to avoid compliance costs in the context of new vehicle emission standards prior analyses have not considered this adjustment margin we model the effects of anticipation on sales and retirements of durable goods and test our theory s predictions empirically using the 2007 implementation of heavy duty emission standards we find evidence that anticipation caused a sales spike just before the policy took effect and a symmetric sales slump after implementation which resulted in 31 164 more freight truck sales ahead of the new standard and as much as 118 million in environmental damages over the lifetimes of those vehicles

between russia as producer and ukraine as a transit country eu dilemma of interdependence and energy security abstract between 2014 and 2015 the eu started a new energy policy in order to address among other issues the problematic character of energy interdependence with russia and thus improve its energy security the aim of this article is to determine how this policy considered interdependence with russia in the light of diversification alternatives energy security is seen through short term and long term dimensions which can be equated to the concepts of vulnerability and sensitivity interdependence as the article shows the alternative of lng is limited by production and consumption patterns in both europe and other world markets it also shows that maintaining interdependence with russia and reducing the role of transit countries such as ukraine would yield benefits both in vulnerability and sensitivity interdependence however while the eu has strongly based its rhetoric on the promise of lng it has ignored alternatives that would maintain interdependence with russia eventually the eu s energy strategy has acknowledged the limitations of lng even though it has not changed its stance towards russia in that respect it seems fair to conclude the eu has not rigorously analysed the transit dimension in its interdependence with russia and the implications for its energy security