new blood as an elixir of youth effects of human capital tenure on the explorative capability of aging firms the relationship between firm age and innovation has been an enduring topic of interest we contribute to this research by studying how the effect of firm age on the quality of explorative and exploitative innovations is affected by the firm specific and industry tenure of the talent resources employees that the firm utilizes we start with the baseline predictions that firm age is related to the development of better exploitative innovations and worse explorative innovations however the tenure of employees intervenes in these relationships by way of bringing in new knowledge mental models and beliefs we predict that longer firm specific and industry tenure of employees enhances the positive effect of firm age on the quality of exploitative innovations while amplifying the negative effect of firm age on the quality of explorative innovations in addition for both the baseline and the moderating effect we also formulate a prediction comparing the quality of explorative innovations with those of

towards an attention based view of the firm the central argument is that firm behavior is the result of how firms channel and distribute the attention of their decision makers what decision makers do depends on what issues and answers they focus their attention on what issues and answers they focus on depends on the specific situation and on how the firm s rules resources and relationships distribute various issues answers and decision makers into specific communications and procedures the paper develops these theoretical principles into a model of firm behavior and presents its implications for explaining firm behavior and adaptation 1997 by john wiley sons ltd

ecosystem services from eye opening metaphor to complexity blinder abstract what started as a humble metaphor to help us think about our relation to nature has become integral to how we are addressing the future of humanity and the course of biological evolution the metaphor of nature as a stock that provides a flow of services is insufficient for the difficulties we are in or the task ahead indeed combined with the mistaken presumption that we can analyze a global problem within a partial equilibrium economic framework and reach a new economy project by project without major institutional change the simplicity of the stock flow framework blinds us to the complexity of the human predicament the ecosystem services approach can be a part of a larger solution but its dominance in our characterization of our situation and the solution is blinding us to the ecological economic and political complexities of the challenges we actually face

evaluating the influence of personal relationships on land sale prices a case study in oregon land transactions typically involve substantial personal interaction between buyer and seller despite this fact researchers have made little attempt to determine how personal relationships influence the terms of trade for a property in this study linn county oregon farm land sales from 1992 1997 were examined to better understand and quantify the influences of personal relationships transactions between relatives and neighbors involved special considerations with greater frequency than did those between strangers and acquaintances transactions between parent and child and between neighbors brought significantly less than sales between strangers transactions resulting from a realtor or advertisement sold at a significant premium

social capital in community level environmental governance a critique social capital is often claimed to facilitate collective action regarding the management of complex environmental goods and services however there is little systematic analysis in the literature that explains the way social capital aids in fostering collective action the paper integrates ideas from institutional ecological economics sociology and anthropology to argue that power relations involving struggle and resistance should be acknowledged as they affect collective action we address the question of why social capital should not be straightforwardly associated positively with common property resource management to unravel the complexity of the links between social capital collective action and common property resource management the concepts of common knowledge and symbolic power are introduced

how can market mechanisms for forest environmental services help the poor preliminary lessons from latin america summary market mechanisms for forest environmental services are a new approach for conservation but there is also an increasing interest in the derived developmental benefits of these mechanisms we first propose a conceptual framework for future research on the livelihood impacts of environmental service markets we then review eight latin american case studies on carbon sequestration and watershed protection market initiatives finding positive local income effects in most cases more land tenure security and socioinstitutional strengthening in some cases but some negative effects also we recommend pro poor policy measures such as reducing smallholders transaction costs and removing inappropriate access restrictions

bureaucratic behavior modeled by reduced rank regression the case of expenditures from the soviet state budget abstract a bureaucratic hierarchy compresses information flowing upward and disaggregates directives passing downward thus making itself amenable to modeling by reduced rank regression applying this technique to the soviet government we find that about eight latent variables are required to characterize the mapping of predetermined variables into a vector of budgetary expenditures the latent variables can be interpreted as targets for expenditures in high priority sectors

payments for pioneers revisiting the role of external rewards for sustainable innovation under heterogeneous motivations abstract acknowledging the diversity of preferences goals and motivations of individuals is key to promote the effectiveness of incentive based conservation interventions this paper analyses the heterogeneity of motivations to adopt silvopastoral practices a social ecological innovation for soil conservation and carbon emission reduction we use q methodology to identify smallholders views with regard to these practices in a community in the forest frontier in chiapas mexico the analysis uncovers three main perspectives self sufficient pioneers environmentally conscious followers and payment dependent conservatives we discuss these perspectives around three topics smallholders predisposition to adopt silvopastoral practices their views about needing external payments to sustain their livelihood and the diffusion of innovative sustainable practices we relate these perspectives with livelihood characteristics and with observed adoption levels under a pilot programme to promote silvopasture our findings suggest that incentives other than payments may be more appropriate for those more likely to adopt and that payments could encourage rent seeking strategies and not necessarily promote permanent behavioural change we suggest ways for designing more effective and adaptive environmental conservation programmes to foster adoption and continuation of social ecological innovations

explaining the attacker s advantage technological paradigms organizational dynamics and the value network abstract understanding when entrants might have an advantage over an industry s incumbent firms in developing and adopting new technologies is a question which several scholars have explained in terms of technological capabilities or organizational dynamics this paper proposes that the value network the context within which a firm competes and solves customers problems is an important factor affecting whether incumbent or entrant firms will most successfully innovate in a study of technology development in the disk drive industry the authors found that incumbents led the industry in developing and adopting new technologies of every sort identified by earlier scholars at component and architectural levels competency enhancing and competency destroying incremental and radical as long as the technology addressed customers needs within the value network in which the incumbents competed entrants led in developing and adopting technologies which addressed user needs in different emerging value networks it is in these innovations which disrupted established trajectories of technological progress in established markets that attackers proved to have an advantage the rate of improvement in product performance which technologists provide may exceed the rate of improvement demanded in established markets this mismatch between trajectories enables firms entering emerging value networks subsequently to attack the industry s established markets as well

forest owner perceptions of institutions and voluntary contracting for biodiversity conservation not crowding out but staying out although the concepts of institutions in economics and institutional analysis have been integrated in recent writings about payments for ecosystem services pes their joint operationalization and testing have been limited to tackle this integration challenge we empirically explore how finnish non industrial private forest owners perceptions about voluntary biodiversity conservation contracting correspond with the institutional theories about pes further we test whether the perceptions are related to pes contracting in the past or in the future the results of the explorative factor analyses corresponded with the theoretical considerations of both economics and institutional analysis the logistic regression analyses showed that the factors that related to past contracting differed notably from those that explained future intentions to contract most consistently perceptions about positive ecological impacts were positively related to past contracting while social and moral normative perceptions had a negative effect in other words those who would conserve nature for altruistic reasons tended not to have entered a contract but rather stayed out local and social welfare expectations increased the willingness to contract in the future our analysis highlights the importance of normative conservation justifications as well as the expectations regarding non economic benefits and welfare impacts for pes design and analysis

designing payments for environmental services in theory and practice an overview of the issues abstract payments for environmental services pes have attracted increasing interest as a mechanism to translate external non market values of the environment into real financial incentives for local actors to provide environmental services es in this introductory paper we set the stage for the rest of this special issue of ecological economics by reviewing the main issues arising in pes design and implementation and discussing these in the light of environmental economics we start with a discussion of pes definition and scope we proceed to review some of the principal dimensions and design characteristics of pes programs and then analyze how pes compares to alternative policy instruments finally we examine in detail two important aspects of pes programs their effectiveness and their distributional implications pes is not a silver bullet that can be used to address any environmental problem but a tool tailored to address a specific set of problems those in which ecosystems are mismanaged because many of their benefits are externalities from the perspective of ecosystem managers pes is based on the beneficiary pays rather than the polluter pays principle and as such is attractive in settings where es providers are poor marginalized landholders or powerful groups of actors an important distinction within pes is between user financed pes in which the buyers are the users of the es and government financed pes in which the buyers are others typically the government acting on behalf of es users in practice pes programs differ in the type and scale of es demand the payment source the type of activity paid for the performance measure used as well as the payment mode and amount the effectiveness and efficiency of pes depends crucially on program design

the role of market based instruments for biodiversity conservation in central and eastern europe this paper analyses the development and emergence of market based instruments for biodiversity conservation in central and eastern european cee countries the development of market based instruments for biodiversity conservation has been receiving increased attention as a possible cheaper and more effective alternative to the global regulatory approach the implementation of such instruments is particularly challenging in post socialist countries where the former state command and control economy disturbed the normal functioning of markets our analysis indicates that market based instruments can increase the effectiveness of biodiversity conservation but are not always suitable and appropriate the following preconditions for the effective design of market based instruments in cee countries have been identified clear property rights and decision making structure transparent rules for information dissemination and monitoring responsibilities our results show that the successful implementation of market based instruments for biodiversity conservation in cee countries is furthermore influenced by pre existing formal and informal institutions in which reputation and trust may play a role however market based instruments should complement rather than substitute regulatory approaches and in combination with traditional regulation such can become critical in achieving the objectives of biodiversity conservation

offshore outsourcing of services an evolutionary perspective abstract offshore outsourcing is gaining increasing importance and attention in both theory and practice the purpose of this research is to use nine in depth case studies to analyze the evolution of offshore services outsourcing with regard to how expectations and governance structures change over time five testable propositions are presented building on institutional theory transaction cost and resource based perspectives the cases demonstrate that offshore outsourcing is initiated because of increasing internal and external pressure to conform and reduce costs moreover companies chase efficiency improvements in other geographic locations but after reducing costs companies discover more strategic benefits such as the potential to increase quality and market share importantly as buyer supplier relationships move from tactical to more strategic expectations and governance structures change

models and estimation of disequilibrium for centrally planned economies the planned level of output is an important variable in modelling centrally planned economies and the present paper discusses several disequilibrium models in which the plan level is an endogenous variable a key relationship in such a model is the plan adjustment equation which is the counterpart of the usual priceadjustment equation employed in models of free economies seemingly minor differences in assumptions lead to markedly different econometric models the coherency properties of these are studied and several likelihood functions are derived the most complex of the models includes both endogenous plan levels and endogenous prices

pay the farmer or buy the land cost effectiveness of payments for ecosystem services versus land purchases or easements in central kenya abstract payments for ecosystem services pes have emerged as a popular conservation tool yet evaluation alongside other direct conservation strategies remains piecemeal we prospectively compared cost effectiveness of pes to land purchases or easements lpe in central kenya we spatially predicted opportunity costs and land prices using household survey and literature data and sampled conservation management costs from four regional conservation organizations we simulated a fixed budget spatial ecological economic site selection process for conservation intervention pes or lpe over 30 years we included effects of land markets property value fluctuations rising agricultural productivity and climate change depending on the scenario the lpe strategy led to larger reserves by 26 610 better representation of mammal species ranges by 47 112 and lower unit costs by 26 48 adding a yearly egalitarian social development payment to the lpe strategy did not increase costs beyond the basic pes model our findings were robust to discount rate choice but cost savings of lpe only materialized after about a decade furthermore kenyan law restricts foreign land ownership and the use of land easements thus simpler institutional requirements make pes a more immediate if less effective property based tool

negative income effect on perception of long term environmental risk abstract the notion that people with higher income are more concerned about environmental problems is deeply entrenched in economics and some other disciplines studies have shown a positive income effect on the intention to pay for environmental improvement perception of environmental risk however follows a different pattern of variation this paper demonstrates a negative income effect using data extracted from a cross national social survey involving 36 countries an inverse relationship is observed between people s reported income and their perception of long term environmental risks associated with climate change genetic modification of crops and the use of nuclear power lower income individuals see the potential environmental consequences of these human interventions as extremely dangerous more so than the higher income ones richer people are relatively less concerned about the long term environmental risks a possible explanation is that material insecurity reinforces the feeling of risk and danger people living under more difficult economic situation are more vulnerable and see greater danger a key implication of these findings is that concern does not follow the ability to pay people facing higher environmental risks are potentially less able to afford risk reduction support despite that they are likely to be in greater need for it

dancing with storks the role of power relations in payments for ecosystem services abstract the institutional change induced by payments for ecosystem services pes schemes is a messy process the uptake and outcomes of pes schemes cannot be fully explained from a rational choice perspective the notion of institutional bricolage is needed to analyse how actors assemble or reshape their actions by combining new institutions such as a pes scheme within other locally embedded institutions a case study from japan is used to illustrate how a pes scheme designed to conserve the habitat of a charismatic and endangered flagship species the oriental white stork has been reshaped by social actors to fit the locally dominant institutional logic we also show how the resulting institutional change is not only able to subvert policy makers original assumptions for instance about how to target and distribute the payments but can also contribute to the reproduction of unequal power relations

payments for ecosystem services rife with problems and potential for transformation towards sustainability abstract payments for ecosystem services pes programs are one prominent strategy to address economic externalities of resource extraction and commodity production improving both social and ecological outcomes but do pes and related incentive programs achieve that lofty goal along with considerable enthusiasm pes has faced a wide range of substantial critiques in this paper we characterize seven major classes of concerns associated with common pes designs and use these as inspiration to consider potential avenues for improvements in pes outcomes and uptake the problems include 1 new externalities 2 misplacement of rights and responsibilities 3 crowding out existing motivations 4 efficiency equity tradeoffs 5 monitoring costs 6 limited applicability and 7 top down prescription alienating agency as currently practiced many pes programs are thus of limited benefit and even potentially detrimental to sustainability from this dire conclusion we highlight several innovations that might be combined and extended in a novel approach to pes that may address all seven problems recognizing that pes necessarily articulate and even normalize values our proposed approach entails designing these institutions intentionally to articulate rights and responsibilities conducive to sustainability those we might collectively seek to entrench problems remain and new ones may arise but the proposed approach may offer a way to reimagine pes as a major social and economic tool for enabling sustainable relationships with nature conserving and restoring ecosystems and their benefits for people now and in the future

keep searching and you ll find what do we know about variety creation through firms search activities for innovation this article critically reviews and synthesizes the contributions found in theoretical and empirical studies of firm level innovation search processes it explores the advantages and disadvantages of local and non local search discusses organizational responses and identifies potential exogenous triggers for different kinds of search it argues that the initial focus on local search was a consequence in part of the attention in evolutionary economics to path dependent behavior but that as localized behavior was increasingly accepted as the standard mode studies began to question whether local search was the best solution in all cases more recently the literature has focused on the trade offs being created by firms having to balance local and non local search we account also for the apparent variety paradox in the stylized fact that organizations within the same industry tend to follow different search strategies but end up with very similar technological profiles in fast growing technologies the article concludes by highlighting what we have learnt from the literature and suggesting some new avenues for research

markets as institutions versus organizations as markets disentangling some fundamental concepts abstract this paper argues that ambiguities in concepts as important as institutions markets and organizations undermine progress of research programs intending to take these components seriously into account after a short review of some current confusions section i section ii discusses recent literature to arrive at definitions that encapsulate fundamental characteristics into pure categories in section iii exceptions and qualifications are introduced so as to operationalize the concepts in the real world 1 i organizations and markets are embedded in an institutional framework and 2 ii they overlap giving birth to hybrid forms however the conclusion contends that it is essential to maintain distinct concepts in order to understand these complex arrangements

payments for ecosystem services as commodity fetishism abstract payments for ecosystem services pes economically reward resource managers for the provision of ecosystem services and are thus characterised by i an ecological function subject to trade ii the establishment of a standard unit of exchange iii and supply demand and intermediation flows between those who sell and buy ecosystem services this paper departs from the term commodity fetishism broadly understood as the masking of the social relationships underlying the process of production to illuminate three invisibilities in the commodification of ecosystem services firstly we argue that narrowing down the complexity of ecosystems to a single service has serious technical difficulties and ethical implications on the way we relate to and perceive nature secondly the commodification of ecosystem services denies the multiplicity of values which can be attributed to these services since it requires that a single exchange value is adopted for trading finally we suggest that the process of production exchange and consumption of ecosystem services is characterised by power asymmetries which may contribute to reproducing rather than addressing existing inequalities in the access to natural resources and services

efficiency of payments for environmental services equity and additionality in a case study from a biosphere reserve in chiapas mexico payments for environmental services pes have been claimed as a more efficient way of accomplishing conservation and development goals than other indirect strategies reaching their optimum when the buyer pays the opportunity costs of the foregone benefits different inefficient situations have been described like lack of additionality where payments are given for practices that would have been adopted anyway trade offs between efficiency and equity of pes have usually emerged as well in this paper we assess the equity additionality and stakeholders perceptions of a pes scheme in a mexican community inside a biosphere reserve we applied structured interviews to all adults a total of 66 people from 31 households our results show a dual response in equity and additionality depending on land tenure pes have an egalitarian effect within landowners and landless groups but it broadens the gap between them additionality is low for landowners and high for the landless people in the community even though the former are the ones with full decision over the land although the scheme does not seem efficient under the classical pes paradigm it is perceived as a reward reinforcing conservation attitudes even though most of the interviewees claim it to be insufficient

theorising from case studies towards a pluralist future for international business research the literature on case studies both in the field of international business ib and in the social sciences more generally has tended to focus on the methods of data production and analysis suited to this research strategy in contrast in this paper we investigate methods of theorising from case studies we seek to understand how case researchers theorise and how future ib research might utilise case studies for theorising by means of a qualitative content analysis of case studies published in journal of international business studies academy of management journal and journal of management studies we construct a typology of theorising from case studies two dimensions of the case study namely causal explanation and contextualisation form the basis for our typology we distinguish four methods of theorising inductive theory building interpretive sensemaking natural experiment and contextualised explanation only the first of which has been widely used in jibs in the period that we investigate on the basis of our own qualitative analysis we show the limitations of inductive theory building and argue that greater utilisation of the other methods of theorising would enhance the case study s explanatory power and potential for contextualisation we argue for a more pluralist future for ib research

unbundling the structure of inertia resource versus routine rigidity i work to unbundle the structure of inertia into two distinct categories resource rigidity failure to change resource investment patterns and routine rigidity failure to change organizational p

doing more with less innovation input and output in family firms family firms are often portrayed as an important yet conservative form of organization that is reluctant to invest in innovation however simultaneously evidence has shown that family firms are flourishing and in fact constitute many of the world s most innovative firms our study contributes to disentangling this puzzling effect we argue that family firms owing to the family s high level of control over the firm wealth concentration and importance of nonfinancial goals invest less in innovation but have an increased conversion rate of innovation input into output and ultimately a higher innovation output than nonfamily firms empirical evidence from a meta analysis based on 108 primary studies from 42 countries supports our hypotheses we further argue and empirically show that the observed effects are even stronger when the ceo of the family firm is a later generation family member however when the ceo of the family firm is the firm s founder innovation input is higher and contrary to our initial expectations innovation output is lower than that in other firms we further show that the family firm innovation input output relationships depend on country level factors namely the level of minority shareholder protection and the education level of the workforce in the country

whose equity matters national to local equity perceptions in vietnam s payments for forest ecosystem services scheme this paper focuses on the assessment of legislative considerations and local perceptions of equity in vietnam s payments for forest ecosystem services scheme pfes equity perceptions are powerful determinants of human behaviour and consequently many environmental conflicts arise from contested visions of what constitutes as equitable environmental management therefore equity can play an instrumental role in shaping outcomes of pfes schemes this paper analyzes how contextual procedural and distributive equity considerations are reflected in national pfes legislation and implementation how equity outcomes are perceived locally and whether local perceptions match legislative considerations we reviewed national legislation and government reports conducted expert interviews on the national and provincial level as well as surveys focus group discussions and in depth interviews on the local level our findings reveal that equity outcomes are very much affected by contextual factors such as how the forest land allocation regulation determines the distribution of use rights in the implementation of pfes national aspirations and rationales of equity as outlined in legislation were not met due to technical constraints financial costs and social and institutional conflicts the implementation on the ground contrasts with local interests our results show that on the local level the preference for a distributive equity principle is very much influenced by the degree of transparency of the payment distribution process the prevailing perceptions of equitable benefit distribution by local pfes participants correspond to a merit based principle of compensation for the effort of forest protection

equitably slicing the pie water policy and allocation abstract non point source pollution is deteriorating water quality throughout the world new zealand is addressing this issue by regulating land based nutrient losses with debates over how to allocate limits across a heterogeneous landscape we develop a spatially explicit economic land use model to investigate efficiency and equity issues from seven approaches to allocate nutrient discharges across two new zealand watersheds we find that the preferred allocation differs across land use land characteristics and regulation stringency and that there is no universal best allocation option therefore decision makers should focus on at least efficiency and equity and on how to compensate those most affected

analysing agricultural land markets as organisations an empirical study in poland abstract analysing markets as organisations governed by a network of relational contracts that establish rules for market participants increases our understanding of exchange processes on the basis of three land market case studies in poland it is shown that market rules are shaped by the identity as well as constellation of actors and are designed to serve the common objectives of the members of the organisation market by decreasing transaction costs and protecting group interests

an institutional analysis of payments for environmental services abstract in this paper the characteristics and functioning of pes is analyzed from an institutional perspective while in theory pes is seen as a market solution to environmental problems as an alternative to state hierarchical and community governance a review of a large amount of case studies shows that pes in practice depends rather fundamentally on state and or community engagement hence pes are foremost a reconfiguration of the roles of public bodies and communities becoming core intermediaries or buyers first to establish pes rights to the land that delivers the environmental service must be clarified this demands public action second transacting over environmental amenities is very costly creating markets for environmental services depends therefore crucially on state and community facilitation hence buyers are often public agencies high transaction costs also influence price setting payments do not follow the market format as intermediaries frequently are setting the price with users often being unaware even of the fact that they pay finally the distinction between payments as incentives and as fair compensations is emphasized while payments may strengthen community relations and simplify action for environmental care they may also introduce a purely instrumental logic and in some cases worsen the environmental status by crowding out environmental virtues for the future greater awareness of these dynamics is warranted

payments for environmental services in costa rica costa rica pioneered the use of the payments for environmental services pes approach in developing countries by establishing a formal country wide program of payments the psa program the psa program has worked hard to develop mechanisms to charge the users of environmental services for the services they receive it has made substantial progress in charging water users and more limited progress in charging biodiversity and carbon sequestration users because of the way it makes payments to service providers using approaches largely inherited from earlier programs however the psa program has considerable room for improvement in the efficiency with which it generates environmental services with experience many of these weaknesses are being gradually corrected as the psa program evolves towards a much more targeted and differentiated program an important lesson is the need to be flexible and to adapt to lessons learned and to changing circumstances

direct conservation payments in the brazilian amazon scope and equity implications abstract this article looks into the scope and equity implications of applying payments for environmental services pes as a redd implementation mechanism in the brazilian amazon we establish a set of economic and institutional preconditions for pes to become a feasible and cost effective conservation mechanism we proceed with a macro scale spatial analysis and overlay of opportunity costs deforestation patterns carbon services and land tenure in order to assess where these conditions hold we then screen how the benefits of potential pes schemes might be distributed across different socioeconomic groups of service providers in different land tenure categories our economic quantitative analysis though sensitive to documented assumptions suggests that under current carbon prices the economic preconditions are in place to pay for avoided deforestation in over half of threatened forests over the next decade unfortunately the same optimism does not apply to institutional preconditions land grabbing insecure tenure overlapping claims and lacking information on private tenure constitute real medium term impediments to pes if payments were to accrue to current landholders regardless of current tenure insecurities large landowners who account for about 80 of all deforestation would reap the highest benefits though per capita benefits other tenure categories are also high schemes that closely align payments with opportunity costs are preferable for cost effectiveness and not necessarily more inequitable in outcomes essentially pes systems cannot substitute command and control measures the former depend on the latter for basic governance systems to secure effective rights of exclusion which land stewards essentially need in order to become reliable service providers

top management s attention to discontinuous technological change corporate venture capital as an alert mechanism technological discontinuities pose serious challenges to top managers attention these discontinuities which often occur at the fringes of an industry are usually driven by innovative and often venture capital backed start ups creating new products and transforming existing industries in ways that are difficult for incumbent managers to understand against the backdrop of their existing cognitive schemata however failing to appreciate and embrace successful technological discontinuities might endanger incumbents very existence extending the attention based view we explore whether and how interorganizational relationships guide top managers attention either to or away from technological discontinuities we propose that homophilous relationships e g alliances with industry peers should exhibit a negative relationship with incumbents timely attention to technological discontinuities whereas heterophilous relationships e g with venture capitalists as a result of coinvestments should exhibit a positive relationship furthermore we hypothesize that the status of the partners strengthens the effect of homophilous and heterophilous relationships with the timely attention of top managers to technological discontinuities based on a longitudinal study of the incumbents in four information and communications technology industry sectors we find that heterophilous ties through corporate venture capital cvc coinvesting with high status venture capital firms exhibit a strong positive relationship with timely attention cvc when it connects senior management to high status venture capitalists through coinvestments has a special role in directing top managers attention to technological discontinuities and ensuing business opportunities implications for the understanding of the role of interorganizational ties as structural determinants of top managers attention are discussed

payments for agrobiodiversity conservation services for sustained on farm utilization of plant and animal genetic resources abstract this paper discusses the potential application of payment for ecosystem services like schemes to tackle market failures associated with the public good characteristics of agrobiodiversity conservation services so called payments for agrobiodiversity conservation services pacs would increase the private benefits from utilizing local plant and animal genetic resources on farm through voluntary reward mechanisms so as to sustain their on farm conservation theoretical and applied insights about pacs are discussed and attention drawn to some of the challenges to be overcome in implementing pacs in particular these relate to the identification of potential buyers the complex institutional setting in which pacs might operate and the articulation of a meaningful conservation goal based on a safe minimum standard approach the latter is urgently needed so as to ensure that additional agrobiodiversity services are generated relative to a fixed pricing approach pacs schemes that seek to overcome information asymmetries through the use of conservation auctions may be associated with significant efficiency gains however potential trade offs between ecological effectiveness economic efficiency and social equity considerations need to be carefully evaluated

paying for the hydrological services of mexico s forests analysis negotiations and results abstract mexico faces both high deforestation and severe water scarcity the payment for hydrological environmental services psah program was designed to complement other policy responses to the crisis at the interface of these problems through the psah the mexican federal government pays participating forest owners for the benefits of watershed protection and aquifer recharge in areas where commercial forestry is not currently competitive funding comes from fees charged to water users from which nearly us 18 million are earmarked for payments of environmental services applicants are selected according to several criteria that include indicators of the value of water scarcity in the region this paper describes the process of policy design of the psah the main actors involved in the program its operating rules and provides a preliminary evaluation one of the main findings is that many of the program s payments have been in areas with low deforestation risk selection criteria need to be modified to better target the areas where benefits to water users are highest and behavior modification has the least cost otherwise the program main gains will be distributive but without bringing a pareto improvement in overall welfare

conservation versus equity can payments for environmental services achieve both this paper investigates the trade off between conservation and equity considerations in the use of payments for environmental services pes that implicitly incorporate different distributive justice principles using a public good experiment with heterogeneous participants we compare the effects on additional area conserved and distribution of earnings of two pes schemes an equal payment and a payment based on rawls distributional principle which we refer to as maxi min payment scheme the main findings of the framed field experiment conducted in jambi province indonesia indicate that the introduction of a maxi min pes scheme can function as a multi purpose instrument it realigns the income distribution in favor of low endowed participants and does not necessarily need to be compromised by lower environmental additionality at the group level

redefining payments for environmental services abstract the environmental economics and the ecological economics perspectives on payments for environmental services pes propose rather different views on how to define pes its key elements and on the role of pes in ecosystem conservation and rural development this paper compares these two perspectives and addresses the following questions what is an appropriate definition of pes grounded in the theory and practice underlying it what are the key design elements of pes what should the scope of pes be given the possible trade offs between efficiency and equity it is found that pes schemes should focus on cost effectiveness and best practice for positive livelihood impacts pes schemes should be transparent and provide additional services with conditional payments to voluntary providers

can payments for environmental services help reduce poverty an exploration of the issues and the evidence to date from latin america summary this paper examines the main ways in which payments for environmental services pes might affect poverty pes may reduce poverty mainly by making payments to poor natural resource managers in upper watersheds the extent of the impact depends on how many pes participants are in fact poor on the poors ability to participate and on the amounts paid although pes programs are not designed for poverty reduction there can be important synergies when program design is well thought out and local conditions are favorable possible adverse effects can occur where property rights are insecure or if pes programs encourage less labor intensive practices 2004 elsevier ltd all rights reserved

customer power strategic investment and the failure of leading firms why might firms be regarded as astutely managed at one point yet subsequently lose their positions of industry leadership when faced with technological change we present a model grounded in a study of the world disk drive industry that charts the process through which the demands of a firm s customers shape the allocation of resources in technological innovation a model that links theories of resource dependence and resource allocation we show that established firms led the industry in developing technologies of every sort even radical ones whenever the technologies addressed existing customers needs the same firms failed to develop simpler technologies that initially were only useful in emerging markets because impetus coalesces behind and resources are allocated to programs targeting powerful customers projects targeted at technologies for which no customers yet exist languish for lack of impetus and resources because the rate of technical progress can exceed the performance demanded in a market technologies which initially can only be used in emerging markets later can invade mainstream ones carrying entrant firms to victory over established companies

decentralized payments for environmental services the cases of pimampiro and profafor in ecuador abstract few payment for environmental services pes schemes in developing countries operate outside of the central state s umbrella and are at the same time old enough to allow for a meaningful evaluation ecuador has two such decentralised consolidated experiences the five year old pimampiro municipal watershed protection scheme and the twelve year old profafor carbon sequestration programme we describe and compare the two cases using a common pes definition and methodology drawing on both primary interview based information and secondary data we find that both schemes have been relatively effective in reaching their environmental objectives in terms of having probably high additionality levels and low leakage effects a strong focus on the targeted environmental service and a strong degree of conditionality seem to be two key factors explaining these achievements although neither scheme has targeted poverty alleviation or other side objectives both are likely to have improved pes recipients welfare mostly through higher incomes we highlight several observations with more generalised relevance and lessons for the design of pes schemes

cognition capabilities and incentives assessing firm response to the fiber optic revolution this study examines how ceo cognition organizational capabilities and organizational incentives interacted to shape firm strategy during the fiber optic revolution i tested for these factors as

between economic loss and social identity the multi dimensional cost of avoiding deforestation in eastern madagascar this paper exhibits the multiple dimensions of the cost of stopping the main driver of deforestation in madagascar slash and burn agriculture tavy as well as being a major component of the economic livelihoods of most local households living at the edge of forests tavy has been described by anthropologists as an important cultural practice in this paper we show that stopping tavy does not only entail an economic cost for local households the loss of the cultural dimension of tavy would come at an additional cultural cost for some our results suggest that a viable cessation of deforestation in madagascar would require going beyond simple compensation of the opportunity costs of avoiding deforestation

an institutional analysis of payment for environmental services on collectively managed lands in ecuador the application of payment for environmental services pes programs on communal lands raises questions about how pes interacts with collective resource management institutions we explore how an ecuadorian payment program is associated with the development of rules to manage shared grazing lands in addition we assess the communal characteristics that make it more likely that a participant community will change their land use rules our analysis draws from an almost complete census of participant communities in the ecuadorian highlands n 44 a survey of non participant communities n 23 and a household questionnaire n 420 we find that the majority of participant communities have strengthened their land use rules since program participation communities that craft new rules and apply their rules are more likely to be organized and have internal monitoring and enforcement mechanisms poorer communities are also more likely to have made a rule change in response to participation wealthier communities are more likely to maintain existent land use institutions we find no association between rule change and level of payment our results highlight the need to disaggregate the role of payments and contract commitment and to further analyze how community characteristics may influence the effectiveness and equity of pes in communal contexts

organizational structure and performance feedback centralization aspirations and termination decisions this study examines the effects of organizational structure and performance feedback on termination decisions in particular product phaseout using quarterly product level data on the major mobile handset manufacturers for the period 2004 2009 we analyze how product level feedback affects product phaseout and how these decisions are conditioned by organizational structure the extent to which decision making is centralized we argue that such structure affects termination in two ways directly through coordination and indirectly by shaping the interpretation of performance feedback our baseline models indicate that as performance increases above aspirations the rate of phaseout decreases we find that as performance declines below aspirations the rate of phaseout decreases but then increases when the product falls below a certain sales threshold we also find evidence that centralization amplifies the feedback effect above aspirations but attenuates it below aspirations this study links two pillars of the carnegie school aspiration levels and hierarchy to explain the complexity of phaseout following perceived success or failure we thereby augment the growing scholarship on performance feedback by considering some important conditional effects imposed by a centralized structure our focus on centralization expands the scope of theory concerning organization design by linking structure and cognition to explain firm behavior especially termination decisions

towards a unified scheme for environmental and social protection learning from pes and cct experiences in developing countries environmental protection and poverty alleviation in the developing world are usually heralded as joint objectives however these two goals are often associated with different sectoral policy instruments while so called payments for environmental services pes are increasingly being promoted for environmental protection poverty alleviation is increasingly addressed by conditional cash transfers cct program these instruments although aimed to achieve distinct objectives have a number of similarities and challenges in their design and implementation phases this paper elaborates on these similarities and develops a unifying generic framework that is used to discuss the extent to which both approaches could be unified

unraveling the effects of payments for ecosystem services on motivations for collective action this paper addresses the differential impacts on decisions towards collective action in the context of payments for ecosystem services pes where individual and collective rewards are conditional on a minimum collective conservation level being achieved interactions between the different reward types farmers social preferences social ties and communication are identified a field game experiment is conducted with andean farmers in peru and framed around their decisions to conserve agrobiodiversity as an impure public good the main results are that pes schemes could be effective in motivating collective action for agrobiodiversity conservation and that individual rewards are likely to be more effective and less sensitive to social factors than collective rewards the latter might have a positive effect on conservation when they are shared within socially closely related groups or in situations where communication and deliberation about collective action are possible

economics and identity this paper considers how identity a person s sense of self affects economic outcomes we incorporate the psychology and sociology of identity into an economic model of behavior in the utility function we propose identity is associated with different social categories and how people in these categories should behave we then construct a simple game theoretic model showing how identity can affect individual interactions the paper adapts these models to gender discrimination in the workplace the economics of poverty and social exclusion and the household division of labor in each case the inclusion of identity substantively changes conclusions of previous economic analysis

biofuel as social fuel introducing socio environmental services as a means to reduce global inequity the increasing cultivation of energy crops for biofuel production has significantly altered the focus of the agricultural sector but the impact of biofuel production and use is not merely an agricultural one even more importantly it is an issue which likely promotes inequitable conditions and the social conflict of different basic needs within this context the dominant argument criticizes the growing demand for biofuels in the north to compromise food security and sovereignty in the south in order to address these trade offs and conflicts the objective of this paper is the introduction of a conceptual framework of socio environmental services by expanding the construct of environmental services to explicitly include the social dimension it shall accommodate for the fact that the provision of environmental services is often embedded in a complex system of global economic ecological as well as social interdependencies recently the concept of payments for environmental services pes has received much attention with respect to its potential contribution to both environmental sustainability and the economic alleviation of poverty by linking the idea of payments for socio environmental services pses to the three functions of justice its beneficial impact may be more fully tapped

preemptive patenting and the persistence of monopoly this article takes a different tack and inquires whether institutions such as the patent system create opportunities for firms with monopoly power to maintain their monopoly power the results apply to other situations such as brand identification spatial location and capacity expansion which share the characteristic that early or preemptive actions may lower the returns to potential competitors

intergenerational hybrids spillbacks spillforwards and adapting to technology discontinuities during technological discontinuities incumbents frequently develop hybrids of competing technical generations although some prior work implies that such intergenerational hybrids may be the result of organizational dysfunction we propose that in some cases hybrids may be sophisticated learning tools that shape organizational adaptation to a technological discontinuity in this paper we suggest two mechanisms through which intergenerational hybrids may affect organizational adaptation spillbacks and spillforwards in an empirical test among the population of automobile carburetor manufacturers during a technological discontinuity we observe that organizations developing intergenerational hybrids capture spillback benefits knowledge spillovers from an emerging technology generation to the current generation furthermore we find that these same organizations also capture spillforwards spillover benefits from developing higher performing intergenerational hybrids that improve their product performance in the future technology generation these results suggest that intergenerational hybrids may be stepping stones for organizations to learn about and adapt to technology discontinuities

building institutions to trade ecosystem services marketing forest carbon in mexico summary this paper analyzes institutional design organizational capacity and interplay in markets for ecosystem services it examines the development of a market based mechanism to commercialize forest carbon in mexico through the clean development mechanism cdm this is compared with a state run carbon forestry program aiming to provide emission rights to voluntary retail based carbon markets marketing forest carbon is hampered by lack of organizational capacity in government and civil society uncertainties in the international policy process and the interplay with existing common property institutions in rural mexico the paper identifies theoretical and practical barriers to implementing institutional arrangements for forest carbon trading

decoding the adaptability rigidity puzzle evidence from pharmaceutical incumbents pursuit of gene therapy and monoclonal antibodies the emergence of radical technologies presents a significant challenge to incumbent firms we study firms management of radical technological change by separating their actions into upstream research the r of r d and downstream development the d of r d we introduce two contingencies to explain when incumbents research investments in radical technologies translate into product development and when these upstream investments may get voided by organizational inertia downstream first radical technologies can differ in how they conform to incumbents existing business models impacting the extent to which the movement of research outputs toward development will be subject to inertial pressures second incumbents can invest in a radical technology through a variety of modes internal research external research contracts alliances acquisitions these modes represent unique combinations of who does research and who is involved in the decision for subsequent development and hence differ in the extent to which they are shielded from inertial pressures this difference helps explain why incumbents despite responding to radical technologies may still be unable to adapt as well as what types of investments will be more effective in helping firms navigate technological change evidence from pharmaceutical incumbents pursuit of monoclonal antibodies and gene therapy offers strong support for our arguments

the cost effectiveness of conservation payments international donors invest billions of dollars to conserve ecosystems in low income nations the most common investments aim to encourage commercial activities such as ecotourism that indirectly generate ecosystem protection as a joint product we demonstrate that paying for ecosystem protection directly can be far more cost effective although direct payment initiatives have imposing institutional requirements we argue that all conservation initiatives face similar challenges thus conservation practitioners would be well advised to implement the first best direct payment approach rather than a secondbest policy option an empirical example illustrates the spectacular cost savings that can be realized by direct payment initiatives

the economic valuation of nature a question of justice while many of the concerns over the economic valuation of nature have gained broad exposure justice concerns remain largely peripheral within both scholarly debate and actual valuation exercises the emphasis is most often on reconciling cultural and monetary valuation increasingly as the valuation of nature gains momentum proponents of the trend seek to relieve apprehensions by suggesting that economic valuation is entirely compatible with intrinsic and esthetic values this attempt to mollify skeptics however misses the mark regardless of whether or not nature may be valued simultaneously in cultural and economic terms the social and environmental justice implications of monetary valuation remain the purpose of this commentary is to clarify that much of the resistance to the economic valuation of nature is motivated by these justice concerns and that reassurances about the cultural value of nature do little to quell them several of the justice reasons to remain cautious of the economic valuation of nature are also elaborated

taking stock a comparative analysis of payments for environmental services programs in developed and developing countries abstract payments for environmental services pes are an innovative approach to conservation that has been applied increasingly often in both developed and developing countries to date however few efforts have been made to systematically compare pes experiences drawing on the wealth of case studies in this special issue we synthesize the information presented according to case characteristics with respect to design costs environmental effectiveness and other outcomes pes programs often differ substantially one from the other some of the differences reflect adaptation of the basic concept to very different ecological socioeconomic or institutional conditions others reflect poor design due either to mistakes or to the need to accommodate political pressures we find significant differences between user financed pes programs in which funding comes from the users of the es being provided and government financed programs in which funding comes from a third party the user financed programs in our sample were better targeted more closely tailored to local conditions and needs had better monitoring and a greater willingness to enforce conditionality and had far fewer confounding side objectives than government financed programs we finish by outlining some perspectives on how both user and government financed pes programs could be made more effective and cost efficient

the effectiveness of payments for environmental services we adopt a theory based approach to synthesize research on the effectiveness of payments for environmental services in achieving environmental objectives and socio economic co benefits in varying contexts our theory of change builds on established conceptual models of impact pathways and highlights the role of 1 contextual dimensions e g political institutional and socio economic conditions spatial heterogeneity in environmental service values and provision costs and interactions with pre existing policies and 2 scheme design e g payment type and level contract length targeting and differentiation of payments in determining environmental and socio economic outcomes to shed light on the overall effectiveness of payment schemes and its determinants we review counterfactual based empirical evaluations comparative analyses of case studies and meta analyses our review suggests that program effectiveness often lags behind the expectations of early theorists however we also find that theory has advanced sufficiently to identify common reasons for why payment schemes fail or succeed moreover payment schemes are often rolled out along with other policy instruments in so called policy mixes advances in theory and evaluation research are needed to improve our understanding of how such policy mixes interact with the targeted social ecological systems 2017

the approach of institutional economics this paper assesses the old institutional economics it emphasizes the importance of key old institutionalist themes concerning the necessity of habits and rules and the role of institutions a problem in the alternative theoretical program of the new institutionalism is the untenability of its assumption of an original institution free market or state of nature even optimizing behavior requires the prior existence of habits and rules although it still lacks a complete and systematic theory the evolutionary approach of the old institutionalists tackles the problem of the interactive relationship of actor to structure without analytical reduction to one or the other

reconciling theory and practice an alternative conceptual framework for understanding payments for environmental services article i nfo this article provides an alternative and novel theoretical approach to the conceptualization and analysis of payments for environmental services pes we devote special emphasis to institutional and political economy issues which have been somewhat neglected in the literature on pes we argue that the coasean and pure market approach dominating the conceptualization of pes in the literature cannot be easily generalized and implemented in practice by contrast taking into account complexities related to uncertainty distributional issues social embeddedness and power relations permits acknowledging the variety of contexts and institutional settings in which pes operate the alternative approach presented in this introductory article to the special section may be more appealing to pes practitioners since while avoiding restrictive and prescriptive standpoints it allows some key sources of complexities they usually deal with on the ground to be more easily understood

the meaning of kinship in sharecropping contracts analysis of a household survey from the philippines shows that the behavior of sharecroppers with a kinship relation with their landlord is not affected by the disincentive effects of product and factor sharing while behavior of the other sharecroppers responds to the contract terms we characterize the meaning of kinship ties through a survey of opinion conducted among tenants the survey shows that kin landlords help or are expected to help more frequently in case of emergency than other landlords and they do so with a wider range of instruments providing the incentive for cooperative behavior in sharecropping contracts among kin

distributive fairness in paying for clean energy infrastructure despite the rapid rise in public expenditure on clean energy infrastructure there has been little discussion about what constitutes a fair distribution of this new spending burden we examine four ethical principles that speak to different notions of fairness in the way this burden can and should be shared and use them to produce three normative criteria for pursuing fairness in the clean energy fiscal policy context we use these criteria to examine the extent to which fairness is being achieved in large clean energy roll out programs in australia california and the united kingdom maintaining a close focus on providing practical guidance for decision makers in similar policy contexts we find that fairness is more achievable when program design explicitly considers which households should pay for the program and which should be exempt when the idea of proportionality guides the distribution of the cost across paying households and when the interests of low income households are protected by ensuring that they share in the benefits of the program for example

networks as the pipes and prisms of the market1 this article draws an analytical distinction between two types of market uncertainty egocentric which refers to a focal actor s uncertainty regarding the best way to convert a set of inputs to an output desired by a potential exchange partner and altercentric which denotes the uncertainty confronted by a focal actor s exchange partners regarding the quality of the output that the focal actor brings to the market given this distinction the article considers how the value of structural holes and market status vary with these two types of uncertainty the article proposes that the value of structural holes increases with egocentric uncertainty but not with altercentric uncertainty in contrast the value of status increases with altercentric uncertainty but declines with egocentric uncertainty thus actors with networks rich in structural holes should sort into markets or market segments that are high in egocentric uncertainty high status actors should sort into markets that are low in egocentric

payments for environmental services in watersheds insights from a comparative study of three cases in central america we have compared three cases of payments for water related environmental services pes in central america in terms of socioeconomic background opportunity costs of forest conservation and stakeholders perceptions of the conditions of water resources and other issues we found that in general the opportunity costs are larger than the amounts paid which apparently contradicts the economic foundation of pes schemes and suggests that the role of intangibles is important in inducing participation the results also show that trade offs between different environmental and social goals are likely to emerge in pes schemes posing some doubts as to their ability to be multipurpose instruments for environmental improvement and rural development we also found that pes schemes may work as a conflict resolution instrument facilitating downstream upstream problem solving though at the same time they might introduce changes in social perceptions of property rights

exploring the links between equity and efficiency in payments for environmental services a conceptual approach this paper addresses the relationship between equity and efficiency in pes schemes from a conceptual point of view emphasis is placed on the role of the institutional setting social perceptions about economic fairness or distributive justice of the payments uncertainty and interactions between agents including power relations we introduce the heuristic concept of the efficiency equity interdependency curve to illustrate potential combinations between equity and efficiency that may be theoretically possible the paper argues that different types of institutional factors determine which equity efficiency combinations may be potentially feasible influence the actual combination that will be achieved on the ground and condition possible changes in that combination due to exogenous factors by stressing the role of institutional aspects in shaping the equity efficiency relationship the paper attempts to go beyond the dominant coasean vision of pes