Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #44514. 	[Title] The Observers Paradox: Apparent Computational Complexity in Physical Systems [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #273152. 	[Title] Evolutionary Module Acquisition [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1129610. 	[Title] Coevolving Communicative Behavior in a Linear Pursuer-Evader Game [Abstract] The pursuer-evader (PE) game is recognized as an important domain in which to study the coevolution of robust adaptive behavior and protean behavior (Miller and Cliff, 1994). Nevertheless, the potential of the game is largely unrealized due to methodological hurdles in coevolutionary simulation raised by PE; versions of the game that have optimal solutions (Isaacs, 1965) are closed-ended, while other formulations are opaque with respect to their solution space, for the lack of a rigorous metric of agent behavior. This inability to characterize behavior, in turn, obfuscates coevolutionary dynamics. We present a new formulation of PE that affords a rigorous measure of agent behavior and system dynamics. The game is moved from the two-dimensional plane to the one-dimensional bit-string; at each time step, the evader generates a bit that the pursuer must simultaneously predict. Because behavior is expressed as a time series, we can employ information theory to provide quantitative analysis of agent activity. Further, this version of PE opens vistas onto the communicative component of pursuit and evasion behavior, providing an open-ended serial communications channel and an open world (via coevolution). Results show that subtle changes to our game determine whether it is open-ended, and profoundly affect the viability of arms-race dynamics. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #606479. 	[Title] The Evolution of Communication Schemes Over Continuous Channels [Abstract] Many problems impede the design of multi-agent systems, not the least of which is the passing of information between agents. While others hand implement communication routes and semantics, we explore a method by which communication can evolve. In the experiments described here, we model agents as connectionist networks. We supply each agent with a number of communications channels implemented by the addition of both input and output units for each channel. The output units initiate environmental signals whose amplitude decay over distance and are perturbed by environmental noise. An agent does not receive input from other individuals, rather the agents input reects the summation of all other agents output signals along that channel. Because we use real-valued activations, the agents communicate using real-valued vectors. Under our evolutionary program, GNARL, the agents coevolve a communication scheme over continuous channels which conveys task-spe cific information. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #253971. 	[Title] Fools Gold: Extracting Finite State Machines From Recurrent Network Dynamics [Abstract] Several recurrent networks have been proposed as representations for the task of formal language learning. After training a recurrent network, the next step is to understand the information processing carried out by the network. Some researchers (Giles et al., 1992; Watrous & Kuhn, 1992; Cleeremans et al., 1989) have resorted to extracting finite state machines from the internal state trajectories of their recurrent networks. This paper describes two conditions, sensitivity to initial conditions and frivolous computational explanations due to discrete measurements (Kolen & Pollack, 1993), which allow these extraction methods to return illusionary finite state descriptions. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1129621. 	[Title] Analysis of Dynamical Recognizers [Abstract] Pollack (1991) demonstrated that second-order recurrent neural networks can act as dynamical recognizers for formal languages when trained on positive and negative examples, and observed both phase transitions in learning and IFS-like fractal state sets. Follow-on work focused mainly on the extraction and minimization of a finite state automaton (FSA) from the trained network. However, such networks are capable of inducing languages which are not regular, and therefore not equivalent to any FSA. Indeed, it may be simpler for a small network to fit its training data by inducing such a non-regular language. But when is the network's language not regular? In this paper, using a low dimensional network capable of learning all the Tomita data sets, we present an empirical method for testing whether the language induced by the network is regular or not. We also provide a detailed "-machine analysis of trained networks for both regular and non-regular languages. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #568857. 	[Title] Evolving Self-Supporting Structures Page 18 References Evolution of Visual Control Systems for Robots. To appear [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1129629. 	[Title] of a simulator for evolving morphology are: Universal the simulator should cover an infinite gen [Abstract] Funes, P. and Pollack, J. (1997) Computer Evolution of Buildable Objects. Fourth European Conference on Artificial Life. P. Husbands and I. Harvey, eds., MIT Press. pp 358-367. knowledge into the program, which would result in familiar structures, we provided the algorithm with a model of the physical reality and a purely utilitarian fitness function, thus supplying measures of feasibility and functionality. In this way the evolutionary process runs in an environment that has not been unnecessarily constrained. We added, however, a requirement of computability to reject overly complex structures when they took too long for our simulations to evaluate. The results are encouraging. The evolved structures had a surprisingly alien look: they are not based in common knowledge on how to build with brick toys; instead, the computer found ways of its own through the evolutionary search process. We were able to assemble the final designs manually and confirm that they accomplish the objectives introduced with our fitness functions. After some background on related problems, we describe our physical simulation model for two-dimensional Lego structures, and the representation for encoding them and applying evolution. We demonstrate the feasibility of our work with photos of actual objects which were the result of particular optimizations. Finally, we discuss future work and draw some conclusions. In order to evolve both the morphology and behavior of autonomous mechanical devices which can be manufactured, one must have a simulator which operates under several constraints, and a resultant controller which is adaptive enough to cover the gap between simulated and real world. eral space of mechanisms. Conservative - because simulation is never perfect, it should preserve a margin of safety. Efficient - it should be quicker to test in simulation than through physical production and test. Buildable - results should be convertible from a simula tion to a real object Computer Evolution of Buildable Objects Abstract The idea of co-evolution of bodies and brains is becoming popular, but little work has been done in evolution of physical structure because of the lack of a general framework for doing it. Evolution of creatures in simulation has been constrained by the reality gap which implies that resultant objects are usually not buildable. The work we present takes a step in the problem of body evolution by applying evolutionary techniques to the design of structures assembled out of parts. Evolution takes place in a simulator we designed, which computes forces and stresses and predicts failure for 2-dimensional Lego structures. The final printout of our program is a schematic assembly, which can then be built physically. We demonstrate its functionality in several different evolved entities. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #35. 	[Title] 4 Implementing Application Specific Routines  Genetic algorithms in search, optimization, and machine learning. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. [Abstract] To implement a specific application, you should only have to change the file app.c. Section 2 describes the routines in app.c in detail. If you use additional variables for your specific problem, the easiest method of making them available to other program units is to declare them in sga.h and external.h. However, take care that you do not redeclare existing variables. Two example applications files are included in the SGA-C distribution. The file app1.c performs the simple example problem included with the Pascal version; finding the maximum of x 10 , where x is an integer interpretation of a chromosome. A slightly more complex application is include in app2.c. This application illustrates two features that have been added to SGA-C. The first of these is the ithruj2int function, which converts bits i through j in a chromosome to an integer. The second new feature is the utility pointer that is associated with each population member. The example application interprets each chromosome as a set of concatenated integers in binary form. The lengths of these integer fields is determined by the user-specified value of field size, which is read in by the function app data(). The field size must be less than the smallest of the chromosome length and the length of an unsigned integer. An integer array for storing the interpreted form of each chromosome is dynamically allocated and assigned to the chromosome's utility pointer in app malloc(). The ithruj2int routine (see utility.c) is used to translate each chromosome into its associated vector. The fitness for each chromosome is simply the sum of the squares of these integers. This example application will function for any chromosome length. SGA-C is intended to be a simple program for first-time GA experimentation. It is not intended to be definitive in terms of its efficiency or the grace of its implementation. The authors are interested in the comments, criticisms, and bug reports from SGA-C users, so that the code can be refined for easier use in subsequent versions. Please email your comments to rob@galab2.mh.ua.edu, or write to TCGA: The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by NASA under Grant NGT-50224 and support provided by the National Science Foundation under Grant CTS-8451610. We also thank Hillol Kargupta for donating his tournament selection implementation. Booker, L. B. (1982). Intelligent behavior as an adaptation to the task environment (Doctoral dissertation, Technical Report No. 243. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Logic of Computers Group). Dissertations Abstracts International, 43(2), 469B. (University Microfilms No. 8214966) Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1117476. 	[Title] Hierarchical Self-Organization in Genetic Programming [Abstract] This paper presents an approach to automatic discovery of functions in Genetic Programming. The approach is based on discovery of useful building blocks by analyzing the evolution trace, generalizing blocks to define new functions, and finally adapting the problem representation on-the-fly. Adaptating the representation determines a hierarchical organization of the extended function set which enables a restructuring of the search space so that solutions can be found more easily. Measures of complexity of solution trees are defined for an adaptive representation framework. The minimum description length principle is applied to justify the feasibility of approaches based on a hierarchy of discovered functions and to suggest alternative ways of defining a problem's fitness function. Preliminary empirical results are presented. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #81714. 	[Title] EVOLVING REPRESENTATIONS OF DESIGN CASES AND THEIR USE IN CREATIVE DESIGN [Abstract] In case-based design, the adaptation of a design case to new design requirements plays an important role. If it is sufficient to adapt a predefined set of design parameters, the task is easily automated. If, however, more far-reaching, creative changes are required, current systems provide only limited success. This paper describes an approach to creative design adaptation based on the notion of creativity as 'goal oriented shift of focus of a search process'. An evolving representation is used to restructure the search space so that designs similar to the example case lie in the focus of the search. This focus is than used as a starting point to create new designs. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #210871. 	[Title] Coevolving High-Level Representations [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #210872. 	[Title] An Evolutionary Algorithm that Constructs Recurrent Neural Networks [Abstract] Standard methods for inducing both the structure and weight values of recurrent neural networks fit an assumed class of architectures to every task. This simplification is necessary because the interactions between network structure and function are not well understood. Evolutionary computation, which includes genetic algorithms and evolutionary programming, is a population-based search method that has shown promise in such complex tasks. This paper argues that genetic algorithms are inappropriate for network acquisition and describes an evolutionary program, called GNARL, that simultaneously acquires both the structure and weights for recurrent networks. This algorithms empirical acquisition method allows for the emergence of complex behaviors and topologies that are potentially excluded by the artificial architectural constraints imposed in standard network induction methods. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #38205. 	[Title] Competitive Environments Evolve Better Solutions for Complex Tasks [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #59715. 	[Title] Genetic Programming Exploratory Power and the Discovery of Functions [Abstract] Hierarchical genetic programming (HGP) approaches rely on the discovery, modification, and use of new functions to accelerate evolution. This paper provides a qualitative explanation of the improved behavior of HGP, based on an analysis of the evolution process from the dual perspective of diversity and causality. From a static point of view, the use of an HGP approach enables the manipulation of a population of higher diversity programs. Higher diversity increases the exploratory ability of the genetic search process, as demonstrated by theoretical and experimental fitness distributions and expanded structural complexity of individuals. From a dynamic point of view, an analysis of the causality of the crossover operator suggests that HGP discovers and exploits useful structures in a bottom-up, hierarchical manner. Diversity and causality are complementary, affecting exploration and exploitation in genetic search. Unlike other machine learning techniques that need extra machinery to control the tradeoff between them, HGP automatically trades off exploration and exploitation. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #595157. 	[Title] Investigating the Generality of Automatically Defined Functions [Abstract] This paper studies how well the combination of simulated annealing and ADFs solves genetic programming (GP) style program discovery problems. On a suite composed of the even-k-parity problems for k = 3,4,5, it analyses the performance of simulated annealing with ADFs as compared to not using ADFs. In contrast to GP results on this suite, when simulated annealing is run with ADFs, as problem size increases, the advantage to using them over a standard GP program representation is marginal. When the performance of simulated annealing is compared to GP with both algorithm using ADFs on the even-3-parity problem GP is advantageous, on the even-4-parity problem SA and GP are equal, and on the even-5-parity problem SA is advantageous. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1128151. 	[Title] Learning Representations for Evolutionary Computation an example from the domain of two-dimensional shape designs. In [Abstract] Evolutionary systems have been used in a variety of applications, from turbine design to scheduling problems. The basic algorithms are similar in all these applications, but the representation is always problem specific. Unfortunately, the search time for evolutionary systems very much depends on efficient codings, using problem specific domain knowledge to reduce the size of the search space. This paper describes an approach, where the user only specifies a very general, basic coding that can be used in a larger variety of problems. The system then learns a more efficient, problem specific coding. To do this, an evolutionary system with variable length coding is used. While the system optimizes an example problem, a meta process identifies successful combinations of genes in the population and combines them into higher level evolved genes. The extraction is repeated iteratively, allowing genes to evolve that have a high level complexity and encode a high number of the original, basic genes. This results in a continuous restructuring of the search space, allowing potentially successful solutions to be found in much shorter search time. The evolved coding can then be used to solve other, related problems. While not excluding any potentially desirable solutions, the evolved coding makes knowledge from the example problem available for the new problem. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #575077. 	[Title] Fitness Landscapes and Difficulty in Genetic Programming [Abstract] The structure of the fitness landscape on which genetic programming operates is examined. The landscapes of a range of problems of known difficulty are analyzed in an attempt to determine which landscape measures correlate with the difficulty of the problem. The autocorrelation of the fitness values of random walks, a measure which has been shown to be related to perceived difficulty using other techniques, is only a weak indicator of the difficulty as perceived by genetic programming. All of these problems show unusually low autocorrelation. Comparison of the range of landscape basin depths at the end of adaptive walks on the landscapes shows good correlation with problem difficulty, over the entire range of problems examined. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #35061. 	[Title] Evolving Networks: Using the Genetic Algorithm with Connectionist Learning [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #887. 	[Title] Some studies in machine learning using the game of checkers. IBM Journal, 3(3):211-229, 1959. Some [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #198653. 	[Title] Information filtering: Selection mechanisms in learning systems. Machine Learning, 10:113-151, 1993. Generalization as search. Artificial [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Paper #44514 has the title `The Observers Paradox: Apparent Computational Complexity in Physical Systems  
` and the abstract `nan`.
Question: Which category should Paper #44514 be classified as ?
You can select one from ['Neural_Networks', 'Case_Based', 'Theory', 'Reinforcement_Learning', 'Probabilistic_Methods', 'Rule_Learning', 'Genetic_Algorithms'].


Paper #44514 has the title `The Observers Paradox: Apparent Computational Complexity in Physical Systems  
` and the abstract `nan`.
Question: Which category should Paper #44514 be classified as ?
You can select one from ['Neural_Networks', 'Case_Based', 'Theory', 'Reinforcement_Learning', 'Probabilistic_Methods', 'Rule_Learning', 'Genetic_Algorithms'].

This paper should be classified into: Neural_Networks