Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #63931. 	[Title] Combining FOIL and EBG to Speed-up Logic Programs [Abstract] This paper presents an algorithm that combines traditional EBL techniques and recent developments in inductive logic programming to learn effective clause selection rules for Prolog programs. When these control rules are incorporated into the original program, significant speed-up may be achieved. The algorithm is shown to be an improvement over competing EBL approaches in several domains. Additionally, the algorithm is capable of automatically transforming some intractable algorithms into ones that run in polynomial time. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1110531. 	[Title] Computational Learning in Humans and Machines [Abstract] In this paper we review research on machine learning and its relation to computational models of human learning. We focus initially on concept induction, examining five main approaches to this problem, then consider the more complex issue of learning sequential behaviors. After this, we compare the rhetoric that sometimes appears in the machine learning and psychological literature with the growing evidence that different theoretical paradigms typically produce similar results. In response, we suggest that concrete computational models, which currently dominate the field, may be less useful than simulations that operate at a more abstract level. We illustrate this point with an abstract simulation that explains a challenging phenomenon in the area of category learning, and we conclude with some general observations about such abstract models. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #6917. 	[Title] Covering vs. Divide-and-Conquer for Top-Down Induction of Logic Programs [Abstract] covering has been formalized and used extensively. In this work, the divide-and-conquer technique is formalized as well and compared to the covering technique in a logic programming framework. Covering works by repeatedly specializing an overly general hypothesis, on each iteration focusing on finding a clause with a high coverage of positive examples. Divide-and-conquer works by specializing an overly general hypothesis once, focusing on discriminating positive from negative examples. Experimental results are presented demonstrating that there are cases when more accurate hypotheses can be found by divide-and-conquer than by covering. Moreover, since covering considers the same alternatives repeatedly it tends to be less efficient than divide-and-conquer, which never considers the same alternative twice. On the other hand, covering searches a larger hypothesis space, which may result in that more compact hypotheses are found by this technique than by divide-and-conquer. Furthermore, divide-and-conquer is, in contrast to covering, not applicable to learn ing recursive definitions. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #151430. 	[Title] Pac-Learning Recursive Logic Programs: Efficient Algorithms [Abstract] We present algorithms that learn certain classes of function-free recursive logic programs in polynomial time from equivalence queries. In particular, we show that a single k-ary recursive constant-depth determinate clause is learnable. Two-clause programs consisting of one learnable recursive clause and one constant-depth determinate non-recursive clause are also learnable, if an additional "basecase" oracle is assumed. These results immediately imply the pac-learnability of these classes. Although these classes of learnable recursive programs are very constrained, it is shown in a companion paper that they are maximally general, in that generalizing either class in any natural way leads to a compu-tationally difficult learning problem. Thus, taken together with its companion paper, this paper establishes a boundary of efficient learnability for recursive logic programs. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #64519. 	[Title] Utilization Filtering a method for reducing the inherent harmfulness of deductively learned knowledge field of [Abstract] This paper highlights a phenomenon that causes deductively learned knowledge to be harmful when used for problem solving. The problem occurs when deductive problem solvers encounter a failure branch of the search tree. The backtracking mechanism of such problem solvers will force the program to traverse the whole subtree thus visiting many nodes twice - once by using the deductively learned rule and once by using the rules that generated the learned rule in the first place. We suggest an approach called utilization filtering to solve that problem. Learners that use this approach submit to the problem solver a filter function together with the knowledge that was acquired. The function decides for each problem whether to use the learned knowledge and what part of it to use. We have tested the idea in the context of a lemma learning system, where the filter uses the probability of a subgoal failing to decide whether to turn lemma usage off. Experiments show an improvement of performance by a factor of 3. This paper is concerned with a particular type of harmful redundancy that occurs in deductive problem solvers that employ backtracking in their search procedure, and use deductively learned knowledge to accelerate the search. The problem is that in failure branches of the search tree, the backtracking mechanism of the problem solver forces exploration of the whole subtree. Thus, the search procedure will visit many states twice - once by using the deductively learned rule, and once by using the search path that produced the rule in the first place. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #2440. 	[Title] Quinlan, 1990 J.R. Quinlan. Learning logical definitions from relations. Machine Learning, First-order theory revision. In [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1061127. 	[Title] Applications of machine learning: a medical follow up study [Abstract] This paper describes preliminary work that aims to apply some learning strategies to a medical follow-up study. An investigation of the application of three machine learning algorithms-1R, FOIL and InductH to identify risk factors that govern the colposuspension cure rate has been made. The goal of this study is to induce a generalised description or explanation of the classification attribute, colposuspension cure rate (completely cured, improved, unchanged and worse) from the 767 examples in the questionnaires. We looked for a set of rules that described which risk factors result in differences of cure rate. The results were encouraging, and indicate that machine learning can play a useful role in large scale medical problem solving. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1120650. 	[Title] Bottom-up induction of logic programs with more than one recursive clause [Abstract] In this paper we present a bottom-up algorithm called MRI to induce logic programs from their examples. This method can induce programs with a base clause and more than one recursive clause from a very small number of examples. MRI is based on the analysis of saturations of examples. It first generates a path structure, which is an expression of a stream of values processed by predicates. The concept of path structure was originally introduced by Identam-Almquist and used in TIM [ Idestam-Almquist, 1996 ] . In this paper, we introduce the concepts of extension and difference of path structure. Recursive clauses can be expressed as a difference between a path structure and its extension. The paper presents the algorithm and shows experimental results obtained by the method. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #6923. 	[Title] Inductive Constraint Logic [Abstract] A novel approach to learning first order logic formulae from positive and negative examples is presented. Whereas present inductive logic programming systems employ examples as true and false ground facts (or clauses), we view examples as interpretations which are true or false for the target theory. This viewpoint allows to reconcile the inductive logic programming paradigm with classical attribute value learning in the sense that the latter is a special case of the former. Because of this property, we are able to adapt AQ and CN2 type algorithms in order to enable learning of full first order formulae. However, whereas classical learning techniques have concentrated on concept representations in disjunctive normal form, we will use a clausal representation, which corresponds to a conjuctive normal form where each conjunct forms a constraint on positive examples. This representation duality reverses also the role of positive and negative examples, both in the heuristics and in the algorithm. The resulting theory is incorporated in a system named ICL (Inductive Constraint Logic). Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1114512. 	[Title] Integrity Constraints in ILP using a Monte Carlo approach [Abstract] Many state-of-the-art ILP systems require large numbers of negative examples to avoid overgeneralization. This is a considerable disadvantage for many ILP applications, namely indu ctive program synthesis where relativelly small and sparse example sets are a more realistic scenario. Integrity constraints are first order clauses that can play the role of negative examples in an inductive process. One integrity constraint can replace a long list of ground negative examples. However, checking the consistency of a program with a set of integrity constraints usually involves heavy the orem-proving. We propose an efficient constraint satisfaction algorithm that applies to a wide variety of useful integrity constraints and uses a Monte Carlo strategy. It looks for inconsistencies by ra ndom generation of queries to the program. This method allows the use of integrity constraints instead of (or together with) negative examples. As a consequence programs to induce can be specified more rapidly by the user and the ILP system tends to obtain more accurate definitions. Average running times are not greatly affected by the use of integrity constraints compared to ground negative examples. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #49811. 	[Title] Estimating the Accuracy of Learned Concepts [Abstract] This paper investigates alternative estimators of the accuracy of concepts learned from examples. In particular, the cross-validation and 632 bootstrap estimators are studied, using synthetic training data and the foil learning algorithm. Our experimental results contradict previous papers in statistics, which advocate the 632 bootstrap method as superior to cross-validation. Nevertheless, our results also suggest that conclusions based on cross-validation in previous machine learning papers are unreliable. Specifically, our observations are that (i) the true error of the concept learned by foil from independently drawn sets of examples of the same concept varies widely, (ii) the estimate of true error provided by cross-validation has high variability but is approximately unbiased, and (iii) the 632 bootstrap estimator has lower variability than cross-validation, but is systematically biased. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #13717. 	[Title] Learning Semantic Grammars with Constructive Inductive Logic Programming [Abstract] Automating the construction of semantic grammars is a difficult and interesting problem for machine learning. This paper shows how the semantic-grammar acquisition problem can be viewed as the learning of search-control heuristics in a logic program. Appropriate control rules are learned using a new first-order induction algorithm that automatically invents useful syntactic and semantic categories. Empirical results show that the learned parsers generalize well to novel sentences and out-perform previous approaches based on connectionist techniques. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #348437. 	[Title] Learning First-Order Acyclic Horn Programs from Entailment [Abstract] In this paper, we consider learning first-order Horn programs from entailment. In particular, we show that any subclass of first-order acyclic Horn programs with constant arity is exactly learnable from equivalence and entailment membership queries provided it allows a polynomial-time subsumption procedure and satisfies some closure conditions. One consequence of this is that first-order acyclic determinate Horn programs with constant arity are exactly learnable from equiv alence and entailment membership queries. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1107095. 	[Title] ILP with Noise and Fixed Example Size: A Bayesian Approach [Abstract] Current inductive logic programming systems are limited in their handling of noise, as they employ a greedy covering approach to constructing the hypothesis one clause at a time. This approach also causes difficulty in learning recursive predicates. Additionally, many current systems have an implicit expectation that the cardinality of the positive and negative examples reflect the "proportion" of the concept to the instance space. A framework for learning from noisy data and fixed example size is presented. A Bayesian heuristic for finding the most probable hypothesis in this general framework is derived. This approach evaluates a hypothesis as a whole rather than one clause at a time. The heuristic, which has nice theoretical properties, is incorporated in an ILP system, Lime. Experimental results show that Lime handles noise better than FOIL and PROGOL. It is able to learn recursive definitions from noisy data on which other systems do not perform well. Lime is also capable of learning from only positive data and also from only negative data. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1110426. 	[Title] Incremental Reduced Error Pruning [Abstract] This paper outlines some problems that may occur with Reduced Error Pruning in relational learning algorithms, most notably efficiency. Thereafter a new method, Incremental Reduced Error Pruning, is proposed that attempts to address all of these problems. Experiments show that in many noisy domains this method is much more efficient than alternative algorithms, along with a slight gain in accuracy. However, the experiments show as well that the use of the algorithm cannot be recommended for domains which require a very specific concept description. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #6939. 	[Title] Learning First-Order Definitions of Functions [Abstract] First-order learning involves finding a clause-form definition of a relation from examples of the relation and relevant background information. In this paper, a particular first-order learning system is modified to customize it for finding definitions of functional relations. This restriction leads to faster learning times and, in some cases, to definitions that have higher predictive accuracy. Other first-order learning systems might benefit from similar specialization. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #591016. 	[Title] First Order Regression: Applications in Real-World Domains [Abstract] A first order regression algorithm capable of handling real-valued (continuous) variables is introduced and some of its applications are presented. Regressional learning assumes real-valued class and discrete or real-valued variables. The algorithm combines regressional learning with standard ILP concepts, such as first order concept description and background knowledge. A clause is generated by successively refining the initial clause by adding literals of the form A = v for the discrete attributes, A v and A v for the real-valued attributes, and background knowledge literals to the clause body. The algorithm employs a covering approach (beam search), a heuristic impurity function, and stopping criteria based on local improvement, minimum number of examples, maximum clause length, minimum local improvement, minimum description length, allowed error, and variable depth. An outline of the algorithm and the results of the system's application in some artificial and real-world domains are presented. The real-world domains comprise: modelling of the water behavior in a surge tank, modelling of the workpiece roughness in a steel grinding process and modelling of the operator's behavior during the process of electrical discharge machining. Special emphasis is given to the evaluation of obtained models by domain experts and their comments on the aspects of practical use of the induced knowledge. The results obtained during the knowledge acquisition process show several important guidelines for knowledge acquisition, concerning mainly the process of interaction with domain experts, exposing primarily the importance of comprehensibility of the induced knowledge. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #591017. 	[Title] Producing More Comprehensible Models While Retaining Their Performance [Abstract] Rissanen's Minimum Description Length (MDL) principle is adapted to handle continuous attributes in the Inductive Logic Programming setting. Application of the developed coding as a MDL pruning mechanism is devised. The behavior of the MDL pruning is tested in a synthetic domain with artificially added noise of different levels and in two real life problems | modelling of the surface roughness of a grinding workpiece and modelling of the mutagenicity of nitroaromatic compounds. Results indicate that MDL pruning is a successful parameter-free noise fighting tool in real-life domains since it acts as a safeguard against building too complex models while retaining the accuracy of the model. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #212777. 	[Title] Inductive Learning of Characteristic Concept Descriptions from Small Sets of Classified Examples [Abstract] This paper presents a novel idea to the problem of learning concept descriptions from examples. Whereas most existing approaches rely on a large number of classified examples, the approach presented in the paper is aimed at being applicable when only a few examples are classified as positive (and negative) instances of a concept. The approach tries to take advantage of the information which can be induced from descriptions of unclassified objects using a conceptual clustering algorithm. The system Cola is described and results of applying Cola in two real-world domains are presented. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #63915. 	[Title] Learning the Past Tense of English Verbs: The Symbolic Pattern Associator vs. Connectionist Models [Abstract] Learning the past tense of English verbs | a seemingly minor aspect of language acquisition | has generated heated debates since 1986, and has become a landmark task for testing the adequacy of cognitive modeling. Several artificial neural networks (ANNs) have been implemented, and a challenge for better symbolic models has been posed. In this paper, we present a general-purpose Symbolic Pattern Associator (SPA) based upon the decision-tree learning algorithm ID3. We conduct extensive head-to-head comparisons on the generalization ability between ANN models and the SPA under different representations. We conclude that the SPA generalizes the past tense of unseen verbs better than ANN models by a wide margin, and we offer insights as to why this should be the case. We also discuss a new default strategy for decision-tree learning algorithms. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1130539. 	[Title] Learning High Utility Rules by Incorporating Search Control  Guidance Committee [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #49843. 	[Title] Fossil: A Robust Relational Learner [Abstract] The research reported in this paper describes Fossil, an ILP system that uses a search heuristic based on statistical correlation. This algorithm implements a new method for learning useful concepts in the presence of noise. In contrast to Foil's stopping criterion, which allows theories to grow in complexity as the size of the training sets increases, we propose a new stopping criterion that is independent of the number of training examples. Instead, Fossil's stopping criterion depends on a search heuristic that estimates the utility of literals on a uniform scale. In addition we outline how this feature can be used for top-down pruning and present some preliminary results. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #49844. 	[Title] A Comparison of Pruning Methods for Relational Concept Learning [Abstract] Pre-Pruning and Post-Pruning are two standard methods of dealing with noise in concept learning. Pre-Pruning methods are very efficient, while Post-Pruning methods typically are more accurate, but much slower, because they have to generate an overly specific concept description first. We have experimented with a variety of pruning methods, including two new methods that try to combine and integrate pre- and post-pruning in order to achieve both accuracy and efficiency. This is verified with test series in a chess position classification task. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #49847. 	[Title] Top-Down Pruning in Relational Learning [Abstract] Pruning is an effective method for dealing with noise in Machine Learning. Recently pruning algorithms, in particular Reduced Error Pruning, have also attracted interest in the field of Inductive Logic Programming. However, it has been shown that these methods can be very inefficient, because most of the time is wasted for generating clauses that explain noisy examples and subsequently pruning these clauses. We introduce a new method which searches for good theories in a top-down fashion to get a better starting point for the pruning algorithm. Experiments show that this approach can significantly lower the complexity of the task without losing predictive accuracy. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #18615. 	[Title] Learning Trees and Rules with Set-valued Features [Abstract] In most learning systems examples are represented as fixed-length "feature vectors", the components of which are either real numbers or nominal values. We propose an extension of the feature-vector representation that allows the value of a feature to be a set of strings; for instance, to represent a small white and black dog with the nominal features size and species and the set-valued feature color, one might use a feature vector with size=small, species=canis-familiaris and color=fwhite,blackg. Since we make no assumptions about the number of possible set elements, this extension of the traditional feature-vector representation is closely connected to Blum's "infinite attribute" representation. We argue that many decision tree and rule learning algorithms can be easily extended to set-valued features. We also show by example that many real-world learning problems can be efficiently and naturally represented with set-valued features; in particular, text categorization problems and problems that arise in propositionalizing first-order representations lend themselves to set-valued features. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1116922. 	[Title] An Experimental Comparison of Genetic Programming and Inductive Logic Programming on Learning Recursive List Functions [Abstract] This paper experimentally compares three approaches to program induction: inductive logic programming (ILP), genetic programming (GP), and genetic logic programming (GLP) (a variant of GP for inducing Pro-log programs). Each of these methods was used to induce four simple, recursive, list-manipulation functions. The results indicate that ILP is the most likely to induce a correct program from small sets of random examples, while GP is generally less accurate. GLP performs the worst, and is rarely able to induce a correct program. Interpretations of these results in terms of differences in search methods and inductive biases are presented. Keywords: Genetic Programming, Inductive Logic Programming, Empiri cal Comparison This paper will also be submitted to the 8th Int. Workshop on Inductive Logic Programming, 1998. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #136766. 	[Title] Learning Goal-Decomposition Rules using Exercises [Abstract] Exercises are problems ordered in increasing order of difficulty. Teaching problem-solving through exercises is a widely used pedagogic technique. A computational reason for this is that the knowledge gained by solving simple problems is useful in efficiently solving more difficult problems. We adopt this approach of learning from exercises to acquire search-control knowledge in the form of goal-decomposition rules (d-rules). D-rules are first order, and are learned using a new "generalize-and-test" algorithm which is based on inductive logic programming techniques. We demonstrate the feasibility of the approach by applying it in two planning do mains. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1119295. 	[Title] Distance Induction in First Order Logic used for classification via a k-nearest-neighbor process. Experiments on [Abstract] This paper tackles the supervised induction of a distance from examples described as Horn clauses or constrained clauses. In opposition to syntax-driven approaches, this approach is discrimination-driven: it proceeds by defining a small set of complex discriminant hypotheses. These hypotheses serve as new concepts, used to redescribe the initial examples. Further, this redescription can be embedded into the space of natural integers, and a distance between examples thus naturally follows. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #136767. 	[Title] Learning Horn Definitions with Equivalence and Membership Queries [Abstract] A Horn definition is a set of Horn clauses with the same head literal. In this paper, we consider learning non-recursive, function-free first-order Horn definitions. We show that this class is exactly learnable from equivalence and membership queries. It follows then that this class is PAC learnable using examples and membership queries. Our results have been shown to be applicable to learning efficient goal-decomposition rules in planning domains. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #136768. 	[Title] Theory-guided Empirical Speedup Learning of Goal Decomposition Rules [Abstract] Speedup learning is the study of improving the problem-solving performance with experience and from outside guidance. We describe here a system that successfully combines the best features of Explanation-based learning and empirical learning to learn goal decomposition rules from examples of successful problem solving and membership queries. We demonstrate that our system can efficiently learn effective decomposition rules in three different domains. Our results suggest that theory-guided empirical learning can overcome the problems of purely explanation-based learning and purely empirical learning, and be an effective speedup learning method. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1127619. 	[Title] Cooperation of Data-driven and Model-based Induction Methods for Relational Learning [Abstract] Inductive learning in relational domains has been shown to be intractable in general. Many approaches to this task have been suggested nevertheless; all in some way restrict the hypothesis space searched. They can be roughly divided into two groups: data-driven, where the restriction is encoded into the algorithm, and model-based, where the restrictions are made more or less explicit with some form of declarative bias. This paper describes Incy, an inductive learner that seeks to combine aspects of both approaches. Incy is initially data-driven, using examples and background knowledge to put forth and specialize hypotheses based on the "connectivity" of the data at hand. It is model-driven in that hypotheses are abstracted into rule models, which are used both for control decisions in the data-driven phase and for model-guided induction. Key Words: Inductive learning in relational domains, cooperation of data-driven and model-guided methods, implicit and declarative bias. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1108551. 	[Title] From: Computational Learning Theory and Natural Systems, Chapter 18, "Cross-validation and Modal Theories", Cross-Validation and [Abstract] Cross-validation is a frequently used, intuitively pleasing technique for estimating the accuracy of theories learned by machine learning algorithms. During testing of a machine learning algorithm (foil) on new databases of prokaryotic RNA transcription promoters which we have developed, cross-validation displayed an interesting phenomenon. One theory is found repeatedly and is responsible for very little of the cross-validation error, whereas other theories are found very infrequently which tend to be responsible for the majority of the cross-validation error. It is tempting to believe that the most frequently found theory (the "modal theory") may be more accurate as a classifier of unseen data than the other theories. However, experiments showed that modal theories are not more accurate on unseen data than the other theories found less frequently during cross-validation. Modal theories may be useful in predicting when cross-validation is a poor estimate of true accuracy. We offer explanations 1 For correspondence: Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of California, San Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #582343. 	[Title] Transferring and Retraining Learned Information Filters [Abstract] Any system that learns how to filter documents will suffer poor performance during an initial training phase. One way of addressing this problem is to exploit filters learned by other users in a collaborative fashion. We investigate "direct transfer" of learned filters in this setting|a limiting case for any collaborative learning system. We evaluate the stability of several different learning methods under direct transfer, and conclude that symbolic learning methods that use negatively correlated features of the data perform poorly in transfer, even when they perform well in more conventional evaluation settings. This effect is robust: it holds for several learning methods, when a diverse set of users is used in training the classifier, and even when the learned classifiers can be adapted to the new user's distribution. Our experiments give rise to several concrete proposals for improving generalization performance in a collaborative setting, including a beneficial variation on a feature selection method that has been widely used in text categorization. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #5959. 	[Title] Chunking in soar: The anatomy of a general learn ing mechanism. Machine Learning, 1(1). Learning [Abstract] gers University. Also appears as tech. report ML- TR-7. Minton, S. (1988). Quantitative results concerning the utility of explanation-based learning. In Proceedings of National Conference on Artificial Intelli gence, pages 564-569. St. Paul, MN. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #72908. 	[Title] Applications of a logical discovery engine [Abstract] The clausal discovery engine claudien is presented. claudien discovers regularities in data and is a representative of the inductive logic programming paradigm. As such, it represents data and regularities by means of first order clausal theories. Because the search space of clausal theories is larger than that of attribute value representation, claudien also accepts as input a declarative specification of the language bias, which determines the set of syntactically well-formed regularities. Whereas other papers on claudien focuss on the semantics or logical problem specification of claudien, on the discovery algorithm, or the PAC-learning aspects, this paper wants to illustrate the power of the resulting technique. In order to achieve this aim, we show how claudien can be used to learn 1) integrity constraints in databases, 2) functional dependencies and determinations, 3) properties of sequences, 4) mixed quantitative and qualitative laws, 5) reverse engineering, and 6) classification rules. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1000012. 	[Title] Stochastic Propositionalization of Non-Determinate Background Knowledge [Abstract] It is a well-known fact that propositional learning algorithms require "good" features to perform well in practice. So a major step in data engineering for inductive learning is the construction of good features by domain experts. These features often represent properties of structured objects, where a property typically is the occurrence of a certain substructure having certain properties. To partly automate the process of "feature engineering", we devised an algorithm that searches for features which are defined by such substructures. The algorithm stochastically conducts a top-down search for first-order clauses, where each clause represents a binary feature. It differs from existing algorithms in that its search is not class-blind, and that it is capable of considering clauses ("context") of almost arbitrary length (size). Preliminary experiments are favorable, and support the view that this approach is promising. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #23507. 	[Title] Natural Language Processing with Subsymbolic Neural Networks [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1106388. 	[Title] Predicting Ordinal Classes in ILP [Abstract] This paper is devoted to the problem of learning to predict ordinal (i.e., ordered discrete) classes in an ILP setting. We start with a relational regression algorithm named SRT (Structural Regression Trees) and study various ways of transforming it into a first-order learner for ordinal classification tasks. Combinations of these algorithm variants with several data preprocessing methods are compared on two ILP benchmark data sets to verify the relative strengths and weaknesses of the strategies and to study the trade-off between optimal categorical classification accuracy (hit rate) and minimum distance-based error. Preliminary results indicate that this is a promising avenue towards algorithms that combine aspects of classification and regression in relational learning. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1117786. 	[Title] An intelligent search method using Inductive Logic Programming [Abstract] We propose a method to use Inductive Logic Programming to give heuristic functions for searching goals to solve problems. The method takes solutions of a problem or a history of search and a set of background knowledge on the problem. In a large class of problems, a problem is described as a set of states and a set of operators, and is solved by finding a series of operators. A solution, a series of operators that brings an initial state to a final state, is transformed into positive and negative examples of a relation "better-choice", which describes that an operator is better than others in a state. We also give a way to use the "better-choice" relation as a heuristic function. The method can use any logic program as background knowledge to induce heuristics, and induced heuristics has high readability. The paper inspects the method by applying to a puzzle. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #187354. 	[Title] Applying ILP to Diterpene Structure Elucidation from 13 C NMR Spectra [Abstract] We present a novel application of ILP to the problem of diterpene structure elucidation from 13 C NMR spectra. Diterpenes are organic compounds of low molecular weight that are based on a skeleton of 20 carbon atoms. They are of significant chemical and commercial interest because of their use as lead compounds in the search for new pharmaceutical effectors. The structure elucidation of diterpenes based on 13 C NMR spectra is usually done manually by human experts with specialized background knowledge on peak patterns and chemical structures. In the process, each of the 20 skeletal atoms is assigned an atom number that corresponds to its proper place in the skeleton and the diterpene is classified into one of the possible skeleton types. We address the problem of learning classification rules from a database of peak patterns for diterpenes with known structure. Recently, propositional learning was successfully applied to learn classification rules from spectra with assigned atom numbers. As the assignment of atom numbers is a difficult process in itself (and possibly indistinguishable from the classification process), we apply ILP, i.e., relational learning, to the problem of classifying spectra without assigned atom numbers. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #27230. 	[Title] K unstliche Intelligenz Grdt: Enhancing Model-Based Learning for Its Application in Robot Navigation [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1153254. 	[Title]  [Abstract] A Methodology for Evaluating Theory Revision Systems: Results Abstract Theory revision systems are learning systems that have a goal of making small changes to an original theory to account for new data. A measure for the distance between two theories is proposed. This measure corresponds to the minimum number of edit operations at the literal level required to transform one theory into another. By computing the distance between an original theory and a revised theory, the claim that a theory revision system makes few revisions to a theory may be quantitatively evaluated. We present data using both accuracy and the distance metric on Audrey II, with Audrey II fl Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #37483. 	[Title] Learning Approximate Control Rules Of High Utility [Abstract] One of the difficult problems in the area of explanation based learning is the utility problem; learning too many rules of low utility can lead to swamping, or degradation of performance. This paper introduces two new techniques for improving the utility of learned rules. The first technique is to combine EBL with inductive learning techniques to learn a better set of control rules; the second technique is to use these inductive techniques to learn approximate control rules. The two techniques are synthesized in an algorithm called approximating abductive explanation based learning (AxA-EBL). AxA-EBL is shown to improve substantially over standard EBL in several domains. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #9708. 	[Title] Acquiring Recursive and Iterative Concepts with Explanation-Based Learning explanation-based generalization, generalizing explanation structures, generalizing to [Abstract] University of Wisconsin Computer Sciences Technical Report 876 (September 1989) Abstract In explanation-based learning, a specific problem's solution is generalized into a form that can be later used to solve conceptually similar problems. Most research in explanation-based learning involves relaxing constraints on the variables in the explanation of a specific example, rather than generalizing the graphical structure of the explanation itself. However, this precludes the acquisition of concepts where an iterative or recursive process is implicitly represented in the explanation by a fixed number of applications. This paper presents an algorithm that generalizes explanation structures and reports empirical results that demonstrate the value of acquiring recursive and iterative concepts. The BAGGER2 algorithm learns recursive and iterative concepts, integrates results from multiple examples, and extracts useful subconcepts during generalization. On problems where learning a recursive rule is not appropriate, the system produces the same result as standard explanation-based methods. Applying the learned recursive rules only requires a minor extension to a PROLOG-like problem solver, namely, the ability to explicitly call a specific rule. Empirical studies demonstrate that generalizing the structure of explanations helps avoid the recently reported negative effects of learning. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #37998. 	[Title] Combining Top-down and Bottom-up Techniques in Inductive Logic Programming [Abstract] This paper describes a new method for inducing logic programs from examples which attempts to integrate the best aspects of existing ILP methods into a single coherent framework. In particular, it combines a bottom-up method similar to Golem with a top-down method similar to Foil. It also includes a method for predicate invention similar to Champ and an elegant solution to the "noisy oracle" problem which allows the system to learn recursive programs without requiring a complete set of positive examples. Systematic experimental comparisons to both Golem and Foil on a range of problems are used to clearly demonstrate the ad vantages of the approach. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #38000. 	[Title] on Inductive Logic Programming (ILP-95) Inducing Logic Programs without Explicit Negative Examples [Abstract] This paper presents a method for learning logic programs without explicit negative examples by exploiting an assumption of output completeness. A mode declaration is supplied for the target predicate and each training input is assumed to be accompanied by all of its legal outputs. Any other outputs generated by an incomplete program implicitly represent negative examples; however, large numbers of ground negative examples never need to be generated. This method has been incorporated into two ILP systems, Chillin and IFoil, both of which use intensional background knowledge. Tests on two natural language acquisition tasks, case-role mapping and past-tense learning, illustrate the advantages of the approach. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #23546. 	[Title] Learning Action-oriented Perceptual Features for Robot Navigation [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #217852. 	[Title] Learning Search-Control Heuristics for Logic Programs: Applications to Speedup Learning and Language Acquisition [Abstract] This paper presents a general framework, learning search-control heuristics for logic programs, which can be used to improve both the efficiency and accuracy of knowledge-based systems expressed as definite-clause logic programs. The approach combines techniques of explanation-based learning and recent advances in inductive logic programming to learn clause-selection heuristics that guide program execution. Two specific applications of this framework are detailed: dynamic optimization of Prolog programs (improving efficiency) and natural language acquisition (improving accuracy). In the area of program optimization, a prototype system, Dolphin is able to transform some intractable specifications into polynomial-time algorithms, and outperforms competing approaches in several benchmark speedup domains. A prototype language acquisition system, Chill is also described. It is capable of automatically acquiring semantic grammars, which uniformly incorprate syntactic and semantic constraints to parse sentences into case-role representations. Initial experiments show that this approach is able to construct accurate parsers which generalize well to novel sentences and significantly outperform previous approaches to learning case-role mapping based on connectionist techniques. Planned extensions of the general framework and the specific applications as well as plans for further evaluation are also discussed. Please summarise all the given information.

Paper #63931 has the title `Combining FOIL and EBG to Speed-up Logic Programs  
` and the abstract `This paper presents an algorithm that combines traditional EBL techniques and recent developments in inductive logic programming to learn effective clause selection rules for Prolog programs. When these control rules are incorporated into the original program, significant speed-up may be achieved. The algorithm is shown to be an improvement over competing EBL approaches in several domains. Additionally, the algorithm is capable of automatically transforming some intractable algorithms into ones that run in polynomial time.
`.
Question: Which category should Paper #63931 be classified as ?
You can select one from ['Neural_Networks', 'Case_Based', 'Theory', 'Reinforcement_Learning', 'Probabilistic_Methods', 'Rule_Learning', 'Genetic_Algorithms'].


Paper #63931 has the title `Combining FOIL and EBG to Speed-up Logic Programs  
` and the abstract `This paper presents an algorithm that combines traditional EBL techniques and recent developments in inductive logic programming to learn effective clause selection rules for Prolog programs. When these control rules are incorporated into the original program, significant speed-up may be achieved. The algorithm is shown to be an improvement over competing EBL approaches in several domains. Additionally, the algorithm is capable of automatically transforming some intractable algorithms into ones that run in polynomial time.
`.
Question: Which category should Paper #63931 be classified as ?
You can select one from ['Neural_Networks', 'Case_Based', 'Theory', 'Reinforcement_Learning', 'Probabilistic_Methods', 'Rule_Learning', 'Genetic_Algorithms'].

This paper should be classified into: Rule_Learning