Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #49844. 	[Title] A Comparison of Pruning Methods for Relational Concept Learning [Abstract] Pre-Pruning and Post-Pruning are two standard methods of dealing with noise in concept learning. Pre-Pruning methods are very efficient, while Post-Pruning methods typically are more accurate, but much slower, because they have to generate an overly specific concept description first. We have experimented with a variety of pruning methods, including two new methods that try to combine and integrate pre- and post-pruning in order to achieve both accuracy and efficiency. This is verified with test series in a chess position classification task. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #6917. 	[Title] Covering vs. Divide-and-Conquer for Top-Down Induction of Logic Programs [Abstract] covering has been formalized and used extensively. In this work, the divide-and-conquer technique is formalized as well and compared to the covering technique in a logic programming framework. Covering works by repeatedly specializing an overly general hypothesis, on each iteration focusing on finding a clause with a high coverage of positive examples. Divide-and-conquer works by specializing an overly general hypothesis once, focusing on discriminating positive from negative examples. Experimental results are presented demonstrating that there are cases when more accurate hypotheses can be found by divide-and-conquer than by covering. Moreover, since covering considers the same alternatives repeatedly it tends to be less efficient than divide-and-conquer, which never considers the same alternative twice. On the other hand, covering searches a larger hypothesis space, which may result in that more compact hypotheses are found by this technique than by divide-and-conquer. Furthermore, divide-and-conquer is, in contrast to covering, not applicable to learn ing recursive definitions. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #151430. 	[Title] Pac-Learning Recursive Logic Programs: Efficient Algorithms [Abstract] We present algorithms that learn certain classes of function-free recursive logic programs in polynomial time from equivalence queries. In particular, we show that a single k-ary recursive constant-depth determinate clause is learnable. Two-clause programs consisting of one learnable recursive clause and one constant-depth determinate non-recursive clause are also learnable, if an additional "basecase" oracle is assumed. These results immediately imply the pac-learnability of these classes. Although these classes of learnable recursive programs are very constrained, it is shown in a companion paper that they are maximally general, in that generalizing either class in any natural way leads to a compu-tationally difficult learning problem. Thus, taken together with its companion paper, this paper establishes a boundary of efficient learnability for recursive logic programs. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1061127. 	[Title] Applications of machine learning: a medical follow up study [Abstract] This paper describes preliminary work that aims to apply some learning strategies to a medical follow-up study. An investigation of the application of three machine learning algorithms-1R, FOIL and InductH to identify risk factors that govern the colposuspension cure rate has been made. The goal of this study is to induce a generalised description or explanation of the classification attribute, colposuspension cure rate (completely cured, improved, unchanged and worse) from the 767 examples in the questionnaires. We looked for a set of rules that described which risk factors result in differences of cure rate. The results were encouraging, and indicate that machine learning can play a useful role in large scale medical problem solving. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #2440. 	[Title] Quinlan, 1990 J.R. Quinlan. Learning logical definitions from relations. Machine Learning, First-order theory revision. In [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1120650. 	[Title] Bottom-up induction of logic programs with more than one recursive clause [Abstract] In this paper we present a bottom-up algorithm called MRI to induce logic programs from their examples. This method can induce programs with a base clause and more than one recursive clause from a very small number of examples. MRI is based on the analysis of saturations of examples. It first generates a path structure, which is an expression of a stream of values processed by predicates. The concept of path structure was originally introduced by Identam-Almquist and used in TIM [ Idestam-Almquist, 1996 ] . In this paper, we introduce the concepts of extension and difference of path structure. Recursive clauses can be expressed as a difference between a path structure and its extension. The paper presents the algorithm and shows experimental results obtained by the method. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #6923. 	[Title] Inductive Constraint Logic [Abstract] A novel approach to learning first order logic formulae from positive and negative examples is presented. Whereas present inductive logic programming systems employ examples as true and false ground facts (or clauses), we view examples as interpretations which are true or false for the target theory. This viewpoint allows to reconcile the inductive logic programming paradigm with classical attribute value learning in the sense that the latter is a special case of the former. Because of this property, we are able to adapt AQ and CN2 type algorithms in order to enable learning of full first order formulae. However, whereas classical learning techniques have concentrated on concept representations in disjunctive normal form, we will use a clausal representation, which corresponds to a conjuctive normal form where each conjunct forms a constraint on positive examples. This representation duality reverses also the role of positive and negative examples, both in the heuristics and in the algorithm. The resulting theory is incorporated in a system named ICL (Inductive Constraint Logic). Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1132815. 	[Title] Fast Bounded Smooth Regression with Lazy Neural Trees [Abstract] We propose the lazy neural tree (LNT) as the appropriate architecture for the realization of smooth regression systems. The LNT is a hybrid of a decision tree and a neural network. From the neural network it inherits smoothness of the generated function, incremental adaptability, and conceptual simplicity. From the decision tree it inherits the topology and initial parameter setting as well as a very efficient sequential implementation that out-performs traditional neural network simulations by the order of magnitudes. The enormous speed is achieved by lazy evaluation. A further speed-up can be obtained by the application of a window-ing scheme if the region of interesting results is restricted. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1114512. 	[Title] Integrity Constraints in ILP using a Monte Carlo approach [Abstract] Many state-of-the-art ILP systems require large numbers of negative examples to avoid overgeneralization. This is a considerable disadvantage for many ILP applications, namely indu ctive program synthesis where relativelly small and sparse example sets are a more realistic scenario. Integrity constraints are first order clauses that can play the role of negative examples in an inductive process. One integrity constraint can replace a long list of ground negative examples. However, checking the consistency of a program with a set of integrity constraints usually involves heavy the orem-proving. We propose an efficient constraint satisfaction algorithm that applies to a wide variety of useful integrity constraints and uses a Monte Carlo strategy. It looks for inconsistencies by ra ndom generation of queries to the program. This method allows the use of integrity constraints instead of (or together with) negative examples. As a consequence programs to induce can be specified more rapidly by the user and the ILP system tends to obtain more accurate definitions. Average running times are not greatly affected by the use of integrity constraints compared to ground negative examples. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #3218. 	[Title] Rule Induction with CN2: Some Recent Improvements [Abstract] The CN2 algorithm induces an ordered list of classification rules from examples using entropy as its search heuristic. In this short paper, we describe two improvements to this algorithm. Firstly, we present the use of the Laplacian error estimate as an alternative evaluation function and secondly, we show how unordered as well as ordered rules can be generated. We experimentally demonstrate significantly improved performances resulting from these changes, thus enhancing the usefulness of CN2 as an inductive tool. Comparisons with Quinlan's C4.5 are also made. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #238099. 	[Title] Mining for Causes of Cancer: Machine Learning Experiments at Various Levels of Detail [Abstract] This paper presents first results of an interdisciplinary project in scientific data mining. We analyze data about the carcinogenicity of chemicals derived from the carcinogenesis bioassay program performed by the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. The database contains detailed descriptions of 6823 tests performed with more than 330 compounds and animals of different species, strains and sexes. The chemical structures are described at the atom and bond level, and in terms of various relevant structural properties. The goal of this paper is to investigate the effects that various levels of detail and amounts of information have on the resulting hypotheses, both quantitatively and qualitatively. We apply relational and propositional machine learning algorithms to learning problems formulated as regression or as classification tasks. In addition, these experiments have been conducted with two learning problems which are at different levels of detail. Quantitatively, our experiments indicate that additional information not necessarily improves accuracy. Qualitatively, a number of potential discoveries have been made by the algorithm for Relational Regression because it can utilize all the information contained in the relations of the database as well as in the numerical dependent variable. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #49811. 	[Title] Estimating the Accuracy of Learned Concepts [Abstract] This paper investigates alternative estimators of the accuracy of concepts learned from examples. In particular, the cross-validation and 632 bootstrap estimators are studied, using synthetic training data and the foil learning algorithm. Our experimental results contradict previous papers in statistics, which advocate the 632 bootstrap method as superior to cross-validation. Nevertheless, our results also suggest that conclusions based on cross-validation in previous machine learning papers are unreliable. Specifically, our observations are that (i) the true error of the concept learned by foil from independently drawn sets of examples of the same concept varies widely, (ii) the estimate of true error provided by cross-validation has high variability but is approximately unbiased, and (iii) the 632 bootstrap estimator has lower variability than cross-validation, but is systematically biased. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1107095. 	[Title] ILP with Noise and Fixed Example Size: A Bayesian Approach [Abstract] Current inductive logic programming systems are limited in their handling of noise, as they employ a greedy covering approach to constructing the hypothesis one clause at a time. This approach also causes difficulty in learning recursive predicates. Additionally, many current systems have an implicit expectation that the cardinality of the positive and negative examples reflect the "proportion" of the concept to the instance space. A framework for learning from noisy data and fixed example size is presented. A Bayesian heuristic for finding the most probable hypothesis in this general framework is derived. This approach evaluates a hypothesis as a whole rather than one clause at a time. The heuristic, which has nice theoretical properties, is incorporated in an ILP system, Lime. Experimental results show that Lime handles noise better than FOIL and PROGOL. It is able to learn recursive definitions from noisy data on which other systems do not perform well. Lime is also capable of learning from only positive data and also from only negative data. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1110426. 	[Title] Incremental Reduced Error Pruning [Abstract] This paper outlines some problems that may occur with Reduced Error Pruning in relational learning algorithms, most notably efficiency. Thereafter a new method, Incremental Reduced Error Pruning, is proposed that attempts to address all of these problems. Experiments show that in many noisy domains this method is much more efficient than alternative algorithms, along with a slight gain in accuracy. However, the experiments show as well that the use of the algorithm cannot be recommended for domains which require a very specific concept description. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #22431. 	[Title] An investigation of noise-tolerant relational concept learning algorithms [Abstract] We discuss the types of noise that may occur in relational learning systems and describe two approaches to addressing noise in a relational concept learning algorithm. We then evaluate each approach experimentally. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #8224. 	[Title] Mingers, 1989 J. Mingers. An empirical comparison of pruning methods for decision tree induction. Machine [Abstract] Ourston and Mooney, 1990b ] D. Ourston and R. J. Mooney. Improving shared rules in multiple category domain theories. Technical Report AI90-150, Artificial Intelligence Labora tory, University of Texas, Austin, TX, December 1990. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #22563. 	[Title] A Comparative Study of ID3 and Backpropagation for English Text-to-Speech Mapping [Abstract] The performance of the error backpropagation (BP) and ID3 learning algorithms was compared on the task of mapping English text to phonemes and stresses. Under the distributed output code developed by Sejnowski and Rosenberg, it is shown that BP consistently out-performs ID3 on this task by several percentage points. Three hypotheses explaining this difference were explored: (a) ID3 is overfitting the training data, (b) BP is able to share hidden units across several output units and hence can learn the output units better, and (c) BP captures statistical information that ID3 does not. We conclude that only hypothesis (c) is correct. By augmenting ID3 with a simple statistical learning procedure, the performance of BP can be approached but not matched. More complex statistical procedures can improve the performance of both BP and ID3 substantially. A study of the residual errors suggests that there is still substantial room for improvement in learning methods for text-to-speech mapping. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #6311. 	[Title] Dynamic Automatic Model Selection [Abstract] COINS Technical Report 92-30 February 1992 Abstract The problem of how to learn from examples has been studied throughout the history of machine learning, and many successful learning algorithms have been developed. A problem that has received less attention is how to select which algorithm to use for a given learning task. The ability of a chosen algorithm to induce a good generalization depends on how appropriate the model class underlying the algorithm is for the given task. We define an algorithm's model class to be the representation language it uses to express a generalization of the examples. Supervised learning algorithms differ in their underlying model class and in how they search for a good generalization. Given this characterization, it is not surprising that some algorithms find better generalizations for some, but not all tasks. Therefore, in order to find the best generalization for each task, an automated learning system must search for the appropriate model class in addition to searching for the best generalization within the chosen class. This thesis proposal investigates the issues involved in automating the selection of the appropriate model class. The presented approach has two facets. Firstly, the approach combines different model classes in the form of a model combination decision tree, which allows the best representation to be found for each subconcept of the learning task. Secondly, which model class is the most appropriate is determined dynamically using a set of heuristic rules. Explicit in each rule are the conditions in which a particular model class is appropriate and if it is not, what should be done next. In addition to describing the approach, this proposal describes how the approach will be evaluated in order to demonstrate that it is both an efficient and effective method for automatic model selection. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #591016. 	[Title] First Order Regression: Applications in Real-World Domains [Abstract] A first order regression algorithm capable of handling real-valued (continuous) variables is introduced and some of its applications are presented. Regressional learning assumes real-valued class and discrete or real-valued variables. The algorithm combines regressional learning with standard ILP concepts, such as first order concept description and background knowledge. A clause is generated by successively refining the initial clause by adding literals of the form A = v for the discrete attributes, A v and A v for the real-valued attributes, and background knowledge literals to the clause body. The algorithm employs a covering approach (beam search), a heuristic impurity function, and stopping criteria based on local improvement, minimum number of examples, maximum clause length, minimum local improvement, minimum description length, allowed error, and variable depth. An outline of the algorithm and the results of the system's application in some artificial and real-world domains are presented. The real-world domains comprise: modelling of the water behavior in a surge tank, modelling of the workpiece roughness in a steel grinding process and modelling of the operator's behavior during the process of electrical discharge machining. Special emphasis is given to the evaluation of obtained models by domain experts and their comments on the aspects of practical use of the induced knowledge. The results obtained during the knowledge acquisition process show several important guidelines for knowledge acquisition, concerning mainly the process of interaction with domain experts, exposing primarily the importance of comprehensibility of the induced knowledge. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #4649. 	[Title] Finding Accurate Frontiers: A Knowledge-Intensive Approach to Relational Learning [Abstract] An approach to analytic learning is described that searches for accurate entailments of a Horn Clause domain theory. A hill-climbing search, guided by an information based evaluation function, is performed by applying a set of operators that derive frontiers from domain theories. The analytic learning system is one component of a multi-strategy relational learning system. We compare the accuracy of concepts learned with this analytic strategy to concepts learned with an analytic strategy that operationalizes the domain theory. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #212777. 	[Title] Inductive Learning of Characteristic Concept Descriptions from Small Sets of Classified Examples [Abstract] This paper presents a novel idea to the problem of learning concept descriptions from examples. Whereas most existing approaches rely on a large number of classified examples, the approach presented in the paper is aimed at being applicable when only a few examples are classified as positive (and negative) instances of a concept. The approach tries to take advantage of the information which can be induced from descriptions of unclassified objects using a conceptual clustering algorithm. The system Cola is described and results of applying Cola in two real-world domains are presented. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1127851. 	[Title] Generating Declarative Language Bias for Top-Down ILP Algorithms [Abstract] Many of today's algorithms for Inductive Logic Programming (ILP) put a heavy burden and responsibility on the user, because their declarative bias have to be defined in a rather low-level fashion. To address this issue, we developed a method for generating declarative language bias for top-down ILP systems from high-level declarations. The key feature of our approach is the distinction between a user level and an expert level of language bias declarations. The expert provides abstract meta-declarations, and the user declares the relationship between the meta-level and the given database to obtain a low-level declarative language bias. The suggested languages allow for compact and abstract specifications of the declarative language bias for top-down ILP systems using schemata. We verified several properties of the translation algorithm that generates schemata, and applied it successfully to a few chemical domains. As a consequence, we propose to use a two-level approach to generate declarative language bias. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #591017. 	[Title] Producing More Comprehensible Models While Retaining Their Performance [Abstract] Rissanen's Minimum Description Length (MDL) principle is adapted to handle continuous attributes in the Inductive Logic Programming setting. Application of the developed coding as a MDL pruning mechanism is devised. The behavior of the MDL pruning is tested in a synthetic domain with artificially added noise of different levels and in two real life problems | modelling of the surface roughness of a grinding workpiece and modelling of the mutagenicity of nitroaromatic compounds. Results indicate that MDL pruning is a successful parameter-free noise fighting tool in real-life domains since it acts as a safeguard against building too complex models while retaining the accuracy of the model. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #30895. 	[Title] Induction of Oblique Decision Trees [Abstract] This paper introduces a randomized technique for partitioning examples using oblique hyperplanes. Standard decision tree techniques, such as ID3 and its descendants, partition a set of points with axis-parallel hyper-planes. Our method, by contrast, attempts to find hyperplanes at any orientation. The purpose of this more general technique is to find smaller but equally accurate decision trees than those created by other methods. We have tested our algorithm on both real and simulated data, and found that in some cases it produces surprisingly small trees without losing predictive accuracy. Small trees allow us, in turn, to obtain simple qualitative descriptions of each problem domain. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #368431. 	[Title] Decision Tree Induction: How Effective is the Greedy Heuristic? [Abstract] Most existing decision tree systems use a greedy approach to induce trees | locally optimal splits are induced at every node of the tree. Although the greedy approach is suboptimal, it is believed to produce reasonably good trees. In the current work, we attempt to verify this belief. We quantify the goodness of greedy tree induction empirically, using the popular decision tree algorithms, C4.5 and CART. We induce decision trees on thousands of synthetic data sets and compare them to the corresponding optimal trees, which in turn are found using a novel map coloring idea. We measure the effect on greedy induction of variables such as the underlying concept complexity, training set size, noise and dimensionality. Our experiments show, among other things, that the expected classification cost of a greedily induced tree is consistently very close to that of the optimal tree. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #49843. 	[Title] Fossil: A Robust Relational Learner [Abstract] The research reported in this paper describes Fossil, an ILP system that uses a search heuristic based on statistical correlation. This algorithm implements a new method for learning useful concepts in the presence of noise. In contrast to Foil's stopping criterion, which allows theories to grow in complexity as the size of the training sets increases, we propose a new stopping criterion that is independent of the number of training examples. Instead, Fossil's stopping criterion depends on a search heuristic that estimates the utility of literals on a uniform scale. In addition we outline how this feature can be used for top-down pruning and present some preliminary results. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #62389. 	[Title] New Roles for Machine Learning in Design for Design of Educational Computing New roles for [Abstract] Research on machine learning in design has concentrated on the use and development of techniques that can solve simple well-defined problems. Invariably, this effort, while important at the early stages of the development of the field, cannot scale up to address real design problems since all existing techniques are based on simplifying assumptions that do not hold for real design. In particular they do not address the dependence on context and multiple, often conflicting, interests that are constitutive of design. This paper analyzes the present situation and criticizes a number of prevailing views. Subsequently, the paper offers an alternative approach whose goal is to advance the use of machine learning in design practice. The approach is partially integrated into a modeling system called n-dim. The use of machine learning in n-dim is presented and open research issues are outlined. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #49847. 	[Title] Top-Down Pruning in Relational Learning [Abstract] Pruning is an effective method for dealing with noise in Machine Learning. Recently pruning algorithms, in particular Reduced Error Pruning, have also attracted interest in the field of Inductive Logic Programming. However, it has been shown that these methods can be very inefficient, because most of the time is wasted for generating clauses that explain noisy examples and subsequently pruning these clauses. We introduce a new method which searches for good theories in a top-down fashion to get a better starting point for the pruning algorithm. Experiments show that this approach can significantly lower the complexity of the task without losing predictive accuracy. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #85688. 	[Title] Finding new rules for incomplete theories: Explicit biases for induction with contextual information. In Proceedings [Abstract] addressed in KBANN (which translates a theory into a neural-net, refines it using backpropagation, and then retranslates the result back into rules) by adding extra hidden units and connections to the initial network; however, this would require predetermining the num In this paper, we have presented constructive induction techniques recently added to the EITHER theory refinement system. Intermediate concept utilization employs existing rules in the theory to derive higher-level features for use in induction. Intermediate concept creation employs inverse resolution to introduce new intermediate concepts in order to fill gaps in a theory than span multiple levels. These revisions allow EITHER to make use of imperfect domain theories in the ways typical of previous work in both constructive induction and theory refinement. As a result, EITHER is able to handle a wider range of theory imperfections than any other existing theory refinement system. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #18615. 	[Title] Learning Trees and Rules with Set-valued Features [Abstract] In most learning systems examples are represented as fixed-length "feature vectors", the components of which are either real numbers or nominal values. We propose an extension of the feature-vector representation that allows the value of a feature to be a set of strings; for instance, to represent a small white and black dog with the nominal features size and species and the set-valued feature color, one might use a feature vector with size=small, species=canis-familiaris and color=fwhite,blackg. Since we make no assumptions about the number of possible set elements, this extension of the traditional feature-vector representation is closely connected to Blum's "infinite attribute" representation. We argue that many decision tree and rule learning algorithms can be easily extended to set-valued features. We also show by example that many real-world learning problems can be efficiently and naturally represented with set-valued features; in particular, text categorization problems and problems that arise in propositionalizing first-order representations lend themselves to set-valued features. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #23738. 	[Title] A THEORY OF LEARNING CLASSIFICATION RULES [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #63931. 	[Title] Combining FOIL and EBG to Speed-up Logic Programs [Abstract] This paper presents an algorithm that combines traditional EBL techniques and recent developments in inductive logic programming to learn effective clause selection rules for Prolog programs. When these control rules are incorporated into the original program, significant speed-up may be achieved. The algorithm is shown to be an improvement over competing EBL approaches in several domains. Additionally, the algorithm is capable of automatically transforming some intractable algorithms into ones that run in polynomial time. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #136766. 	[Title] Learning Goal-Decomposition Rules using Exercises [Abstract] Exercises are problems ordered in increasing order of difficulty. Teaching problem-solving through exercises is a widely used pedagogic technique. A computational reason for this is that the knowledge gained by solving simple problems is useful in efficiently solving more difficult problems. We adopt this approach of learning from exercises to acquire search-control knowledge in the form of goal-decomposition rules (d-rules). D-rules are first order, and are learned using a new "generalize-and-test" algorithm which is based on inductive logic programming techniques. We demonstrate the feasibility of the approach by applying it in two planning do mains. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1119295. 	[Title] Distance Induction in First Order Logic used for classification via a k-nearest-neighbor process. Experiments on [Abstract] This paper tackles the supervised induction of a distance from examples described as Horn clauses or constrained clauses. In opposition to syntax-driven approaches, this approach is discrimination-driven: it proceeds by defining a small set of complex discriminant hypotheses. These hypotheses serve as new concepts, used to redescribe the initial examples. Further, this redescription can be embedded into the space of natural integers, and a distance between examples thus naturally follows. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #136768. 	[Title] Theory-guided Empirical Speedup Learning of Goal Decomposition Rules [Abstract] Speedup learning is the study of improving the problem-solving performance with experience and from outside guidance. We describe here a system that successfully combines the best features of Explanation-based learning and empirical learning to learn goal decomposition rules from examples of successful problem solving and membership queries. We demonstrate that our system can efficiently learn effective decomposition rules in three different domains. Our results suggest that theory-guided empirical learning can overcome the problems of purely explanation-based learning and purely empirical learning, and be an effective speedup learning method. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1127619. 	[Title] Cooperation of Data-driven and Model-based Induction Methods for Relational Learning [Abstract] Inductive learning in relational domains has been shown to be intractable in general. Many approaches to this task have been suggested nevertheless; all in some way restrict the hypothesis space searched. They can be roughly divided into two groups: data-driven, where the restriction is encoded into the algorithm, and model-based, where the restrictions are made more or less explicit with some form of declarative bias. This paper describes Incy, an inductive learner that seeks to combine aspects of both approaches. Incy is initially data-driven, using examples and background knowledge to put forth and specialize hypotheses based on the "connectivity" of the data at hand. It is model-driven in that hypotheses are abstracted into rule models, which are used both for control decisions in the data-driven phase and for model-guided induction. Key Words: Inductive learning in relational domains, cooperation of data-driven and model-guided methods, implicit and declarative bias. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #582343. 	[Title] Transferring and Retraining Learned Information Filters [Abstract] Any system that learns how to filter documents will suffer poor performance during an initial training phase. One way of addressing this problem is to exploit filters learned by other users in a collaborative fashion. We investigate "direct transfer" of learned filters in this setting|a limiting case for any collaborative learning system. We evaluate the stability of several different learning methods under direct transfer, and conclude that symbolic learning methods that use negatively correlated features of the data perform poorly in transfer, even when they perform well in more conventional evaluation settings. This effect is robust: it holds for several learning methods, when a diverse set of users is used in training the classifier, and even when the learned classifiers can be adapted to the new user's distribution. Our experiments give rise to several concrete proposals for improving generalization performance in a collaborative setting, including a beneficial variation on a feature selection method that has been widely used in text categorization. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #11335. 	[Title] Concept Learning and the Problem of Small [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1108551. 	[Title] From: Computational Learning Theory and Natural Systems, Chapter 18, "Cross-validation and Modal Theories", Cross-Validation and [Abstract] Cross-validation is a frequently used, intuitively pleasing technique for estimating the accuracy of theories learned by machine learning algorithms. During testing of a machine learning algorithm (foil) on new databases of prokaryotic RNA transcription promoters which we have developed, cross-validation displayed an interesting phenomenon. One theory is found repeatedly and is responsible for very little of the cross-validation error, whereas other theories are found very infrequently which tend to be responsible for the majority of the cross-validation error. It is tempting to believe that the most frequently found theory (the "modal theory") may be more accurate as a classifier of unseen data than the other theories. However, experiments showed that modal theories are not more accurate on unseen data than the other theories found less frequently during cross-validation. Modal theories may be useful in predicting when cross-validation is a poor estimate of true accuracy. We offer explanations 1 For correspondence: Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of California, San Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1153866. 	[Title] Learning Decision Trees from Decision Rules: [Abstract] A method and initial results from a comparative study ABSTRACT A standard approach to determining decision trees is to learn them from examples. A disadvantage of this approach is that once a decision tree is learned, it is difficult to modify it to suit different decision making situations. Such problems arise, for example, when an attribute assigned to some node cannot be measured, or there is a significant change in the costs of measuring attributes or in the frequency distribution of events from different decision classes. An attractive approach to resolving this problem is to learn and store knowledge in the form of decision rules, and to generate from them, whenever needed, a decision tree that is most suitable in a given situation. An additional advantage of such an approach is that it facilitates building compact decision trees , which can be much simpler than the logically equivalent conventional decision trees (by compact trees are meant decision trees that may contain branches assigned a set of values , and nodes assigned derived attributes, i.e., attributes that are logical or mathematical functions of the original ones). The paper describes an efficient method, AQDT-1, that takes decision rules generated by an AQ-type learning system (AQ15 or AQ17), and builds from them a decision tree optimizing a given optimality criterion. The method can work in two modes: the standard mode , which produces conventional decision trees, and compact mode, which produces compact decision trees. The preliminary experiments with AQDT-1 have shown that the decision trees generated by it from decision rules (conventional and compact) have outperformed those generated from examples by the well-known C4.5 program both in terms of their simplicity and their predictive accuracy. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #144330. 	[Title] Utilizing Prior Concepts for Learning [Abstract] The inductive learning problem consists of learning a concept given examples and non-examples of the concept. To perform this learning task, inductive learning algorithms bias their learning method. Here we discuss biasing the learning method to use previously learned concepts from the same domain. These learned concepts highlight useful information for other concepts in the domain. We describe a transference bias and present M-FOCL, a Horn clause relational learning algorithm, that utilizes this bias to learn multiple concepts. We provide preliminary empirical evaluation to show the effects of biasing previous information on noise-free and noisy data. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1000012. 	[Title] Stochastic Propositionalization of Non-Determinate Background Knowledge [Abstract] It is a well-known fact that propositional learning algorithms require "good" features to perform well in practice. So a major step in data engineering for inductive learning is the construction of good features by domain experts. These features often represent properties of structured objects, where a property typically is the occurrence of a certain substructure having certain properties. To partly automate the process of "feature engineering", we devised an algorithm that searches for features which are defined by such substructures. The algorithm stochastically conducts a top-down search for first-order clauses, where each clause represents a binary feature. It differs from existing algorithms in that its search is not class-blind, and that it is capable of considering clauses ("context") of almost arbitrary length (size). Preliminary experiments are favorable, and support the view that this approach is promising. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #72908. 	[Title] Applications of a logical discovery engine [Abstract] The clausal discovery engine claudien is presented. claudien discovers regularities in data and is a representative of the inductive logic programming paradigm. As such, it represents data and regularities by means of first order clausal theories. Because the search space of clausal theories is larger than that of attribute value representation, claudien also accepts as input a declarative specification of the language bias, which determines the set of syntactically well-formed regularities. Whereas other papers on claudien focuss on the semantics or logical problem specification of claudien, on the discovery algorithm, or the PAC-learning aspects, this paper wants to illustrate the power of the resulting technique. In order to achieve this aim, we show how claudien can be used to learn 1) integrity constraints in databases, 2) functional dependencies and determinations, 3) properties of sequences, 4) mixed quantitative and qualitative laws, 5) reverse engineering, and 6) classification rules. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #11342. 	[Title] On Pruning and Averaging Decision Trees [Abstract] Pruning a decision tree is considered by some researchers to be the most important part of tree building in noisy domains. While, there are many approaches to pruning, an alternative approach of averaging over decision trees has not received as much attention. We perform an empirical comparison of pruning with the approach of averaging over decision trees. For this comparison we use a computa-tionally efficient method of averaging, namely averaging over the extended fanned set of a tree. Since there are a wide range of approaches to pruning, we compare tree averaging with a traditional pruning approach, along with an optimal pruning approach. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1128531. 	[Title] LEARNING FOR DECISION MAKING: The FRD Approach and a Comparative Study  Machine Learning and Inference Laboratory [Abstract] This paper concerns the issue of what is the best form for learning, representing and using knowledge for decision making. The proposed answer is that such knowledge should be learned and represented in a declarative form. When needed for decision making, it should be efficiently transferred to a procedural form that is tailored to the specific decision making situation. Such an approach combines advantages of the declarative representation, which facilitates learning and incremental knowledge modification, and the procedural representation, which facilitates the use of knowledge for decision making. This approach also allows one to determine decision structures that may avoid attributes that unavailable or difficult to measure in any given situation. Experimental investigations of the system, FRD-1, have demonstrated that decision structures obtained via the declarative route often have not only higher predictive accuracy but are also are simpler than those learned directly from facts. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1106388. 	[Title] Predicting Ordinal Classes in ILP [Abstract] This paper is devoted to the problem of learning to predict ordinal (i.e., ordered discrete) classes in an ILP setting. We start with a relational regression algorithm named SRT (Structural Regression Trees) and study various ways of transforming it into a first-order learner for ordinal classification tasks. Combinations of these algorithm variants with several data preprocessing methods are compared on two ILP benchmark data sets to verify the relative strengths and weaknesses of the strategies and to study the trade-off between optimal categorical classification accuracy (hit rate) and minimum distance-based error. Preliminary results indicate that this is a promising avenue towards algorithms that combine aspects of classification and regression in relational learning. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #20821. 	[Title] Top-down Induction of Logical Decision Trees [Abstract] A first order framework for top-down induction of logical decision trees is introduced. Logical decision trees are more expressive than the flat logic programs typically induced by empirical inductive logic programming systems because logical decision trees introduce invented predicates and mix existential and universal quantification of variables. An implementation of the framework, the Tilde system, is presented and empirically evaluated. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1117786. 	[Title] An intelligent search method using Inductive Logic Programming [Abstract] We propose a method to use Inductive Logic Programming to give heuristic functions for searching goals to solve problems. The method takes solutions of a problem or a history of search and a set of background knowledge on the problem. In a large class of problems, a problem is described as a set of states and a set of operators, and is solved by finding a series of operators. A solution, a series of operators that brings an initial state to a final state, is transformed into positive and negative examples of a relation "better-choice", which describes that an operator is better than others in a state. We also give a way to use the "better-choice" relation as a heuristic function. The method can use any logic program as background knowledge to induce heuristics, and induced heuristics has high readability. The paper inspects the method by applying to a puzzle. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #187354. 	[Title] Applying ILP to Diterpene Structure Elucidation from 13 C NMR Spectra [Abstract] We present a novel application of ILP to the problem of diterpene structure elucidation from 13 C NMR spectra. Diterpenes are organic compounds of low molecular weight that are based on a skeleton of 20 carbon atoms. They are of significant chemical and commercial interest because of their use as lead compounds in the search for new pharmaceutical effectors. The structure elucidation of diterpenes based on 13 C NMR spectra is usually done manually by human experts with specialized background knowledge on peak patterns and chemical structures. In the process, each of the 20 skeletal atoms is assigned an atom number that corresponds to its proper place in the skeleton and the diterpene is classified into one of the possible skeleton types. We address the problem of learning classification rules from a database of peak patterns for diterpenes with known structure. Recently, propositional learning was successfully applied to learn classification rules from spectra with assigned atom numbers. As the assignment of atom numbers is a difficult process in itself (and possibly indistinguishable from the classification process), we apply ILP, i.e., relational learning, to the problem of classifying spectra without assigned atom numbers. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #27230. 	[Title] K unstliche Intelligenz Grdt: Enhancing Model-Based Learning for Its Application in Robot Navigation [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #601567. 	[Title] Geometric Comparison of Classifications and Rule Sets* [Abstract] We present a technique for evaluating classifications by geometric comparison of rule sets. Rules are represented as objects in an n-dimensional hyperspace. The similarity of classes is computed from the overlap of the geometric class descriptions. The system produces a correlation matrix that indicates the degree of similarity between each pair of classes. The technique can be applied to classifications generated by different algorithms, with different numbers of classes and different attribute sets. Experimental results from a case study in a medical domain are included. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #97377. 	[Title] Induction of One-Level Decision Trees [Abstract] In recent years, researchers have made considerable progress on the worst-case analysis of inductive learning tasks, but for theoretical results to have impact on practice, they must deal with the average case. In this paper we present an average-case analysis of a simple algorithm that induces one-level decision trees for concepts defined by a single relevant attribute. Given knowledge about the number of training instances, the number of irrelevant attributes, the amount of class and attribute noise, and the class and attribute distributions, we derive the expected classification accuracy over the entire instance space. We then examine the predictions of this analysis for different settings of these domain parameters, comparing them to exper imental results to check our reasoning. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1153254. 	[Title]  [Abstract] A Methodology for Evaluating Theory Revision Systems: Results Abstract Theory revision systems are learning systems that have a goal of making small changes to an original theory to account for new data. A measure for the distance between two theories is proposed. This measure corresponds to the minimum number of edit operations at the literal level required to transform one theory into another. By computing the distance between an original theory and a revised theory, the claim that a theory revision system makes few revisions to a theory may be quantitatively evaluated. We present data using both accuracy and the distance metric on Audrey II, with Audrey II fl Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #37483. 	[Title] Learning Approximate Control Rules Of High Utility [Abstract] One of the difficult problems in the area of explanation based learning is the utility problem; learning too many rules of low utility can lead to swamping, or degradation of performance. This paper introduces two new techniques for improving the utility of learned rules. The first technique is to combine EBL with inductive learning techniques to learn a better set of control rules; the second technique is to use these inductive techniques to learn approximate control rules. The two techniques are synthesized in an algorithm called approximating abductive explanation based learning (AxA-EBL). AxA-EBL is shown to improve substantially over standard EBL in several domains. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #55403. 	[Title] Learning Problem-Oriented Decision Structures from Decision Rules: The AQDT-2 System [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1111788. 	[Title] Multivariate Decision Trees [Abstract] COINS Technical Report 92-82 December 1992 Abstract Multivariate decision trees overcome a representational limitation of univariate decision trees: univariate decision trees are restricted to splits of the instance space that are orthogonal to the feature's axis. This paper discusses the following issues for constructing multivariate decision trees: representing a multivariate test, including symbolic and numeric features, learning the coefficients of a multivariate test, selecting the features to include in a test, and pruning of multivariate decision trees. We present some new and review some well-known methods for forming multivariate decision trees. The methods are compared across a variety of learning tasks to assess each method's ability to find concise, accurate decision trees. The results demonstrate that some multivariate methods are more effective than others. In addition, the experiments confirm that allowing multivariate tests improves the accuracy of the resulting decision tree over univariate trees. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #133615. 	[Title] The Estimation of Probabilities in Attribute Selection Measures for Decision Tree Induction [Abstract] In this paper we analyze two well-known measures for attribute selection in decision tree induction, informativity and gini index. In particular, we are interested in the influence of different methods for estimating probabilities on these two measures. The results of experiments show that different measures, which are obtained by different probability estimation methods, determine the preferential order of attributes in a given node. Therefore, they determine the structure of a constructed decision tree. This feature can be very beneficial, especially in real-world applications where several different trees are often required. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #263279. 	[Title] Data Analyses Using Simulated Breeding and Inductive Learning Methods [Abstract] Marketing decision making tasks require the acquisition of efficient decision rules from noisy questionnaire data. Unlike popular learning-from-example methods, in such tasks, we must interpret the characteristics of the data without clear features of the data nor pre-determined evaluation criteria. The problem is how domain experts get simple, easy-to-understand, and accurate knowledge from noisy data. This paper describes a novel method to acquire efficient decision rules from questionnaire data using both simulated breeding and inductive learning techniques. The basic ideas of the method are that simulated breeding is used to get the effective features from the questionnaire data and that inductive learning is used to acquire simple decision rules from the data. The simulated breeding is one of the Genetic Algorithm based techniques to subjectively or interactively evaluate the qualities of offspring generated by genetic operations. The proposed method has been qualitatively and quantitatively validated by a case study on consumer product questionnaire data: the acquired rules are simpler than the results from the direct application of inductive learning; a domain expert admits that they are easy to understand; and they are at the same level on the accuracy compared with the other methods. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #75121. 	[Title] The Utility of Knowledge in Inductive Learning  Running Head: Knowledge in Inductive Learning [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #6639. 	[Title] Stochastic search in inductive concept learning [Abstract] Concept learning can be viewed as search of the space of concept descriptions. The hypothesis language determines the search space. In standard inductive learning algorithms, the structure of the search space is determined by generalization/specialization operators. Algorithms perform locally optimal search by using a hill-climbing and/or a beam-search strategy. To overcome this limitation, concept learning can be viewed as stochastic search of the space of concept descriptions. The proposed stochastic search method is based on simulated annealing which is known as a successful means for solving combinatorial optimization problems. The stochastic search method, implemented in a rule learning system ATRIS, is based on a compact and efficient representation of the problem and the appropriate operators for structuring the search space. Furthermore, by heuristic pruning of the search space, the method enables also handling of imperfect data. The paper introduces the stochastic search method, describes the ATRIS learning algorithm and gives results of the experiments. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #65653. 	[Title] Pessimistic decision tree pruning based on tree size [Abstract] In this work we develop a new criteria to perform pessimistic decision tree pruning. Our method is theoretically sound and is based on theoretical concepts such as uniform convergence and the Vapnik-Chervonenkis dimension. We show that our criteria is very well motivated, from the theory side, and performs very well in practice. The accuracy of the new criteria is comparable to that of the current method used in C4.5. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1108728. 	[Title] Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Intelligent Adaptive Systems (IAS-95) Constructive Induction-based Learning Agents: [Abstract] This paper introduces a new type of intelligent agent called a constructive induction-based learning agent (CILA). This agent differs from other adaptive agents because it has the ability to not only learn how to assist a user in some task, but also to incrementally adapt its knowledge representation space to better fit the given learning task. The agents ability to autonomously make problem-oriented modifications to the originally given representation space is due to its constructive induction (CI) learning method. Selective induction (SI) learning methods, and agents based on these methods, rely on a good representation space. A good representation space has no misclassification noise, inter-correlated attributes or irrelevant attributes. Our proposed CILA has methods for overcoming all of these problems. In agent domains with poor representations, the CI-based learning agent will learn more accurate rules and be more useful than an SI-based learning agent. This paper gives an architecture for a CI-based learning agent and gives an empirical comparison of a CI and SI for a set of six abstract domains involving DNF-type (disjunctive normal form) descriptions. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #23546. 	[Title] Learning Action-oriented Perceptual Features for Robot Navigation [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1153148. 	[Title] Learning Classification Trees [Abstract] Algorithms for learning classification trees have had successes in artificial intelligence and statistics over many years. This paper outlines how a tree learning algorithm can be derived using Bayesian statistics. This introduces Bayesian techniques for splitting, smoothing, and tree averaging. The splitting rule is similar to Quinlan's information gain, while smoothing and averaging replace pruning. Comparative experiments with reimplementations of a minimum encoding approach, Quinlan's C4 (Quinlan et al., 1987) and Breiman et al.'s CART (Breiman et al., 1984) show the full Bayesian algorithm can produce Publication: This paper is a final draft submitted for publication to the Statistics and Computing journal; a version with some minor changes appeared in Volume 2, 1992, pages 63-73. more accurate predictions than versions of these other approaches, though pay a computational price. Please summarise all the given information.

Paper #49844 has the title `A Comparison of Pruning Methods for Relational Concept Learning  
` and the abstract `Pre-Pruning and Post-Pruning are two standard methods of dealing with noise in concept learning. Pre-Pruning methods are very efficient, while Post-Pruning methods typically are more accurate, but much slower, because they have to generate an overly specific concept description first. We have experimented with a variety of pruning methods, including two new methods that try to combine and integrate pre- and post-pruning in order to achieve both accuracy and efficiency. This is verified with test series in a chess position classification task.
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Question: Which category should Paper #49844 be classified as ?
You can select one from ['Neural_Networks', 'Case_Based', 'Theory', 'Reinforcement_Learning', 'Probabilistic_Methods', 'Rule_Learning', 'Genetic_Algorithms'].


Paper #49844 has the title `A Comparison of Pruning Methods for Relational Concept Learning  
` and the abstract `Pre-Pruning and Post-Pruning are two standard methods of dealing with noise in concept learning. Pre-Pruning methods are very efficient, while Post-Pruning methods typically are more accurate, but much slower, because they have to generate an overly specific concept description first. We have experimented with a variety of pruning methods, including two new methods that try to combine and integrate pre- and post-pruning in order to achieve both accuracy and efficiency. This is verified with test series in a chess position classification task.
`.
Question: Which category should Paper #49844 be classified as ?
You can select one from ['Neural_Networks', 'Case_Based', 'Theory', 'Reinforcement_Learning', 'Probabilistic_Methods', 'Rule_Learning', 'Genetic_Algorithms'].

This paper should be classified into: Rule_Learning