Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #22563. 	[Title] A Comparative Study of ID3 and Backpropagation for English Text-to-Speech Mapping [Abstract] The performance of the error backpropagation (BP) and ID3 learning algorithms was compared on the task of mapping English text to phonemes and stresses. Under the distributed output code developed by Sejnowski and Rosenberg, it is shown that BP consistently out-performs ID3 on this task by several percentage points. Three hypotheses explaining this difference were explored: (a) ID3 is overfitting the training data, (b) BP is able to share hidden units across several output units and hence can learn the output units better, and (c) BP captures statistical information that ID3 does not. We conclude that only hypothesis (c) is correct. By augmenting ID3 with a simple statistical learning procedure, the performance of BP can be approached but not matched. More complex statistical procedures can improve the performance of both BP and ID3 substantially. A study of the residual errors suggests that there is still substantial room for improvement in learning methods for text-to-speech mapping. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #94229. 	[Title] Draft Symbolic Representation of Neural Networks [Abstract] An early and shorter version of this paper has been accepted for presenta tion at IJCAI'95. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1115677. 	[Title] Comparison of Regression Methods, Symbolic Induction Methods and Neural Networks in Morbidity Diagnosis and Mortality [Abstract] Classifier induction algorithms differ on what inductive hypotheses they can represent, and on how they search their space of hypotheses. No classifier is better than another for all problems: they have selective superiority. This paper empirically compares six classifier induction algorithms on the diagnosis of equine colic and the prediction of its mortality. The classification is based on simultaneously analyzing sixteen features measured from a patient. The relative merits of the algorithms (linear regression, decision trees, nearest neighbor classifiers, the Model Class Selection system, logistic regression (with and without feature selection), and neural nets) are qualitatively discussed, and the generalization accuracies quantitatively analyzed. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #8224. 	[Title] Mingers, 1989 J. Mingers. An empirical comparison of pruning methods for decision tree induction. Machine [Abstract] Ourston and Mooney, 1990b ] D. Ourston and R. J. Mooney. Improving shared rules in multiple category domain theories. Technical Report AI90-150, Artificial Intelligence Labora tory, University of Texas, Austin, TX, December 1990. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1103394. 	[Title] The evaluation of Anapron: A case study in evaluating a case-based system [Abstract] This paper presents a case study in evaluating a case-based system. It describes the evaluation of Anapron, a system that pronounces names by a combination of rule-based and case-based reasoning. Three sets of experiments were run on Anapron: a set of exploratory measurements to profile the system's operation; a comparison between Anapron and other name-pronunciation systems; and a set of studies that modified various parts of the system to isolate the contribution of each. Lessons learned from these experiments for CBR evaluation methodology and for CBR theory are discussed. This work may not be copied or reproduced in whole or in part for any commercial purpose. Permission to copy in whole or in part without payment of fee is granted for nonprofit educational and research purposes provided that all such whole or partial copies include the following: a notice that such copying is by permission of Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories of Cambridge, Massachusetts; an acknowledgment of the authors and individual contributions to the work; and all applicable portions of the copyright notice. Copying, reproduction, or republishing for any other purpose shall require a license with payment of fee to Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories. All rights reserved. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #22564. 	[Title] PRONOUNCING NAMES BY A COMBINATION OF RULE-BASED AND CASE-BASED REASONING [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #22566. 	[Title] A comparison of Anapron with seven other name-pronunciation systems [Abstract] This paper presents an experiment comparing a new name-pronunciation system, Anapron, with seven existing systems: three state-of-the-art commercial systems (from Bellcore, Bell Labs, and DEC), two variants of a machine-learning system (NETtalk), and two humans. Anapron works by combining rule-based and case-based reasoning. It is based on the idea that it is much easier to improve a rule-based system by adding case-based reasoning to it than by tuning the rules to deal with every exception. In the experiment described here, Anapron used a set of rules adapted from MITalk and elementary foreign-language textbooks, and a case library of 5000 names. With these components | which required relatively little knowledge engineering | Anapron was found to perform almost at the level of the commercial systems, and significantly better than the two versions of NETtalk. This work may not be copied or reproduced in whole or in part for any commercial purpose. Permission to copy in whole or in part without payment of fee is granted for nonprofit educational and research purposes provided that all such whole or partial copies include the following: a notice that such copying is by permission of Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories of Cambridge, Massachusetts; an acknowledgment of the authors and individual contributions to the work; and all applicable portions of the copyright notice. Copying, reproduction, or republishing for any other purpose shall require a license with payment of fee to Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories. All rights reserved. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #6184. 	[Title] Forward models: Supervised learning with a distal teacher [Abstract] Internal models of the environment have an important role to play in adaptive systems in general and are of particular importance for the supervised learning paradigm. In this paper we demonstrate that certain classical problems associated with the notion of the "teacher" in supervised learning can be solved by judicious use of learned internal models as components of the adaptive system. In particular, we show how supervised learning algorithms can be utilized in cases in which an unknown dynamical system intervenes between actions and desired outcomes. Our approach applies to any supervised learning algorithm that is capable of learning in multi-layer networks. *This paper is a revised version of MIT Center for Cognitive Science Occasional Paper #40. We wish to thank Michael Mozer, Andrew Barto, Robert Jacobs, Eric Loeb, and James McClelland for helpful comments on the manuscript. This project was supported in part by BRSG 2 S07 RR07047-23 awarded by the Biomedical Research Support Grant Program, Division of Research Resources, National Institutes of Health, by a grant from ATR Auditory and Visual Perception Research Laboratories, by a grant from Siemens Corporation, by a grant from the Human Frontier Science Program, and by grant N00014-90-J-1942 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1153064. 	[Title] Stochastic Logic Programs [Abstract] One way to represent a machine learning algorithm's bias over the hypothesis and instance space is as a pair of probability distributions. This approach has been taken both within Bayesian learning schemes and the framework of U-learnability. However, it is not obvious how an Inductive Logic Programming (ILP) system should best be provided with a probability distribution. This paper extends the results of a previous paper by the author which introduced stochastic logic programs as a means of providing a structured definition of such a probability distribution. Stochastic logic programs are a generalisation of stochastic grammars. A stochastic logic program consists of a set of labelled clauses p : C where p is from the interval [0; 1] and C is a range-restricted definite clause. A stochastic logic program P has a distributional semantics, that is one which assigns a probability distribution to the atoms of each predicate in the Herbrand base of the clauses in P . These probabilities are assigned to atoms according to an SLD-resolution strategy which employs a stochastic selection rule. It is shown that the probabilities can be computed directly for fail-free logic programs and by normalisation for arbitrary logic programs. The stochastic proof strategy can be used to provide three distinct functions: 1) a method of sampling from the Herbrand base which can be used to provide selected targets or example sets for ILP experiments, 2) a measure of the information content of examples or hypotheses; this can be used to guide the search in an ILP system and 3) a simple method for conditioning a given stochastic logic program on samples of data. Functions 1) and 3) are used to measure the generality of hypotheses in the ILP system Progol4.2. This supports an implementation of a Bayesian technique for learning from positive examples only. fl This paper is an extension of a paper with the same title which appeared in [12] Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1118764. 	[Title] An Efficient Extension to Mixture Techniques for Prediction and Decision Trees [Abstract] We present a method for maintaining mixtures of prunings of a prediction or decision tree that extends the "node-based" prunings of [Bun90, WST95, HS97] to the larger class of edge-based prunings. The method includes an efficient online weight allocation algorithm that can be used for prediction, compression and classification. Although the set of edge-based prunings of a given tree is much larger than that of node-based prunings, our algorithm has similar space and time complexity to that of previous mixture algorithms for trees. Using the general on-line framework of Freund and Schapire [FS97], we prove that our algorithm maintains correctly the mixture weights for edge-based prunings with any bounded loss function. We also give a similar algorithm for the logarithmic loss function with a corresponding weight allocation algorithm. Finally, we describe experiments comparing node-based and edge-based mixture models for estimating the probability of the next word in English text, which show the ad vantages of edge-based models. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #84020. 	[Title] Classifiers: A Theoretical and Empirical Study [Abstract] This paper describes how a competitive tree learning algorithm can be derived from first principles. The algorithm approximates the Bayesian decision theoretic solution to the learning task. Comparative experiments with the algorithm and the several mature AI and statistical families of tree learning algorithms currently in use show the derived Bayesian algorithm is consistently as good or better, although sometimes at computational cost. Using the same strategy, we can design algorithms for many other supervised and model learning tasks given just a probabilistic representation for the kind of knowledge to be learned. As an illustration, a second learning algorithm is derived for learning Bayesian networks from data. Implications to incremental learning and the use of multiple models are also discussed. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #323128. 	[Title] Error-Correcting Output Coding Corrects Bias and Variance [Abstract] Previous research has shown that a technique called error-correcting output coding (ECOC) can dramatically improve the classification accuracy of supervised learning algorithms that learn to classify data points into one of k 2 classes. This paper presents an investigation of why the ECOC technique works, particularly when employed with decision-tree learning algorithms. It shows that the ECOC method| like any form of voting or committee|can reduce the variance of the learning algorithm. Furthermore|unlike methods that simply combine multiple runs of the same learning algorithm|ECOC can correct for errors caused by the bias of the learning algorithm. Experiments show that this bias correction ability relies on the non-local be havior of C4.5. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #11325. 	[Title] On Learning Multiple Descriptions of a Concept [Abstract] In sparse data environments, greater classification accuracy can be achieved by learning several concept descriptions of the data and combining their classifications. Stochastic search is a general tool which can be used to generate many good concept descriptions (rule sets) for each class in the data. Bayesian probability theory offers an optimal strategy for combining classifications of the individual concept descriptions, and here we use an approximation of that theory. This strategy is most useful when additional data is difficult to obtain and every increase in classification accuracy is important. The primary result of this paper is that multiple concept descriptions are particularly helpful in "flat" hypothesis spaces in which there are many equally good ways to grow a rule, each having similar gain. Another result is experimental evidence that learning multiple rule sets yields more accurate classifications than learning multiple rules for some domains. To demonstrate these behaviors, we learn multiple concept descriptions by adapting HYDRA, a noise-tolerant relational learning algorithm. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #11342. 	[Title] On Pruning and Averaging Decision Trees [Abstract] Pruning a decision tree is considered by some researchers to be the most important part of tree building in noisy domains. While, there are many approaches to pruning, an alternative approach of averaging over decision trees has not received as much attention. We perform an empirical comparison of pruning with the approach of averaging over decision trees. For this comparison we use a computa-tionally efficient method of averaging, namely averaging over the extended fanned set of a tree. Since there are a wide range of approaches to pruning, we compare tree averaging with a traditional pruning approach, along with an optimal pruning approach. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1128531. 	[Title] LEARNING FOR DECISION MAKING: The FRD Approach and a Comparative Study  Machine Learning and Inference Laboratory [Abstract] This paper concerns the issue of what is the best form for learning, representing and using knowledge for decision making. The proposed answer is that such knowledge should be learned and represented in a declarative form. When needed for decision making, it should be efficiently transferred to a procedural form that is tailored to the specific decision making situation. Such an approach combines advantages of the declarative representation, which facilitates learning and incremental knowledge modification, and the procedural representation, which facilitates the use of knowledge for decision making. This approach also allows one to determine decision structures that may avoid attributes that unavailable or difficult to measure in any given situation. Experimental investigations of the system, FRD-1, have demonstrated that decision structures obtained via the declarative route often have not only higher predictive accuracy but are also are simpler than those learned directly from facts. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #389715. 	[Title] Constructing Nominal Xof-N Attributes [Abstract] Most constructive induction researchers focus only on new boolean attributes. This paper reports a new constructive induction algorithm, called XofN, that constructs new nominal attributes in the form of Xof-N representations. An Xof-N is a set containing one or more attribute-value pairs. For a given instance, its value corresponds to the number of its attribute-value pairs that are true. The promising preliminary experimental results, on both artificial and real-world domains, show that constructing new nominal attributes in the form of Xof-N representations can significantly improve the performance of selective induction in terms of both higher prediction accuracy and lower theory complexity. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1123926. 	[Title] Achieving High-Accuracy Text-to-Speech with Machine Learning [Abstract] In 1987, Sejnowski and Rosenberg developed their famous NETtalk system for English text-to-speech. This chapter describes a machine learning approach to text-to-speech that builds upon and extends the initial NETtalk work. Among the many extensions to the NETtalk system were the following: a different learning algorithm, a wider input "window", error-correcting output coding, a right-to-left scan of the word to be pronounced (with the results of each decision influencing subsequent decisions), and the addition of several useful input features. These changes yielded a system that performs much better than the original NETtalk system. After training on 19,002 words, the system achieves 93.7% correct pronunciation of individual phonemes and 64.8% correct pronunciation of whole words (where the pronunciation must exactly match the dictionary pronunciation to be correct). Based on the judgements of three human participants in a blind assessment study, our system was estimated to have a serious error rate of 16.7% (on whole words) compared to an error rate of 26.1% for the DECTalk3.0 rulebase. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #2654. 	[Title] Experiments with a New Boosting Algorithm [Abstract] In an earlier paper, we introduced a new boosting algorithm called AdaBoost which, theoretically, can be used to significantly reduce the error of any learning algorithm that consistently generates classifiers whose performance is a little better than random guessing. We also introduced the related notion of a pseudo-loss which is a method for forcing a learning algorithm of multi-label concepts to concentrate on the labels that are hardest to discriminate. In this paper, we describe experiments we carried out to assess how well AdaBoost with and without pseudo-loss, performs on real learning problems. We performed two sets of experiments. The first set compared boosting to Breiman's bagging method when used to aggregate various classifiers (including decision trees and single attribute-value tests). We compared the performance of the two methods on a collection of machine-learning benchmarks. In the second set of experiments, we studied in more detail the performance of boosting using a nearest-neighbor classifier on an OCR problem. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #105057. 	[Title] Error-Correcting Output Codes for Local Learners [Abstract] Error-correcting output codes (ECOCs) represent classes with a set of output bits, where each bit encodes a binary classification task corresponding to a unique partition of the classes. Algorithms that use ECOCs learn the function corresponding to each bit, and combine them to generate class predictions. ECOCs can reduce both variance and bias errors for multiclass classification tasks when the errors made at the output bits are not correlated. They work well with algorithms that eagerly induce global classifiers (e.g., C4.5) but do not assist simple local classifiers (e.g., nearest neighbor), which yield correlated predictions across the output bits. We show that the output bit predictions of local learners can be decorrelated by selecting different features for each bit. We present promising empirical results for this combination of ECOCs, near est neighbor, and feature selection. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #97377. 	[Title] Induction of One-Level Decision Trees [Abstract] In recent years, researchers have made considerable progress on the worst-case analysis of inductive learning tasks, but for theoretical results to have impact on practice, they must deal with the average case. In this paper we present an average-case analysis of a simple algorithm that induces one-level decision trees for concepts defined by a single relevant attribute. Given knowledge about the number of training instances, the number of irrelevant attributes, the amount of class and attribute noise, and the class and attribute distributions, we derive the expected classification accuracy over the entire instance space. We then examine the predictions of this analysis for different settings of these domain parameters, comparing them to exper imental results to check our reasoning. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1125992. 	[Title] Towards a Theory of Optimal Similarity Measures way of learning a similarity measure from the [Abstract] The effectiveness of a case-based reasoning system is known to depend critically on its similarity measure. However, it is not clear whether there are elusive and esoteric similarity measures which might improve the performance of a case-based reasoner if substituted for the more commonly used measures. This paper therefore deals with the problem of choosing the best similarity measure, in the limited context of instance-based learning of classifications of a discrete example space. We consider both `fixed' similarity measures and `learnt' ones. In the former case, we give a definition of a similarity measure which we believe to be `optimal' w.r.t. the current prior distribution of target concepts and prove its optimality within a restricted class of similarity measures. We then show how this `optimal' similarity measure is instantiated by some specific prior distributions, and conclude that a very simple similarity measure is as good as any other in these cases. In a further section, we then show how our definition leads naturally to a conjecture about the Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #55403. 	[Title] Learning Problem-Oriented Decision Structures from Decision Rules: The AQDT-2 System [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #340078. 	[Title] Evaluation of Pattern Classifiers for Fingerprint and OCR Applications [Abstract] In this paper we evaluate the classification accuracy of four statistical and three neural network classifiers for two image based pattern classification problems. These are fingerprint classification and optical character recognition (OCR) for isolated handprinted digits. The evaluation results reported here should be useful for designers of practical systems for these two important commercial applications. For the OCR problem, the Karhunen-Loeve (K-L) transform of the images is used to generate the input feature set. Similarly for the fingerprint problem, the K-L transform of the ridge directions is used to generate the input feature set. The statistical classifiers used were Euclidean minimum distance, quadratic minimum distance, normal, and k-nearest neighbor. The neural network classifiers used were multilayer perceptron, radial basis function, and probabilistic. The OCR data consisted of 7,480 digit images for training and 23,140 digit images for testing. The fingerprint data consisted of 2,000 training and 2,000 testing images. In addition to evaluation for accuracy, the multilayer perceptron and radial basis function networks were evaluated for size and generalization capability. For the evaluated datasets the best accuracy obtained for either problem was provided by the probabilistic neural network, where the minimum classification error was 2.5% for OCR and 7.2% for fingerprints. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #6767. 	[Title] Generalizing from Case Studies: A Case Study [Abstract] Most empirical evaluations of machine learning algorithms are case studies evaluations of multiple algorithms on multiple databases. Authors of case studies implicitly or explicitly hypothesize that the pattern of their results, which often suggests that one algorithm performs significantly better than others, is not limited to the small number of databases investigated, but instead holds for some general class of learning problems. However, these hypotheses are rarely supported with additional evidence, which leaves them suspect. This paper describes an empirical method for generalizing results from case studies and an example application. This method yields rules describing when some algorithms significantly outperform others on some dependent measures. Advantages for generalizing from case studies and limitations of this particular approach are also described. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #263279. 	[Title] Data Analyses Using Simulated Breeding and Inductive Learning Methods [Abstract] Marketing decision making tasks require the acquisition of efficient decision rules from noisy questionnaire data. Unlike popular learning-from-example methods, in such tasks, we must interpret the characteristics of the data without clear features of the data nor pre-determined evaluation criteria. The problem is how domain experts get simple, easy-to-understand, and accurate knowledge from noisy data. This paper describes a novel method to acquire efficient decision rules from questionnaire data using both simulated breeding and inductive learning techniques. The basic ideas of the method are that simulated breeding is used to get the effective features from the questionnaire data and that inductive learning is used to acquire simple decision rules from the data. The simulated breeding is one of the Genetic Algorithm based techniques to subjectively or interactively evaluate the qualities of offspring generated by genetic operations. The proposed method has been qualitatively and quantitatively validated by a case study on consumer product questionnaire data: the acquired rules are simpler than the results from the direct application of inductive learning; a domain expert admits that they are easy to understand; and they are at the same level on the accuracy compared with the other methods. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #27249. 	[Title] Machine Learning Bias, Statistical Bias, and Statistical Variance of Decision Tree Algorithms [Abstract] The term "bias" is widely used|and with different meanings|in the fields of machine learning and statistics. This paper clarifies the uses of this term and shows how to measure and visualize the statistical bias and variance of learning algorithms. Statistical bias and variance can be applied to diagnose problems with machine learning bias, and the paper shows four examples of this. Finally, the paper discusses methods of reducing bias and variance. Methods based on voting can reduce variance, and the paper compares Breiman's bagging method and our own tree randomization method for voting decision trees. Both methods uniformly improve performance on data sets from the Irvine repository. Tree randomization yields perfect performance on the Letter Recognition task. A weighted nearest neighbor algorithm based on the infinite bootstrap is also introduced. In general, decision tree algorithms have moderate-to-high variance, so an important implication of this work is that variance|rather than appropriate or inappropriate machine learning bias|is an important cause of poor performance for decision tree algorithms. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #65650. 	[Title] Machine Learning 27(1):51-68, 1997. Predicting nearly as well as the best pruning of a decision tree [Abstract] Many algorithms for inferring a decision tree from data involve a two-phase process: First, a very large decision tree is grown which typically ends up "over-fitting" the data. To reduce over-fitting, in the second phase, the tree is pruned using one of a number of available methods. The final tree is then output and used for classification on test data. In this paper, we suggest an alternative approach to the pruning phase. Using a given unpruned decision tree, we present a new method of making predictions on test data, and we prove that our algorithm's performance will not be "much worse" (in a precise technical sense) than the predictions made by the best reasonably small pruning of the given decision tree. Thus, our procedure is guaranteed to be competitive (in terms of the quality of its predictions) with any pruning algorithm. We prove that our procedure is very efficient and highly robust. Our method can be viewed as a synthesis of two previously studied techniques. First, we apply Cesa-Bianchi et al.'s [4] results on predicting using "expert advice" (where we view each pruning as an "expert") to obtain an algorithm that has provably low prediction loss, but that is com-putationally infeasible. Next, we generalize and apply a method developed by Buntine [3], [2] and Willems, Shtarkov and Tjalkens [20], [21] to derive a very efficient implementation of this procedure. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #6771. 	[Title] Statistical Tests for Comparing Supervised Classification Learning Algorithms [Abstract] This paper reviews five statistical tests for determining whether one learning algorithm outperforms another on a particular learning task. These tests are compared experimentally to determine their probability of incorrectly detecting a difference when no difference exists (type 1 error). Two widely-used statistical tests are shown to have high probability of Type I error in certain situations and should never be used. These tests are (a) a test for the difference of two proportions and (b) a paired-differences t test based on taking several random train/test splits. A third test, a paired-differences t test based on 10-fold cross-validation, exhibits somewhat elevated probability of Type I error. A fourth test, McNemar's test, is shown to have low Type I error. The fifth test is a new test, 5x2cv, based on 5 iterations of 2-fold cross-validation. Experiments show that this test also has good Type I error. The paper also measures the power (ability to detect algorithm differences when they do exist) of these tests. The 5x2cv test is shown to be slightly more powerful than McNemar's test. The choice of the best test is determined by the computational cost of running the learning algorithm. For algorithms that can be executed only once, McNemar's test is the only test with acceptable Type I error. For algorithms that can be executed ten times, the 5x2cv test is recommended, because it is slightly more powerful and because it directly measures variation due to the choice of training set. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #27250. 	[Title] Why Does Bagging Work? A Bayesian Account and its Implications bagging's success, both in a [Abstract] The error rate of decision-tree and other classification learners can often be much reduced by bagging: learning multiple models from bootstrap samples of the database, and combining them by uniform voting. In this paper we empirically test two alternative explanations for this, both based on Bayesian learning theory: (1) bagging works because it is an approximation to the optimal procedure of Bayesian model averaging, with an appropriate implicit prior; (2) bagging works because it effectively shifts the prior to a more appropriate region of model space. All the experimental evidence contradicts the first hypothesis, and confirms the second. Bagging (Breiman 1996a) is a simple and effective way to reduce the error rate of many classification learning algorithms. For example, in the empirical study described below, it reduces the error of a decision-tree learner in 19 of 26 databases, by 4% on average. In the bagging procedure, given a training set of size s, a "bootstrap" replicate of it is constructed by taking s samples with replacement from the training set. Thus a new training set of the same size is produced, where each of the original examples may appear once, more than once, or not. On average, 63% of the original examples will appear in the bootstrap sample. The learning algorithm is then applied to this training set. This procedure is repeated m times, and the resulting m models are aggregated by uniform voting. Bagging is one of several "multiple model" approaches that have recently received much attention (see, for example, (Chan, Stolfo, & Wolpert 1996)). Other procedures of this type include boosting (Freund & Schapire 1996) and stacking (Wolpert 1992). Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #65653. 	[Title] Pessimistic decision tree pruning based on tree size [Abstract] In this work we develop a new criteria to perform pessimistic decision tree pruning. Our method is theoretically sound and is based on theoretical concepts such as uniform convergence and the Vapnik-Chervonenkis dimension. We show that our criteria is very well motivated, from the theory side, and performs very well in practice. The accuracy of the new criteria is comparable to that of the current method used in C4.5. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1153148. 	[Title] Learning Classification Trees [Abstract] Algorithms for learning classification trees have had successes in artificial intelligence and statistics over many years. This paper outlines how a tree learning algorithm can be derived using Bayesian statistics. This introduces Bayesian techniques for splitting, smoothing, and tree averaging. The splitting rule is similar to Quinlan's information gain, while smoothing and averaging replace pruning. Comparative experiments with reimplementations of a minimum encoding approach, Quinlan's C4 (Quinlan et al., 1987) and Breiman et al.'s CART (Breiman et al., 1984) show the full Bayesian algorithm can produce Publication: This paper is a final draft submitted for publication to the Statistics and Computing journal; a version with some minor changes appeared in Volume 2, 1992, pages 63-73. more accurate predictions than versions of these other approaches, though pay a computational price. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #346243. 	[Title] Inductive Bias in Case-Based Reasoning Systems [Abstract] In order to learn more about the behaviour of case-based reasoners as learning systems, we form-alise a simple case-based learner as a PAC learning algorithm, using the case-based representation hCB; i. We first consider a `naive' case-based learning algorithm CB1( H ) which learns by collecting all available cases into the case-base and which calculates similarity by counting the number of features on which two problem descriptions agree. We present results concerning the consistency of this learning algorithm and give some partial results regarding its sample complexity. We are able to characterise CB1( H ) as a `weak but general' learning algorithm. We then consider how the sample complexity of case-based learning can be reduced for specific classes of target concept by the application of inductive bias, or prior knowledge of the class of target concepts. Following recent work demonstrating how case-based learning can be improved by choosing a similarity measure appropriate to the concept being learnt, we define a second case-based learning `algorithm' CB2 which learns using the best possible similarity measure that might be inferred for the chosen target concept. While CB2 is not an executable learning strategy (since the chosen similarity measure is defined in terms of a priori knowledge of the actual target concept) it allows us to assess in the limit the maximum possible contribution of this approach to case-based learning. Also, in addition to illustrating the role of inductive bias, the definition of CB2 simplifies the general problem of establishing which functions might be represented in the form hCB; i. Reasoning about the case-based representation in this special case has therefore been a little more straight-forward than in the general case of CB1( H ), allowing more substantial results regarding representable functions and sample complexity to be presented for CB2. In assessing these results, we are forced to conclude that case-based learning is not the best approach to learning the chosen concept space (the space of monomial functions). We discuss, however, how our study has demonstrated, in the context of case-based learning, the operation of concepts well known in machine learning such as inductive bias and the trade-off between computational complexity and sample complexity. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #189574. 	[Title] Theory Refinement on Bayesian Networks [Abstract] Theory refinement is the task of updating a domain theory in the light of new cases, to be done automatically or with some expert assistance. The problem of theory refinement under uncertainty is reviewed here in the context of Bayesian statistics, a theory of belief revision. The problem is reduced to an incremental learning task as follows: the learning system is initially primed with a partial theory supplied by a domain expert, and thereafter maintains its own internal representation of alternative theories which is able to be interrogated by the domain expert and able to be incrementally refined from data. Algorithms for refinement of Bayesian networks are presented to illustrate what is meant by "partial theory", "alternative theory representation", etc. The algorithms are an incremental variant of batch learning algorithms from the literature so can work well in batch and incremental mode. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1130634. 	[Title] Protein Secondary Structure Modelling with Probabilistic Networks (Extended Abstract) [Abstract] In this paper we study the performance of probabilistic networks in the context of protein sequence analysis in molecular biology. Specifically, we report the results of our initial experiments applying this framework to the problem of protein secondary structure prediction. One of the main advantages of the probabilistic approach we describe here is our ability to perform detailed experiments where we can experiment with different models. We can easily perform local substitutions (mutations) and measure (probabilistically) their effect on the global structure. Window-based methods do not support such experimentation as readily. Our method is efficient both during training and during prediction, which is important in order to be able to perform many experiments with different networks. We believe that probabilistic methods are comparable to other methods in prediction quality. In addition, the predictions generated by our methods have precise quantitative semantics which is not shared by other classification methods. Specifically, all the causal and statistical independence assumptions are made explicit in our networks thereby allowing biologists to study and experiment with different causal models in a convenient manner. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #3220. 	[Title] A Weighted Nearest Neighbor Algorithm for Learning with Symbolic Features [Abstract] In the past, nearest neighbor algorithms for learning from examples have worked best in domains in which all features had numeric values. In such domains, the examples can be treated as points and distance metrics can use standard definitions. In symbolic domains, a more sophisticated treatment of the feature space is required. We introduce a nearest neighbor algorithm for learning in domains with symbolic features. Our algorithm calculates distance tables that allow it to produce real-valued distances between instances, and attaches weights to the instances to further modify the structure of feature space. We show that this technique produces excellent classification accuracy on three problems that have been studied by machine learning researchers: predicting protein secondary structure, identifying DNA promoter sequences, and pronouncing English text. Direct experimental comparisons with the other learning algorithms show that our nearest neighbor algorithm is comparable or superior in all three domains. In addition, our algorithm has advantages in training speed, simplicity, and perspicuity. We conclude that experimental evidence favors the use and continued development of nearest neighbor algorithms for domains such as the ones studied here. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #12439. 	[Title] Improving the Performance of Radial Basis Function Networks by Learning Center Locations [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1132706. 	[Title] Exemplar-based Music Structure Recognition [Abstract] We tend to think of what we really know as what we can talk about, and disparage knowledge that we can't verbalize. [Dowling 1989, p. 252] Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #350373. 	[Title] Probability Estimation via Error-Correcting Output Coding [Abstract] Previous research has shown that a technique called error-correcting output coding (ECOC) can dramatically improve the classification accuracy of supervised learning algorithms that learn to classify data points into one of k 2 classes. In this paper, we will extend the technique so that ECOC can also provide class probability information. ECOC is a method of converting k-class supervised learning problem into a large number L of two-class supervised learning problems and then combining the results of these L evaluations. The underlying two-class supervised learning algorithms are assumed to provide L probability estimates. The problem of computing class probabilities is formulated as an over-constrained system of L linear equations. Least squares methods are applied to solve these equations. Accuracy and reliability of the probability estimates are demonstrated. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #6311. 	[Title] Dynamic Automatic Model Selection [Abstract] COINS Technical Report 92-30 February 1992 Abstract The problem of how to learn from examples has been studied throughout the history of machine learning, and many successful learning algorithms have been developed. A problem that has received less attention is how to select which algorithm to use for a given learning task. The ability of a chosen algorithm to induce a good generalization depends on how appropriate the model class underlying the algorithm is for the given task. We define an algorithm's model class to be the representation language it uses to express a generalization of the examples. Supervised learning algorithms differ in their underlying model class and in how they search for a good generalization. Given this characterization, it is not surprising that some algorithms find better generalizations for some, but not all tasks. Therefore, in order to find the best generalization for each task, an automated learning system must search for the appropriate model class in addition to searching for the best generalization within the chosen class. This thesis proposal investigates the issues involved in automating the selection of the appropriate model class. The presented approach has two facets. Firstly, the approach combines different model classes in the form of a model combination decision tree, which allows the best representation to be found for each subconcept of the learning task. Secondly, which model class is the most appropriate is determined dynamically using a set of heuristic rules. Explicit in each rule are the conditions in which a particular model class is appropriate and if it is not, what should be done next. In addition to describing the approach, this proposal describes how the approach will be evaluated in order to demonstrate that it is both an efficient and effective method for automatic model selection. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1120431. 	[Title] Symbolic and Subsymbolic Learning for Vision: Some Possibilities [Abstract] Robust, flexible and sufficiently general vision systems such as those for recognition and description of complex 3-dimensional objects require an adequate armamentarium of representations and learning mechanisms. This paper briefly analyzes the strengths and weaknesses of different learning paradigms such as symbol processing systems, connectionist networks, and statistical and syntactic pattern recognition systems as possible candidates for providing such capabilities and points out several promising directions for integrating multiple such paradigms in a synergistic fashion towards that goal. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #30895. 	[Title] Induction of Oblique Decision Trees [Abstract] This paper introduces a randomized technique for partitioning examples using oblique hyperplanes. Standard decision tree techniques, such as ID3 and its descendants, partition a set of points with axis-parallel hyper-planes. Our method, by contrast, attempts to find hyperplanes at any orientation. The purpose of this more general technique is to find smaller but equally accurate decision trees than those created by other methods. We have tested our algorithm on both real and simulated data, and found that in some cases it produces surprisingly small trees without losing predictive accuracy. Small trees allow us, in turn, to obtain simple qualitative descriptions of each problem domain. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1121459. 	[Title] Automatic Phonetic Transcription of Words Based On Sparse Data [Abstract] The relation between the orthography and the phonology of a language has traditionally been modelled by hand-crafted rule sets. Machine-learning (ML) approaches offer a means to gather this knowledge automatically. Problems arise when the training material is sparse. Generalising from sparse data is a well-known problem for many ML algorithms. We present experiments in which connectionist, instance-based, and decision-tree learning algorithms are applied to a small corpus of Scottish Gaelic. instance-based learning in the ib1-ig algorithm yields the best generalisation performance, and that most algorithms tested perform tolerably well. Given the availability of a lexicon, even if it is sparse, ML is a valuable and efficient tool for automatic phonetic transcription of written text. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #49843. 	[Title] Fossil: A Robust Relational Learner [Abstract] The research reported in this paper describes Fossil, an ILP system that uses a search heuristic based on statistical correlation. This algorithm implements a new method for learning useful concepts in the presence of noise. In contrast to Foil's stopping criterion, which allows theories to grow in complexity as the size of the training sets increases, we propose a new stopping criterion that is independent of the number of training examples. Instead, Fossil's stopping criterion depends on a search heuristic that estimates the utility of literals on a uniform scale. In addition we outline how this feature can be used for top-down pruning and present some preliminary results. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #49844. 	[Title] A Comparison of Pruning Methods for Relational Concept Learning [Abstract] Pre-Pruning and Post-Pruning are two standard methods of dealing with noise in concept learning. Pre-Pruning methods are very efficient, while Post-Pruning methods typically are more accurate, but much slower, because they have to generate an overly specific concept description first. We have experimented with a variety of pruning methods, including two new methods that try to combine and integrate pre- and post-pruning in order to achieve both accuracy and efficiency. This is verified with test series in a chess position classification task. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #49847. 	[Title] Top-Down Pruning in Relational Learning [Abstract] Pruning is an effective method for dealing with noise in Machine Learning. Recently pruning algorithms, in particular Reduced Error Pruning, have also attracted interest in the field of Inductive Logic Programming. However, it has been shown that these methods can be very inefficient, because most of the time is wasted for generating clauses that explain noisy examples and subsequently pruning these clauses. We introduce a new method which searches for good theories in a top-down fashion to get a better starting point for the pruning algorithm. Experiments show that this approach can significantly lower the complexity of the task without losing predictive accuracy. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #85688. 	[Title] Finding new rules for incomplete theories: Explicit biases for induction with contextual information. In Proceedings [Abstract] addressed in KBANN (which translates a theory into a neural-net, refines it using backpropagation, and then retranslates the result back into rules) by adding extra hidden units and connections to the initial network; however, this would require predetermining the num In this paper, we have presented constructive induction techniques recently added to the EITHER theory refinement system. Intermediate concept utilization employs existing rules in the theory to derive higher-level features for use in induction. Intermediate concept creation employs inverse resolution to introduce new intermediate concepts in order to fill gaps in a theory than span multiple levels. These revisions allow EITHER to make use of imperfect domain theories in the ways typical of previous work in both constructive induction and theory refinement. As a result, EITHER is able to handle a wider range of theory imperfections than any other existing theory refinement system. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1104055. 	[Title] LEARNING BY USING DYNAMIC FEATURE COMBINATION AND SELECTION [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #23738. 	[Title] A THEORY OF LEARNING CLASSIFICATION RULES [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1120962. 	[Title] Experiments on the Transfer of Knowledge between Neural Networks Reprinted from: Computational Learning Theory and [Abstract] This chapter describes three studies which address the question of how neural network learning can be improved via the incorporation of information extracted from other networks. This general problem, which we call network transfer, encompasses many types of relationships between source and target networks. Our focus is on the utilization of weights from source networks which solve a subproblem of the target network task, with the goal of speeding up learning on the target task. We demonstrate how the approach described here can improve learning speed by up to ten times over learning starting with random weights. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #10435. 	[Title] Improving accuracy by combining rule-based and case-based reasoning [Abstract] An architecture is presented for combining rule-based and case-based reasoning. The architecture is intended for domains that are understood reasonably well, but still imperfectly. It uses a set of rules, which are taken to be only approximately correct, to obtain a preliminary answer for a given problem; it then draws analogies from cases to handle exceptions to the rules. Having rules together with cases not only increases the architecture's domain coverage, it also allows innovative ways of doing case-based reasoning: the same rules that are used for rule-based reasoning are also used by the case-based component to do case indexing and case adaptation. The architecture was applied to the task of name pronunciation, and, with minimal knowledge engineering, was found to perform almost at the level of the best commercial systems. Moreover, its accuracy was found to exceed what it could have achieved with rules or cases alone, thus demonstrating the accuracy improvement afforded by combining rule-based and case-based reasoning. This work may not be copied or reproduced in whole or in part for any commercial purpose. Permission to copy in whole or in part without payment of fee is granted for nonprofit educational and research purposes provided that all such whole or partial copies include the following: a notice that such copying is by permission of Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories of Cambridge, Massachusetts; an acknowledgment of the authors and individual contributions to the work; and all applicable portions of the copyright notice. Copying, reproduction, or republishing for any other purpose shall require a license with payment of fee to Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories. All rights reserved. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #40135. 	[Title] Refining PID Controllers using Neural Networks [Abstract] The Kbann approach uses neural networks to refine knowledge that can be written in the form of simple propositional rules. We extend this idea further by presenting the Manncon algorithm by which the mathematical equations governing a PID controller determine the topology and initial weights of a network, which is further trained using backpropagation. We apply this method to the task of controlling the outflow and temperature of a water tank, producing statistically-significant gains in accuracy over both a standard neural network approach and a non-learning PID controller. Furthermore, using the PID knowledge to initialize the weights of the network produces statistically less variation in testset accuracy when compared to networks initialized with small random numbers. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1131728. 	[Title] Fast NP Chunking Using Memory-Based Learning Techniques [Abstract] In this paper we discuss the application of Memory-Based Learning (MBL) to fast NP chunking. We first discuss the application of a fast decision tree variant of MBL (IGTree) on the dataset described in (Ramshaw and Marcus, 1995), which consists of roughly 50,000 test and 200,000 train items. In a second series of experiments we used an architecture of two cascaded IGTrees. In the second level of this cascaded classifier we added context predictions as extra features so that incorrect predictions from the first level can be corrected, yielding a 97.2% generalisation accuracy with training and testing times in the order of seconds to minutes. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #39124. 	[Title] The Utility of Feature Weighting in Nearest-Neighbor Algorithms [Abstract] Nearest-neighbor algorithms are known to depend heavily on their distance metric. In this paper, we investigate the use of a weighted Euclidean metric in which the weight for each feature comes from a small set of options. We describe Diet, an algorithm that directs search through a space of discrete weights using cross-validation error as its evaluation function. Although a large set of possible weights can reduce the learner's bias, it can also lead to increased variance and overfitting. Our empirical study shows that, for many data sets, there is an advantage to weighting features, but that increasing the number of possible weights beyond two (zero and one) has very little benefit and sometimes degrades performance. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #120039. 	[Title] EXPLORING A FRAMEWORK FOR INSTANCE BASED LEARNING AND NAIVE BAYESIAN CLASSIFIERS [Abstract] The relative performance of different methods for classifier learning varies across domains. Some recent Instance Based Learning (IBL) methods, such as IB1-MVDM* 10 , use similarity measures based on conditional class probabilities. These probabilities are a key component of Naive Bayes methods. Given this commonality of approach, it is of interest to consider how the differences between the two methods are linked to their relative performance in different domains. Here we interpret Naive Bayes in an IBL like framework, identifying differences between Naive Bayes and IB1-MVDM* in this framework. Experiments on variants of IB1-MVDM* that lie between it and Naive Bayes in the framework are conducted on sixteen domains. The results strongly suggest that the relative performance of Naive Bayes and IB1-MVDM* is linked to the extent to which each class can be satisfactorily represented by a single instance in the IBL framework. However, this is not the only factor that appears significant. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1111788. 	[Title] Multivariate Decision Trees [Abstract] COINS Technical Report 92-82 December 1992 Abstract Multivariate decision trees overcome a representational limitation of univariate decision trees: univariate decision trees are restricted to splits of the instance space that are orthogonal to the feature's axis. This paper discusses the following issues for constructing multivariate decision trees: representing a multivariate test, including symbolic and numeric features, learning the coefficients of a multivariate test, selecting the features to include in a test, and pruning of multivariate decision trees. We present some new and review some well-known methods for forming multivariate decision trees. The methods are compared across a variety of learning tasks to assess each method's ability to find concise, accurate decision trees. The results demonstrate that some multivariate methods are more effective than others. In addition, the experiments confirm that allowing multivariate tests improves the accuracy of the resulting decision tree over univariate trees. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #429805. 	[Title] Resolving PP attachment Ambiguities with Memory-Based Learning [Abstract] In this paper we describe the application of Memory-Based Learning to the problem of Prepositional Phrase attachment disambiguation. We compare Memory-Based Learning, which stores examples in memory and generalizes by using intelligent similarity metrics, with a number of recently proposed statistical methods that are well suited to large numbers of features. We evaluate our methods on a common benchmark dataset and show that our method compares favorably to previous methods, and is well-suited to incorporating various unconventional representations of word patterns such as value difference metrics and Lexical Space. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #107251. 	[Title] Continuous-valued Xof-N Attributes Versus Nominal Xof-N Attributes for Constructive Induction: A Case Study [Abstract] An Xof-N is a set containing one or more attribute-value pairs. For a given instance, its value corresponds to the number of its attribute-value pairs that are true. In this paper, we explore the characteristics and performance of continuous-valued Xof-N attributes versus nominal Xof-N attributes for constructive induction. Nominal Xof-Ns are more representationally powerful than continuous-valued Xof-Ns, but the former suffer the "fragmentation" problem, although some mechanisms such as subsetting can help to solve the problem. Two approaches to constructive induction using continuous-valued Xof-Ns are described. Continuous-valued Xof-Ns perform better than nominal ones on domains that need Xof-Ns with only one cut point. On domains that need Xof-N representations with more than one cut point, nominal Xof-Ns perform better than continuous-valued ones. Experimental results on a set of artificial and real-world domains support these statements. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #107252. 	[Title] Effects of Different Types of New Attribute on Constructive Induction [Abstract] This paper studies the effects on decision tree learning of constructing four types of attribute (conjunctive, disjunctive, Mof-N, and Xof-N representations). To reduce effects of other factors such as tree learning methods, new attribute search strategies, evaluation functions, and stopping criteria, a single tree learning algorithm is developed. With different option settings, it can construct four different types of new attribute, but all other factors are fixed. The study reveals that conjunctive and disjunctive representations have very similar performance in terms of prediction accuracy and theory complexity on a variety of concepts. Moreover, the study demonstrates that the stronger representation power of Mof-N than conjunction and disjunction and the stronger representation power of Xof-N than these three types of new attribute can be reflected in the performance of decision tree learning. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #167670. 	[Title] Error-Based and Entropy-Based Discretization of Continuous Features [Abstract] We present a comparison of error-based and entropy-based methods for discretization of continuous features. Our study includes both an extensive empirical comparison as well as an analysis of scenarios where error minimization may be an inappropriate discretization criterion. We present a discretization method based on the C4.5 decision tree algorithm and compare it to an existing entropy-based discretization algorithm, which employs the Minimum Description Length Principle, and a recently proposed error-based technique. We evaluate these discretization methods with respect to C4.5 and Naive-Bayesian classifiers on datasets from the UCI repository and analyze the computational complexity of each method. Our results indicate that the entropy-based MDL heuristic outperforms error minimization on average. We then analyze the shortcomings of error-based approaches in comparison to entropy-based methods. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #27895. 	[Title] Bibliography "SMART: Support Management Automated Reasoning Technology for COMPAQ Customer Service," "Instance-Based Learning Algorithms," Machine [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1272. 	[Title] Learning a set of primitive actions with an Induction of decision trees. Machine Learning, 1(1):81-106, [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1108728. 	[Title] Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Intelligent Adaptive Systems (IAS-95) Constructive Induction-based Learning Agents: [Abstract] This paper introduces a new type of intelligent agent called a constructive induction-based learning agent (CILA). This agent differs from other adaptive agents because it has the ability to not only learn how to assist a user in some task, but also to incrementally adapt its knowledge representation space to better fit the given learning task. The agents ability to autonomously make problem-oriented modifications to the originally given representation space is due to its constructive induction (CI) learning method. Selective induction (SI) learning methods, and agents based on these methods, rely on a good representation space. A good representation space has no misclassification noise, inter-correlated attributes or irrelevant attributes. Our proposed CILA has methods for overcoming all of these problems. In agent domains with poor representations, the CI-based learning agent will learn more accurate rules and be more useful than an SI-based learning agent. This paper gives an architecture for a CI-based learning agent and gives an empirical comparison of a CI and SI for a set of six abstract domains involving DNF-type (disjunctive normal form) descriptions. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #112378. 	[Title] Language-Independent Data-Oriented Grapheme-to-Phoneme Conversion [Abstract] We describe an approach to grapheme-to-phoneme conversion which is both language-independent and data-oriented. Given a set of examples (spelling words with their associated phonetic representation) in a language, a grapheme-to-phoneme conversion system is automatically produced for that language which takes as its input the spelling of words, and produces as its output the phonetic transcription according to the rules implicit in the training data. We describe the design of the system, and compare its performance to knowledge-based and alternative data-oriented approaches. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1786. 	[Title] A BENCHMARK FOR CLASSIFIER LEARNING [Abstract] Technical Report 474 November 1993 Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #36620. 	[Title] Towards a Better Understanding of Memory-Based Reasoning Systems [Abstract] We quantify both experimentally and analytically the performance of memory-based reasoning (MBR) algorithms. To start gaining insight into the capabilities of MBR algorithms, we compare an MBR algorithm using a value difference metric to a popular Bayesian classifier. These two approaches are similar in that they both make certain independence assumptions about the data. However, whereas MBR uses specific cases to perform classification, Bayesian methods summarize the data probabilistically. We demonstrate that a particular MBR system called Pebls works comparatively well on a wide range of domains using both real and artificial data. With respect to the artificial data, we consider distributions where the concept classes are separated by functional discriminants, as well as time-series data generated by Markov models of varying complexity. Finally, we show formally that Pebls can learn (in the limit) natural concept classes that the Bayesian classifier cannot learn, and that it will attain perfect accuracy whenever Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1132815. 	[Title] Fast Bounded Smooth Regression with Lazy Neural Trees [Abstract] We propose the lazy neural tree (LNT) as the appropriate architecture for the realization of smooth regression systems. The LNT is a hybrid of a decision tree and a neural network. From the neural network it inherits smoothness of the generated function, incremental adaptability, and conceptual simplicity. From the decision tree it inherits the topology and initial parameter setting as well as a very efficient sequential implementation that out-performs traditional neural network simulations by the order of magnitudes. The enormous speed is achieved by lazy evaluation. A further speed-up can be obtained by the application of a window-ing scheme if the region of interesting results is restricted. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #69397. 	[Title] Dynamical Selection of Learning Algorithms [Abstract] Determining the conditions for which a given learning algorithm is appropriate is an open problem in machine learning. Methods for selecting a learning algorithm for a given domain have met with limited success. This paper proposes a new approach to predicting a given example's class by locating it in the "example space" and then choosing the best learner(s) in that region of the example space to make predictions. The regions of the example space are defined by the prediction patterns of the learners being used. The learner(s) chosen for prediction are selected according to their past performance in that region. This dynamic approach to learning algorithm selection is compared to other methods for selecting from multiple learning algorithms. The approach is then extended to weight rather than select the algorithms according to their past performance in a given region. Both approaches are further evaluated on a set of Determining the conditions for which a given learning algorithm is appropriate is an open problem in machine learning. Methods for selecting a learning algorithm for a given domain (e.g. [Aha92, Breiman84]) or for a portion of the domain ([Brodley93, Brodley94]) have met with limited success. This paper proposes a new approach that dynamically selects a learning algorithm for each example by locating it in the "example space" and then choosing the best learner(s) for prediction in that part of the example space. The regions of the example space are formed by the observed prediction patterns of the learners being used. The learner(s) chosen for prediction are selected according to their past performance in that region which is defined by the "cross-validation history." This paper introduces DS, a method for the dynamic selection of a learning algorithm(s). We call it "dynamic" because the learning algorithm(s) used to classify a novel example depends on that example. Preliminary experimentation motivated DW, an extension to DS that dynamically weights the learners predictions according to their regional accuracy. Further experimentation compares DS and DW to a collection of other meta-learning strategies such as cross-validation ([Breiman84]) and various forms of stacking ([Wolpert92]). In this phase of the experiementation, the meta-learners have six constituent learners which are heterogeneous in their search and representation methods (e.g. a rule learner, CN2 [Clark89]; a decision tree learner, C4.5 [Quinlan93]; an oblique decision tree learner, OC1 [Murthy93]; an instance-based learner, PEBLS [Cost93]; a k-nearest neighbor learner, ten domains and compared to several other meta-learning strategies. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #101662. 	[Title] Learning from positive data [Abstract] Gold showed in 1967 that not even regular grammars can be exactly identified from positive examples alone. Since it is known that children learn natural grammars almost exclusively from positives examples, Gold's result has been used as a theoretical support for Chomsky's theory of innate human linguistic abilities. In this paper new results are presented which show that within a Bayesian framework not only grammars, but also logic programs are learnable with arbitrarily low expected error from positive examples only. In addition, we show that the upper bound for expected error of a learner which maximises the Bayes' posterior probability when learning from positive examples is within a small additive term of one which does the same from a mixture of positive and negative examples. An Inductive Logic Programming implementation is described which avoids the pitfalls of greedy search by global optimisation of this function during the local construction of individual clauses of the hypothesis. Results of testing this implementation on artificially-generated data-sets are reported. These results are in agreement with the theoretical predictions. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #36140. 	[Title] Error-Correcting Output Codes: A General Method for Improving Multiclass Inductive Learning Programs [Abstract] Multiclass learning problems involve finding a definition for an unknown function f(x) whose range is a discrete set containing k &gt; 2 values (i.e., k "classes"). The definition is acquired by studying large collections of training examples of the form hx i ; f(x i )i. Existing approaches to this problem include (a) direct application of multiclass algorithms such as the decision-tree algorithms ID3 and CART, (b) application of binary concept learning algorithms to learn individual binary functions for each of the k classes, and (c) application of binary concept learning algorithms with distributed output codes such as those employed by Sejnowski and Rosenberg in the NETtalk system. This paper compares these three approaches to a new technique in which BCH error-correcting codes are employed as a distributed output representation. We show that these output representations improve the performance of ID3 on the NETtalk task and of backpropagation on an isolated-letter speech-recognition task. These results demonstrate that error-correcting output codes provide a general-purpose method for improving the performance of inductive learning programs on multiclass problems. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #368431. 	[Title] Decision Tree Induction: How Effective is the Greedy Heuristic? [Abstract] Most existing decision tree systems use a greedy approach to induce trees | locally optimal splits are induced at every node of the tree. Although the greedy approach is suboptimal, it is believed to produce reasonably good trees. In the current work, we attempt to verify this belief. We quantify the goodness of greedy tree induction empirically, using the popular decision tree algorithms, C4.5 and CART. We induce decision trees on thousands of synthetic data sets and compare them to the corresponding optimal trees, which in turn are found using a novel map coloring idea. We measure the effect on greedy induction of variables such as the underlying concept complexity, training set size, noise and dimensionality. Our experiments show, among other things, that the expected classification cost of a greedily induced tree is consistently very close to that of the optimal tree. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #145215. 	[Title] Memory-Based Lexical Acquisition and Processing [Abstract] Current approaches to computational lexicology in language technology are knowledge-based (competence-oriented) and try to abstract away from specific formalisms, domains, and applications. This results in severe complexity, acquisition and reusability bottlenecks. As an alternative, we propose a particular performance-oriented approach to Natural Language Processing based on automatic memory-based learning of linguistic (lexical) tasks. The consequences of the approach for computational lexicology are discussed, and the application of the approach on a number of lexical acquisition and disambiguation tasks in phonology, morphology and syntax is described. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1153866. 	[Title] Learning Decision Trees from Decision Rules: [Abstract] A method and initial results from a comparative study ABSTRACT A standard approach to determining decision trees is to learn them from examples. A disadvantage of this approach is that once a decision tree is learned, it is difficult to modify it to suit different decision making situations. Such problems arise, for example, when an attribute assigned to some node cannot be measured, or there is a significant change in the costs of measuring attributes or in the frequency distribution of events from different decision classes. An attractive approach to resolving this problem is to learn and store knowledge in the form of decision rules, and to generate from them, whenever needed, a decision tree that is most suitable in a given situation. An additional advantage of such an approach is that it facilitates building compact decision trees , which can be much simpler than the logically equivalent conventional decision trees (by compact trees are meant decision trees that may contain branches assigned a set of values , and nodes assigned derived attributes, i.e., attributes that are logical or mathematical functions of the original ones). The paper describes an efficient method, AQDT-1, that takes decision rules generated by an AQ-type learning system (AQ15 or AQ17), and builds from them a decision tree optimizing a given optimality criterion. The method can work in two modes: the standard mode , which produces conventional decision trees, and compact mode, which produces compact decision trees. The preliminary experiments with AQDT-1 have shown that the decision trees generated by it from decision rules (conventional and compact) have outperformed those generated from examples by the well-known C4.5 program both in terms of their simplicity and their predictive accuracy. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #32083. 	[Title] Back Propagation is Sensitive to Initial Conditions [Abstract] This paper explores the effect of initial weight selection on feed-forward networks learning simple functions with the back-propagation technique. We first demonstrate, through the use of Monte Carlo techniques, that the magnitude of the initial condition vector (in weight space) is a very significant parameter in convergence time variability. In order to further understand this result, additional deterministic experiments were performed. The results of these experiments demonstrate the extreme sensitivity of back propagation to initial weight configuration. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #654177. 	[Title] RAPID DEVELOPMENT OF NLP MODULES WITH MEMORY-BASED LEARNING [Abstract] The need for software modules performing natural language processing (NLP) tasks is growing. These modules should perform efficiently and accurately, while at the same time rapid development is often mandatory. Recent work has indicated that machine learning techniques in general, and memory-based learning (MBL) in particular, offer the tools to meet both ends. We present examples of modules trained with MBL on three NLP tasks: (i) text-to-speech conversion, (ii) part-of-speech tagging, and (iii) phrase chunking. We demonstrate that the three modules display high generalization accuracy, and argue why MBL is applicable similarly well to a large class of other NLP tasks. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1385. 	[Title] REINFORCEMENT LEARNING FOR COORDINATED REACTIVE CONTROL [Abstract] The demands of rapid response and the complexity of many environments make it difficult to decompose, tune and coordinate reactive behaviors while ensuring consistency. Reinforcement learning networks can address the tuning problem, but do not address the problem of decomposition and coordination. We hypothesize that interacting reactions can often be decomposed into separate control tasks resident in separate networks and that the interaction can be coordinated through the tuning mechanism and a higher level controller. To explore these issues, we have implemented a reinforcement learning architecture as the reactive component of a two layer control system for a simulated race car. By varying the architecture, we test whether decomposing reactivity into separate controllers leads to superior overall performance and learning convergence in our domain. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #13686. 	[Title] Framework for Combining Symbolic and Neural Learning rule extraction from neural networks the KBANN algorithm [Abstract] Technical Report 1123, Computer Sciences Department, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Nov. 1992 ABSTRACT This article describes an approach to combining symbolic and connectionist approaches to machine learning. A three-stage framework is presented and the research of several groups is reviewed with respect to this framework. The first stage involves the insertion of symbolic knowledge into neural networks, the second addresses the refinement of this prior knowledge in its neural representation, while the third concerns the extraction of the refined symbolic knowledge. Experimental results and open research issues are discussed. A shorter version of this paper will appear in Machine Learning. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #910. 	[Title] Learning networks for face analysis and synthesis [Abstract] This paper presents an overview of the face-related projects in our group. The unifying theme underlying our work is the use of example-based learning methods for both analyzing and synthesizing face images. We label the example face images (and for the problem of face detection, "near miss" faces as well) with descriptive parameters for pose, expression, identity, and face vs. non-face. Then, by using example-based learning techniques, we develop networks for performing analysis tasks such as pose and expression estimation, face recognition, and face detection in cluttered scenes. In addition to these analysis applications, we show how the example-based technique can also be used as a novel method for image synthesis that is for computer graphics. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #27535. 	[Title] Combining Connectionist and Symbolic Learning to Refine Certainty-Factor Rule Bases [Abstract] This paper describes Rapture | a system for revising probabilistic knowledge bases that combines connectionist and symbolic learning methods. Rapture uses a modified version of backpropagation to refine the certainty factors of a probabilistic rule base and it uses ID3's information-gain heuristic to add new rules. Results on refining three actual expert knowledge bases demonstrate that this combined approach generally performs better than previous methods. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1110426. 	[Title] Incremental Reduced Error Pruning [Abstract] This paper outlines some problems that may occur with Reduced Error Pruning in relational learning algorithms, most notably efficiency. Thereafter a new method, Incremental Reduced Error Pruning, is proposed that attempts to address all of these problems. Experiments show that in many noisy domains this method is much more efficient than alternative algorithms, along with a slight gain in accuracy. However, the experiments show as well that the use of the algorithm cannot be recommended for domains which require a very specific concept description. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #46491. 	[Title] ID2-of-3: Constructive Induction of M of-N Concepts for Discriminators in Decision Trees [Abstract] We discuss an approach to constructing composite features during the induction of decision trees. The composite features correspond to m-of-n concepts. There are three goals of this research. First, we explore a family of greedy methods for building m-of-n concepts (one of which, GS, is described in this paper). Second, we show how these concepts can be formed as internal nodes of decision trees, serving as a bias to the learner. Finally, we evaluate the method on several artificially generated and naturally occurring data sets to determine the effects of this bias. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1107355. 	[Title] Coordinating Reactive Behaviors  keywords: reactive systems, planning and learning [Abstract] Combinating reactivity with planning has been proposed as a means of compensating for potentially slow response times of planners while still making progress toward long term goals. The demands of rapid response and the complexity of many environments make it difficult to decompose, tune and coordinate reactive behaviors while ensuring consistency. Neural networks can address the tuning problem, but are less useful for decomposition and coordination. We hypothesize that interacting reactions can be decomposed into separate behaviors resident in separate networks and that the interaction can be coordinated through the tuning mechanism and a higher level controller. To explore these issues, we have implemented a neural network architecture as the reactive component of a two layer control system for a simulated race car. By varying the architecture, we test whether decomposing reactivity into separate behaviors leads to superior overall performance, coordination and learning convergence. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #22431. 	[Title] An investigation of noise-tolerant relational concept learning algorithms [Abstract] We discuss the types of noise that may occur in relational learning systems and describe two approaches to addressing noise in a relational concept learning algorithm. We then evaluate each approach experimentally. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #57764. 	[Title] Inductive Learning by Selection of Minimal Complexity Representations [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #46500. 	[Title] Learning Complex Boolean Functions: Algorithms and Applications [Abstract] The most commonly used neural network models are not well suited to direct digital implementations because each node needs to perform a large number of operations between floating point values. Fortunately, the ability to learn from examples and to generalize is not restricted to networks of this type. Indeed, networks where each node implements a simple Boolean function (Boolean networks) can be designed in such a way as to exhibit similar properties. Two algorithms that generate Boolean networks from examples are presented. The results show that these algorithms generalize very well in a class of problems that accept compact Boolean network descriptions. The techniques described are general and can be applied to tasks that are not known to have that characteristic. Two examples of applications are presented: image reconstruction and hand-written character recognition. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #63915. 	[Title] Learning the Past Tense of English Verbs: The Symbolic Pattern Associator vs. Connectionist Models [Abstract] Learning the past tense of English verbs | a seemingly minor aspect of language acquisition | has generated heated debates since 1986, and has become a landmark task for testing the adequacy of cognitive modeling. Several artificial neural networks (ANNs) have been implemented, and a challenge for better symbolic models has been posed. In this paper, we present a general-purpose Symbolic Pattern Associator (SPA) based upon the decision-tree learning algorithm ID3. We conduct extensive head-to-head comparisons on the generalization ability between ANN models and the SPA under different representations. We conclude that the SPA generalizes the past tense of unseen verbs better than ANN models by a wide margin, and we offer insights as to why this should be the case. We also discuss a new default strategy for decision-tree learning algorithms. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #101811. 	[Title] Programming Research Group A LEARNABILITY MODEL FOR UNIVERSAL REPRESENTATIONS [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #62389. 	[Title] New Roles for Machine Learning in Design for Design of Educational Computing New roles for [Abstract] Research on machine learning in design has concentrated on the use and development of techniques that can solve simple well-defined problems. Invariably, this effort, while important at the early stages of the development of the field, cannot scale up to address real design problems since all existing techniques are based on simplifying assumptions that do not hold for real design. In particular they do not address the dependence on context and multiple, often conflicting, interests that are constitutive of design. This paper analyzes the present situation and criticizes a number of prevailing views. Subsequently, the paper offers an alternative approach whose goal is to advance the use of machine learning in design practice. The approach is partially integrated into a modeling system called n-dim. The use of machine learning in n-dim is presented and open research issues are outlined. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #40886. 	[Title] GENERALIZATION PERFORMANCE OF BACKPROPAGATION LEARNING ON A SYLLABIFICATION TASK [Abstract] We investigated the generalization capabilities of backpropagation learning in feed-forward and recurrent feed-forward connectionist networks on the assignment of syllable boundaries to orthographic representations in Dutch (hyphenation). This is a difficult task because phonological and morphological constraints interact, leading to ambiguity in the input patterns. We compared the results to different symbolic pattern matching approaches, and to an exemplar-based generalization scheme, related to a k-nearest neighbour approach, but using a similarity metric weighed by the relative information entropy of positions in the training patterns. Our results indicate that the generalization performance of backpropagation learning for this task is not better than that of the best symbolic pattern matching approaches, and of exemplar-based generalization. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #73146. 	[Title] LEARNING BAYESIAN NETWORKS WITH LOCAL STRUCTURE [Abstract] We examine a novel addition to the known methods for learning Bayesian networks from data that improves the quality of the learned networks. Our approach explicitly represents and learns the local structure in the conditional probability distributions (CPDs) that quantify these networks. This increases the space of possible models, enabling the representation of CPDs with a variable number of parameters. The resulting learning procedure induces models that better emulate the interactions present in the data. We describe the theoretical foundations and practical aspects of learning local structures and provide an empirical evaluation of the proposed learning procedure. This evaluation indicates that learning curves characterizing this procedure converge faster, in the number of training instances, than those of the standard procedure, which ignores the local structure of the CPDs. Our results also show that networks learned with local structures tend to be more complex (in terms of arcs), yet require fewer parameters. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #41417. 	[Title] Case-based Acquisition of User Preferences for Solution Improvement in Ill-Structured Domains [Abstract] 1 We have developed an approach to acquire complicated user optimization criteria and use them to guide Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #46547. 	[Title] CONSTRUCTING CONJUNCTIVE TESTS FOR DECISION TREES [Abstract] This paper discusses an approach of constructing new attributes based on decision trees and production rules. It can improve the concepts learned in the form of decision trees by simplifying them and improving their predictive accuracy. In addition, this approach can distinguish relevant primitive attributes from irrelevant primitive attributes. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #411092. 	[Title] LEARNING LOGICAL EXCEPTIONS IN CHESS [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #35797. 	[Title] Proben1 A Set of Neural Network Benchmark Problems and Benchmarking Rules [Abstract] Proben1 is a collection of problems for neural network learning in the realm of pattern classification and function approximation plus a set of rules and conventions for carrying out benchmark tests with these or similar problems. Proben1 contains 15 data sets from 12 different domains. All datasets represent realistic problems which could be called diagnosis tasks and all but one consist of real world data. The datasets are all presented in the same simple format, using an attribute representation that can directly be used for neural network training. Along with the datasets, Proben1 defines a set of rules for how to conduct and how to document neural network benchmarking. The purpose of the problem and rule collection is to give researchers easy access to data for the evaluation of their algorithms and networks and to make direct comparison of the published results feasible. This report describes the datasets and the benchmarking rules. It also gives some basic performance measures indicating the difficulty of the various problems. These measures can be used as baselines for comparison. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #208345. 	[Title] CHIRON: Planning in an Open-Textured Domain [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #40922. 	[Title] An Optimal Weighting Criterion of Case Indexing for Both Numeric and Symbolic Attributes [Abstract] Indexing of cases is an important topic for Memory-Based Reasoning(MBR). One key problem is how to assign weights to attributes of cases. Although several weighting methods have been proposed, some methods cannot handle numeric attributes directly, so it is necessary to discretize numeric values by classification. Furthermore, existing methods have no theoretical background, so little can be said about optimality. We propose a new weighting method based on a statistical technique called Quantification Method II. It can handle both numeric and symbolic attributes in the same framework. Generated attribute weights are optimal in the sense that they maximize the ratio of variance between classes to variance of all cases. Experiments on several benchmark tests show that in many cases, our method obtains higher accuracies than some other weighting methods. The results also indicate that it can distinguish relevant attributes from irrelevant ones, and can tolerate noisy data. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #601567. 	[Title] Geometric Comparison of Classifications and Rule Sets* [Abstract] We present a technique for evaluating classifications by geometric comparison of rule sets. Rules are represented as objects in an n-dimensional hyperspace. The similarity of classes is computed from the overlap of the geometric class descriptions. The system produces a correlation matrix that indicates the degree of similarity between each pair of classes. The technique can be applied to classifications generated by different algorithms, with different numbers of classes and different attribute sets. Experimental results from a case study in a medical domain are included. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1128430. 	[Title] On Reasoning from Data [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #6639. 	[Title] Stochastic search in inductive concept learning [Abstract] Concept learning can be viewed as search of the space of concept descriptions. The hypothesis language determines the search space. In standard inductive learning algorithms, the structure of the search space is determined by generalization/specialization operators. Algorithms perform locally optimal search by using a hill-climbing and/or a beam-search strategy. To overcome this limitation, concept learning can be viewed as stochastic search of the space of concept descriptions. The proposed stochastic search method is based on simulated annealing which is known as a successful means for solving combinatorial optimization problems. The stochastic search method, implemented in a rule learning system ATRIS, is based on a compact and efficient representation of the problem and the appropriate operators for structuring the search space. Furthermore, by heuristic pruning of the search space, the method enables also handling of imperfect data. The paper introduces the stochastic search method, describes the ATRIS learning algorithm and gives results of the experiments. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #133615. 	[Title] The Estimation of Probabilities in Attribute Selection Measures for Decision Tree Induction [Abstract] In this paper we analyze two well-known measures for attribute selection in decision tree induction, informativity and gini index. In particular, we are interested in the influence of different methods for estimating probabilities on these two measures. The results of experiments show that different measures, which are obtained by different probability estimation methods, determine the preferential order of attributes in a given node. Therefore, they determine the structure of a constructed decision tree. This feature can be very beneficial, especially in real-world applications where several different trees are often required. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #8703. 	[Title] Theory Refinement Combining Analytical and Empirical Methods [Abstract] This article describes a comprehensive approach to automatic theory revision. Given an imperfect theory, the approach combines explanation attempts for incorrectly classified examples in order to identify the failing portions of the theory. For each theory fault, correlated subsets of the examples are used to inductively generate a correction. Because the corrections are focused, they tend to preserve the structure of the original theory. Because the system starts with an approximate domain theory, in general fewer training examples are required to attain a given level of performance (classification accuracy) compared to a purely empirical system. The approach applies to classification systems employing a propositional Horn-clause theory. The system has been tested in a variety of application domains, and results are presented for problems in the domains of molecular biology and plant disease diagnosis. Please summarise all the given information.

Paper #22563 has the title `A Comparative Study of ID3 and Backpropagation for English Text-to-Speech Mapping  
` and the abstract `The performance of the error backpropagation (BP) and ID3 learning algorithms was compared on the task of mapping English text to phonemes and stresses. Under the distributed output code developed by Sejnowski and Rosenberg, it is shown that BP consistently out-performs ID3 on this task by several percentage points. Three hypotheses explaining this difference were explored: (a) ID3 is overfitting the training data, (b) BP is able to share hidden units across several output units and hence can learn the output units better, and (c) BP captures statistical information that ID3 does not. We conclude that only hypothesis (c) is correct. By augmenting ID3 with a simple statistical learning procedure, the performance of BP can be approached but not matched. More complex statistical procedures can improve the performance of both BP and ID3 substantially. A study of the residual errors suggests that there is still substantial room for improvement in learning methods for text-to-speech mapping.
`.
Question: Which category should Paper #22563 be classified as ?
You can select one from ['Neural_Networks', 'Case_Based', 'Theory', 'Reinforcement_Learning', 'Probabilistic_Methods', 'Rule_Learning', 'Genetic_Algorithms'].


Paper #22563 has the title `A Comparative Study of ID3 and Backpropagation for English Text-to-Speech Mapping  
` and the abstract `The performance of the error backpropagation (BP) and ID3 learning algorithms was compared on the task of mapping English text to phonemes and stresses. Under the distributed output code developed by Sejnowski and Rosenberg, it is shown that BP consistently out-performs ID3 on this task by several percentage points. Three hypotheses explaining this difference were explored: (a) ID3 is overfitting the training data, (b) BP is able to share hidden units across several output units and hence can learn the output units better, and (c) BP captures statistical information that ID3 does not. We conclude that only hypothesis (c) is correct. By augmenting ID3 with a simple statistical learning procedure, the performance of BP can be approached but not matched. More complex statistical procedures can improve the performance of both BP and ID3 substantially. A study of the residual errors suggests that there is still substantial room for improvement in learning methods for text-to-speech mapping.
`.
Question: Which category should Paper #22563 be classified as ?
You can select one from ['Neural_Networks', 'Case_Based', 'Theory', 'Reinforcement_Learning', 'Probabilistic_Methods', 'Rule_Learning', 'Genetic_Algorithms'].

This paper should be classified into: Neural_Networks