Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #144679. 	[Title] Learning When Reformulation is Appropriate for Iterative Design [Abstract] It is well known that search-space reformulation can improve the speed and reliability of numerical optimization in engineering design. We argue that the best choice of reformulation depends on the design goal, and present a technique for automatically constructing rules that map the design goal into a reformulation chosen from a space of possible reformulations. We tested our technique in the domain of racing-yacht-hull design, where each reformulation corresponds to incorporating constraints into the search space. We applied a standard inductive-learning algorithm, C4.5, to a set of training data describing which constraints are active in the optimal design for each goal encountered in a previous design session. We then used these rules to choose an appropriate reformulation for each of a set of test cases. Our experimental results show that using these reformulations improves both the speed and the reliability of design optimization, outperforming competing methods and approaching the best performance possible. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #8224. 	[Title] Mingers, 1989 J. Mingers. An empirical comparison of pruning methods for decision tree induction. Machine [Abstract] Ourston and Mooney, 1990b ] D. Ourston and R. J. Mooney. Improving shared rules in multiple category domain theories. Technical Report AI90-150, Artificial Intelligence Labora tory, University of Texas, Austin, TX, December 1990. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1152673. 	[Title] Misclassification Minimization [Abstract] The problem of minimizing the number of misclassified points by a plane, attempting to separate two point sets with intersecting convex hulls in n-dimensional real space, is formulated as a linear program with equilibrium constraints (LPEC). This general LPEC can be converted to an exact penalty problem with a quadratic objective and linear constraints. A Frank-Wolfe-type algorithm is proposed for the penalty problem that terminates at a stationary point or a global solution. Novel aspects of the approach include: (i) A linear complementarity formulation of the step function that "counts" misclassifications, (ii) Exact penalty formulation without boundedness, nondegeneracy or constraint qualification assumptions, (iii) An exact solution extraction from the sequence of minimizers of the penalty function for a finite value of the penalty parameter for the general LPEC and an explicitly exact solution for the LPEC with uncoupled constraints, and (iv) A parametric quadratic programming formulation of the LPEC associated with the misclassification minimization problem. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #58436. 	[Title] Intelligent Model Selection for Hillclimbing Search in Computer-Aided Design [Abstract] Models of physical systems can differ according to computational cost, accuracy and precision, among other things. Depending on the problem solving task at hand, different models will be appropriate. Several investigators have recently developed methods of automatically selecting among multiple models of physical systems. Our research is novel in that we are developing model selection techniques specifically suited to computer-aided de sign. Our approach is based on the idea that artifact performance models for computer-aided design should be chosen in light of the design decisions they are required to support. We have developed a technique called "Gradient Magnitude Model Selection" (GMMS), which embodies this principle. GMMS operates in the context of a hillclimbing search process. It selects the simplest model that meets the needs of the hillclimbing algorithm in which it operates. We are using the domain of sailing yacht design as a testbed for this research. We have implemented GMMS and used it in hillclimb-ing search to decide between a computationally expensive potential-flow program and an algebraic approximation to analyze the performance of sailing yachts. Experimental tests show that GMMS makes the design process faster than it would be if the most expensive model were used for all design evaluations. GMMS achieves this performance improvement with little or no sacrifice in the quality of the resulting design. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #3243. 	[Title] A System for Induction of Oblique Decision Trees [Abstract] This article describes a new system for induction of oblique decision trees. This system, OC1, combines deterministic hill-climbing with two forms of randomization to find a good oblique split (in the form of a hyperplane) at each node of a decision tree. Oblique decision tree methods are tuned especially for domains in which the attributes are numeric, although they can be adapted to symbolic or mixed symbolic/numeric attributes. We present extensive empirical studies, using both real and artificial data, that analyze OC1's ability to construct oblique trees that are smaller and more accurate than their axis-parallel counterparts. We also examine the benefits of randomization for the construction of oblique decision trees. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1154251. 	[Title] Misclassification Minimization [Abstract] The problem of minimizing the number of misclassified points by a plane, attempting to separate two point sets with intersecting convex hulls in n-dimensional real space, is formulated as a linear program with equilibrium constraints (LPEC). This general LPEC can be converted to an exact penalty problem with a quadratic objective and linear constraints. A Frank-Wolfe-type algorithm is proposed for the penalty problem that terminates at a stationary point or a global solution. Novel aspects of the approach include: (i) A linear complementarity formulation of the step function that "counts" misclassifications, (ii) Exact penalty formulation without boundedness, nondegeneracy or constraint qualification assumptions, (iii) An exact solution extraction from the sequence of minimizers of the penalty function for a finite value of the penalty parameter for the general LPEC and an explicitly exact solution for the LPEC with uncoupled constraints, and (iv) A parametric quadratic programming formulation of the LPEC associated with the misclassification minimization problem. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #10796. 	[Title] An Improved Algorithm for Incremental Induction of Decision Trees [Abstract] Technical Report 94-07 February 7, 1994 (updated April 25, 1994) This paper will appear in Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Machine Learning. Abstract This paper presents an algorithm for incremental induction of decision trees that is able to handle both numeric and symbolic variables. In order to handle numeric variables, a new tree revision operator called `slewing' is introduced. Finally, a non-incremental method is given for finding a decision tree based on a direct metric of a candidate tree. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #30895. 	[Title] Induction of Oblique Decision Trees [Abstract] This paper introduces a randomized technique for partitioning examples using oblique hyperplanes. Standard decision tree techniques, such as ID3 and its descendants, partition a set of points with axis-parallel hyper-planes. Our method, by contrast, attempts to find hyperplanes at any orientation. The purpose of this more general technique is to find smaller but equally accurate decision trees than those created by other methods. We have tested our algorithm on both real and simulated data, and found that in some cases it produces surprisingly small trees without losing predictive accuracy. Small trees allow us, in turn, to obtain simple qualitative descriptions of each problem domain. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #463. 	[Title] Abstraction and Decomposition in Hillclimbing Design Optimization [Abstract] The performance of hillclimbing design optimization can be improved by abstraction and decomposition of the design space. Methods for automatically finding and exploiting such abstractions and decompositions are presented in this paper. A technique called "Operator Importance Analysis" finds useful abstractions. It does so by determining which of a given set of operators are the most important for a given class of design problems. Hillclimbing search runs faster when performed using this this smaller set of operators. A technique called "Operator Interaction Analysis" finds useful decompositions. It does so by measuring the pairwise interaction between operators. It uses such measurements to form an ordered partition of the operator set. This partition can then be used in a "hierarchic" hillclimbing algorithm which runs faster than ordinary hillclimbing with an unstructured operator set. We have implemented both techniques and tested them in the domain of racing yacht hull design. Our experimental results show that these two methods can produce substantial speedups with little or no loss in quality of the resulting designs. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #30901. 	[Title] Lookahead and Pathology in Decision Tree Induction [Abstract] The standard approach to decision tree induction is a top-down, greedy algorithm that makes locally optimal, irrevocable decisions at each node of a tree. In this paper, we empirically study an alternative approach, in which the algorithms use one-level lookahead to decide what test to use at a node. We systematically compare, using a very large number of real and artificial data sets, the quality of decision trees induced by the greedy approach to that of trees induced using lookahead. The main observations from our experiments are: (i) the greedy approach consistently produced trees that were just as accurate as trees produced with the much more expensive lookahead step; and (ii) we observed many instances of pathology, i.e., lookahead produced trees that were both larger and less accurate than trees produced without it. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #59798. 	[Title] PATTERN RECOGNITION VIA LINEAR PROGRAMMING THEORY AND APPLICATION TO MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS [Abstract] A decision problem associated with a fundamental nonconvex model for linearly inseparable pattern sets is shown to be NP-complete. Another nonconvex model that employs an 1 norm instead of the 2-norm, can be solved in polynomial time by solving 2n linear programs, where n is the (usually small) dimensionality of the pattern space. An effective LP-based finite algorithm is proposed for solving the latter model. The algorithm is employed to obtain a noncon-vex piecewise-linear function for separating points representing measurements made on fine needle aspirates taken from benign and malignant human breasts. A computer program trained on 369 samples has correctly diagnosed each of 45 new samples encountered and is currently in use at the University of Wisconsin Hospitals. 1. Introduction. The fundamental problem we wish to address is that of Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1152277. 	[Title] Misclassification Minimization [Abstract] The problem of minimizing the number of misclassified points by a plane, attempting to separate two point sets with intersecting convex hulls in n-dimensional real space, is formulated as a linear program with equilibrium constraints (LPEC). This general LPEC can be converted to an exact penalty problem with a quadratic objective and linear constraints. A Frank-Wolfe-type algorithm is proposed for the penalty problem that terminates at a stationary point or a global solution. Novel aspects of the approach include: (i) A linear complementarity formulation of the step function that "counts" misclassifications, (ii) Exact penalty formulation without boundedness, nondegeneracy or constraint qualification assumptions, (iii) An exact solution extraction from the sequence of minimizers of the penalty function for a finite value of the penalty parameter for the general LPEC and an explicitly exact solution for the LPEC with uncoupled constraints, and (iv) A parametric quadratic programming formulation of the LPEC associated with the misclassification minimization problem. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1272. 	[Title] Learning a set of primitive actions with an Induction of decision trees. Machine Learning, 1(1):81-106, [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #87417. 	[Title] Using Modeling Knowledge to Guide Design Space Search [Abstract] Automated search of a space of candidate designs seems an attractive way to improve the traditional engineering design process. To make this approach work, however, the automated design system must include both knowledge of the modeling limitations of the method used to evaluate candidate designs and also an effective way to use this knowledge to influence the search process. We suggest that a productive approach is to include this knowledge by implementing a set of model constraint functions which measure how much each modeling assumptions is violated, and to influence the search by using the values of these model constraint functions as constraint inputs to a standard constrained nonlinear optimization numerical method. We test this idea in the domain of conceptual design of supersonic transport aircraft, and our experiments indicate that our model constraint communication strategy can decrease the cost of design space search by one or more orders of magnitude. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #58454. 	[Title] Learning Prototype-Selection Rules for Case-Based Iterative Design seen as a case-based reasoning system [4], in [Abstract] The first step for most case-based design systems is to select an initial prototype from a database of previous designs. The retrieved prototype is then modified to tailor it to the given goals. For any particular design goal the selection of a starting point for the design process can have a dramatic effect both on the quality of the eventual design and on the overall design time. We present a technique for automatically constructing effective prototype-selection rules. Our technique applies a standard inductive-learning algorithm, C4.5, to a set of training data describing which particular prototype would have been the best choice for each goal encountered in a previous design session. We have tested our technique in the domain of racing-yacht-hull design, comparing our inductively learned selection rules to several competing prototype-selection methods. Our results show that the inductive prototype-selection method leads to better final designs when the design process is guided by a noisy evaluation function, and that the inductively learned rules will often be more efficient than competing methods. Many automated design systems begin by retrieving an initial prototype from a library of previous designs, using the given design goal as an index to guide the retrieval process [14]. The retrieved prototype is then modified by a set of design modification operators to tailor the selected design to the given goals. In many cases the quality of competing designs can be assessed using domain-specific evaluation functions, and in such cases the design-modification process is often This research has benefited from numerous discussions with members of the Rutgers CAP project. We thank Andrew Gelsey for helping with the cross-validation code, John Keane for helping with RUVPP, and Andrew Gelsey and Tim Weinrich for comments on a previous draft of this paper. This research was supported under ARPA-funded NASA grant NAG 2-645. In the context of such case-based design systems, the choice of an initial prototype can affect both the quality of the final design and the computational cost of obtaining that design, for three reasons. First, prototype selection may impact quality when the prototypes lie in disjoint search spaces. In particular, if the system's design modification operators cannot convert any prototype into any other prototype, the choice of initial prototype will restrict the set of possible designs that can be obtained by any search process. A poor choice of initial prototype may therefore lead to a suboptimal final design. Second, prototype selection may impact quality when the design process is guided by a nonlinear evaluation function with unknown global properties. Since there is no known method that is guaranteed to find the global optimum of an arbitrary nonlinear function [7], most design systems rely on iterative local search methods whose results are sensitive to the initial starting point. Finally, the choice of prototype may have an impact on the time needed to carry out the design modification process|two different starting points may yield the same final design but take very different amounts of time to get there. In design problems where evaluating even just a single design can take tremendous amounts of time, selecting an appropriate initial prototype can be the determining factor in the success or failure of the design process. This paper describes the application of inductive learning [11] to form rules for selecting appropriate prototype designs. The paper is structured as follows. In Section 2, we describe our inductive method for learning prototype-selection rules. In Section 3 we describe the domain of racing-yacht-hull design, in which we tested our prototype-selection methods. In Sections 4 and 5, we describe the experiments Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1114239. 	[Title] A Transformation System for Interactive Reformulation of Design Optimization Strategies [Abstract] Numerical design optimization algorithms are highly sensitive to the particular formulation of the optimization problems they are given. The formulation of the search space, the objective function and the constraints will generally have a large impact on the duration of the optimization process as well as the quality of the resulting design. Furthermore, the best formulation will vary from one application domain to another, and from one problem to another within a given application domain. Unfortunately, a design engineer may not know the best formulation in advance of attempting to set up and run a design optimization process. In order to attack this problem, we have developed a software environment that supports interactive formulation, testing and reformulation of design optimization strategies. Our system represents optimization strategies in terms of second-order dataflow graphs. Reformulations of strategies are implemented as transformations between dataflow graphs. The system permits the user to interactively generate and search a space of design optimization strategies, and experimentally evaluate their performance on test problems, in order to find a strategy that is suitable for his application domain. The system has been implemented in a domain independent fashion, and is being tested in the domain of racing yacht design. Please summarise all the given information.

Paper #144679 has the title `Learning When Reformulation is Appropriate for Iterative Design  
` and the abstract `It is well known that search-space reformulation can improve the speed and reliability of numerical optimization in engineering design. We argue that the best choice of reformulation depends on the design goal, and present a technique for automatically constructing rules that map the design goal into a reformulation chosen from a space of possible reformulations. We tested our technique in the domain of racing-yacht-hull design, where each reformulation corresponds to incorporating constraints into the search space. We applied a standard inductive-learning algorithm, C4.5, to a set of training data describing which constraints are active in the optimal design for each goal encountered in a previous design session. We then used these rules to choose an appropriate reformulation for each of a set of test cases. Our experimental results show that using these reformulations improves both the speed and the reliability of design optimization, outperforming competing methods and approaching the best performance possible. 
`.
Question: Which category should Paper #144679 be classified as ?
You can select one from ['Neural_Networks', 'Case_Based', 'Theory', 'Reinforcement_Learning', 'Probabilistic_Methods', 'Rule_Learning', 'Genetic_Algorithms'].


Paper #144679 has the title `Learning When Reformulation is Appropriate for Iterative Design  
` and the abstract `It is well known that search-space reformulation can improve the speed and reliability of numerical optimization in engineering design. We argue that the best choice of reformulation depends on the design goal, and present a technique for automatically constructing rules that map the design goal into a reformulation chosen from a space of possible reformulations. We tested our technique in the domain of racing-yacht-hull design, where each reformulation corresponds to incorporating constraints into the search space. We applied a standard inductive-learning algorithm, C4.5, to a set of training data describing which constraints are active in the optimal design for each goal encountered in a previous design session. We then used these rules to choose an appropriate reformulation for each of a set of test cases. Our experimental results show that using these reformulations improves both the speed and the reliability of design optimization, outperforming competing methods and approaching the best performance possible. 
`.
Question: Which category should Paper #144679 be classified as ?
You can select one from ['Neural_Networks', 'Case_Based', 'Theory', 'Reinforcement_Learning', 'Probabilistic_Methods', 'Rule_Learning', 'Genetic_Algorithms'].

This paper should be classified into: Case_Based