Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1127851. 	[Title] Generating Declarative Language Bias for Top-Down ILP Algorithms [Abstract] Many of today's algorithms for Inductive Logic Programming (ILP) put a heavy burden and responsibility on the user, because their declarative bias have to be defined in a rather low-level fashion. To address this issue, we developed a method for generating declarative language bias for top-down ILP systems from high-level declarations. The key feature of our approach is the distinction between a user level and an expert level of language bias declarations. The expert provides abstract meta-declarations, and the user declares the relationship between the meta-level and the given database to obtain a low-level declarative language bias. The suggested languages allow for compact and abstract specifications of the declarative language bias for top-down ILP systems using schemata. We verified several properties of the translation algorithm that generates schemata, and applied it successfully to a few chemical domains. As a consequence, we propose to use a two-level approach to generate declarative language bias. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #6917. 	[Title] Covering vs. Divide-and-Conquer for Top-Down Induction of Logic Programs [Abstract] covering has been formalized and used extensively. In this work, the divide-and-conquer technique is formalized as well and compared to the covering technique in a logic programming framework. Covering works by repeatedly specializing an overly general hypothesis, on each iteration focusing on finding a clause with a high coverage of positive examples. Divide-and-conquer works by specializing an overly general hypothesis once, focusing on discriminating positive from negative examples. Experimental results are presented demonstrating that there are cases when more accurate hypotheses can be found by divide-and-conquer than by covering. Moreover, since covering considers the same alternatives repeatedly it tends to be less efficient than divide-and-conquer, which never considers the same alternative twice. On the other hand, covering searches a larger hypothesis space, which may result in that more compact hypotheses are found by this technique than by divide-and-conquer. Furthermore, divide-and-conquer is, in contrast to covering, not applicable to learn ing recursive definitions. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #2440. 	[Title] Quinlan, 1990 J.R. Quinlan. Learning logical definitions from relations. Machine Learning, First-order theory revision. In [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #6923. 	[Title] Inductive Constraint Logic [Abstract] A novel approach to learning first order logic formulae from positive and negative examples is presented. Whereas present inductive logic programming systems employ examples as true and false ground facts (or clauses), we view examples as interpretations which are true or false for the target theory. This viewpoint allows to reconcile the inductive logic programming paradigm with classical attribute value learning in the sense that the latter is a special case of the former. Because of this property, we are able to adapt AQ and CN2 type algorithms in order to enable learning of full first order formulae. However, whereas classical learning techniques have concentrated on concept representations in disjunctive normal form, we will use a clausal representation, which corresponds to a conjuctive normal form where each conjunct forms a constraint on positive examples. This representation duality reverses also the role of positive and negative examples, both in the heuristics and in the algorithm. The resulting theory is incorporated in a system named ICL (Inductive Constraint Logic). Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #3217. 	[Title] Theory and Applications of Agnostic PAC-Learning with Small Decision Trees [Abstract] We exhibit a theoretically founded algorithm T2 for agnostic PAC-learning of decision trees of at most 2 levels, whose computation time is almost linear in the size of the training set. We evaluate the performance of this learning algorithm T2 on 15 common real-world datasets, and show that for most of these datasets T2 provides simple decision trees with little or no loss in predictive power (compared with C4.5). In fact, for datasets with continuous attributes its error rate tends to be lower than that of C4.5. To the best of our knowledge this is the first time that a PAC-learning algorithm is shown to be applicable to real-world classification problems. Since one can prove that T2 is an agnostic PAC-learning algorithm, T2 is guaranteed to produce close to optimal 2-level decision trees from sufficiently large training sets for any (!) distribution of data. In this regard T2 differs strongly from all other learning algorithms that are considered in applied machine learning, for which no guarantee can be given about their performance on new datasets. We also demonstrate that this algorithm T2 can be used as a diagnostic tool for the investigation of the expressive limits of 2-level decision trees. Finally, T2, in combination with new bounds on the VC-dimension of decision trees of bounded depth that we derive, provides us now for the first time with the tools necessary for comparing learning curves of decision trees for real-world datasets with the theoretical estimates of PAC learning theory. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #3218. 	[Title] Rule Induction with CN2: Some Recent Improvements [Abstract] The CN2 algorithm induces an ordered list of classification rules from examples using entropy as its search heuristic. In this short paper, we describe two improvements to this algorithm. Firstly, we present the use of the Laplacian error estimate as an alternative evaluation function and secondly, we show how unordered as well as ordered rules can be generated. We experimentally demonstrate significantly improved performances resulting from these changes, thus enhancing the usefulness of CN2 as an inductive tool. Comparisons with Quinlan's C4.5 are also made. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #238099. 	[Title] Mining for Causes of Cancer: Machine Learning Experiments at Various Levels of Detail [Abstract] This paper presents first results of an interdisciplinary project in scientific data mining. We analyze data about the carcinogenicity of chemicals derived from the carcinogenesis bioassay program performed by the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. The database contains detailed descriptions of 6823 tests performed with more than 330 compounds and animals of different species, strains and sexes. The chemical structures are described at the atom and bond level, and in terms of various relevant structural properties. The goal of this paper is to investigate the effects that various levels of detail and amounts of information have on the resulting hypotheses, both quantitatively and qualitatively. We apply relational and propositional machine learning algorithms to learning problems formulated as regression or as classification tasks. In addition, these experiments have been conducted with two learning problems which are at different levels of detail. Quantitatively, our experiments indicate that additional information not necessarily improves accuracy. Qualitatively, a number of potential discoveries have been made by the algorithm for Relational Regression because it can utilize all the information contained in the relations of the database as well as in the numerical dependent variable. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #6935. 	[Title] Inverse entailment and Progol [Abstract] This paper firstly provides a re-appraisal of the development of techniques for inverting deduction, secondly introduces Mode-Directed Inverse Entailment (MDIE) as a generalisation and enhancement of previous approaches and thirdly describes an implementation of MDIE in the Progol system. Progol is implemented in C and available by anonymous ftp. The re-assessment of previous techniques in terms of inverse entailment leads to new results for learning from positive data and inverting implication between pairs of clauses. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #22431. 	[Title] An investigation of noise-tolerant relational concept learning algorithms [Abstract] We discuss the types of noise that may occur in relational learning systems and describe two approaches to addressing noise in a relational concept learning algorithm. We then evaluate each approach experimentally. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #8224. 	[Title] Mingers, 1989 J. Mingers. An empirical comparison of pruning methods for decision tree induction. Machine [Abstract] Ourston and Mooney, 1990b ] D. Ourston and R. J. Mooney. Improving shared rules in multiple category domain theories. Technical Report AI90-150, Artificial Intelligence Labora tory, University of Texas, Austin, TX, December 1990. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #4649. 	[Title] Finding Accurate Frontiers: A Knowledge-Intensive Approach to Relational Learning [Abstract] An approach to analytic learning is described that searches for accurate entailments of a Horn Clause domain theory. A hill-climbing search, guided by an information based evaluation function, is performed by applying a set of operators that derive frontiers from domain theories. The analytic learning system is one component of a multi-strategy relational learning system. We compare the accuracy of concepts learned with this analytic strategy to concepts learned with an analytic strategy that operationalizes the domain theory. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #449841. 	[Title] Theory-Guided Induction of Logic Programs by Inference of Regular Languages recursive clauses. merlin on the [Abstract] resent allowed sequences of resolution steps for the initial theory. There are, however, many characterizations of allowed sequences of resolution steps that cannot be expressed by a set of resolvents. One approach to this problem is presented, the system mer-lin, which is based on an earlier technique for learning finite-state automata that represent allowed sequences of resolution steps. merlin extends the previous technique in three ways: i) negative examples are considered in addition to positive examples, ii) a new strategy for performing generalization is used, and iii) a technique for converting the learned automaton to a logic program is included. Results from experiments are presented in which merlin outperforms both a system using the old strategy for performing generalization, and a traditional covering technique. The latter result can be explained by the limited expressiveness of hypotheses produced by covering and also by the fact that covering needs to produce the correct base clauses for a recursive definition before Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #434. 	[Title] Learning Analytically and Inductively [Abstract] Learning is a fundamental component of intelligence, and a key consideration in designing cognitive architectures such as Soar [ Laird et al., 1986 ] . This chapter considers the question of what constitutes an appropriate general-purpose learning mechanism. We are interested in mechanisms that might explain and reproduce the rich variety of learning capabilities of humans, ranging from learning perceptual-motor skills such as how to ride a bicycle, to learning highly cognitive tasks such as how to play chess. Research on learning in fields such as cognitive science, artificial intelligence, neurobiology, and statistics has led to the identification of two distinct classes of learning methods: inductive and analytic. Inductive methods, such as neural network Backpropagation, learn general laws by finding statistical correlations and regularities among a large set of training examples. In contrast, analytical methods, such as Explanation-Based Learning, acquire general laws from many fewer training examples. They rely instead on prior knowledge to analyze individual training examples in detail, then use this analysis to distinguish relevant example features from the irrelevant. The question considered in this chapter is how to best combine inductive and analytical learning in an architecture that seeks to cover the range of learning exhibited by intelligent systems such as humans. We present a specific learning mechanism, Explanation Based Neural Network learning (EBNN), that blends these two types of learning, and present experimental results demonstrating its ability to learn control strategies for a mobile robot using Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #49843. 	[Title] Fossil: A Robust Relational Learner [Abstract] The research reported in this paper describes Fossil, an ILP system that uses a search heuristic based on statistical correlation. This algorithm implements a new method for learning useful concepts in the presence of noise. In contrast to Foil's stopping criterion, which allows theories to grow in complexity as the size of the training sets increases, we propose a new stopping criterion that is independent of the number of training examples. Instead, Fossil's stopping criterion depends on a search heuristic that estimates the utility of literals on a uniform scale. In addition we outline how this feature can be used for top-down pruning and present some preliminary results. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #49844. 	[Title] A Comparison of Pruning Methods for Relational Concept Learning [Abstract] Pre-Pruning and Post-Pruning are two standard methods of dealing with noise in concept learning. Pre-Pruning methods are very efficient, while Post-Pruning methods typically are more accurate, but much slower, because they have to generate an overly specific concept description first. We have experimented with a variety of pruning methods, including two new methods that try to combine and integrate pre- and post-pruning in order to achieve both accuracy and efficiency. This is verified with test series in a chess position classification task. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #49847. 	[Title] Top-Down Pruning in Relational Learning [Abstract] Pruning is an effective method for dealing with noise in Machine Learning. Recently pruning algorithms, in particular Reduced Error Pruning, have also attracted interest in the field of Inductive Logic Programming. However, it has been shown that these methods can be very inefficient, because most of the time is wasted for generating clauses that explain noisy examples and subsequently pruning these clauses. We introduce a new method which searches for good theories in a top-down fashion to get a better starting point for the pruning algorithm. Experiments show that this approach can significantly lower the complexity of the task without losing predictive accuracy. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #411092. 	[Title] LEARNING LOGICAL EXCEPTIONS IN CHESS [Abstract]  Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #20821. 	[Title] Top-down Induction of Logical Decision Trees [Abstract] A first order framework for top-down induction of logical decision trees is introduced. Logical decision trees are more expressive than the flat logic programs typically induced by empirical inductive logic programming systems because logical decision trees introduce invented predicates and mix existential and universal quantification of variables. An implementation of the framework, the Tilde system, is presented and empirically evaluated. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #135766. 	[Title] Specialization of Logic Programs by Pruning SLD-Trees [Abstract] program w.r.t. positive and negative examples can be viewed as the problem of pruning an SLD-tree such that all refutations of negative examples and no refutations of positive examples are excluded. It is shown that the actual pruning can be performed by applying unfolding and clause removal. The algorithm spectre is presented, which is based on this idea. The input to the algorithm is, besides a logic program and positive and negative examples, a computation rule, which determines the shape of the SLD-tree that is to be pruned. It is shown that the generality of the resulting specialization is dependent on the computation rule, and experimental results are presented from using three different computation rules. The experiments indicate that the computation rule should be formulated so that the number of applications of unfolding is kept as low as possible. The algorithm, which uses a divide-and-conquer method, is also compared with a covering algorithm. The experiments show that a higher predictive accuracy can be achieved if the focus is on discriminating positive from negative examples rather than on achieving a high coverage of positive examples only. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #135765. 	[Title] Specialization of Recursive Predicates [Abstract] When specializing a recursive predicate in order to exclude a set of negative examples without excluding a set of positive examples, it may not be possible to specialize or remove any of the clauses in a refutation of a negative example without excluding any positive exam ples. A previously proposed solution to this problem is to apply program transformation in order to obtain non-recursive target predicates from recursive ones. However, the application of this method prevents recursive specializations from being found. In this work, we present the algorithm spectre ii which is not limited to specializing non-recursive predicates. The key idea upon which the algorithm is based is that it is not enough to specialize or remove clauses in refutations of negative examples in order to obtain correct specializations, but it is sometimes necessary to specialize clauses that appear only in refutations of positive examples. In contrast to its predecessor spectre, the new algorithm is not limited to specializing clauses defining one predicate only, but may specialize clauses defining multiple predicates. Furthermore, the positive and negative examples are no longer required to be instances of the same predicate. It is proven that the algorithm produces a correct specialization when all positive examples are logical consequences of the original program, there is a finite number of derivations of positive and negative examples and when no positive and negative examples have the same sequence of input clauses in their refutations. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1117786. 	[Title] An intelligent search method using Inductive Logic Programming [Abstract] We propose a method to use Inductive Logic Programming to give heuristic functions for searching goals to solve problems. The method takes solutions of a problem or a history of search and a set of background knowledge on the problem. In a large class of problems, a problem is described as a set of states and a set of operators, and is solved by finding a series of operators. A solution, a series of operators that brings an initial state to a final state, is transformed into positive and negative examples of a relation "better-choice", which describes that an operator is better than others in a state. We also give a way to use the "better-choice" relation as a heuristic function. The method can use any logic program as background knowledge to induce heuristics, and induced heuristics has high readability. The paper inspects the method by applying to a puzzle. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #187354. 	[Title] Applying ILP to Diterpene Structure Elucidation from 13 C NMR Spectra [Abstract] We present a novel application of ILP to the problem of diterpene structure elucidation from 13 C NMR spectra. Diterpenes are organic compounds of low molecular weight that are based on a skeleton of 20 carbon atoms. They are of significant chemical and commercial interest because of their use as lead compounds in the search for new pharmaceutical effectors. The structure elucidation of diterpenes based on 13 C NMR spectra is usually done manually by human experts with specialized background knowledge on peak patterns and chemical structures. In the process, each of the 20 skeletal atoms is assigned an atom number that corresponds to its proper place in the skeleton and the diterpene is classified into one of the possible skeleton types. We address the problem of learning classification rules from a database of peak patterns for diterpenes with known structure. Recently, propositional learning was successfully applied to learn classification rules from spectra with assigned atom numbers. As the assignment of atom numbers is a difficult process in itself (and possibly indistinguishable from the classification process), we apply ILP, i.e., relational learning, to the problem of classifying spectra without assigned atom numbers. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #1105887. 	[Title] Knowledge Acquisition with a Knowledge-Intensive Machine Learning System [Abstract] In this paper, we investigate the integration of knowledge acquisition and machine learning techniques. We argue that existing machine learning techniques can be made more useful as knowledge acquisition tools by allowing the expert to have greater control over and interaction with the learning process. We describe a number of extensions to FOCL (a multistrategy Horn-clause learning program) that have greatly enhanced its power as a knowledge acquisition tool, paying particular attention to the utility of maintaining a connection between a rule and the set of examples explained by the rule. The objective of this research is to make the modification of a domain theory analogous to the use of a spread sheet. A prototype knowledge acquisition tool, FOCL-1-2-3, has been constructed in order to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of this approach. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #372862. 	[Title] Lookahead and Discretization in ILP [Abstract] We present and evaluate two methods for improving the performance of ILP systems. One of them is discretization of numerical attributes, based on Fayyad and Irani's text [9], but adapted and extended in such a way that it can cope with some aspects of discretization that only occur in relational learning problems (when indeterminate literals occur). The second technique is lookahead. It is a well-known problem in ILP that a learner cannot always assess the quality of a refinement without knowing which refinements will be enabled afterwards, i.e. without looking ahead in the refinement lattice. We present a simple method for specifying when lookahead is to be used, and what kind of lookahead is interesting. Both the discretization and lookahead techniques are evaluated experimentally. The results show that both techniques improve the quality of the induced theory, while computational costs are acceptable. Please summarise all the given information.

Above are papers related to the following paper: [Paper_ID] Paper #8703. 	[Title] Theory Refinement Combining Analytical and Empirical Methods [Abstract] This article describes a comprehensive approach to automatic theory revision. Given an imperfect theory, the approach combines explanation attempts for incorrectly classified examples in order to identify the failing portions of the theory. For each theory fault, correlated subsets of the examples are used to inductively generate a correction. Because the corrections are focused, they tend to preserve the structure of the original theory. Because the system starts with an approximate domain theory, in general fewer training examples are required to attain a given level of performance (classification accuracy) compared to a purely empirical system. The approach applies to classification systems employing a propositional Horn-clause theory. The system has been tested in a variety of application domains, and results are presented for problems in the domains of molecular biology and plant disease diagnosis. Please summarise all the given information.

Paper #1127851 has the title `Generating Declarative Language Bias for Top-Down ILP Algorithms  
` and the abstract `Many of today's algorithms for Inductive Logic Programming (ILP) put a heavy burden and responsibility on the user, because their declarative bias have to be defined in a rather low-level fashion. To address this issue, we developed a method for generating declarative language bias for top-down ILP systems from high-level declarations. The key feature of our approach is the distinction between a user level and an expert level of language bias declarations. The expert provides abstract meta-declarations, and the user declares the relationship between the meta-level and the given database to obtain a low-level declarative language bias. The suggested languages allow for compact and abstract specifications of the declarative language bias for top-down ILP systems using schemata. We verified several properties of the translation algorithm that generates schemata, and applied it successfully to a few chemical domains. As a consequence, we propose to use a two-level approach to generate declarative language bias.
`.
Question: Which category should Paper #1127851 be classified as ?
You can select one from ['Neural_Networks', 'Case_Based', 'Theory', 'Reinforcement_Learning', 'Probabilistic_Methods', 'Rule_Learning', 'Genetic_Algorithms'].


Paper #1127851 has the title `Generating Declarative Language Bias for Top-Down ILP Algorithms  
` and the abstract `Many of today's algorithms for Inductive Logic Programming (ILP) put a heavy burden and responsibility on the user, because their declarative bias have to be defined in a rather low-level fashion. To address this issue, we developed a method for generating declarative language bias for top-down ILP systems from high-level declarations. The key feature of our approach is the distinction between a user level and an expert level of language bias declarations. The expert provides abstract meta-declarations, and the user declares the relationship between the meta-level and the given database to obtain a low-level declarative language bias. The suggested languages allow for compact and abstract specifications of the declarative language bias for top-down ILP systems using schemata. We verified several properties of the translation algorithm that generates schemata, and applied it successfully to a few chemical domains. As a consequence, we propose to use a two-level approach to generate declarative language bias.
`.
Question: Which category should Paper #1127851 be classified as ?
You can select one from ['Neural_Networks', 'Case_Based', 'Theory', 'Reinforcement_Learning', 'Probabilistic_Methods', 'Rule_Learning', 'Genetic_Algorithms'].

This paper should be classified into: Rule_Learning