Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world refers to both traditional alchemy and early practical chemistry (the early chemical investigation of nature in general) by Muslim scholars in the medieval Islamic world.
Alkimia dan kimia dalam Islam mengacu pada studi tentang alkimia tradisional dan awal kimia praktis (awal penyelidikan kimia terhadap alam secara umum) oleh para ilmuwan di dunia Islam abad pertengahan.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the Islamic conquest of Roman Egypt, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Caliphate and the Islamic civilization.
Setelah jatuhnya Kekaisaran Romawi Barat, fokus perkembangan alkimia bergerak ke Khalifah dan peradaban Islam.
In considering Islamic sciences as a distinct, local practice, it is important to define words such as "Arabic", "Islamic", "alchemy", and "chemistry" in order to gain an understanding of what these terms mean historically.
Dalam mempertimbangkan sains Islam sebagai praktik lokal yang berbeda, penting untuk mendefinisikan kata-kata seperti "bahasa Arab", "Islam", "alkimia", dan "kimia".
This may also help to clear up any misconceptions regarding the possible differences between alchemy and early chemistry in the context of medieval times.
Ini juga dapat membantu untuk membersihkan kesalahpahaman tentang kemungkinan perbedaan antara alkimia dan kimia awal dalam konteks abad pertengahan.
As A. I. Sabra writes in his article entitled, "Situating Arabic Science: Location versus Essence", "the term Arabic (or Islamic) science denotes the scientific activities of individuals who lived in a region that roughly extended chronologically from the eighth century AD to the beginning of the modern era, and geographically from the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa to the Indus valley and from southern Arabia to the Caspian Sea—that is, the region covered for most of that period by what we call Islamic civilization, and in which the results of the activities referred to were for the most part expressed in the Arabic language."
Seperti yang ditulis oleh A.I. Sabra dalam artikel yang berjudul, "Menghadap Sains Arab: Lokasi versus Esensi (bahasa Inggris: Situating Arabic Science: Location versus Essencecode: en is deprecated )": Istilah sains Arab (atau Islam) menunjukkan aktivitas ilmiah individu yang tinggal di wilayah yang secara garis besar diperluas kronologisnya dari abad ke delapan sampai zaman modern, dan secara geografis dari Semenanjung Iberia dan Afrika Utara sampai lembah Indus dan dari
This definition of Arabic science provides a sense that there are many distinguishing factors to contrast with science of the Western hemisphere regarding physical location, culture, and language, though there are also several similarities in the goals pursued by scientists of the Middle Ages, and in the origins of thinking from which both were derived.
Definisi sains Arab ini memberi kesan bahwa ada banyak faktor pembeda yang kontras dengan sains barat mengenai lokasi fisik, budaya, dan bahasa, meskipun ada juga beberapa kesamaan tujuan yang berusaha dicapai oleh ilmuwan Abad Pertengahan, dan awal mula pemikiran asal keduanya diturunkan.
He therefore proposes that the early spelling of chemistry as "chymistry" refers to a unified science including both alchemy and early chemistry.
Oleh karena itu, dia mengusulkan bahwa ejaan awal kimia sebagai "chymistry" mengacu pada sains terpadu termasuk alkimia dan kimia awal.
Principe goes on to argue that, "[a]ll their chymical activities were unified by a common focus on the analysis, synthesis, transformation, and production of material substances."
Principe berpendapat bahwa: semua kegiatan chymical mereka disatukan oleh fokus umum pada analisis, sintesis, transformasi, dan produksi material.
Therefore, there is not a defined contrast between the two fields until the early 18th century.
Oleh karena itu, tidak ada perbedaan yang jelas antara kedua bidang tersebut sampai awal abad ke-18.
Though Principe's discussion is centered on the Western practice of alchemy and chemistry, this argument is supported in the context of Islamic science as well when considering the similarity in methodology and Aristotelian inspirations, as noted in other sections of this article.
Meskipun diskusi Principe berpusat pada praktik alkimia dan kimia Barat, argumen ini didukung dalam konteks sains Islam juga saat mempertimbangkan kemiripan metodologi dan inspirasi Aristoteles, seperti yang ditulis di bagian lain artikel ini.
This distinction between alchemy and early chemistry is one that lies predominantly in semantics, though with an understanding of previous uses of the words, we can better understand the historical lack of distinct connotations regarding the terms despite their altered connotations in modern contexts.
Perbedaan antara alkimia dan kimia awal adalah yang didominasi oleh semantik, meskipun dengan pemahaman tentang penggunaan kata-kata sebelumnya, kita dapat lebih memahami kekurangan historis dari konotasi yang berbeda mengenai persyaratan meskipun konotasi mereka berubah dalam konteks modern.
By establishing territory throughout the East, Alexander the Great allowed greater communication between the two hemispheres that would continue throughout history.
Dengan membangun wilayah di seluruh Timur, Alexander Agung mengizinkan komunikasi yang lebih baik antara dua belahan dunis yang terus berlanjut sepanjang sejarah.
A thousand years later, those Asian territories conquered by Alexander the Great, such as Iraq and Iran, became a center of religious movements with a focus on Christianity, Manicheism, and Zoroastrianism, which all involve sacred texts as a basis, thus encouraging literacy, scholarship, and the spread of ideas.
Seribu tahun kemudian, wilayah-wilayah Asia yang ditaklukkan oleh Alexander Agung, seperti Irak dan Iran, menjadi pusat gerakan keagamaan dengan fokus pada Kekristenan, Manicheisme, dan Zoroastrianisme, yang semuanya melibatkan teks suci sebagai dasar, sehingga mendorong keaksaraan, beasiswa, dan penyebaran gagasan.
Aristotelian logic was soon included in the curriculum a center for higher education in Nisibis, located east of the Persian border, and was used to enhance the philosophical discussion of theology taking place at the time.
Logika Aristoteles segera dimasukkan ke dalam kurikulum sebuah pusat pendidikan tinggi di Nisibis, yang terletak di sebelah timur perbatasan Persia, dan digunakan untuk meningkatkan diskusi filosofis teologi yang terjadi pada saat itu.
The Qur'an, the holy book of Islam, became an important source of "theology, morality, law, and cosmology", in what David C. Lindberg describes as "the centerpiece of Islamic education."
Islam, menjadi sumber penting "teologi, moralitas, hukum, dan kosmologi", dalam hal yang disebut oleh Lindberg sebagai "pusat pendidikan Islam".
After the death of Muhammad in 632, Islam was extended throughout the Arabian peninsula, parts of Byzantium, Persia, Syria, Egypt, and Palestine by means of military conquest, solidifying the region as a predominantly Muslim one.
Setelah kematian Muhammad pada tahun 632, Islam menyebar di seluruh semenanjung Arab, Byzantium, Persia, Siria, Mesir, dan Palestina dengan cara melalui penaklukan militer, memperkuat wilayah tersebut sebagai tempat yang didominasi Muslim.
While the expansion of the Islamic empire was an important factor in diminishing political barriers between such areas, there was still a wide range of religions, beliefs, and philosophies that could move freely and be translated throughout the regions.
Sementara perluasan kekaisaran Islam merupakan faktor penting dalam mengurangi hambatan politik antara daerah-daerah tersebut, masih ada beragam agama, kepercayaan, dan filosofi yang dapat bergerak bebas dan diterjemahkan ke seluruh wilayah.
This development made way for contributions to be made on behalf of the East towards the Western conception of sciences such as alchemy.
Perkembangan ini membuat jalan bagi kontribusi untuk dibuat atas nama Timur terhadap konsepsi sains Barat semacam alkimia.
While this transmission of information and practices allowed for the further development of the field, and though both were inspired by Aristotelian logic and Hellenic philosophies, as well as by mystical aspects it is also important to note that cultural and religious boundaries remained.
Sementara penyebaran informasi dan praktik ini memungkinkan pengembangan lebih lanjut bidang tersebut, dan meskipun keduanya terinspirasi oleh logika Aristoteles dan filosofi Helenik, serta oleh aspek mistis, penting juga untuk dicatat bahwa batas-batas budaya dan agama tetap ada.
The mystical and religious elements discussed previously in the article distinguished Islamic alchemy from that of its Western counterpart, given that the West had predominantly Christian ideals on which to base their beliefs and results, while the Islamic tradition differed greatly.
Unsur mistik dan religius yang dibahas sebelumnya di artikel tersebut membedakan alkimia Islam dari mitranya dari Barat, mengingat bahwa Barat memiliki cita-cita Kristen yang
While the motives differed in some ways, as did the calculations, the practice and development of alchemy and chemistry was similar given the contemporaneous nature of the fields and the ability with which scientists could transmit their beliefs.
Sementara motifnya berbeda dalam beberapa hal, seperti juga perhitungan, praktik dan perkembangan alkimia dan kimia yang sama memberikan sifat kontemporer bidang ini dan kemampuan ilmuwan untuk menularkan keyakinan mereka.
Marie-Louise von Franz describes in her introduction to Ibn Umail's "Book of the Explanation of the Symbols—Kitāb Ḥall ar-Rumūz" the contributions of Islamic alchemy as follows: In the 7th to 8th century, Islamic scholars were mainly concerned with translating ancient Hermetic-Gnostic texts without changing them.
Ibnu Umail tentang kontribusi alkimia Islam sebagai berikut: Pada abad ke-7 sampai ke-8, ilmuwan Islam hanya fokus pada penerjemahan teks bahasa kuno Hermetik-Gnostik tanpa mengubahnya.
Gradually they began "'confronting' their content with the Islamic religion" and began "to think independently and experiment themselves in the realm of alchemy".
Secara bertahap mereka mulai "'mempertentangkan' isinya dengan agama Islam" dan mulai "berpikir secara independen dan bereksperimen dalam ranah alkimia".
Thus they added "an emphasis on the monotheistic outlook" (tawḥīd) and more and more creating a synopsis of the diverse antique traditions.
Sehingga, mereka menambahkan "penekanan pada pandangan monoteistik" (tauhid) dan semakin banyak menciptakan sinopsis dari beragam tradisi antik.
Thus unifying their meaning, the Islamic scholars arrived at the idea, that the secret and aim of alchemy were the achievement of "one inner psychic experience, namely the God-image" and that stone, water, prima materia etc. were "all aspects of the inner mystery through which the alchemist unites with the transcendent God".
Dalam menyatukan maknanya, para ilmuwan Islam sampai pada gagasan, bahwa rahasia dan tujuan alkimia adalah pencapaian "pengalaman psikis batin nan esa, yaitu citra Tuhan" dan batu, air, prima materia dan lain-lain adalah "semua aspek misteri batin yang dengan melaluinya alkimiawan bersatu dengan Allah".
Secondly, they added "a passionate feeling tone" by using much more a poetic language than the antique Hermetists did, also giving "a greater emphasis on the coniunctio motif", i.e. images of the union of male and female, sun and moon, king and queen etc.
Kedua, mereka menambahkan "intonasi perasaan yang penuh gairah" dengan menggunakan lebih banyak bahasa puitis daripada Hermetik antik, juga memberi "penekanan lebih besar pada motif coniunctio (penyatuan)", yaitu gambar persatuan pria dan wanita, matahari dan bulan, raja dan ratu dll.
"The mystical masters of Islam understood alchemy as a transformative process of the alchemist's psyche.
"Pakar mistik Islam memahami alkimia sebagai proses transformatif jiwa sang alkimiawan.
The fire which promoted this transformation was the love of God.
Api yang mempromosikan transformasi ini adalah cinta Allah.
The historicity of this story is not clear; according to M. Ullmann, it is a legend.
Sejarah cerita ini tidak jelas; menurut M. Ullmann, ini hanyalah legenda.
According to Ibn al-Nadīm and Ḥajjī Khalīfa, he is the author of the alchemical works Kitāb al-kharazāt (The Book of Pearls), Kitāb al-ṣaḥīfa al-kabīr (The Big Book of the Roll), Kitāb al-ṣaḥīfa al-saghīr (The Small Book of the Roll), Kitāb Waṣīyatihi ilā bnihi fī-ṣ-ṣanʿa (The Book of his Testament to his Son about the Craft), and Firdaws al-ḥikma (The Paradise of Wisdom), but again, these works may be pseudepigraphical.
Menurut Ibnu an-Nadim dan Haji Khalifa, dia adalah penulis karya alkimia Kitāb al-kharazāt (The Book of Pearls), Kitāb al-ṣaḥīfa al-kabīr (The Big Book of the Roll), Kitāb al-ṣaḥīfa al-saghīr (The Small Book of the Roll), Kitāb Waṣīyatihi ilā bnihi fī-ṣ-ṣanʿa (The Book of his Testament to his Son about the Craft), dan Firdaws al-ḥikma (The Paradise of Wisdom), tapi sekali lagi, karya-karya ini mungkin pseudepigrafi.
One of his surviving works is Kitāb al-māʿ al-waraqī wa-l-arḍ al-najmiyya (The Book on Silvery Water and Starry Earth).
Salah satu karyanya yang masih hidup adalah Kitāb al-māʿ al-waraqī wa-l-arḍ al-najmiyya (The Book on Silvery Water and Starry Earth; Buku tentang Air Keperakan dan Bumi Penuh Bintang).
This work is a commentary on his poem, the Risālat al-shams ilā al-hilāl (The Epistle of the Sun to the Crescent Moon) and contains numerous quotations from ancient authors.
Karya ini adalah sebuah komentar tentang puisinya, Risālat al-shams ilā al-hilāl (The Epistle of the Sun to the Crescent Moon; Surat Sang Surya kepada Bulan Sabit) dan berisi banyak kutipan dari penulis kuno.
Ibn Umayl had important influence on medieval Western (Latin) alchemy, where his work is found under different names, mainly as Senior or as Zadith.
Ibnu Umail memiliki pengaruh penting terhadap alkimia Barat (Latin) abad pertengahan, di mana karyanya ditemukan dengan nama yang berbeda, terutama sebagai Senior atau sebagai Zadith.
Al-Tughrai was an 11th-12th century Persian physician.
Al-Tughrai adalah seorang dokter Persia abad ke-11 – ke-12.
whose work the Masabih al-hikma wa-mafatih al-rahma (The Lanterns of Wisdom and the Keys of Mercy) is one of the earliest works of material sciences.
yang karyanya Masabih al-hikma wa-mafatih al-rahma (Lentera Kebijaksanaan dan Kunci Rahmat) adalah salah satu karya paling awal dari ilmu bahan (material science).
Al-Jildaki was an Egyptian alchemist who urged in his book the need for experimental chemistry and mentioned many experiments Kanz al-ikhtisas fi ma'rifat al-khawas by Abu 'l-Qasim Aydamir al-Jildaki.
Al-Jaldaki yang merupakan seorang alkimiawan Persia mendesak dalam bukunya kebutuhan akan kimia eksperimental dan menyebutkan banyak eksperimen Kanz al-ikhtisas fi ma'rifat al-khawas by Abu 'l-Qasim Aydamir al-Jildaki.
Jābir analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of Aristotle's four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness.
Jabir menganalisis setiap unsur Aristoteles dalam hal empat kualitas dasar Aristoteles yaitu panas, dingin, kering, dan lembap.
For example, fire is a substance that is hot and dry, as shown in the table.
Misalnya, api adalah zat yang panas dan kering, seperti terlihat pada tabel.
According to Jābir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior.
Menurut Jabir, pada setiap logam, dua dari kualitas ini adalah interior dan dua adalah eksterior.
For example, lead was externally cold and dry but internally hot and moist; gold, on the other hand, was externally hot and moist but internally cold and dry.
Misalnya, timbal eksternalnya dingin dan kering tetapi internalnya panas dan lembap; emas, di sisi lain, eksternalnya panas dan lembap tapi internalnya sangat dingin dan kering.
Thus, Jābir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result.
Dengan demikian, Jabir berteori, dengan menata ulang kualitas satu logam, akan dihasilkan logam yang berbeda.
By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy.
Dengan alasan ini, pencarian batu filsuf diperkenalkan pada alkimia Barat.
Jābir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.
Jabir mengembangkan sebuah numerologi yang rumit di mana huruf-huruf akar dari sebuah nama zat dalam bahasa Arab, ketika diolah dengan berbagai transformasi, memegang korespondensi dengan sifat fisik unsur tersebut.
Al-Rāzī mentions the following chemical processes: distillation, calcination, solution, evaporation, crystallization, sublimation, filtration, amalgamation, and ceration (a process for making solids pasty or fusible.)
Ar-Razi menyebutkan proses kimia berikut ini: distilasi, kalsinasi, larutan, penguapan, kristalisasi, sublimasi, amalgamasi, dan kerasi (suatu proses untuk membuat bubur atau leburan dari padatan).
Some of these operations (calcination, solution, filtration, crystallization, sublimation and distillation) are also known to have been practiced by pre-Islamic Alexandrian alchemists.
Beberapa praktik ini (kalsinasi, larutan, filtrasi, kristalisasi, sublimasi dan distilasi) juga diketahui telah dipraktikkan oleh alkimiawan Alexandria pra-Islam.
In his Secretum secretorum, Al-Rāzī mentions the following equipment: Tools for melting substances (li-tadhwīb): hearth (kūr), bellows (minfākh or ziqq), crucible (bawtaqa), the būt bar būt (in Arabic, from Persian) or botus barbatus (in Latin), ladle (mighrafa or milʿaqa), tongs (māsik or kalbatān), scissors (miqṭaʿ), hammer (mukassir), file (mibrad).
Dalam karyanya Secretum secretorum, Al-Rāzī menyebutkan peralatan berikut ini: Alat untuk mencairkan zat (li-tadhwīb): tungku (kūr), ubub (minfākh atau ziqq), krus (bawtaqa), būt bar būt (bahasa Arab, dari bahasa Parsi) atau botus barbatus (bahasa Latin), ladle (mighrafa atau milʿaqa), gegep (māsik atau kalbatān), gunting (miqṭaʿ), palu (mukassir), kikir (mibrad).
Tools for the preparation of drugs (li-tadbīr al-ʿaqāqīr): cucurbit and still with evacuation tube (qarʿ or anbīq dhū khatm), receiving matras (qābila), blind still (without evacuation tube) (al-anbīq al-aʿmā), aludel (al-uthāl), goblets (qadaḥ), flasks (qārūra, plural quwārīr), rosewater flasks (mā’ wardiyya), cauldron (marjal or tanjīr), earthenware pots varnished on the inside with their lids (qudūr and makabbāt), water bath or sand bath (qidr), oven (al-tannūr in Arabic, athanor in Latin), small cylindirical oven for heating aludel (mustawqid), funnels, sieves, filters, etc.
Alat untuk preparasi obat (li-tadbīr al-ʿaqāqīr): labu dan penyangga dengan tabung evakuasi (qarʿ or anbīq dhū khatm), matras penerima (qābila), penyangga buta (tanpa tabung evakuasi) (al-anbīq al-aʿmā), aludel (al-uthāl), goblet (qadaḥ), labu (qārūra, plural quwārīr), labu air mawar (mā’ wardiyya), kaldron (marjal atau tanjīr), pot tembikar yang dipernis permukaan dalamnya disertai tutup (qudūr and makabbāt), penangas air atau penangas pasir (qidr), oven (al-tannūr dalam bahasa Arab, athanor dalam bahasa Latin), oven silinder kecil untuk pemanasan aludel (mustawqid), corong, ayakan, saringan, dll.
654S. doi:10.1086/357651. JSTOR 235197.
doi:10.1086/357651. JSTOR 235197.
In Theodor Abt (ed.).
Dalam Theodor Abt (ed.).