Model: DIS-Project/Sentence-Transformer
Author: DIS-Project
Pipeline: sentence-similarity
Library: sentence-transformers
Tags: sentence-transformers, safetensors, mpnet, sentence-similarity, feature-extraction, generated_from_trainer, dataset_size:1000, loss:TripletLoss, arxiv:1908.10084, arxiv:1703.07737, base_model:microsoft/mpnet-base, base_model:finetune:microsoft/mpnet-base, endpoints_compatible, region:us
Base models (finetune): id: microsoft/mpnet-base
Card metadata: base_model: microsoft/mpnet-base
library_name: sentence-transformers
pipeline_tag: sentence-similarity
tags: sentence-transformers, sentence-similarity, feature-extraction, generated_from_trainer, dataset_size:1000, loss:TripletLoss
widget: source_sentence: What was the value of the cargo that Adams sold in Cochinchina?
sentences: KPMG International Limited (or simply KPMG) is a British-Dutch multinational professional services network, and one of the Big Four accounting organizations.

Headquartered in Amstelveen, Netherlands, although incorporated in the United Kingdom, KPMG is a network of firms in 145 countries, with over 236,000 employees and has three lines of services: financial audit, tax, and advisory. Its tax and advisory services are further divided into various service groups. Over the past decade various parts of the firm's global network of affiliates have been involved in regulatory actions as well as lawsuits.

The name "KPMG" stands for "Klynveld Peat Marwick Goerdeler". The acronym was chosen when KMG (Klynveld Main Goerdeler) merged with Peat Marwick in 1987.

History

Early years and mergers 

In 1818, John Moxham opened a company in Bristol. James Grace and James Grace Jr. bought John Moxham & Co. and renamed it James Grace & Son in 1857. In 1861, Henry Grace joined James Jr. and the company was renamed James & Henry Grace; the firm evolved to become Grace, Ryland & Co.

William Barclay Peat joined Robert Fletcher & Co. in London in 1870 at the age of 17 and became head of the firm in 1891, renamed William Barclay Peat & Co. by then. In 1877, Thomson McLintock founded Thomson McLintock & Co in Glasgow. In 1897, Marwick Mitchell & Co. was founded by James Marwick and Roger Mitchell in New York City. In 1899, Ferdinand William LaFrentz founded the American Audit Co., in New York. In 1923, The American Audit Company was renamed FW LaFrentz & Co.

In about 1913, Frank Wilber Main founded Main & Co. in Pittsburgh. In March 1917, Piet Klijnveld and Jaap Kraayenhof opened an accounting firm called Klynveld Kraayenhof & Co. in Amsterdam.

In 1925, William Barclay Peat & Co. and Marwick Mitchell & Co., merged to form Peat Marwick Mitchell & Co.

In 1963, Main LaFrentz & Co was formed by the merger of Main & Co and FW LaFrentz & Co. In 1969 Thomson McLintock and Main LaFrentz merged forming McLintock Main LaFrentz International and McLintock Main LaFrentz International absorbed the general practice of Grace, Ryland & Co.

In 1979, Klynveld Kraayenhof & Co. (Netherlands), McLintock Main LaFrentz (United Kingdom / United States) and Deutsche Treuhandgesellschaft (Germany) formed KMG (Klynveld Main Goerdeler) as a grouping of independent national practices to create a strong European-based international firm. Deutsche Treuhandgesellschaft CEO Reinhard Goerdeler (son of leading anti-Nazi activist Carl Goerdeler, who would have become Chancellor if Operation Valkyrie had succeeded) became the first CEO of KMG.  In the United States, Main Lafrentz & Co. merged with Hurdman and Cranstoun to form Main Hurdman & Cranstoun.

In 1987, KMG and Peat Marwick joined forces in the first mega-merger of large accounting firms and formed a firm called KPMG in the United States, and most of the rest of the world, and Peat Marwick McLintock in the United Kingdom.

In the Netherlands, as a consequence of the merger between PMI and KMG in 1988, PMI tax advisors joined Meijburg & Co. (The tax advisory agency Meijburg & Co. was founded by Willem Meijburg, Inspector of National Taxes, in 1939). Today, the Netherlands is the only country with two members of KPMG International: KPMG Audit (accountants) and Meijburg & Co (tax consultants).

In 1991, the firm was renamed KPMG Peat Marwick, and in 1999, the name was reduced again to KPMG.

In October 1997, KPMG and Ernst & Young announced that they were to merge. However, while the merger to form PricewaterhouseCoopers was granted regulatory approval, the KPMG/Ernst & Young tie-up was later abandoned.

Recent history 

In 2001, KPMG spun off its United States consulting firm through an initial public offering of KPMG Consulting, which was rebranded BearingPoint. In early 2009, BearingPoint filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. The UK and Dutch consulting arms were sold to Atos in 2002.

In 2003, KPMG divested itself of its legal arm, Klegal and KPMG sold its Dispute Advisory Services to FTI Consulting.

KPMG's member firms in the United Kingdom, Germany, Switzerland and Liechtenstein merged to form KPMG Europe LLP in October 2007. These member firms were followed by Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, CIS (Azerbaijan, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Armenia and Georgia), Turkey, Norway, and Saudi Arabia. They appointed joint Chairmen, John Griffith-Jones and Ralf Nonnenmacher.

In 2020, KPMG International Limited was incorporated in London, England.

In February 2021, KPMG UK appointed its first female leaders, replacing Bill Michael, who stepped aside after making controversial comments. Bina Mehta was asked to step in as acting UK chairman and Mary O'Connor took over Michael's executive responsibilities as acting senior partner in UK. In April 2021, O'Connor quit the firm after being passed over for the permanent role.

In November 2021, KPMG UK was reported as having revised its partnership process to introduce five levels of partnership which required partners to inject capital at levels starting at £150,000 and going up to £500,000. This along with the £115 million proceeds from the sale of its pensions business earlier in 2021, which it seems was not distributed to the partners, was intended to prepare the balance sheet for a potential large fine (up to £1 billion) arising out of the Carillion lawsuit.

In February 2022, KPMG Canada announced they had added Bitcoin and Ethereum cryptoassets to their corporate treasury.

Global structure 
Each national KPMG firm is an independent legal entity and is a member of KPMG International Limited, a UK Limited Company incorporated in London, United Kingdom. KPMG International changed its legal structure from a Swiss Verein to a co-operative under Swiss law in 2003 and to a limited company in 2020.

This structure in which the Limited company provides support services only to the member firms is similar to other professional services networks. The member firms provide the services to client. The purpose is to limit the liability of each independent member.

Bill Thomas is KPMG's Global Chairman.  He was formerly Senior Partner and CEO of KPMG LLP, the KPMG member firm in Canada.

Some KPMG member firms are registered as multidisciplinary entities which also provide legal services in certain jurisdictions.

In India, regulations do not permit foreign auditing firms to operate. Hence KPMG carries out audits in India under the name of BSR & Co, an auditing firm that it bought. BSR & Co was an auditing firm founded by B.S. Raut in Mumbai. In 1992, after India was forced to liberalise as one of the conditions of the World Bank and IMF bail out, KPMG was granted a license to operate in India as an investment bank. It subsequently purchased BSR & Co and conducts audits in India under the name of this firm.

Services 

KPMG is organised into the following three service lines (the 2021 revenue shares are listed in parentheses):

 Audit ($11.46 billion)
 Advisory ($13.65 billion)
 Tax ($7.02 billion)

Tax arrangements relating to tax avoidance and multinational corporations and Luxembourg which were negotiated by KPMG became public in 2014 in the so-called Luxembourg Leaks.

Staff 
KPMG was the preferred employer among the Big Four accounting firms according to CollegeGrad.com. It was also ranked No. 4 on the list of "50 Best Places to Launch a Career" in 2009 according to Bloomberg Businessweek.

It was reported in early 2012 that KPMG has about 11,000 staff in the UK and 9,000 in mainland China and Hong Kong. KPMG's global deputy chairman predicted that headcount in China would overtake that of the UK by the end of 2013.

Controversies

Tax shelter fraud

In 2003, the IRS issued summonses to KPMG for information about certain tax shelters and their investors. In February 2004, the US Justice Department commenced a criminal inquiry. The United States member firm, KPMG LLP, was accused by the United States Department of Justice of fraud in marketing abusive tax shelters. KPMG fired or forced the retirement of over a dozen who were involved. KPMG LLP admitted criminal wrongdoing in creating fraudulent tax shelters to help wealthy clients avoid $2.5 billion in taxes between 1996 and 2002, and agreed to pay $456 million in penalties to avoid indictment. Under the deferred prosecution agreement, KPMG LLP would not face criminal prosecution if it complied with the terms of its agreement with the government. On 3 January 2007, the criminal conspiracy charges against KPMG were dropped.

Various other controversies

 2003
KPMG agreed to pay $125 million and $75 million to settle lawsuits stemming from the firm's audits of Rite Aid and Oxford Health Plans Inc., respectively.

 2004
KPMG agreed to pay $115 million to settle lawsuits stemming from the collapse of software company Lernout & Hauspie Speech Products NV.

 2005

During August, KPMG LLP admitted to criminal wrongdoing and agreed to pay US$456 million in fines, restitution, and penalties as part of an agreement to defer prosecution of the firm, according to the US Justice Department and the Internal Revenue Service. In addition to the agreement, nine individuals-including six former KPMG partners and the former deputy chairman of the firm were to be criminally prosecuted.  As alleged in a series of charging documents, the fraud relates to the design, marketing, and implementation of fraudulent tax shelters.

 2006
American real estate financing firm Fannie Mae sued KPMG for malpractice for approving years of erroneous financial statements.

 2007
In February, KPMG Germany was investigated for ignoring questionable payments in the Siemens bribery case. In November 2008, the Siemens Supervisory Board recommended changing auditors from KPMG to Ernst & Young.

 2008
In March, KPMG was accused of enabling "improper and imprudent practices" at New Century Financial, a failed mortgage company, and KPMG agreed to pay $80 million to settle suits from Xerox shareholders over manipulated earnings reports.

In December, it was announced that two of Tremont Group's Rye Select funds, audited by KPMG, had $2.37 billion invested with the Madoff "Ponzi scheme." Class action suits were filed.

 2010
In August, it was reported by the Swedish Financial Supervisory Authority to the Swedish accountancy regulator after HQ Bank was forced into involuntary liquidation after the Financial Supervisory Authority revoked all its licences for breach of banking regulations.

 2011
In August, KPMG conducted due diligence work on Hewlett Packard's $11.1 billion acquisition of the British software company Autonomy. In November 2012 HP announced an $8.8 billion write off due to "serious accounting improprieties" committed by Autonomy management prior to the acquisition.

According to an independent panel formed to investigate irregular payments made by Olympus which reported in December, KPMG's affiliate in Japan did not identify fraud at the company.

 2013
In April, Scott London, a former KPMG LLP partner in charge of KPMG's US Los Angeles-based Pacific Southwest audit practice, admitted passing on stock tips about clients, including Herbalife, Skechers, and other companies, to his friend Bryan Shaw, a California jewelry-store owner. In return Shaw gave London $70,000 as well as gifts that included a $12,000 Rolex watch and concert tickets. On 6 May, Shaw agreed to plead guilty to one count of conspiracy to commit securities fraud. He also agreed to pay around $1.3 million in restitution, and to cooperate with the government as part of a plea deal with federal prosecutors. This scandal led KPMG to resign as auditor for Herbalife and Skechers.

 2015
KPMG was accused by the Canada Revenue Agency of abetting tax evasion schemes: "The CRA alleges that the KPMG tax structure was in reality a 'sham' that intended to deceive the taxman."

 2016
The Canada Revenue Agency offered an amnesty to KPMG clients caught using an offshore tax-avoidance scheme on the Isle of Man.

 2017
KPMG US terminated five partners in its audit practice, including the head of its audit practice in the US, after an investigation of advanced confidential knowledge of planned audit inspections by its Public Company Accounting Oversight Board. This followed criticism about KPMG's failure to uncover illegal sales practices at Wells Fargo or potential corruption at FIFA, the governing international body of football. It was reported in 2017 that KPMG had the highest number of deficiencies, among the Big Four, cited by its regulator in the previous two years. This includes two annual inspections that were compromised as a result of advanced access to inspection information. In March 2019, David Middendorf and Jeffrey Wada, co-defendants in the scandal, were convicted.

In August, KPMG US paid a $6.2 million fine to the US Securities and Exchange Commission for inadequacies in its audit of the financial statements of oil and gas company, Miller Energy Resources.

In November, 91 partners of KPMG Hong Kong faced contempt proceedings in Hong Kong High Court, as China Medical Technologies (CMED) liquidators investigating a $400 million fraud took action against KPMG with regard to its refusal to honor a February 2016 court order to produce Chinese working papers, correspondence, and records to the liquidators. The liquidators are asking that 91 defendants be held in contempt of court, which could result in criminal penalties, or weekly fines.  KPMG had issued written audit reports for CMED from 2003 to 2008, and was replaced by PwC Zhong Tian in August 2009. "Perhaps locking up 91 KPMG partners over Christmas may spur the firms to find a solution to this problem", said Professor Paul Gillis of Peking University's Guanghua School of Management.

 2018
During July, KPMG has come under criticism for its role in the bankruptcy of Dubai-based private equity firm, Abraaj Group, after it was determined that KPMG Lower Gulf Chairman and Chief Executive Vijay Malhotra's son has worked at Abraaj and an executive named Ashish Dave alternated between stints at KPMG and as Abraaj’s chief financial officer, a job he held twice.

Also during July, the UK accounting watchdog, the Financial Reporting Council (FRC) announced an investigation into KPMG’s work for Conviviality, the British drinks supplier that collapsed into administration during April 2018.

Also during July, KPMG paid HK$650 million (US$84 million) to settle legal claims after failing to identify fraud at a Chinese timber company, China Forestry.  The liquidators of China Forestry claimed KPMG was negligent when it failed to detect serious false accounting by some of the company’s top management ahead of its listing in 2009.

During August, Chile's Comision Para El Mercado Financiero(CMF) sanctioned KPMG Auditores Consultores Limitada (KPMG LLP's local affiliate) 3,000 UF (~$114,000), and Joaquín Lira Herreros, its partner, for offences incurred in the audit made to the financial statements of the Aurus Insignia Fondo de Inversión, managed by Aurus Capital S.A. Admnistradora General de Fondos Management (AGF), corresponding to the year 2014.

In November, the Sultanate of Oman's Capital Market Authority (CMA) suspended KPMG from auditing entities regulated by the CMA for a period of one year after discovering major financial and accounting irregularities in the entities' records.

In December, KPMG South Africa published an open apology for its participation in various scandals in South Africa, including publishing a misleading report that led to the resignation of the South African Finance Minister, involvement with the Gupta family who have been implicated in corruption scandal with former President, Jacob Zuma, and acting as the auditor of VBS Mutual Bank that collapsed due to fraud.  Its top eight staff resigned during 2017 and its workforce shrank from 3,400 to 2,200.

 2019
KPMG were fined £5 million by the Financial Reporting Council for misconduct shortly after the takeover of the Britannia Building Society by The Co-operative Bank, particularly relating to the valuation of Britannia's commercial loans and other liabilities. The takeover led to the near collapse of The Co-operative Bank.

KPMG was fined £6 million by the Financial Reporting Council following a long running investigation by the regulator into misconduct in the firm’s auditing of Lloyds Syndicate 218 between 2007 & 2009.  KPMG partner Mark Taylor has been fined £100,000, severely reprimanded and agreed to the imposition of a requirement to have a second partner review of his audits until the end of 2020.

 2020

In June, KPMG resigned from the auditor role at British fashion firm, Ted Baker plc after the company admitted accounting errors resulting in overstatement of its inventory by up to £58 million.

 2021

In February, the liquidators for South African bank, VBS Mutual Bank, sued KPMG for 863.5 million rand (~US$59 million) over its audit opinion on the now defunct bank.

In March, KPMG US agreed to pay $10 million to settle a 10-year gender discrimination lawsuit in a New York Federal Court that alleged claims by 450 women that its culture was rife with gender discrimination, sexual harassment, and retaliation.

During May, members of the Canadian Parliament's House of Commons finance committee re-launched a probe into offshore tax evasion by interviewing Lucia Iacovelli, managing partner at KPMG.

KPMG in the UK has been sued for more than £6 million (~€6.9 million, ~US$7.8 million) by property company Mount Anvil which claims it was left with an unexpected tax bill after the firm provided it with negligent advice.

In July, the UK accounting regulator Financial Reporting Council (FRC) criticised KPMG for its “unacceptable” failure to meet required standards in its audits of banks for a third year running. Only 61% of KPMG’s audits sampled by the regulator met industry standards.

The Government of Malaysia and the state sovereign fund, 1MDB, launched a lawsuit seeking over $5.6 billion in damages from KPMG partners for alleged breaches and negligence linked to a corruption scandal at the fund.

South Africa's largest asset manager, the Public Investment Corporation (PIC) sued KPMG for 144 million rand (~U$9.5 million) it lost when the VBS Mutual Bank went bankrupt as a result of fraud.  Its claim is centred on the rights issue and a revolving credit facility it participated in at VBS relying on financial statements audited by KPMG and its former senior partner, Sipho Malaba.

In August, a tribunal convened by the UK regulator, FRC, fined KPMG £13m and ordered it to pay £2.75m in costs. This was because of its serious misconduct in the sale of bed company Silentnight. The tribunal found that KPMG had helped private equity group H.I.G Capital drive Silentnight into an insolvency process, so that HIG could acquire the company without its £100m pension scheme. KPMG was severely reprimanded by the tribunal, and was ordered to appoint an independent reviewer to check a sample of previous cases for similar failings.  The tribunal ruled that KPMG's involvement with Silentnight was "deeply troubling" as it failed to act solely in its client's interests.

In September, the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board fined KPMG Australia $450,000 after it confessed to a cheating scandal involving over 1,100 (almost 12%) of its employees.

In October, UK regulator The Financial Reporting Council (FRC), said KPMG and David Costley-Wood, a partner at the firm, used an “untruthful defence” in an investigation into the sale of Silentnight to a private equity firm in 2011.  Costley-Wood, who was formerly head of KPMG’s Manchester restructuring division, was also fined £500,000 and barred from insolvency or accountancy licences for 13 years.

In November, a British litigation financing firm - Augusta Ventures announced that it will bankroll three $152.4-million lawsuits in Canada against the previous auditor (KPMG LLP), authorized legal adviser (Cassels Brock & Blackwell LLP) and monetary adviser (Canaccord Genuity Corp) of the Money Retailer Monetary Providers Inc., a Canadian payday lender that filed for creditor safety in 2014.  “It’s alleged in these lawsuits that KPMG, Cassels Brock and Canaccord triggered over $100-million in damages to Money Retailer and its collectors,” mentioned Mr. Aziz, President of BlueTree Advisors Inc., a company restructuring advisory agency primarily based in Oakville, Ontario.

Also in November, KPMG UK has been hit with a £15m lawsuit by insurance outsourcer Watchstone — formerly known as Quindell — over allegations it suffered losses because of the audit firm's negligence in 2013.

Again in November, two units of Abraaj that are now in liquidation, filed a lawsuit in Dubai against KPMG LLP for damages of US$600 million alleging that KPMG accountants “failed to maintain independence and an appropriate attitude of professional skepticism,” and breached their duty of care when auditing the private-equity firm.

 2022

In January, the Malaysian government reported that KPMG's local affiliate had agreed to pay a fine of RM 333 million ($111 million) to settle the case filed against it in connect with the 1MDB funds scandal.

A group of investors in Airbus, the Dutch foundation Stichting Investor Loss Compensation (SILC), filed a lawsuit against Airbus, KPMG and EY in the Hague District Court alleging they suffered damages worth at least  €300 million (US$340 million) as a result of company's misleading publications about the manufacturer’s involvement in and financial settlements involving corruption, bribery, and other forms of fraud.

UK regulator The Financial Reporting Council (FRC) fined KPMG £3 million for audit failings at collapsed alcohol retailer Conviviality.

A settlement agreement between the UK regulator, the Financial Reporting Council and a KPMG Partner, Stuart Smith, who led the firm’s audit of IT company, Regenersis later renamed as Blancco Technology Group, resulted in a fine of £150,000 after he admitted misleading its inspectors.

Carillion audit role
In January 2018, it was announced that KPMG, auditor of collapsed UK construction firm Carillion, would have its role examined by the Financial Reporting Council, (FRC) and it was summoned to give evidence before two House of Commons select committees on 22 February 2018.

On 13 February 2018, the 'Big 4' accountancy firms, including KPMG, were described by MP Frank Field as "feasting on what was soon to become a carcass" after collecting fees of £72m for Carillion work during the years leading up to its collapse. KPMG was singled out for particular criticism for signing off Carillion's last accounts before a profit warning in July 2017: "Either KPMG failed to spot the warning signs, or its judgement was clouded by its cosy relationship with the company and the multimillion-pound fees it received," said MP Rachel Reeves. Two out of three former Carillion finance directors had also worked for KPMG.

KPMG defended itself, saying that in the construction industry "an accumulation of adverse events [...] can quite quickly cause a precipitous decline." KPMG chairman and senior partner Bill Michael said: "It does not follow automatically from a company collapse either that the opinion of management was wrong, or that the auditor did a bad job."

On 22 February 2018, MPs contested evidence from KPMG (in one exchange MP Peter Kyle told KPMG partner Peter Meehan: "I would not hire you to do an audit of the contents of my fridge"). Rachel Reeves, chair of the business select committee, said:

Auditing is a multi-million-pound business for the Big Four. On this morning's evidence from KPMG and Deloitte, these audits appear to be a colossal waste of time and money, fit only to provide false assurance to investors, workers and the public. [...] Carillion staff and investors could see the problems at the company but those responsible – auditors, regulators, and, ultimately, the directors – did nothing to stop Carillion being driven off a cliff.

The final report of the Parliamentary inquiry into Carillion's collapse, published on 16 May 2018, criticised KPMG for its "complicity" in the company's financial reporting practices:

KPMG audited Carillion for 19 years, pocketing £29 million in the process. Not once during that time did they qualify their audit opinion on the financial statements, instead signing off the figures put in front of them by the company's directors. Yet, had KPMG been prepared to challenge management, the warning signs were there in highly questionable assumptions about construction contract revenue and the intangible asset of goodwill accumulated in historic acquisitions. These assumptions were fundamental to the picture of corporate health presented in audited annual accounts. In failing to exercise—and voice—professional scepticism towards Carillion's aggressive accounting judgements, KPMG was complicit in them. It should take its own share of responsibility for the consequences.

The select committee chairs (Frank Field and Rachel Reeves) called for a complete overhaul of Britain's corporate governance regime, saying the government had "lacked the decisiveness or bravery" to do so, accused the big four accounting firms of operating as a "cosy club", with KPMG singled out for its "complicity" in signing off Carillion's "increasingly fantastical figures".

KPMG said:
We believe we conducted our audit appropriately. However, it's only right that following a corporate collapse of such size and significance, the necessary investigations are performed. Auditing large and complex businesses involves many judgments and we will continue to cooperate with the FRC's ongoing investigation. ... We welcome any future review of our profession. If we consider how the profession has changed in the last decade […] it is clear there is a need for us to look closely at our business models.

In a June 2018 report on audit standards across eight accounting firms, the FRC identified "failure to challenge management and show appropriate scepticism across their audits." It highlighted a decline in the quality of work undertaken by the Big Four, with KPMG performing the worst. There had, the FRC said, been an "unacceptable deterioration" in the quality of KPMG's work, and the FRC would scrutinise KPMG more closely as a result. In October 2018, the FRC proposed reforms to tackle the "underlying falling trust in business and the effectiveness of audit," and severely rebuked KPMG.

In November 2018, KPMG said it would no longer undertake consultancy work for FTSE 350 Index-listed companies if it was also auditing them, in an effort to "remove even the perception of a possible conflict" of interest.

The Carillion investigation followed FRC investigations into KPMG's role at HBOS, Quindell and The Co-operative Bank. In July 2018, the FRC started an investigation into KPMG's audit role at collapsed drinks merchant Conviviality.

In January 2019, KPMG announced it had suspended the partner that led Carillion's audit and three members of his team; in August 2021, an FRC disciplinary panel was scheduled for 10 January 2022 to hear a formal complaint against KPMG and former KPMG partner Peter Meehan regarding the provision of allegedly false and misleading information concerning the 2016 Carillion audit. The tribunal convened to hear the formal complaint started on 10 January 2022.  At the disciplinary hearing, KPMG's UK chief executive Jon Holt said the firm had discovered misconduct by it staff in its own internal investigations, and immediately reported it to the FRC.

The FRC opened a second investigation into how KPMG audited Carillion's accounts. The FRC's first report, which found a number of breaches, was delivered to KPMG in September 2020; the FRC was awaiting a KPMG response before deciding whether to take enforcement action. In March 2021, KPMG was reported to be "inching towards a financial settlement with regulators" over its auditing of Carillion, with the FRC expected to impose a record fine, possibly around £25m, on KPMG for its failings.

In May 2020, the FT reported that the Official Receiver was preparing to sue KPMG for £250m over alleged negligence in its audits of Carillion. In May 2021, the liquidator secured funding for its legal action, with speculation that the likely damages claim could be as much as £2 billion. In February 2022, Sky News reported the Official Receiver's claim would be in the range of £1bn-£1.5bn, with one source suggesting around £1.2bn. The OR's negligence claim focuses on the value of major contracts which were not properly accounted for in audits in 2014, 2015 and 2016, resulting in misstatements in excess of £800m within Carillion's financial reports. KPMG was said to have accepted management explanations for inflated revenue and understated cost positions. The OR had received legal advice that KPMG was answerable to Carillion's creditors for a portion of their losses. KPMG said: "We believe this claim is without merit and we will robustly defend the case. Responsibility for the failure of Carillion lies solely with the company's board and management, who set the strategy and ran the business." The claim, for £1.3 billion (US$1.77 billion), accused KPMG of missing "red flags" during audits of Carillion, in one of the largest claims against an audit firm.

Alterations to past audit work
In June 2019, KPMG was fined $50 million for altering its past audit work after receiving stolen data from accounting industry watch dog Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB). KPMG admitted to its mistakes and as a part of its settlement, it also agreed to hire an independent consultant to review its internal controls.

2017 South African corruption scandal

In 2017, KPMG was embroiled in related scandals involving the Gupta family. KPMG, whose history in South Africa dated back to 1895, and which had been part of the international organization since its founding in 1979, faced calls for closure, and an uncertain future, as a consequence of the damage done to the South African economy as a result of its activities.

KPMG had been working with a Gupta family company in the mining sector, Oakbay Resources and Energy, for 15 years prior to the revelations of corruption and collusion in 2016, at which point KPMG resigned. The full impact and financial profit that KPMG received is yet to be determined; however, at least one large company has terminated its services with KPMG due to its relationship with Oakbay.

In July 2017, after controversial documents were leaked by the amaBhungane Centre for Investigative Journalism, former chief executive of KPMG South Africa and the former partner that was responsible for audits related to the Gupta family, Moses Kgosana, withdrew from becoming the chairman of Alexander Forbes, a financial services firm.

In 2015, KPMG issued a controversial report that implicated former Finance Minister Pravin Gordhan in the creation of an illegal intelligence gathering unit of the South African Revenue Service (SARS). This report was seen by elements of the media to be part of a wider Gupta-linked state capture conspiracy, with the aim of forcing Gordhan out of his post. The report was withdrawn by KPMG in September 2017, earning the ire of the Commissioner of SARS, Tom Moyane.

After an internal investigation that found work done for the Gupta family fell "considerably short" of the firm's standards and amid rising political and public backlash, KPMG's senior leadership in South Africa, including its chairman Ahmed Jaffer, CEO Trevor Hoole, COO Steven Louw, and five partners, resigned in September 2017.

Save South Africa, a civil-society group, accused KPMG and UK PR firm Bell Pottinger of playing a "central role in facilitating state capture." Numerous South African companies either fired KPMG in the immediate aftermath of the scandal, or were reconsidering their relationships with the firm with the international chairman of KPMG, John Veihmeyer, apologising for the conduct of the South African arm and the firm pledged to donate fees earned from Gupta businesses, as well as the withdrawn SARS report, to anti-corruption activities.

Corporate theme song
In 2001, a blogger named Chris Raettig discovered a number of “corporate theme songs,” including one for KPMG. He created a page for these songs, and included deep links to the MP3 files on the source servers. KPMG responded by sending a takedown notice to Raettig, reading: “Please be aware such links require that a formal Agreement exist between our two parties, as mandated by our organization's Web Link Policy.”  Raettig wrote publicly about this takedown notice, responding that "my own organization's Web link policy requires no such formal agreement." The chorus to the anthem reads: KPMG – We're as strong as can be, A team of power and energy, We go for the gold, together we hold, Onto our vision of global strategy!

Sponsorship 

The Swedish member firm was the main sponsor for Swedish biathlete Magdalena Forsberg, six-time world champion and two-time Olympic medalist. Forsberg was working as a tax consultant at the KPMG Sundsvall office parallel to her athletic career.

In February 2008, Phil Mickelson, ranked one of the best golfers in the world, signed a three-year global sponsorship deal with KPMG. As part of the agreement, Mickelson was to wear the KPMG logo on his headwear during all golf related appearances. The sponsorship lasted until 22 February 2022, when the two parties mutually split following comments in which Mickelson called Saudi Arabia "scary" but would overlook the country's human rights controversies in the best interest of the PGA Tour.

The Canadian member firm sponsored skier Alexandre Bilodeau, who won the first gold medal for Canada on home soil in the 2010 Vancouver Olympics. Alexandre's father is a tax partner in the Montreal office.

KPMG and McLaren Technology Group have formed a strategic alliance to apply McLaren Applied Technologies' (MAT) predictive analytics and technology to KPMG's audit and advisory services. McLaren 2015 Formula 1 car has the KPMG logo engraved above the pilot seat.

Since 2016, KPMG has been strategic sponsor of Brain Bar, a Budapest-based, annually held festival on the future.

Awards 
KPMG ranked in the top two overall in Consultancy Rankings 2009 by OpRisk & Compliance – in recognition of KPMG's experience in risk management.

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Privately held companies of Switzerland, (24 September 1564 – 16 May 1620), known in Japanese as , was an English navigator who, in 1600, was the first Englishman to reach Japan leading a five-ship expedition for a private Dutch fleet. Of the few survivors of the only ship that reached Japan, Adams and his second mate Jan Joosten were not allowed to leave the country while Jacob Quaeckernaeck and Melchior van Santvoort were permitted to go back to the Dutch Republic to invite them to trade.

Adams, along with former second mate Joosten, then settled in Japan, and the two became some of the first (of very few) Western samurai.

Soon after Adams' arrival in Japan, he became a key advisor to the shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu. Adams directed construction for the shōgun of the first Western-style ships in the country. He was later key to Japan's approving the establishment of trading factories by the Netherlands and England. He was also highly involved in Japan's Red Seal Asian trade, chartering and serving as captain of four expeditions to Southeast Asia. He died in Japan at age 55. He has been recognised as one of the most influential foreigners in Japan during this period.

Early life
Adams was born in Gillingham, Kent, England. When Adams was twelve his father died, and he was apprenticed to shipyard owner Master Nicholas Diggins at Limehouse for the seafaring life. He spent the next twelve years learning shipbuilding, astronomy, and navigation before entering the Royal Navy.

With England at war with Spain, Adams served in the Royal Navy under Sir Francis Drake. He saw naval service against the Spanish Armada in 1588 as master of the Richarde Dyffylde, a resupply ship. Adams was recorded to have married Mary Hyn in the parish church of St Dunstan's, Stepney on 20 August 1589 and they had two children: a son John and a daughter named Deliverance. Soon after, Adams became a pilot for the Barbary Company. During this service, Jesuit sources claim he took part in an expedition to the Arctic that lasted about two years, in search of a Northeast Passage along the coast of Siberia to the Far East. The veracity of this claim is somewhat suspect, because he never referred to such an expedition in his autobiographical letter written from Japan; its wording implies that the 1598 voyage was his first involvement with the Dutch. The Jesuit source may have misattributed to Adams a claim by one of the Dutch members of Mahu's crew who had been on Rijp's ship during the voyage that discovered Spitsbergen.

Expedition to the Far East

Attracted by the Dutch trade with India, Adams, then 34 years old, shipped as pilot major with a five-ship fleet dispatched from the isle of Texel to the Far East in 1598 by a company of Rotterdam merchants (a voorcompagnie, predecessor of the Dutch East India Company). His brother Thomas accompanied him. The Dutch were allied with England and as well as fellow Protestants, they too were also at war with Spain fighting for their independence.

The Adams brothers set sail from Texel on the Hoope and joined with the rest of the fleet on 24 June. The fleet consisted of:
 the Hoope ("Hope"), under Admiral Jacques Mahu (d. 1598), he was succeeded by Simon de Cordes (d. 1599) and Simon de Cordes Jr. This ship was lost near the Hawaiian Islands;
 the Liefde ("Love" or "Charity"), under Simon de Cordes, 2nd in command, succeeded by Gerrit van Beuningen and finally under Jacob Kwakernaak; this was the only ship which reached Japan
 the Geloof ("Faith"), under Gerrit van Beuningen, and in the end, Sebald de Weert; the only ship which came back in Rotterdam.
 the Trouw ("Loyalty"), under Jurriaan van Boekhout (d. 1599) and finally, Baltazar de Cordes; was captured in Tidore
 the Blijde Boodschap ("Good Tiding" or "The Gospel"), under Sebald de Weert, and later, Dirck Gerritz was seized in Valparaiso.

Jacques Mahu and Simon de Cordes were the leaders of an expedition with the goal to achieve the Chile, Peru and other kingdoms (in New Spain like Nueva Galicia; Captaincy General of Guatemala; Nueva Vizcaya; New Kingdom of León and Santa Fe de Nuevo México). The fleet's original mission was to sail for the west coast of South America, where they would sell their cargo for silver, and to head for Japan only if the first mission failed. In that case, they were supposed to obtain silver in Japan and to buy spices in the Moluccas, before heading back to Europe. Their goal was to sail through the Strait of Magellan to get to their destiny, which scared many sailors because of the harsh weather conditions. The first major expedition around South America was organized by a voorcompagnie, the Rotterdam or Magelhaen Company. It organized two fleets of five and four ships with 750 sailors and soldiers, including 30 English musicians.

After leaving Goeree on 27 June 1598 the ships sailed to the Channel, but anchored in the Downs till mid July. When the ships approached the shores of North Africa Simon de Cordes realized he had been far too generous in the early weeks of the voyage and instituted a 'bread policy'. At the end of August they landed on Santiago, Cape Verde and Mayo off the coast of Africa because of a lack of water and need for fresh fruit. They stayed around three weeks in the hope to buy some goats. Near Praia they succeeded to occupy a Portuguese castle on the top of a hill, but came back without anything substantial. At Brava, Cape Verde half of the crew of the "Hope" caught fever there, with most of the men sick, among them Admiral Jacques Mahu. After his death the leadership of the expedition was taken over by Simon de Cordes, with Van Beuningen as vice admiral. Because of contrary wind the fleet was blown off course (NE in the opposite direction) and arrived at Cape Lopez, Gabon, Central Africa. An outbreak of scurvy forced a landing on Annobón, on 9 December. Several men became sick because of dysentery. They stormed the island only to find that the Portuguese and their native allies had set fire to their own houses and fled into the hills. They put all the sick ashore to recover and left early January. Because of starvation the men fell into great weakness; some tried to eat leather. On 10 March 1599 they reached the Rio de la Plata, in Argentina. Early April they arrived at the Strait, 570 km long, 2 km wide at its narrowest point, with an inaccurate chart of the seabed. The wind turned out to be unfavorable and this remained so for the next four months. Under freezing temperatures and poor visibility they caught penguins, seals, mussels, duck and fish. About two hundred crew members died. On 23 August the weather improved.

On the Pacific

When finally the Pacific Ocean was reached on 3 September 1599, the ships were caught in a storm and lost sight of each other. The "Loyalty" and the "Believe" were driven back in the strait. After more than a year each ship went its own way.
The Geloof returned to Rotterdam in July 1600 with 36 men surviving of the original 109 crew.)
De Cordes ordered his small fleet to wait four weeks for each other on Santa María Island, Chile, but some ships missed the island. Adams wrote "they brought us sheep and potatoes". From here the story becomes less reliable because of a lack of sources and changes in command. In early November, the "Hope" landed on Mocha Island where 27 people were killed by the people from Araucania, including Simon de Cordes. (In the account given to Olivier van Noort it was said that Simon der Cordes was slain at the Punta de Lavapie, but Adams gives Mocha Island as the scene of his death.) The "Love" hit the island, but went on to Punta de Lavapié near Concepción, Chile. A Spanish captain supplied the "Loyalty" and "Hope" with food; the Dutch helped him against the Araucans, who had killed 23 Dutch, including Thomas Adams (according to his brother in his second letter) and Gerrit van Beuningen, who was replaced by Jacob Quaeckernaeck.

During the voyage, before December 1598, Adams changed ships to the Liefde (originally named Erasmus and adorned by a wooden carving of Erasmus on her stern). The statue was preserved in the Ryuko-in Buddhist temple in Sano City, Tochigi-ken and moved to the Tokyo National Museum in the 1920s.  The Trouw reached Tidore (Eastern Indonesia). The crew were killed by the Portuguese in January 1601.

In fear of the Spaniards, the remaining crews determined to leave the island and sail across the Pacific. It was 27 November 1599 when the two ships sailed westward for Japan. On their way, the two ships made landfall in "certain islands" where eight sailors deserted the ships. Later during the voyage, a typhoon claimed the Hope with all hands, in late February 1600.

Arrival in Japan

In April 1600, after more than nineteen months at sea, a crew of twenty-three sick and dying men (out of the 100 who started the voyage) brought the Liefde to anchor off the island of Kyūshū, Japan. Its cargo consisted of eleven chests of trade goods: coarse woolen cloth, glass beads, mirrors, and spectacles; and metal tools and weapons: nails, iron, hammers, nineteen bronze cannon; 5,000 cannonballs; 500 muskets, 300 chain-shot, and three chests filled with coats of mail.

When the nine surviving crew members were strong enough to stand, they made landfall on 19 April off Bungo (present-day Usuki, Ōita Prefecture). They were met by Japanese locals and Portuguese Jesuit missionary priests claiming that Adams' ship was a pirate vessel and that the crew should be executed as pirates. The ship was seized and the sickly crew were imprisoned at Osaka Castle on orders by Tokugawa Ieyasu, the daimyō of Edo and future shōgun. The nineteen bronze cannon of the Liefde were unloaded and, according to Spanish accounts, later used at the decisive Battle of Sekigahara on 21 October 1600.

Adams met Ieyasu in Osaka three times between May and June 1600. He was questioned by Ieyasu, then a guardian of the young son of the Taikō Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the ruler who had just died. Adams' knowledge of ships, shipbuilding and nautical smattering of mathematics appealed to Ieyasu.

Coming before the king, he viewed me well, and seemed to be wonderfully favourable. He made many signs unto me, some of which I understood, and some I did not. In the end, there came one that could speak Portuguese. By him, the king demanded of me of what land I was, and what moved us to come to his land, being so far off. I showed unto him the name of our country, and that our land had long sought out the East Indies, and desired friendship with all kings and potentates in way of merchandise, having in our land diverse commodities, which these lands had not… Then he asked whether our country had wars? I answered him yea, with the Spaniards and Portugals, being in peace with all other nations. Further, he asked me, in what I did believe? I said, in God, that made heaven and earth. He asked me diverse other questions of things of religions, and many other things: As what way we came to the country. Having a chart of the whole world, I showed him, through the Strait of Magellan. At which he wondered, and thought me to lie. Thus, from one thing to another, I abode with him till mid-night. (from William Adams' letter to his wife)

Adams wrote that Ieyasu denied the Jesuits' request for execution on the ground that:
we as yet had not done to him nor to none of his land any harm or damage; therefore against Reason or Justice to put us to death. If our country had wars the one with the other, that was no cause that he should put us to death; with which they were out of heart that their cruel pretence failed them. For which God be forever praised. (William Adams' letter to his wife)

Ieyasu ordered the crew to sail the Liefde from Bungo to Edo where, rotten and beyond repair, she sank.

Japan's first western-style sailing ships
In 1604, Tokugawa ordered Adams and his companions to help Mukai Shōgen, who was commander-in-chief of the navy of Uraga, to build Japan's first Western-style ship. The sailing ship was built at the harbour of Itō on the east coast of the Izu Peninsula, with carpenters from the harbour supplying the manpower for the construction of an 80-ton vessel. It was used to survey the Japanese coast. The shōgun ordered a larger ship of 120 tons to be built the following year; it was slightly smaller than the Liefde, which was 150 tons. According to Adams, Tokugawa "came aboard to see it, and the sight whereof gave him great content". In 1610, the 120-ton ship (later named San Buena Ventura) was lent to shipwrecked Spanish sailors. They sailed it to New Spain, accompanied by a mission of twenty-two Japanese led by Tanaka Shōsuke.

Following the construction, Tokugawa invited Adams to visit his palace whenever he liked and "that always I must come in his presence."

Other survivors of the Liefde were also rewarded with favours, and were allowed to pursue foreign trade. Most of the survivors left Japan in 1605 with the help of the daimyō of Hirado. Although Adams did not receive permission to leave Japan until 1613, Melchior van Santvoort and Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn engaged in trade between Japan and Southeast Asia and reportedly made a fortune. Both of them were reported by Dutch traders as being in Ayutthaya in early 1613, sailing richly cargoed junks.

In 1609 Adams contacted the interim governor of the Philippines, Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia on behalf of Tokugawa Ieyasu, who wished to establish direct trade contacts with New Spain. Friendly letters were exchanged, officially starting relations between Japan and New Spain. Adams is also recorded as having chartered Red Seal Ships during his later travels to Southeast Asia. (The Ikoku Tokai Goshuinjō has a reference to Miura Anjin receiving a shuinjō, a document bearing a red Shogunal seal authorising the holder to engage in foreign trade, in 1614.)

Samurai status
Taking a liking to Adams, the shōgun appointed him as a diplomatic and trade advisor, bestowing great privileges upon him. Ultimately, Adams became his personal advisor on all things related to Western powers and civilization. After a few years, Adams replaced the Jesuit Padre João Rodrigues as the Shogun's official interpreter. Padre Valentim Carvalho wrote: "After he had learned the language, he had access to Ieyasu and entered the palace at any time"; he also described him as "a great engineer and mathematician".

Adams had a wife Mary Hyn and two children back in England, but Ieyasu forbade the Englishman to leave Japan. He was presented with two swords representing the authority of a Samurai. The Shogun decreed that William Adams the pilot was dead and that Miura Anjin (三浦按針), a samurai, was born. According to the shōgun, this action "freed" Adams to serve the Shogunate permanently, effectively making Adams' wife in England a widow. (Adams managed to send regular support payments to her after 1613 via the English and Dutch companies.) Adams also was given the title of hatamoto (bannerman), a high-prestige position as a direct retainer in the shōgun's court.

Adams was given generous revenues: "For the services that I have done and do daily, being employed in the Emperor's service, the emperor has given me a living" (Letters). He was granted a fief in Hemi (Jpn: 逸見) within the boundaries of present-day Yokosuka City, "with eighty or ninety husbandmen, that be my slaves or servants" (Letters). His estate was valued at 250 koku (a measure of the yearly income of the land in rice, with one koku defined as the quantity of rice sufficient to feed one person for one year). He finally wrote "God hath provided for me after my great misery" (Letters), by which he meant the disaster-ridden voyage that had initially brought him to Japan.

Adams' estate was located next to the harbour of Uraga, the traditional point of entrance to Edo Bay. There he was recorded as dealing with the cargoes of foreign ships. John Saris related that when he visited Edo in 1613, Adams had resale rights for the cargo of a Spanish ship at anchor in Uraga Bay.

It is rumored that William had a child born in Hirado with another Japanese woman.

Adams' position gave him the means to marry Oyuki (お雪), the adopted daughter of Magome Kageyu. He was a highway official who was in charge of a packhorse exchange on one of the grand imperial roads that led out of Edo (roughly present-day Tokyo). Although Magome was important, Oyuki was not of noble birth, nor high social standing. Adams may have married from affection rather than for social reasons. Adams and Oyuki had a son Joseph and a daughter Susanna. Adams was constantly traveling for work. Initially, he tried to organise an expedition in search of the Arctic passage that had eluded him previously.

Adams had a high regard for Japan, its people, and its civilisation:
The people of this Land of Japan are good of nature, courteous above measure, and valiant in war: their justice is severely executed without any partiality upon transgressors of the law. They are governed in great civility. I mean, not a land better governed in the world by civil policy. The people be very superstitious in their religion, and are of diverse opinions.

Establishment of the Dutch East India Company in Japan

In 1604 Ieyasu sent the Liefde'''s captain, Jacob Quaeckernaeck, and the treasurer, Melchior van Santvoort, on a shōgun-licensed Red Seal Ship to Patani in Southeast Asia. He ordered them to contact the Dutch East India Company trading factory, which had just been established in 1602, in order to bring more western trade to Japan and break the Portuguese monopoly. In 1605, Adams obtained a letter of authorization from Ieyasu formally inviting the Dutch to trade with Japan. 

Hampered by conflicts with the Portuguese and limited resources in Asia, the Dutch were not able to send ships to Japan until 1609. Two Dutch ships, commanded by Jacques Specx, De Griffioen (the "Griffin", 19 cannons) and Roode Leeuw met Pijlen (the "Red lion with arrows", 400 tons, 26 cannons), were sent from Holland and reached Japan on 2 July 1609. The men of this Dutch expeditionary fleet established a trading base or "factory" on Hirado Island. Two Dutch envoys, Puyck and van den Broek, were the official bearers of a letter from Prince Maurice of Nassau to the court of Edo. Adams negotiated on behalf of these emissaries. The Dutch obtained free trading rights throughout Japan and to establish a trading factory there. (By contrast, the Portuguese were allowed to sell their goods only in Nagasaki at fixed, negotiated prices.)

The Hollandes be now settled (in Japan) and I have got them that privilege as the Spaniards and Portingals could never get in this 50 or 60 years in Japan.

After obtaining this trading right through an edict of Tokugawa Ieyasu on 24 August 1609, the Dutch inaugurated a trading factory in Hirado on 20 September 1609. The Dutch preserved their "trade pass" (Dutch: Handelspas) in Hirado and then Dejima as a guarantee of their trading rights during the following two centuries that they operated in Japan.

Establishment of an English trading factory
In 1611, Adams learned of an English settlement in Banten Sultanate, present-day Indonesia. He wrote asking them to convey news of him to his family and friends in England. He invited them to engage in trade with Japan which "the Hollanders have here an Indies of money."

In 1613, the English captain John Saris arrived at Hirado in the ship Clove, intending to establish a trading factory for the British East India Company. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) already had a major post at Hirado.

Saris noted Adams praise of Japan and adoption of Japanese customs:
He persists in giving "admirable and affectionated commendations of Japan. It is generally thought amongst us that he is a naturalized Japaner." (John Saris)

In Hirado, Adams refused to stay in English quarters, residing instead with a local Japanese magistrate. The English noted that he wore Japanese dress and spoke Japanese fluently. Adams estimated the cargo of the Clove was of little value, essentially broadcloth, tin and cloves (acquired in the Spice Islands), saying that "such things as he had brought were not very vendible".

Adams traveled with Saris to Suruga, where they met with Ieyasu at his principal residence in September. The Englishmen continued to Kamakura where they visited the noted Kamakura Great Buddha. (Sailors etched their names of the Daibutsu, made in 1252.) They continued to Edo, where they met Ieyasu's son Hidetada, who was nominally shōgun, although Ieyasu retained most of the decision-making powers. During that meeting, Hidetada gave Saris two varnished suits of armour for King James I. As of 2015, one of these suits of armour is housed in the Tower of London, the other is on display in the Royal Armouries Museum, Leeds. The suits were made by Iwai Yozaemon of Nanbu. They were part of a series of presentation armours of ancient 15th-century Dō-maru style.

On their return, the English party visited Tokugawa again. He conferred trading privileges to the English by a Red Seal permit, giving them "free license to abide, buy, sell and barter" in Japan. The English party returned to Hirado on 9 October 1613.

At this meeting, Adams asked for and obtained Tokugawa's authorisation to return to his home country. But, he finally declined Saris' offer to take him back to England: "I answered him I had spent in this country many years, through which I was poor... [and] desirous to get something before my return". His true reasons seem to lie rather with his profound antipathy for Saris: "The reason I would not go with him was for diverse injuries done against me, which were things to me very strange and unlooked for." (William Adams letters)

Adams accepted employment with the newly founded Hirado trading factory, signing a contract on 24November 1613, with the East India Company for the yearly salary of 100 English Pounds. This was more than double the regular salary of 40 Pounds earned by the other factors at Hirado. Adams had a lead role, under Richard Cocks and together with six other compatriots (Tempest Peacock, Richard Wickham, William Eaton, Walter Carwarden, Edmund Sayers and William Nealson), in organising this new English settlement.

Adams had advised Saris against the choice of Hirado, which was small and far away from the major markets in Osaka and Edo; he had recommended selection of Uraga near Edo for a post, but Saris wanted to keep an eye on the Dutch activities.

During the ten-year operations of the East Indian Company (1613 and 1623), only three English ships after the Clove brought cargoes directly from London to Japan. They were invariably described as having poor value on the Japanese market. The only trade which helped support the factory was that organised between Japan and South-East Asia; this was chiefly Adams selling Chinese goods for Japanese silver:
Were it not for hope of trade into China, or procuring some benefit from Siam, Pattania and Cochin China, it were no staying in Japon, yet it is certen here is silver enough & may be carried out at pleasure, but then we must bring them commodities to their liking. (Richard Cocks' diary, 1617)

Religious rivalries
The Portuguese and other Catholic religious orders in Japan considered Adams a rival as an English Protestant. After Adams' power had grown, the Jesuits tried to convert him, then offered to secretly bear him away from Japan on a Portuguese ship. The Jesuits' willingness to disobey the order by Ieyasu prohibiting Adams from leaving Japan showed that they feared his growing influence. Catholic priests asserted that he was trying to discredit them. In 1614, Carvalho complained of Adams and other merchants in his annual letter to the Pope, saying that "by false accusation [Adams and others] have rendered our preachers such objects of suspicion that he [Ieyasu] fears and readily believes that they are rather spies than sowers of the Holy Faith in his kingdom."

Ieyasu, influenced by Adams' counsels and disturbed by unrest caused by the numerous Catholic converts, expelled the Portuguese Jesuits from Japan in 1614. He demanded that Japanese Catholics abandon their faith. Adams apparently warned Ieyasu against Spanish approaches as well.

Character
After fifteen years spent in Japan, Adams had a difficult time establishing relations with the English arrivals. He initially shunned the company of the newly arrived English sailors in 1613 and could not get on good terms with Saris. But Richard Cocks, the head of the Hirado factory, came to appreciate Adams' character and what he had acquired of Japanese self-control. In a letter to the East India Company Cocks wrote:

Participation in Asian trade

Adams later engaged in various exploratory and commercial ventures. He tried to organise an expedition to the legendary Northwest Passage from Asia, which would have greatly reduced the sailing distance between Japan and Europe. Ieyasu asked him if "our countrimen could not find the northwest passage" and Adams contacted the East India Company to organise manpower and supplies. The expedition never got underway.

In his later years, Adams worked for the English East Indian Company. He made a number of trading voyages to Siam in 1616 and Cochinchina in 1617 and 1618, sometimes for the English East India Company, sometimes for his own account. He is recorded in Japanese records as the owner of a Red Seal Ship of 500 tons.

Given the few ships that the company sent from England and the poor trading value of their cargoes (broadcloth, knives, looking glasses, Indian cotton, etc.), Adams was influential in gaining trading certificates from the shōgun to allow the company to participate in the Red Seal system. It made a total of seven junk voyages to Southeast Asia with mixed profit results. Four were led by William Adams as captain. Adams renamed a ship he acquired in 1617 as Gift of God; he sailed it on his expedition that year to Cochinchina. The expeditions he led are described more fully below.

1614 Siam expedition
In 1614, Adams wanted to organise a trade expedition to Siam to bolster the company factory's activities and cash situation. He bought and upgraded a 200-ton Japanese junk for the company, renaming her as Sea Adventure; and hired about 120 Japanese sailors and merchants, as well as several Chinese traders, an Italian and a Castilian (Spanish) trader. The heavily laden ship left in November 1614. The merchants Richard Wickham and Edmund Sayers of the English factory's staff also joined the voyage.

The expedition was to purchase raw silk, Chinese goods, sappan wood, deer skins and ray skins (the latter used for the hilts of Japanese swords). The ship carried £1250 in silver and £175 of merchandise (Indian cottons, Japanese weapons and lacquerware). The party encountered a typhoon near the Ryukyu Islands (modern Okinawa) and had to stop there to repair from 27 December 1614 until May 1615. It returned to Japan in June 1615 without having completed any trade.

1615 Siam expedition
Adams left Hirado in November 1615 for Ayutthaya in Siam on the refitted Sea Adventure, intent on obtaining sappanwood for resale in Japan. His cargo was chiefly silver (£600) and the Japanese and Indian goods unsold from the previous voyage.

He bought vast quantities of the high-profit products. His partners obtained two ships in Siam in order to transport everything back to Japan. Adams sailed the Sea Adventure to Japan with 143 tonnes of sappanwood and 3700 deer skins, returning to Hirado in 47 days. (The return trip took from 5 June and 22 July 1616). Sayers, on a hired Chinese junk, reached Hirado in October 1616 with 44 tons of sappanwood. The third ship, a Japanese junk, brought 4,560 deer skins to Nagasaki, arriving in June 1617 after the monsoon.

Less than a week before Adams' return, Ieyasu had died. Adams accompanied Cocks and Eaton to court to offer company presents to the new ruler, Hidetada. Although Ieyasu's death seems to have weakened Adams' political influence, Hidetada agreed to maintain the English trading privileges. He also issued a new Red Seal permit (Shuinjō) to Adams, which allowed him to continue trade activities overseas under the shōgun's protection. His position as hatamoto was also renewed.

On this occasion, Adams and Cocks also visited the Japanese Admiral Mukai Shōgen Tadakatsu, who lived near Adams' estate. They discussed plans for a possible invasion of the Catholic Philippines.

1617 Cochinchina expedition
In March 1617, Adams set sail for Cochinchina, having purchased the junk Sayers had brought from Siam and renamed it the Gift of God. He intended to find two English factors, Tempest Peacock and Walter Carwarden, who had departed from Hirado two years before to explore commercial opportunities on the first voyage to South East Asia by the Hirado English Factory. Adams learned in Cochinchina that Peacock had been plied with drink, and killed for his silver. Carwarden, who was waiting in a boat downstream, realised that Peacock had been killed and hastily tried to reach his ship. His boat overturned and he drowned.

Adams sold a small cargo of broadcloth, Indian piece goods and ivory in Cochinchina for the modest amount of £351.

1618 Cochinchina expedition
In 1618, Adams is recorded as having organised his last Red Seal trade expedition to Cochinchina and Tonkin (modern Vietnam), the last expedition of the English Hirado Factory to Southeast Asia. The ship, a chartered Chinese junk, left Hirado on 11 March 1618 but met with bad weather that forced it to stop at Ōshima in the northern Ryukyus. The ship sailed back to Hirado in May.

Those expeditions to Southeast Asia helped the English factory survive for some time—during that period, sappanwood resold in Japan with a 200% profit—until the factory fell into bankruptcy due to high expenditures.

Death and family legacy

Adams died at Hirado, north of Nagasaki, on 16 May 1620, at the age of 55. He was buried in Nagasaki, where his grave marker may still be seen. His gravesite is next to a memorial to Saint Francis Xavier. In his will, he left his townhouse in Edo, his fief in Hemi, and 500 British pounds to be divided evenly between his family in England and his family in Japan. Cocks wrote: "I cannot but be sorrowful for the loss of such a man as Capt William Adams, he having been in such favour with two Emperors of Japan as never any Christian in these part of the world." (Cocks' diary)

Adams' daughter Deliverance married Ratcliff mariner Raph Goodchild at St Dunstan's, Stepney on 30 September 1618. They had two daughters, Abigail in October 1619 who died on the same month, and Jane in April 1621. Deliverance would later marry for a second time, to John Wright at St Alfege Church, Greenwich on 13 October 1624.

Cocks remained in contact with Adams' Japanese family, sending gifts; in March 1622, he offered silks to Joseph and Susanna. On the Christmas after Adams' death, Cocks gave Joseph his father's sword and dagger. Cocks records that Hidetada transferred the lordship from William Adams to his son Joseph Adams with the attendant rights to the estate at Hemi: He (Hidetada) has confirmed the lordship to his son, which the other emperor (Ieyasu) gave to the father. (Cocks's diary)

Cocks administered Adams' trading rights (the shuinjō) for the benefit of Adams' children, Joseph and Susanna. He carried this out conscientiously. In 1623, three years after Adams' death, the unprofitable English trading factory was dissolved by the East India Company. The Dutch traded on Adams' children's behalf via the Red Seal ships. Joseph Adams had since inherited the title of Miura Anjin, became a trader and made five voyages to Cochinchina and Siam between 1624 and 1635.

By 1629 only two of Adams' shipmates from 1600 survived in Japan. Melchior van Santvoort and Vincent Romeyn lived privately in Nagasaki.

In 1635, Tokugawa Iemitsu enforced the Sakoku Edict for Japan to be closed against foreign trading, by then both Joseph and Susanna disappeared from historical records at that time.

Adams has a second memorial monument at the location of his residence in Hemi. Consisting of a pair of hōkyōintō, the tuff memorial on the right is that of Adams, and the andesite one of the left is for his wife. The monuments were erected by his family in accordance with his will, and the site was designated as a National Historic Site in 1923.

Honours for Adams

 A town in Edo (modern Tokyo), Anjin-chō (in modern-day Nihonbashi) was named for Adams, who had a house there. He is annually celebrated on 15 June.
 A village and a railroad station in his fiefdom, Hemi, in modern Yokosuka, were named for him.
 In the city of Itō, Shizuoka, the Miura Anjin Festival is held annually on 10 August. On the seafront at Itō is a monument to Adams. Next to it is a plaque inscribed with Edmund Blunden's poem, "To the Citizens of Ito", which commemorates Adams' achievement.
 Adams' birth town, Gillingham, has held a Will Adams Festival every September since 2000. Since the late 20th century, both Itō and Yokosuka have become sister cities of Gillingham.
 A monument to Adams was installed in Watling Street, Gillingham (Kent), opposite Darland Avenue. The monument was unveiled 11 May 1934 by Tsuneo Matsudaira GCVO, Japanese ambassador to the Court of St James.
 A roundabout named Will Adams Roundabout with a Japanese theme just along from the Gillingham monument to Adams with two roads named after the Gillingham sister cities "Ito Way" and "Yokosuka Way"
 The townhouse of Will Adams still exists in Hirado. It is currently a sweet shop called Tsutaya at 431 Kihikidacho. It is known as Anjin no Yakata (Anjin's House).

Analysis of skeletal remains

William Adams (Miura Anjin) was buried in 1620, in Hirado, Nagasaki Prefecture. However, a few years later foreign cemeteries were destroyed and there was prosecution of Christians by the Tokugawa shogunate. The bones of Anjin were taken for safekeeping and reburied. In 1931, skeletal remains were first discovered there and assumed to be of Anjin, but it could not be confirmed due to technological limitations, the remains was later placed in a Showa period ceramic funerary urn and reburied back to where it was discovered.

In July 2017, the excavation of the skeletal remains began at the William Adams Memorial Park on Sakigata Hill, Hirado. In 2019, Japanese archaeologists announced the discovery of bones at the site believed to be those of Adams. These remains match the 1931 description. The subsequent biomolecular anthropological investigation of the genetic background showed the mtDNA analysis indicates Anjin's mitochondrial DNA likely belongs to haplogroup H. The analysis also showed aspects such as the dietary habits and burial style matched with Anjin. In April 2020, the University of Tokyo conducted conclusive forensic tests on the bones and confirmed it was William Adams' grave. Confirmation of the identity of the remains may have been possible with DNA data from living relatives of Adams. However, even if living relatives had been identified, there would probably have been the equivalent of about eight generations of genetic difference between them and Adams. Thus there may not have been sufficient similarities to establish with sufficient certainty whether such a relationship existed.

Representation in other media
 James Clavell based his best-selling novel Shōgun (1975) on Adams' life, changing the name of his protagonist to "John Blackthorne". This was adapted as a popular TV mini-series, Shōgun (1980). It was also adapted as a Broadway production, Shōgun: The Musical (1990), and the video game James Clavell's Shōgun (1989).
 Michel Foucault retold Adams' tale in The Discourse on Language. According to Foucault, the story embodies one of the "great myths of European culture," namely, the idea that a mere sailor could teach mathematics to the Japanese shogun shows the difference between the open exchange of knowledge in Europe as opposed to the secretive control of knowledge under "oriental tyranny." In fact, however, Adams was not a mere sailor but the chief navigator of the fleet, and his value to the Shogun was along the practical lines of shipbuilding.

There were numerous earlier works of fiction based on Adams.
 William Dalton wrote Will Adams, The First Englishman in Japan: A Romantic Biography (London, 1861).
 Richard Blaker's The Needlewatcher (London, 1932) is the least romantic of the novels; he consciously attempted to de-mythologize Adams and write a careful historical work of fiction.
 James Scherer's Pilot and Shōgun dramatises a series of incidents based on Adams' life.
 American Robert Lund wrote Daishi-san (New York, 1960).
 Christopher Nicole's Lord of the Golden Fan (1973) portrays Adams as sexually frustrated in England and freed by living in Japan, where he has numerous encounters. The work is considered light pornography.
 In 2002, Giles Milton's historical biography Samurai William (2002) is based on historical sources, especially Richard Cocks's diary.
 The 2002 alternate history novel Ruled Britannia by Harry Turtledove features a brief appearance by Adams, piloting cargo and passengers between England and Ostend, both of which are puppet states of the Habsburg Empire in this timeline.
 In the second season of Heroes, a story set in samurai-era Japan features an Englishman who seems to be based on Adams.
 A book series called Young Samurai is about a young English boy who is ship wrecked in Japan, and is trained as a samurai.
 Adams also serves as the template for the protagonist in the PlayStation 4 and PC video game series Nioh (2017) and non-playable in its prequel/sequel hybrid game (2020), but with supernatural and historical fiction elements. As of the end of the second game, some time after managing to arrest the female Spaniard Maria, he married Okatsu instead and had an English-Japanese son who inherited her mother's guardian spirit.
 This version also appeared in the Warriors series' crossover game, Warriors All-Stars.

Depiction

According to Professor Derek Massarella of Chuo University:

There is however one genuine contemporary image. "It is a derivative drawing of William Adams, which appears to be based in a sketch attributed to Dorothy Burmingham (from a description given by Melchior von Santvoort). The original drawing is to be found at the Rotterdam Maritime Museum [whose specialist Marcel Kroon considers it to be from Adams' time]. A copy is preserved at the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford."

See also

 Anglo-Japanese relations
 Jan Joosten – known in Japanese as Yan Yōsuten, was a Dutch colleague of Adams, and the only known Dutch samurai. The Yaesu neighbourhood in Chūō, Tokyo was named for him.
 Henry Schnell – known in Japanese as Hiramatsu Buhei, was a Prussian arms dealer, who served the Aizu domain as a military instructor and procurer of weapons.
 Eugène Collache – French Navy officer, who fought for the shōgun during the Boshin War (1868–1869).
 Jules Brunet (1838–1911) – French officer who fought for the shōgun in the Boshin War
 Ernest Mason Satow (1843–1929) – British scholar, diplomat and Japanologist
 Hendrick Hamel (1630–1692) – first European to live in the Joseon-dynasty era in Korea (1666) and write about it
 Yasuke (b. c. 1556) – a black (African) retainer briefly in the service of the Japanese warlord Nobunaga Oda
 List of foreign-born samurai in Japan
 List of Westerners who visited Japan before 1868

Notes

References
 England's Earliest Intercourse with Japan, by C. W. Hillary (1905)
 Letters written by the English Residents in Japan, ed. by N. Murakami (1900, containing Adams' Letters reprinted from Memorials of the Empire of Japan, ed. by T. Rundall, Hakluyt Society, 1850)
 Diary of Richard Cocks, with preface by N. Murakami (1899, reprinted from the Hakluyt Society ed. 1883)
 Hildreth, Richard, Japan as it was and is (1855)
 John Harris, Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca (1764), i. 856
 Voyage of John Saris, edited by Sir Ernest M. Satow (Hakluyt Society, 1900)
 Asiatic Society of Japan Transactions, xxvi. (sec. 1898) pp. I and 194, where four formerly unpublished letters of Adams are printed;
 Collection of State Papers; East Indies, China and Japan. The MS. of his logs written during his voyages to Siam and China is in the Bodleian Library at Oxford.
 Samurai William: The Adventurer Who Unlocked Japan, by Giles Milton (UK 2002: )
 William Adams and Early English Enterprise in Japan, by Anthony Farrington and Derek Massarella 
 Adams the Pilot: The Life and Times of Captain William Adams: 1564–1620, by William Corr, Curzon Press, 1995 
 The English Factory in Japan 1613–1623, ed. by Anthony Farrington, British Library, 1991. (Includes all of William Adams' extant letters, as well as his will.)
 A World Elsewhere. Europe’s Encounter with Japan in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, by Derek Massarella, Yale University Press, 1990.
 Recollections of Japan, Hendrik Doeff, 

Hardcopy
 The Needle-Watcher: The Will Adams Story, British Samurai by Richard Blaker
 Servant of the Shogun by Richard Tames. Paul Norbury Publications, Tenterden, Kent, England..
 Samurai William: The Englishman Who Opened Japan,'' by Giles Milton; ; December 2003

External links
 Williams Adams- Blue Eyed Samurai, Meeting Anjin
 "Learning from Shogun. Japanese history and Western fantasy"
 William Adams and Early English enterprise in Japan
 William Adams – The First Englishman In Japan, full text online, Internet Archive
 Will Adams Memorial
 
 
 

Samurai
Foreign samurai in Japan
1564 births
1620 deaths
16th-century English people
17th-century English people
16th-century Japanese people
17th-century Japanese people
Advisors to Tokugawa shoguns
English emigrants to Japan
English Anglicans
English sailors
Hatamoto
Japan–United Kingdom relations
People from Gillingham, Kent
Royal Navy officers
Sailors on ships of the Dutch East India Company
Foreign relations of the Tokugawa shogunate, Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. (March 8, 1841 – March 6, 1935) was an American jurist and legal scholar who served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1902 to 1932. He is one of the most widely cited United States Supreme Court justices and most influential American common law judges in history, noted for his long service, concise, and pithy opinions—particularly for opinions on civil liberties and American constitutional democracy—and deference to the decisions of elected legislatures. Holmes retired from the court at the age of 90, an unbeaten record for oldest justice on the United States Supreme Court. He previously served as a Brevet Colonel in the American Civil War, an Associate Justice and as Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, and was Weld Professor of Law at his alma mater, Harvard Law School. His positions, distinctive personality, and writing style made him a popular figure, especially with American progressives.

During his tenure on the Supreme Court, to which he was appointed by President Theodore Roosevelt, he supported the constitutionality of state economic regulation and advocated broad freedom of speech under the First Amendment, although he upheld criminal sanctions against draft protestors with the memorable maxim that "free speech would not protect a man in falsely shouting fire in a theatre and causing a panic" and formulated the groundbreaking "clear and present danger" test for a unanimous court. In a famous dissent in Abrams v. United States (1919), he wrote that he regarded the United States Constitution's theory "that the best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market" as "an experiment, as all life is an experiment" and believed that as a consequence "we should be eternally vigilant against attempts to check the expression of opinions that we loathe and believe to be fraught with death". 

He was one of only a handful of justices to be known as a scholar; The Journal of Legal Studies has identified Holmes as the third-most cited American legal scholar of the 20th century. Holmes was a legal realist, as summed up in his maxim, "The life of the law has not been logic: it has been experience", and a moral skeptic opposed to the doctrine of natural law. His jurisprudence and academic writing influenced much subsequent American legal thinking, including the judicial consensus upholding New Deal regulatory law, and the influential American schools of pragmatism, critical legal studies, and law and economics.

Early life
Holmes was born in Boston, Massachusetts, to the prominent writer and physician Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. and abolitionist Amelia Lee Jackson. Dr. Holmes was a leading figure in Boston intellectual and literary circles. Mrs. Holmes was connected to the leading families; Henry James Sr., Ralph Waldo Emerson and other transcendentalists were family friends. Known as "Wendell" in his youth, Holmes, Henry James Jr. and William James became lifelong friends. Holmes accordingly grew up in an atmosphere of intellectual achievement, and early formed the ambition to be a man of letters like Emerson. While still in Harvard College he wrote essays on philosophic themes, and asked Emerson to read his attack on Plato's idealist philosophy. Emerson famously replied, "If you strike at a king, you must kill him". He supported the Abolitionist movement that thrived in Boston society during the 1850s. At Harvard, he was a member of the Hasty Pudding and the Porcellian Club; his father had also been a member of both clubs. In the Pudding, he served as Secretary and Poet, as his father did. Holmes graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Harvard in 1861 and in the spring of that year, he enlisted in the Massachusetts militia, when President Abraham Lincoln first called for volunteers following the firing on Fort Sumter, but returned briefly to Harvard College to participate in commencement exercises.

Civil War

During his senior year of college, at the outset of the American Civil War, Holmes enlisted in the fourth battalion, Massachusetts militia, then, with his father's help, received a commission as first lieutenant in the Twentieth Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry. He saw much action, taking part in the Peninsula Campaign, the Battle of Fredericksburg and the Wilderness, suffering wounds at the Battle of Ball's Bluff, Antietam, and Chancellorsville, and suffered from a near-fatal case of dysentery. He particularly admired and was close to Henry Livermore Abbott, a fellow officer in the 20th Massachusetts. Holmes rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel, but eschewed promotion in his regiment and served on the staff of the VI Corps during the Wilderness Campaign. Abbott took command of the regiment in his place, and was later killed.

Holmes is said to have shouted to Abraham Lincoln to take cover during the Battle of Fort Stevens, although this is commonly regarded as apocryphal. Holmes himself expressed uncertainty about who had warned Lincoln ("Some say it was an enlisted man who shouted at Lincoln; others suggest it was General Wright who brusquely ordered Lincoln to safety. But for a certainty, the 6 foot 4 inch Lincoln, in frock coat and top hat, stood peering through field glasses from behind a parapet at the onrushing rebels.") and other sources state he likely was not present on the day Lincoln visited Fort Stevens.

Holmes received a brevet honorary promotion to colonel in recognition of his services during the war. He retired to his home in Boston after his three-year enlistment ended in 1864, weary and ill, his regiment disbanded.

Legal career

Lawyer

In the summer of 1864, Holmes returned to the family home in Boston, wrote poetry, and debated philosophy with his friend William James, pursuing his debate with philosophic idealism, and considered re-enlisting. But by the fall, when it became clear that the war would soon end, Holmes enrolled in Harvard Law School, "kicked into the law" by his father, as he later recalled. He attended lectures there for a single year, reading extensively in theoretical works, and then clerked for a year in his cousin Robert Morse’s office. He was admitted to the bar in 1866, and after a long visit to London to complete his education, went into law practice in Boston. He joined a small firm, and in 1872 married a childhood friend, Fanny Bowditch Dixwell, buying a farm in Mattapoisett, Massachusetts, the following year. Their marriage lasted until her death on April 30, 1929. They never had children together. They did adopt and raise an orphaned cousin, Dorothy Upham. Fanny disliked Beacon Hill society, and devoted herself to embroidery. She was described as devoted, witty, wise, tactful, and perceptive.

Whenever he could, Holmes visited London during the social season of spring and summer, and during the years of his work as a lawyer and judge in Boston he formed romantic friendships with English women of the nobility, with whom he corresponded while at home in the United States. The most important of these was his friendship with the Anglo-Irish Clare Castletown, the Lady Castletown, whose family estate in Ireland, Doneraile Court, he visited several times, and with whom he may have had a brief affair. He formed his closest intellectual friendships with British men, and became one of the founders of what was soon called the "sociological" school of jurisprudence in Great Britain, followed a generation later by the "legal realist" school in America.

Holmes practiced admiralty law and commercial law in Boston for fifteen years. It was during this time that he did his principal scholarly work, serving as an editor of the new American Law Review, reporting decisions of state supreme courts, and preparing a new edition of Kent's Commentaries, which served practitioners as a compendium of case law, at a time when official reports were scarce and difficult to obtain. He summarized his hard-won understanding in a series of lectures, collected and published as The Common Law in 1881.

The Common Law
The Common Law has been continuously in print since 1881 and remains an important contribution to jurisprudence. The book also remains controversial, for Holmes begins by rejecting various kinds of formalism in law. In his earlier writings he had expressly denied the utilitarian view that law was a set of commands of the sovereign, rules of conduct that became legal duties. He rejected as well the views of the German idealist philosophers, whose views were then widely held, and the philosophy taught at Harvard, that the opinions of judges could be harmonized in a purely logical system. In the opening paragraphs of the book, he famously summarized his own view of the history of the common law:

The life of the law has not been logic: it has been experience. The felt necessities of the time, the prevalent moral and political theories, intuitions of public policy, avowed or unconscious, even the prejudices which judges share with their fellow-men, have had a good deal more to do than the syllogism in determining the rules by which men should be governed. The law embodies the story of a nation’s development through many centuries, and it cannot be dealt with as if it contained only the axioms and corollaries of a book of mathematics.

In The Common Law, Holmes wrote that, even though the law ”uses the language of morality, it necessarily ends in external standards not dependent on the consciousness of the individual” or on his moral culpability. Foreseeability of harm was the key: ”the general basis of criminal liability was knowledge, at the time of action, of facts from which common experience showed that certain harmful results were likely to follow.” Tort liability, similarly, was imposed when circumstances were ”such as would have led a prudent man to perceive danger, although not necessarily to foresee the specific harm”. Likewise, with respect to contracts, ”The law has nothing to do with the actual state of the parties’ minds. In contract, as elsewhere, it must go by externals, and judge parties by their conduct.”

In the book, Holmes set forth his view that the only source of law, properly speaking, was a judicial decision enforced by the state. Judges decided cases on the facts, and then wrote opinions afterward presenting a rationale for their decision. The true basis of the decision was often an ”inarticulate major premise”, however. A judge was obliged to choose between contending legal arguments, each posed in absolute terms, and the true basis of his decision was sometimes drawn from outside the law, when precedents were lacking or were evenly divided.

The common law evolves because civilized society evolves, and judges share the common preconceptions of the governing class. These views endeared Holmes to the later advocates of legal realism, and made him one of the early founders of law and economics jurisprudence. Holmes famously contrasted his own scholarship with the abstract doctrines of Christopher Columbus Langdell, dean of Harvard Law School, who viewed the common law as a self-enclosed set of doctrines. Holmes viewed Langdell’s work as akin to the German philosophic idealism he had for so long resisted, opposing it with his own scientific materialism.

State court judge

Holmes was considered for a federal court judgeship in 1878 by President Rutherford B. Hayes, but Massachusetts Senator George Frisbie Hoar persuaded Hayes to nominate another candidate. In the fall of 1882, Holmes became a professor at Harvard Law School, accepting an endowed professorship that had been created for him, largely through the efforts of Louis D. Brandeis. On Friday, December 8, 1882, Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts associate justice Otis Lord decided to resign, giving outgoing Republican governor John Davis Long a chance to appoint his successor, if he could do so before the Massachusetts Governor's Council adjourned at 3 pm. Holmes's partner George Shattuck proposed him for the vacancy, Holmes quickly agreed, and there being no objection by the council, he took the oath of office on December 15, 1882. His resignation from his professorship, after only a few weeks and without notice, was resented by the law school faculty, with James Bradley Thayer finding Holmes's conduct "selfish" and "thoughtless". On August 2, 1899, Holmes became Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court following the death of Walbridge A. Field.

During his service on the Massachusetts court, Holmes continued to develop and apply his views of the common law, usually following precedent faithfully. He issued few constitutional opinions in these years, but carefully developed the principles of free expression as a common-law doctrine. He departed from precedent to recognize workers' right to organize trade unions and to strike, as long as no violence was involved, and coercion was not exerted through impermissible means such as secondary boycotts, stating in his opinions that fundamental fairness required that workers be allowed to combine to compete on an equal footing with employers. He continued to give speeches and to write articles that added to or extended his work on the common law, most notably "Privilege, Malice and Intent", in which he presented his view of the pragmatic basis of the common-law privileges extended to speech and the press, which could be defeated by a showing of malice, or of specific intent to harm. This argument would later be incorporated into his famous opinions concerning the First Amendment.

He also published an address, "The Path of the Law", which is best known for its prediction theory of law, that "[t]he prophecies of what the courts will do in fact, and nothing more pretentious, are what I mean by law", and for its "bad man" perspective on the law that "[i]f you really want to know the law and nothing else, you must look at it as a bad man, who cares only for the material consequences which such knowledge enables him to predict".

Supreme Court Justice

Overview

Soon after the resignation of Associate Justice Horace Gray in July 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt made known his intention to appoint Holmes as Gray's successor; it was the president's stated desire to fill the vacancy with someone from Massachusetts. The nomination was supported by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, the junior senator from Massachusetts, but was opposed by its senior senator, George Frisbie Hoar, who was also chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee. Hoar was a strenuous opponent of imperialism, and the legality of the annexation of Puerto Rico and the Philippines was expected to come before the Court. Lodge, like Roosevelt, was a strong supporter of imperialism, which Holmes was expected to support as well. 

Despite Hoar's opposition, the president moved ahead on the matter. On December 2, 1902, he formally submitted the nomination and Holmes was confirmed by the United States Senate on December 4. He was sworn into office on December 8.

On the bench, Holmes did vote to support the administration's position favoring the annexation of former Spanish colonies in the "Insular Cases". However, he later disappointed Roosevelt by dissenting in Northern Securities Co. v. United States, a major antitrust prosecution; the majority of the court, however, did rule against Holmes and sided with Theodore Roosevelt’s belief that Northern Securities violated the Sherman Antitrust Act. The dissent by Holmes permanently damaged his formerly close relationship with Theodore Roosevelt.

Holmes was known for his pithy, short, and frequently quoted opinions. In more than twenty-nine years on the Supreme Court bench, he ruled on cases spanning the whole range of federal law. He is remembered for prescient opinions on topics as widely separated as copyright, the law of contempt, the antitrust status of professional baseball, and the oath required for citizenship. Holmes, like most of his contemporaries, viewed the Bill of Rights as codifying privileges obtained over the centuries in English and American common law, and was able to establish that view in numerous opinions of the Court. He is considered one of the greatest judges in American history and embodies for many the traditions of the common law, which are now challenged by originalists who insist the text of the Constitution trumps any common-law precedents that depart from the original understanding of its meaning.

From the departure of William Howard Taft on February 3, 1930 until Charles Evans Hughes took office on February 24, 1930, Holmes briefly acted as the Chief Justice and presided over court sessions.

Noteworthy rulings

Otis v. Parker

Beginning with his first opinion for the Court in Otis v. Parker, Holmes declared that ”due process of law”, the fundamental principle of fairness, protected people from unreasonable legislation but was limited only to those fundamental principles enshrined in the common law and did not protect most economic interests.

Schenck v. United States

In a series of opinions surrounding the World War I Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918, he held that the freedom of expression guaranteed by federal and state constitutions simply declared a common-law privilege for speech and the press, even when those expressions caused injury, but that privilege would be defeated by a showing of malice or intent to do harm. Holmes came to write three unanimous opinions for the Supreme Court that arose from prosecutions under the 1917 Espionage Act because in an earlier case, Baltzer v. United States, he had circulated a powerfully expressed dissent, when the majority had voted to uphold a conviction of immigrant socialists who had circulated a petition criticizing the draft. Apparently learning that he was likely to publish this dissent, the government (perhaps alerted by Justice Louis D. Brandeis, newly appointed by President Woodrow Wilson) abandoned the case, and it was dismissed by the Court. The Chief Justice then asked Holmes to write opinions that could be unanimous, upholding convictions in three similar cases, where there were jury findings that speeches or leaflets were published with an intent to obstruct the draft, a crime under the 1917 law. Although there was no evidence that the attempts had succeeded, Holmes, in Schenck v. United States (1919), held for a unanimous Court that an attempt, purely by language, could be prosecuted if the expression, in the circumstances in which it was uttered, posed a "clear and present danger" that the legislature had properly forbidden. In his opinion for the Court, Holmes famously declared that the First Amendment would not protect a person "falsely shouting fire in a theatre and causing a panic". Although much criticized, Schenck remained an important precedent until it was superseded by the 1969 Supreme Court decision in Brandenburg v. Ohio, which held that "advocacy of the use of force or of law violation" is protected unless "such advocacy is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or produce such action".

Abrams v. United States
Later in 1919, however, in Abrams v. United States, Holmes was again in dissent. The Wilson Administration was vigorously prosecuting those suspected of sympathies with the recent Russian Revolution, as well as opponents of the war against Germany. The defendants in this case were socialists and anarchists, recent immigrants from Russia who opposed the apparent efforts of the United States to intervene in the Russian Civil War. They were charged with violating the Sedition Act of 1918, which was an amendment to the Espionage Act of 1917 that made criticisms of the government or the war effort a crime. Abrams and his co-defendants were charged with distributing leaflets (one in English and one in Yiddish) that called for a "general strike" to protest the U.S. intervention in Russia. A majority of the Court voted to uphold the convictions and sentences of ten and twenty years, to be followed by deportation, while Holmes dissented. The majority claimed to be following the precedents already set in Schenck and the other cases in which Holmes had written for the Court, but Holmes insisted that the defendants' leaflets neither threatened to cause any harm, nor showed a specific intent to hinder the war effort. Holmes condemned the Wilson Administration's prosecution and its insistence on draconian sentences for the defendants in passionate language: "Even if I am technically wrong [regarding the defendants' intent] and enough can be squeezed from these poor and puny anonymities to turn the color of legal litmus paper ... the most nominal punishment seems to me all that possibly could be inflicted, unless the defendants are to be made to suffer, not for what the indictment alleges, but for the creed that they avow ... ." Holmes then went on to explain the importance of freedom of thought in a democracy:

In writing this dissent, Holmes may have been influenced by Zechariah Chafee’s article ”Freedom of Speech in War Time”. Chafee had criticized Holmes’s opinion in Schenck for failing to express in more detail and more clearly the common-law doctrines upon which he relied. In his Abrams dissent, Holmes did elaborate somewhat on the decision in Schenck, roughly along the lines that Chafee had suggested. Although Holmes evidently believed that he was adhering to his own precedent, some later commentators accused Holmes of inconsistency, even of seeking to curry favor with his young admirers. In Abrams, the majority opinion relied on the clear-and-present-danger formulation of Schenck, claiming that the leaflets showed the necessary intent, and ignoring the point that they were unlikely to have any effect. In later opinions, the Supreme Court departed from this line of reasoning where the validity of a statute was in question, adopting the principle that a legislature could properly declare that some forms of speech posed a clear and present danger, regardless of the circumstances in which they were uttered. Holmes continued to dissent.

Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States
In Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States (1920), Holmes ruled that any evidence obtained, even indirectly, from an illegal search was inadmissible in court. He reasoned that otherwise, police would have an incentive to circumvent the Fourth Amendment to obtain derivatives of the illegally obtained evidence, so any evidence resulting indirectly from an illegal search must be similarly suppressed. This later became known as the "fruit of the poisonous tree" doctrine.

Buck v. Bell
In 1927, Holmes wrote the 8–1 majority opinion in Buck v. Bell, a case that upheld the Virginia Sterilization Act of 1924 and the forced sterilization of Carrie Buck, who was claimed to be mentally defective. Later scholarship has shown that the suit was collusive, in that "two eugenics enthusiasts ... had chosen Buck as a bit player in a test case that they had devised", and "had asked Buck's guardian to challenge [the Virginia sterilization law]". In addition, Carrie Buck was probably of normal intelligence. The argument made on her behalf was principally that the statute requiring sterilization of institutionalized persons was unconstitutional, as a violation of what today is called "substantive due process". Holmes repeated familiar arguments that statutes would not be struck down if they appeared on their face to have a reasonable basis. In support of his argument that the interest of ”public welfare” outweighs the interest of individuals in their bodily integrity, he argued:

Sterilization rates under eugenics laws in the United States climbed from 1927 until Skinner v. Oklahoma, 316 U.S. 535 (1942), in which the U.S. Supreme Court declared unconstitutional an Oklahoma statute that provided for the sterilization of "habitual criminals".

Buck v. Bell continues to be cited occasionally in support of due process requirements for state interventions in medical procedures. For instance, in 2001, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit cited Buck v. Bell to protect the constitutional rights of a woman coerced into sterilization without procedural due process. The court stated that error and abuse will result if the state does not follow the procedural requirements, established by Buck v. Bell, for performing an involuntary sterilization. Buck v. Bell was also cited briefly, though not discussed, in Roe v. Wade, in support of the proposition that the Court does not recognize an "unlimited right to do with one's body as one pleases". However, although Buck v. Bell has not been overturned, ”the Supreme Court has distinguished the case out of existence”.

Jurisprudential contributions

Critique of formalism
From his earliest writings, Holmes demonstrated a lifelong belief that the decisions of judges were consciously or unconsciously result-oriented and reflected the mores of the class and society from which judges were drawn. Holmes accordingly argued that legal rules are not deduced through formal logic but rather emerge from an active process of human self-government. He explored these theories in his 1881 book The Common Law. His philosophy represented a departure from the prevailing jurisprudence of the time: legal formalism, which held that law was an orderly system of rules from which decisions in particular cases could be deduced. Holmes sought to consciously reinvent the common law – to modernize it as a tool for adjusting to the changing nature of modern life, as judges of the past had done more or less unconsciously. He has been classed with the philosophic pragmatists, although pragmatism is what he attributed to the law, rather than his personal philosophy.

Central to his thought was the notion that the law, as it had evolved in modern societies, was concerned with the material results of a defendant's actions. A judge's task was to decide which of two parties before him would bear the cost of an injury. Holmes argued that the evolving common law standard was that liability would fall upon a person whose conduct failed to reflect the prudence of a "reasonable man". If a construction worker throws a beam onto a crowded street:

This ”objective standard” adopted by common-law judges, Holmes thought, reflected a shift in community standards, away from condemnation of a person’s act toward an impersonal assessment of its value to the community. In the modern world, the advances made in biology and the social sciences should allow a better conscious determination of the results of individual acts and the proper measure of liability for them. This belief in the pronouncements of science concerning social welfare, although he later doubted its applicability to law in many cases, accounts for his enthusiastic endorsement of eugenics in his writings, and his opinion in the case of Buck v. Bell.

Legal positivism
In 1881, in The Common Law, Holmes brought together into a coherent whole his earlier articles and lectures concerning the history of the common law (judicial decisions in England and the United States), which he interpreted from the perspective of a practicing lawyer. What counted as law, to a lawyer, was what judges did in particular cases. Law was what the state would enforce, through violence if necessary; echoes of his experience in the Civil War were always present in his writings. Judges decided where and when the force of the state would be brought to bear, and judges in the modern world tended to consult facts and consequences when deciding what conduct to punish. The decisions of judges, viewed over time, determined the rules of conduct and the legal duties by which all are bound. Judges did not and should not consult any external system of morality, certainly not a system imposed by a deity.

Holmes brought himself into constant conflict with scholars who believed that legal duties rested upon natural law, a moral order of the kind invoked by Christian theologians and other philosophic idealists. He believed instead "that men make their own laws; that these laws do not flow from some mysterious omnipresence in the sky, and that judges are not independent mouthpieces of the infinite." ”The common law is not a brooding omnipresence in the sky. ... ” Rather than a set of abstract, rational, mathematical, or in any way unworldly set of principles, Holmes said: "[T]he prophecies of what the courts will do in fact, and nothing more pretentious, are what I mean by the law."

His belief that law, properly speaking, was a set of generalizations from what judges had done in similar cases, determined his view of the Constitution of the United States. As a justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, Holmes rejected the argument that the text of the Constitution should be applied directly to cases that came before the court, as if it were a statute. He shared with most of his fellow judges the belief that the Constitution carried forward principles derived from the common law, principles that continued to evolve in American courts. The text of the Constitution itself, as originally understood, was not a set of rules, but only a directive to courts to consider the body of the common law when deciding cases that arose under the Constitution. It followed that constitutional principles adopted from the common law were evolving, as the law itself evolved: "A word [in the Constitution] is not a crystal, transparent and unchanged, it is the skin of a living thought...."

The provisions of the Constitution are not mathematical formulas that have their essence in form, they are organic, living institutions transplanted from English soil. Their significance is vital, not formal; it is to be gathered not simply by taking the words and a dictionary but by considering their origin and the line of their growth.

Holmes also insisted on the separation of ”ought” and ”is”, confusion of which he saw as an obstacle in understanding the realities of the law. "The law is full of phraseology drawn from morals, and talks about rights and duties, malice, intent, and negligence – and nothing is easier in legal reasoning than to take these words in their moral sense". "Therefore nothing but confusion can result from assuming that the rights of man in a moral sense are equally rights in the sense of the Constitution and the law".  Holmes said, ”I think our morally tinted words have caused a great deal of confused thinking”.

Nevertheless, in rejecting morality as a form of natural law outside of and superior to human enactments, Holmes was not rejecting moral principles that were the result of enforceable law: "The law is the witness and external deposit of our moral life. Its history is the history of the moral development of the race. The practice of it, in spite of popular jests, tends to make good citizens and good men. When I emphasize the difference between law and morals I do so with reference to a single end, that of learning and understanding the law." Holmes's insistence on the material basis of law, on the facts of a case, has led some to characterize him as unfeeling, however. George Washington University law professor Jeffrey Rosen summarized Holmes's views this way: "Holmes was a cold and brutally cynical man who had contempt for the masses and for the progressive laws he voted to uphold ... an aristocratic nihilist who once told his sister that he loathed 'the thick-fingered clowns we call the people'."

Reputation as a dissenter

Although Holmes did not dissent frequently — during his 29 years on the U.S. Supreme Court, he wrote only 72 separate opinions, whereas he penned 852 majority opinions — his dissents were often prescient and acquired so much authority that he became known as "The Great Dissenter". Chief Justice Taft complained that "his opinions are short, and not very helpful". Two of his most famous dissents were in Abrams v. United States and Lochner v. New York.

Speeches and letters

Speeches
Only Holmes’s legal writings were readily available during his life and in the first years after his death, but he confided his thoughts more freely in talks, often to limited audiences, and more than two thousand letters that have survived. Holmes's executor, John Gorham Palfrey, diligently collected Holmes’s published and unpublished papers and donated them (and their copyrights) to Harvard Law School. Harvard Law Professor Mark De Wolfe Howe undertook to edit the papers and was authorized by the school to publish them and to prepare a biography of Holmes. Howe published several volumes of correspondence, beginning with Holmes’s correspondence with Frederick Pollock, and a volume of Holmes's speeches, before his untimely death. Howe's work formed the basis of much subsequent Holmes scholarship.

Holmes's speeches were divided into two groups: public addresses, which he gathered into a slim volume, regularly updated, that he gave to friends and used as a visiting card, and less formal addresses to men's clubs, dinners, law schools, and Twentieth Regiment reunions. All of the speeches are reproduced in the third volume of The Collected Works of Justice Holmes. The public addresses are Holmes’s effort to express his personal philosophy in Emersonian, poetic terms. They frequently advert to the Civil War and to death, and express a hope that personal sacrifice, however pointless it may seem, serves to advance the human race toward some as-yet unforeseen goal. This mysterious purpose explained the commitment to duty and honor that Holmes felt deeply himself and that he thought was the birthright of a certain class of men. As Holmes stated at a talk upon receiving an honorary degree from Yale:

In the 1890s, at a time when "scientific" anthropology that spoke of racial differences was in vogue, his observations took on a bleakly Darwinist cast:

This talk was widely reprinted and admired at the time, and may have contributed to the popular name given by the press to the 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry (the "Rough Riders") during the Spanish–American War.

On May 30, 1895, Holmes gave the address at a Memorial Day function held by the Graduating Class of Harvard University in Boston, Massachusetts. The speech, which came to be known as "The Soldier's Faith", expressed Holmes's view of the nature of war, and the conflict between the high ideals that motivated his generation to fight in the civil war, and the reality of a soldier's experience and personal pledge to follow orders into battle. Holmes stated:

In the conclusion of the speech, Holmes said:

Theodore Roosevelt reportedly admired Holmes's "Soldier's Faith" speech, and it is believed to have contributed to his decision to nominate Holmes to the Supreme Court.

Letters

Many of Holmes's closest male friends were in England and he corresponded with them regularly and at length, speaking usually of his work. Letters to friends in England such as Harold Laski and Frederick Pollock contain frank discussion of his decisions and his fellow justices. In the United States, letters to male friends Morris R. Cohen, Lewis Einstein, Felix Frankfurter, and Franklin Ford are similar, although the letters to Frankfurter are especially personal. Holmes’s correspondence with women in Great Britain and the U.S. was at least as extensive, and in many ways more revealing, but these series of letters have not been published. An extensive selection of letters to Claire Castletown, in Ireland, is included in Honorable Justice: The Life of Oliver Wendell Holmes, by Sheldon Novick. These letters are closer to Holmes’s conversation and cast light upon the style he adopted in judicial opinions, which were often designed to be read aloud.

In a letter to a contemporary, Holmes made this comment on international comparisons: "Judge not a people by the ferocity of its men, but by the steadfastness of its women."

Retirement, death, honors and legacy

Holmes was widely admired during his last years, and on his ninetieth birthday was honored on one of the first coast-to-coast radio broadcasts, during which the Chief Justice, the Dean of Yale Law School, and the president of the American Bar Association read encomia; the Bar Association presented him with a gold medal.  Holmes served on the court until January 12, 1932, when his brethren on the court, citing his advanced age, suggested that the time had come for him to step down. By that time, at 90 years and 10 months of age, he was the oldest justice to serve in the court's history, and his record has only been challenged by John Paul Stevens in 2010, who retired when only 8 months younger than Holmes had been at retirement. On Holmes’s ninety-second birthday, newly inaugurated President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his wife Eleanor, called on Holmes at his home in Washington, D.C. Holmes died of pneumonia in Washington on March 6, 1935, two days short of his 94th birthday. He was the last living Justice of the Fuller Court and had been between 1925 and 1932 the last Justice of that Court to remain on the bench.

In his will, Holmes left his residuary estate to the United States government (he had earlier said that ”taxes are what we pay for civilized society” in Compañia General de Tabacos de Filipinas vs. Collector of Internal Revenue, 275 U.S. 87, 100 (1927).) After his death, his personal effects included his Civil War Officer’s uniform still stained with his blood and ’torn with shot’ as well as the Minié balls that had wounded him three times in separate battles. Holmes was buried beside his wife in Arlington National Cemetery.

The United States Postal Service honored Holmes with a Prominent Americans series (1965–1978) 15¢ postage stamp.

Holmes's papers, donated to Harvard Law School, were kept closed for many years after his death, a circumstance that gave rise to somewhat fanciful accounts of his life. Catherine Drinker Bowen’s fictionalized biography Yankee from Olympus was a long-time bestseller, and the 1946 Broadway play and  1950 Hollywood motion picture The Magnificent Yankee were based on a biography of Holmes by Francis Biddle, who had been one of his secretaries. Much of the scholarly literature addressing Holmes’s opinions was written before much was known about his life, and before a coherent account of his views was available. The Harvard Law Library eventually relented and made available to scholars the extensive Holmes papers, collected and annotated by Mark DeWolfe Howe, who died before he was able to complete his own biography of the justice. In 1989, the first full biography based on Holmes's papers was published, and several other biographies have followed.

Congress established the U.S. Permanent Committee for the Oliver Wendell Holmes Devise within the Library of Congress with the funds he left to the United States in his will which were used to create a memorial garden at the Supreme Court building and to publish an ongoing series on the history of the Supreme Court.

Holmes' summer house in Beverly, Massachusetts, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1972, recognition for his contributions to American jurisprudence.

Justice Holmes was an honorary member of the Connecticut Society of the Cincinnati.

Clerks

"Many secretaries formed close friendships with one another", wrote Tony Hiss, son of Alger Hiss, about the special club of clerks of Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. They included:
 Robert M. Benjamin (later, lawyer for an appeal by Alger Hiss)
 Laurence Curtis, U.S. Representative
 Alger Hiss, president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and convicted perjurer
 Donald Hiss, partner, Covington & Burling law firm
 Irving Sands Olds, chairman of U.S. Steel
 H. Chapman Rose, Undersecretary of the United States Treasury
 Chauncey Belknap, partner at Patterson, Belknap, Webb & Tyler, one of largest law firms in New York during his time, and an attorney for the Rockefeller Foundation

In popular culture
 American actor Louis Calhern portrayed Holmes in the 1946 play The Magnificent Yankee, with Dorothy Gish as Holmes's wife Fanny. In 1950, Calhern repeated his performance in Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's film version  The Magnificent Yankee, for which he received his only Academy Award nomination. Ann Harding co-starred in the film. A 1965 television adaptation of the play starred Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne in one of their few appearances on the small screen.
 In the movie Judgment at Nuremberg (1961), defense advocate Hans Rolfe (Maximilian Schell) quotes Holmes twice. First, with one of his earlier opinions:

Second, on the sterilization laws enacted in Virginia and upheld by the Supreme Court in Buck v. Bell:

 This was in relation to Holmes' support for eugenics laws in the United States, which Rolfe argued were not different in principle from the Nazi laws. In the earlier Playhouse 90 television version from 1959, which also quotes Holmes in this context, the tribunal judge Ives, who ultimately presents a dissenting verdict, is played by the actor Wendell Holmes (1914–1962), born Oliver Wendell Holmes.
 Holmes appears as a minor character in Bernard Cornwell's novels Copperhead and The Bloody Ground, the second and fourth volumes of his Starbuck Chronicles; the novels portray the battles of Ball's Bluff and Antietam, in both of which the young Lieutenant Holmes was wounded in action.
 The 1960s television sitcom Green Acres starred Eddie Albert as a character named Oliver Wendell Douglas, a Manhattan white shoe lawyer who gives up the law to become a farmer.
 The 1980 comic strip Bloom County features a character named Oliver Wendell Jones, a young computer hacker and gifted scientist.

See also

 Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States
 Freedom for the Thought That We Hate
 List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States
 List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 2)
 List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office
 Prediction theory of law
 List of people on the cover of Time Magazine: 1920s (March 15, 1926)
 Skepticism in law
 List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Fuller Court
 List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Hughes Court
 List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taft Court
 List of United States Supreme Court cases by the White Court

References

Explanatory notes

Citations

General bibliography 
 
 Collins, Ronald K.L., ed., The Fundamental Holmes: A Free Speech Chronicle and Reader (Cambridge University Press, 2010)
 
 
 
 
 Hoeflich, Michael H. and Davies, Ross E., eds. (2021). The Black Book of Justice Holmes: Text Transcript and Commentary. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. . Interview with editors 
 Holmes, Oliver Wendell (1920). Collected Legal Papers. Harcourt, Brace and Company.

Further reading 
 Abraham, Henry J., Justices, Presidents, and Senators: A History of the U.S. Supreme Court Appointments from Washington to Bush II (5th ed., 2007). New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. .
 Aichele, Gary, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.: Soldier, Scholar, Judge. Twayne Publishers, 1989.
  1991.
 Biddle, Francis, Mr. Justice Holmes. Scribner, 1942.
 Biddle, Francis, Justice Holmes, Natural Law, and the Supreme Court. MacMillan, 1961. Reviewed
 Brown, Richard Maxwell, No Duty to Retreat: Violence and Values in American History and Society. (University of Oklahoma Press, Norman Publishing Division of the University, by arrangement with Oxford University Press, Inc., 1991). 
 Budiansky, Stephen, Oliver Wendell Holmes: A Life in War, Law, and Ideas. W.W. Norton & Company, 2019.
 Burton, Steven J., ed., The Path of the Law And Its Influence: The Legacy of Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. Cambridge University Press, 2000.
 Cushman, Clare, The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies,1789-1995 (2nd ed.)  (Supreme Court Historical Society), (Congressional Quarterly Books, 2001) .
 Frank, John P., The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions (Leon Friedman and Fred L. Israel, editors) (Chelsea House Publishers, 1995) .
 Frankfurter, Felix, ed., Mr. Justice Holmes. Coward-McCann, Inc., 1931.
 Gordon, Robert W., ed., The Legacy of Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. Stanford University Press, 1992.
 Grant, Susan-Mary, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.: Civil War Soldier, Supreme Court Justice. Routledge, 2016.
 Hall, Kermit L., ed., The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. .
 Hurst, James Willard, Justice Holmes on Legal History. The Macmillan Company, 1964.
 Kang, John M., Oliver Wendell Holmes and Fixations of Manliness. Routledge, 2018. Reviewed
 Kellogg, Frederic R., Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., Legal Theory, and Judicial Restraint. Cambridge University Press, 2007.
 Kellogg, Frederic R., Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. and Legal Logic. The University of Chicago Press, 2018.
 Kornstein, Daniel, The Second Greatest American. AuthorHouse, 2017.
 Lerner, Max, ed., The Mind and Faith of Justice Holmes: His Speeches, Essays, Letters, and Judicial Opinions. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1943.
 Lewis, Anthony, Freedom for the Thought That We Hate: A Biography of the First Amendment (Basic ideas. New York: Basic Books, 2007). .
 Lian, Alexander, Stereoscopic Law: Oliver Wendell Holmes and Legal Education. Cambridge University Press, 2020.
 Martin, Fenton S. and Goehlert, Robert U., The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography. Congressional Quarterly Books, 1990. .
 Matteson, John, A Worse Place Than Hell: How the Civil War Battle of Fredericksburg Changed a Nation. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2021. .
 Menand, Louis, The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001. .
 Mendenhall, Allen, Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., Pragmatism, and the Jurisprudence of Agon: Aesthetic Dissent and the Common Law. Bucknell University Press, 2016.
 Monagan, John S., The Grand Panjandrum: Mellow Years of Justice Holmes. Lanham: University Press of America, 1988. .
 Rabban, David M., Law's History: American Legal Thought and the Transatlantic Turn to History. Cambridge University Press, 2012. .
 Rosenberg, David, The Hidden Holmes: His Theory of Torts in History. Harvard University Press, 1995. .
 Shriver, Harry C., ed., Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes: His Book Notices and Uncollected Letters and Papers. Central Book Co., 1936.
 Snyder, Brad, The House of Truth: A Washington Political Salon and the Foundations of American Liberalism. Oxford University Press, 2017.
 Urofsky, Melvin I., The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary (New York: Garland Publishing, 1994). 590 pp. .
 Vannatta, Seth, ed.,  The Pragmatism and Prejudice of Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. Lexington Books, 2019.
 Wells, Catharine Pierce, Oliver Wendell Holmes: A Willing Servant to an Unknown God. Cambridge University Press, 2020.
 White, G. Edward, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes: Law and the Inner Self. Oxford University Press, 1993.
 White, G. Edward, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. Oxford University Press, 2006.

External links

 Fanny Holmes, Wife Of Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.
 Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., American Jurist
 
 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., Recalls Famed Abraham Lincoln Fort Stevens Visit, Original Letter at Shapell Manuscript Foundation
 
 Holmes' Dissenting Opinion, Abrams vs. United States, 10 November 1919
 
 
 
 Booknotes interview with Liva Baker on The Justice from Beacon Hill: The Life and Times of Oliver Wendell Holmes, September 8, 1991.

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sentences: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as motor neurone disease (MND) or Lou Gehrig's disease, is a neurodegenerative disease that results in the progressive loss of motor neurons that control voluntary muscles. ALS is the most common type of motor neuron disease. Early symptoms of ALS include stiff muscles, muscle twitches, and gradual increasing weakness and muscle wasting. Limb-onset ALS begins with weakness in the arms or legs, while bulbar-onset ALS begins with difficulty speaking or swallowing. Half of the people with ALS develop at least mild difficulties with thinking and behavior, and about 15% develop frontotemporal dementia. Most people experience pain. The affected muscles are responsible for chewing food, speaking, and walking. Motor neuron loss continues until the ability to eat, speak, move, and finally the ability to breathe is lost. ALS eventually causes paralysis and early death, usually from respiratory failure.

Most cases of ALS (about 90% to 95%) have no known cause, and are known as sporadic ALS. However, both genetic and environmental factors are believed to be involved. The remaining 5% to 10% of cases have a genetic cause linked to a history of the disease in the family, and these are known as familial ALS. About half of these genetic cases are due to one of two specific genes. ALS and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) are considered to be part of a common disease spectrum (ALS-FTD) because of genetic, clinical, and pathological similarities. The underlying mechanism involves damage to both upper and lower motor neurons; in ALS-FTD, neurons in the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain die as well. The diagnosis is based on a person's signs and symptoms, with testing done to rule out other potential causes.

There is no known cure for ALS. The goal of treatment is to improve symptoms. A medication called riluzole may extend life by about two to three months. Non-invasive ventilation may result in both improved quality and length of life. Mechanical ventilation can prolong survival but does not stop disease progression. A feeding tube may help. The disease can affect people of any age, but usually starts around the age of 60 and in inherited cases around the age of 50. The average survival from onset to death is two to four years, though this can vary, and about 10% survive longer than 10 years, and death is usually due to respiratory failure. In Europe, the disease affects about two to three people per 100,000 per year. Rates in much of the world are unclear. In the United States, it is more common in white people than in black people.

Descriptions of the disease date back to at least 1824 by Charles Bell. In 1869, the connection between the symptoms and the underlying neurological problems was first described by French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot, who in 1874 began using the term amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. It became well known in the United States in the 20th century when in 1939 it affected baseball player Lou Gehrig (leading to his death two years later), and later worldwide, following the 1963 diagnosis of then 21 year old cosmologist Stephen Hawking. However, unlike most ALS sufferers, Hawking managed to survive his illness for another 55 years. The first ALS gene was discovered in 1993 while the first animal model was developed in 1994. In 2014, videos of the Ice Bucket Challenge went viral on the Internet and increased public awareness of the condition.

Classification
ALS is a motor neuron disease, also spelled "motor neurone disease", which is a group of neurological disorders that selectively affect motor neurons, the cells that control voluntary muscles of the body. Other motor neuron diseases include primary lateral sclerosis (PLS), progressive muscular atrophy (PMA), progressive bulbar palsy, pseudobulbar palsy, and monomelic amyotrophy (MMA).

ALS itself can be classified in a few different ways: by how fast the disease progresses which is related to the age of onset; by whether it is familial or sporadic, and by the region first affected. In about 25% of cases, muscles in the face, mouth, and throat are affected first because motor neurons in the part of the brainstem called the medulla oblongata (formerly called the "bulb") start to die first along with lower motor neurons. This form is called "bulbar-onset ALS". In about 5% of cases, muscles in the trunk of the body are affected first. In most cases the disease spreads and affects other spinal cord regions. A few people with ALS have symptoms that are limited to one spinal cord region for at least 12 to 24 months before spreading to a second region; these regional variants of ALS are associated with a better prognosis.

Classical ALS, PLS, and PMA

ALS can be classified by the types of motor neurons that are affected. Typical or "classical" ALS involves upper motor neurons in the brain and lower motor neurons in the spinal cord. Primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) involves only upper motor neurons, and progressive muscular atrophy (PMA) involves only lower motor neurons. There is debate over whether PLS and PMA are separate diseases or simply variants of ALS.

Classic ALS accounts for about 70% of all cases of ALS and can be subdivided into limb-onset ALS (also known as spinal-onset) and bulbar-onset ALS. Limb-onset ALS begins with weakness in the arms and legs and accounts for about two-thirds of all classic ALS cases. Bulbar-onset ALS begins with weakness in the muscles of speech, chewing, and swallowing and accounts for the other one-third of cases. Bulbar onset is associated with a worse prognosis than limb-onset ALS; a population-based study found that bulbar-onset ALS has a median survival of 2.0 years and a 10-year survival rate of 3%, while limb-onset ALS has a median survival of 2.6 years and a 10-year survival rate of 13%. A rare variant is respiratory-onset ALS that accounts for about 3% of all cases of ALS, in which the initial symptoms are difficulty breathing (dyspnea) with exertion, at rest, or while lying down (orthopnea). Spinal and bulbar symptoms tend to be mild or absent at the beginning. It is more common in males. Respiratory-onset ALS has the worst prognosis of any ALS variant; in a population-based study, those with respiratory-onset had a median survival of 1.4 years and 0% survival at 10 years.

Primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) accounts for about 5% of all cases of ALS and affects upper motor neurons in the arms and legs. However, more than 75% of people with apparent PLS develop lower motor neuron signs within four years of symptom onset, meaning that a definite diagnosis of PLS cannot be made until then. PLS has a better prognosis than classic ALS, as it progresses slower, results in less functional decline, does not affect the ability to breathe, and causes less severe weight loss.

Progressive muscular atrophy (PMA) accounts for about 5% of all cases of ALS and affects lower motor neurons in the arms and legs. While PMA is associated with longer survival on average than classic ALS, it still progresses to other spinal cord regions over time, eventually leading to respiratory failure and death. Upper motor neuron signs can develop late in the course of PMA, in which case the diagnosis might be changed to classic ALS.

Regional variants
Regional variants of ALS have symptoms that are limited to a single spinal cord region for at least a year; they progress more slowly than classic ALS and are associated with longer survival. Examples include flail arm syndrome, flail leg syndrome, and isolated bulbar ALS. Flail arm syndrome and flail leg syndrome are often considered to be regional variants of PMA because they only involve lower motor neurons. Isolated bulbar ALS can involve upper or lower motor neurons. These regional variants of ALS cannot be diagnosed at the onset of symptoms; a failure of the disease to spread to other spinal cord regions for an extended period of time (at least 12 months) must be observed.

Flail arm syndrome, also called brachial amyotrophic diplegia, is characterized by lower motor neuron damage in the cervical spinal cord only, leading to gradual onset of weakness in the proximal arm muscles and decreased or absent reflexes. Flail leg syndrome, also called leg amyotrophic diplegia, is characterized by lower motor neuron damage in the lumbosacral spinal cord only, leading to gradual onset of weakness in the legs and decreased or absent reflexes. Isolated bulbar ALS is characterized by upper or lower motor neuron damage in the bulbar region only, leading to gradual onset of difficulty with speech (dysarthria) and swallowing (dysphagia); breathing (respiration) is generally preserved, at least initially. Two small studies have shown that people with isolated bulbar ALS may live longer than people with bulbar-onset ALS.

Age of onset
ALS can also be classified based on the age of onset. While the peak age of onset is 58 to 63 for sporadic ALS and 47 to 52 for familial ALS, about 10% of all cases of ALS begin before age 45 ("young-onset" ALS), and about 1% of all cases begin before age 25 (juvenile ALS). People who develop young-onset ALS are more likely to be male, less likely to have bulbar onset of symptoms, and more likely to have a slower progression of disease. Juvenile ALS is more likely to be familial than adult-onset ALS; genes known to be associated with juvenile ALS include ALS2, SETX, SPG11, FUS, and SIGMAR1. Although most people with juvenile ALS live longer than those with adult-onset ALS, some of them have specific mutations in FUS and SOD1 that are associated with a poor prognosis. Late onset (after age 65) is associated with a more rapid functional decline and shorter survival.

Signs and symptoms 
The disorder causes muscle weakness, atrophy, and muscle spasms throughout the body due to the degeneration of the upper motor and lower motor neurons. Individuals affected by the disorder may ultimately lose the ability to initiate and control all voluntary movement, although bladder and bowel function and the extraocular muscles (the muscles responsible for eye movement) are usually spared until the final stages of the disease.

Cognitive or behavioral dysfunction is present in 30–50% of individuals with ALS. Around half of people with ALS will experience mild changes in cognition and behavior, and 10–15% will show signs of frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Most people with ALS who have normal cognition at the time of diagnosis have preserved cognition throughout the course of their disease; the development of cognitive impairment in those with normal cognition at baseline is associated with a worse prognosis.  Repeating phrases or gestures, apathy, and loss of inhibition are frequently reported behavioral features of ALS. Language dysfunction, executive dysfunction, and troubles with social cognition and verbal memory are the most commonly reported cognitive symptoms in ALS; a meta-analysis found no relationship between dysfunction and disease severity. However, cognitive and behavioral dysfunctions have been found to correlate with reduced survival in people with ALS and increased caregiver burden; this may be due in part to deficits in social cognition. About half the people who have ALS experience emotional lability, in which they cry or laugh for no reason; it is more common in those with bulbar-onset ALS.

Pain is a symptom experienced by most people with ALS and can take the form of neuropathic pain (pain caused by nerve damage), spasticity, muscle cramps, and nociceptive pain caused by reduced mobility and muscle weakness; examples of nociceptive pain in ALS include contractures (permanent shortening of a muscle or joint), neck pain, back pain, shoulder pain, and pressure ulcers.

Sensory nerves and the autonomic nervous system are generally unaffected, meaning the majority of people with ALS maintain hearing, sight, touch, smell, and taste.

Initial symptoms 
The start of ALS may be so subtle that the symptoms are overlooked. The earliest symptoms of ALS are muscle weakness or muscle atrophy. Other presenting symptoms include trouble swallowing or breathing, cramping, or stiffness of affected muscles; muscle weakness affecting an arm or a leg; or slurred and nasal speech. The parts of the body affected by early symptoms of ALS depend on which motor neurons in the body are damaged first.

In limb-onset ALS, the first symptoms are in the arms or the legs. If the legs are affected first, people may experience awkwardness, tripping, or stumbling when walking or running; this is often marked by walking with a "dropped foot" that drags gently on the ground. If the arms are affected first, they may experience difficulty with tasks requiring manual dexterity, such as buttoning a shirt, writing, or turning a key in a lock.

In bulbar-onset ALS, the first symptoms are difficulty speaking or swallowing. Speech may become slurred, nasal in character, or quieter. There may be difficulty with swallowing and loss of tongue mobility. A smaller proportion of people experience "respiratory-onset" ALS, where the intercostal muscles that support breathing are affected first.

Over time, people experience increasing difficulty moving, swallowing (dysphagia), and speaking or forming words (dysarthria). Symptoms of upper motor neuron involvement include tight and stiff muscles (spasticity) and exaggerated reflexes (hyperreflexia), including an overactive gag reflex. An abnormal reflex commonly called Babinski's sign also indicates upper motor neuron damage. Symptoms of lower motor neuron degeneration include muscle weakness and atrophy, muscle cramps, and fleeting twitches of muscles that can be seen under the skin (fasciculations). However, twitching is more of a side effect than a diagnostic symptom; it either occurs after or accompanies weakness and atrophy.

Progression 
Although the initial symptoms and rate of progression vary from person to person, the disease eventually spreads to unaffected regions and the affected regions become more affected. Most people eventually are not able to walk or use their hands and arms, lose the ability to speak and swallow food and their own saliva, and begin to lose the ability to cough and to breathe on their own.

The rate of progression can be measured using the ALS Functional Rating Scale - Revised (ALSFRS-R), a 12-item instrument survey administered as a clinical interview or self-reported questionnaire that produces a score between 48 (normal function) and 0 (severe disability); it is the most commonly used outcome measure in clinical trials and is used by doctors to track disease progression. Though the degree of variability is high and a small percentage of people have a much slower disorder, on average, people with ALS lose about 0.9 FRS points per month. A survey-based study among clinicians showed that they rated a 20% change in the slope of the ALSFRS-R as being clinically meaningful.

Disease progression tends to be slower in people who are younger than 40 at onset, are mildly obese, have symptoms restricted primarily to one limb, and those with primarily upper motor neuron symptoms. Conversely, progression is faster and prognosis poorer in people with bulbar-onset ALS, respiratory-onset ALS and frontotemporal dementia.

Late stages 
Difficulties with chewing and swallowing make eating very difficult and increase the risk of choking or of aspirating food into the lungs. In later stages of the disorder, aspiration pneumonia can develop, and maintaining a healthy weight can become a significant problem that may require the insertion of a feeding tube. As the diaphragm and intercostal muscles of the rib cage that support breathing weaken, measures of lung function such as vital capacity and inspiratory pressure diminish. In respiratory-onset ALS, this may occur before significant limb weakness is apparent. The most common cause of death among people with ALS are respiratory failure or pneumonia and most people with ALS die in their own home from the former cause, with their breath stopping while they sleep.

Although respiratory support can ease problems with breathing and prolong survival, it does not affect the progression of ALS. Most people with ALS die between two and four years after the diagnosis. Around half of people with ALS die within 30 months of their symptoms beginning, and about 20% of people with ALS live between five and ten years after symptoms begin. Guitarist Jason Becker has lived since 1989 with the disorder, while cosmologist Stephen Hawking lived for 55 more years following his diagnosis, but they are considered unusual cases.

Cause 

Though the exact cause of ALS is unknown, genetic and environmental factors are thought to be of roughly equal importance. The genetic factors are better understood than the environmental factors; no specific environmental factor has been definitively shown to cause ALS. A liability threshold model for ALS proposes that cellular damage accumulates over time due to genetic factors present at birth and exposure to environmental risks throughout life.

Genetics 

ALS can be classified as familial or sporadic, depending on whether or not there is a family history of the disease. There is no consensus among neurologists on the exact definition of familial ALS. The strictest definition is that a person with ALS must have two or more first-degree relatives (children, siblings, or parents) who also have ALS. A less strict definition is that a person with ALS must have at least one first-degree or second-degree relative (grandparents, grandchildren, aunts, uncles, nephews, nieces or half-siblings) who also has ALS. Familial ALS is usually said to account for 10% of all cases of ALS, though estimates range from 5% to 20%. Higher estimates use a broader definition of familial ALS and examine the family history of people with ALS more thoroughly.

In sporadic ALS, there is no family history of the disease. Sporadic ALS and familial ALS appear identical clinically and pathologically and are similar genetically; about 10% of people with sporadic ALS have mutations in genes that are known to cause familial ALS. In light of these parallels, the term "sporadic ALS" has been criticized as misleading because it implies that cases of sporadic ALS are only caused by environmental factors; the term "isolated ALS" has been suggested as a more accurate alternative.

More than 20 genes have been associated with familial ALS, of which four account for the majority of familial cases: C9orf72 (40%), SOD1 (20%), FUS (1–5%), and TARDBP (1–5%). The genetics of familial ALS are better understood than the genetics of sporadic ALS; , the known ALS genes explained about 70% of familial ALS and about 15% of sporadic ALS. Overall, first-degree relatives of an individual with ALS have a 1% risk of developing ALS. ALS has an oligogenic mode of inheritance, meaning that mutations in two or more genes are required to cause disease.

ALS and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) are now considered to be part of a common disease spectrum (FTD–ALS) because of genetic, clinical, and pathological similarities. Genetically, C9orf72 repeat expansions account for about 40% of familial ALS and 25% of familial FTD. Clinically, 50% of people with ALS have some cognitive or behavioral impairments and 5–15% have FTD, while 40% of people with FTD have some motor neuron symptoms and 12.5% have ALS. Pathologically, abnormal aggregations of TDP-43 protein are seen in up to 97% of ALS patients and up to 50% of FTD patients. In December 2021 a paper found the TDP-43 proteinopathy is in turn caused by defective cyclophilin A which regulates TARDBP gene expression. Other genes known to cause FTD-ALS include CHCHD10, SQSTM1, and TBK1.

Environmental factors 
Where no family history of the disease is present — around 90% of cases — no cause is known. Possible associations for which evidence is inconclusive include military service and smoking. Although studies on military history and ALS frequency are inconsistent, there is weak evidence for a positive correlation. Various proposed factors include exposure to environmental toxins (inferred from geographical deployment studies), as well as alcohol and tobacco use during military service.

A 2016 review of 16 meta-analyses concluded that there was convincing evidence for an association with chronic occupational exposure to lead; suggestive evidence for farming, exposure to heavy metals other than lead, beta-carotene intake, and head injury; and weak evidence for omega-three fatty acid intake, exposure to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields, pesticides, and serum uric acid.

In a 2017 study by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention analyzing U.S. deaths from 1985 to 2011, occupations correlated with ALS deaths were white collar, such as in management, financial, architectural, computing, legal, and education jobs. Other potential risk factors remain unconfirmed, including chemical exposure, electromagnetic field exposure, occupation, physical trauma, and electric shock. There is a tentative association with exposure to various pesticides, including the organochlorine insecticides aldrin, dieldrin, DDT, and toxaphene.

Head injury
A 2015 review found that moderate to severe traumatic brain injury is a risk factor for ALS, but whether mild traumatic brain injury increases rates was unclear. A 2017 meta-analysis found an association between head injuries and ALS; however, this association disappeared when the authors considered the possibility of reverse causation, which is the idea that head injuries are an early symptom of undiagnosed ALS, rather than the cause of ALS.

Physical activity
A number of reviews prior to 2021 found no relationship between the amount of physical activity and the risk of developing ALS. A 2009 review found that the evidence for physical activity as a risk factor for ALS was limited, conflicting, and of insufficient quality to come to a firm conclusion. A 2014 review concluded that physical activity in general is not a risk factor for ALS, that soccer and American football are possibly associated with ALS, and that there was not enough evidence to say whether or not physically demanding occupations are associated with ALS. A 2016 review found the evidence inconclusive and noted that differences in study design make it difficult to compare studies, as they do not use the same measures of physical activity or the same diagnostic criteria for ALS.
However, research published in 2021 suggested that there was a positive causal relationship between ALS and intense physical exercise in those with a risk genotype.

Sports
Both soccer and American football have been identified as risk factors for ALS in several studies, although this association is based on small numbers of ALS cases. A 2012 retrospective cohort study of 3,439 former NFL players found that their risk of dying from neurodegenerative causes was three times higher than the general US population, and their risk of dying from ALS or Alzheimer's disease was four times higher. However, this increased risk was calculated on the basis of two deaths from Alzheimer's disease and six deaths from ALS out of 334 deaths total in this cohort, meaning that this study does not definitively prove that playing American football is a risk factor for ALS. Some NFL players thought to have died from ALS may have actually had chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a neurodegenerative disorder associated with multiple head injuries that can present with symptoms that are very similar to ALS.

Soccer was identified as a possible risk factor for ALS in a retrospective cohort study of 24,000 Italian soccer players who played between 1960 and 1996. There were 375 deaths in this group, including eight from ALS. Based on this information and the incidence of ALS, it was calculated that the soccer players were 11 times more likely to die from ALS than the general Italian population. However, this calculation has been criticized for relying on an inappropriately low number of expected cases of ALS in the cohort. When the lifetime risk of developing ALS was used to predict the number of expected cases, soccer players were no more likely to die of ALS than the general population.

Smoking
Smoking is possibly associated with ALS. A 2009 review concluded that smoking was an established risk factor for ALS. A 2010 systematic review and meta-analysis concluded that there was not a strong association between smoking and ALS, but that smoking might be associated with a higher risk of ALS in women. A 2011 meta-analysis concluded that smoking increases the risk of ALS versus never smoking. Among smokers, the younger they started smoking, the more likely they were to get ALS; however, neither the number of years smoked nor the number of cigarettes smoked per day affected their risk of developing ALS.

Pathophysiology

Neuropathology
The defining feature of ALS is the death of both upper motor neurons (located in the motor cortex of the brain) and lower motor neurons (located in the brainstem and spinal cord). In ALS with frontotemporal dementia, neurons throughout the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain die as well. The pathological hallmark of ALS is the presence of inclusion bodies (abnormal aggregations of protein) known as Bunina bodies in the cytoplasm of motor neurons. In about 97% of people with ALS, the main component of the inclusion bodies is TDP-43 protein; however, in those with SOD1 or FUS mutations, the main component of the inclusion bodies is SOD1 protein or FUS protein, respectively. The gross pathology of ALS, which are features of the disease that can be seen with the naked eye, include skeletal muscle atrophy, motor cortex atrophy, sclerosis of the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts, thinning of the hypoglossal nerves (which control the tongue), and thinning of the anterior roots of the spinal cord. Aside from the death of motor neurons, two other characteristics common to most ALS variants are focal initial pathology, meaning that symptoms start in a single spinal cord region, and progressive continuous spread, meaning that symptoms spread to additional regions over time. Prion-like propagation of misfolded proteins from cell to cell may explain why ALS starts in one area and spreads to others. The glymphatic system may also be involved in the pathogenesis of ALS.

Biochemistry

It is still not fully understood why neurons die in ALS, but this neurodegeneration is thought to involve many different cellular and molecular processes. The genes known to be involved in ALS can be grouped into three general categories based on their normal function: protein degradation, the cytoskeleton, and RNA processing. Mutant SOD1 protein forms intracellular aggregations that inhibit protein degradation. Cytoplasmic aggregations of wild-type (normal) SOD1 protein are common in sporadic ALS. It is thought that misfolded mutant SOD1 can cause misfolding and aggregation of wild-type SOD1 in neighboring neurons in a prion-like manner. Other protein degradation genes that can cause ALS when mutated include VCP, OPTN, TBK1, and SQSTM1. Three genes implicated in ALS that are important for maintaining the cytoskeleton and for axonal transport include DCTN1, PFN1, and TUBA4A.

There are a number of ALS genes that encode for RNA-binding proteins. The first to be discovered was TDP-43 protein, a nuclear protein that aggregates in the cytoplasm of motor neurons in almost all cases of ALS; however, mutations in TARDBP, the gene that codes for TDP-43, are a rare cause of ALS. FUS codes for FUS, another RNA-binding protein with a similar function to TDP-43, which can cause ALS when mutated. It is thought that mutations in TARDBP and FUS increase the binding affinity of the low-complexity domain, causing their respective proteins to aggregate in the cytoplasm. Once these mutant RNA-binding proteins are misfolded and aggregated, they may be able to misfold normal protein both within and between cells in a prion-like manner. This also leads to decreased levels of RNA-binding protein in the nucleus, which may mean that their target RNA transcripts do not undergo the normal processing. Other RNA metabolism genes associated with ALS include ANG, SETX, and MATR3.

C9orf72 is the most commonly mutated gene in ALS and causes motor neuron death through a number of mechanisms. The pathogenic mutation is a hexanucleotide repeat expansion (a series of six nucleotides repeated over and over); people with up to 30 repeats are considered normal, while people with hundreds or thousands of repeats can have familial ALS, frontotemporal dementia, or sometimes sporadic ALS. The three mechanisms of disease associated with these C9orf72 repeats are deposition of RNA transcripts in the nucleus, translation of the RNA into toxic dipeptide repeat proteins in the cytoplasm, and decreased levels of the normal C9orf72 protein.  Mitochondrial bioenergetic dysfunction leading to dysfunctional motor neuron axonal homeostasis (reduced axonal length and fast axonal transport of mitochondrial cargo) has been shown to occur in C9orf72-ALS using human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technologies coupled with CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing, and human post-mortem spinal cord tissue examination.

Excitotoxicity, or nerve cell death caused by high levels of intracellular calcium due to excessive stimulation by the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate, is a mechanism thought to be common to all forms of ALS. Motor neurons are more sensitive to excitotoxicity than other types of neurons because they have a lower calcium-buffering capacity and a type of glutamate receptor (the AMPA receptor) that is more permeable to calcium. In ALS, there are decreased levels of excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2), which is the main transporter that removes glutamate from the synapse; this leads to increased synaptic glutamate levels and excitotoxicity. Riluzole, a drug that modestly prolongs survival in ALS, inhibits glutamate release from pre-synaptic neurons; however, it is unclear if this mechanism is responsible for its therapeutic effect.

Diagnosis 

No test can provide a definite diagnosis of ALS, although the presence of upper and lower motor neuron signs in a single limb is strongly suggestive. Instead, the diagnosis of ALS is primarily based on the symptoms and signs the physician observes in the person and a series of tests to rule out other diseases. Physicians obtain the person's full medical history and usually conduct a neurologic examination at regular intervals to assess whether symptoms such as muscle weakness, atrophy of muscles, hyperreflexia, and spasticity are worsening. A number of biomarkers are being studied for the condition, but so far are not in general medical use.

Diagnostic criteria
The diagnosis of ALS is based on the El Escorial Revised criteria and the Awaji criteria. The original El Escorial criteria had four levels of diagnostic certainty, based on how many of the four spinal cord regions were involved: bulbar, cervical, thoracic, and lumbar. Definite ALS was defined as upper motor neuron (UMN) and lower motor neuron (LMN) signs in three spinal cord regions, probable ALS as UMN and LMN signs in two regions, possible ALS as UMN and LMN signs in only one region, and suspected ALS as LMN signs only. The El Escorial Revised criteria, also known as the Airlie House criteria, dropped the "suspected ALS" category and added a "laboratory-supported probable ALS" category. The Awaji criteria give abnormal EMG tests the same weight as clinical signs of LMN dysfunction in making the diagnosis of ALS, thus making the "laboratory-supported probable ALS" category unnecessary. The only three categories in the Awaji criteria are definite ALS, probable ALS, and possible ALS.

The El Escorial Revised criteria are specific for ALS, which means that someone who meets the criteria is very likely to have ALS; however, they are not especially sensitive for ALS, which means that someone who does not meet the criteria can still have ALS. Their sensitivity is particularly poor in the early stages of ALS. The Awaji criteria have better sensitivity than the El Escorial Revised criteria, especially for bulbar-onset ALS. A 2012 meta-analysis found that the El Escorial Revised criteria had a sensitivity of 62.2%, while the Awaji criteria had a sensitivity of 81.1%; both sets of criteria had a specificity of about 98%. The El Escorial criteria were designed to standardize patient groups for clinical trials but are not as useful in clinical practice; possible ALS as described by the El Escorial criteria is almost always clinically ALS.

Differential diagnosis
Because symptoms of ALS can be similar to those of a wide variety of other, more treatable diseases or disorders, appropriate tests must be conducted to exclude the possibility of other conditions. One of these tests is electromyography (EMG), a special recording technique that detects electrical activity in muscles. Certain EMG findings can support the diagnosis of ALS. Another common test measures nerve conduction velocity (NCV). Specific abnormalities in the NCV results may suggest, for example, that the person has a form of peripheral neuropathy (damage to peripheral nerves) or myopathy (muscle disease) rather than ALS. While a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is often normal in people with early stage ALS, it can reveal evidence of other problems that may be causing the symptoms, such as a spinal cord tumor, multiple sclerosis, a herniated disc in the neck, syringomyelia, or cervical spondylosis.

Based on the person's symptoms and findings from the examination and from these tests, the physician may order tests on blood and urine samples to eliminate the possibility of other diseases, as well as routine laboratory tests. In some cases, for example, if a physician suspects the person may have a myopathy rather than ALS, a muscle biopsy may be performed.

A number of infectious diseases can sometimes cause ALS-like symptoms, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV), Lyme disease, and syphilis. Neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis, post-polio syndrome, multifocal motor neuropathy, CIDP, spinal muscular atrophy, and spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy can also mimic certain aspects of the disease and should be considered.

ALS must be differentiated from the "ALS mimic syndromes", which are unrelated disorders that may have a similar presentation and clinical features to ALS or its variants. Because the prognosis of ALS and closely related subtypes of motor neurone disease are generally poor, neurologists may carry out investigations to evaluate and exclude other diagnostic possibilities. Disorders of the neuromuscular junction, such as myasthenia gravis (MG) and Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome, may also mimic ALS, although this rarely presents diagnostic difficulty over time. Benign fasciculation syndrome and cramp fasciculation syndrome may also, occasionally,  mimic some of the early symptoms of ALS. Nonetheless, the absence of other neurological features that develop inexorably with ALS means that, over time, the distinction will not present any difficulty to the experienced neurologist; where doubt remains, EMG may be helpful.

Most cases of ALS, however, are correctly diagnosed, with the error rate of diagnosis in large ALS clinics being less than 10%. One study examined 190 people who met the MND/ALS diagnostic criteria, complemented with laboratory research in compliance with both research protocols and regular monitoring. Thirty of these people (16%) had their diagnosis completely changed during the clinical observation development period. In the same study, three people had a false negative diagnosis of MG, which can mimic ALS and other neurological disorders, leading to a delay in diagnosis and treatment. MG is eminently treatable; ALS is not.

Management 

There is no cure for ALS. Management focuses on treating symptoms and providing supportive care, with the goal of improving quality of life and prolonging survival. This care is best provided by multidisciplinary teams of healthcare professionals; attending a multidisciplinary ALS clinic is associated with longer survival, fewer hospitalizations, and improved quality of life. Riluzole prolongs survival by about 2–3 months. Edaravone slows functional decline slightly in a small number of people with ALS; it is expensive and must be administered by daily IV infusions that may decrease quality of life. Other medications may be used to manage other symptoms.

Non-invasive ventilation (NIV) is the main treatment for respiratory failure in ALS. In people with normal bulbar function, it prolongs survival by about seven months and improves quality of life. One study found that NIV is ineffective for people with poor bulbar function while another suggested that it may provide a modest survival benefit. Many people with ALS have difficulty tolerating NIV. Invasive ventilation is an option for people with advanced ALS when NIV is not enough to manage their symptoms. While invasive ventilation prolongs survival, disease progression and functional decline continue. It may decrease the quality of life of people with ALS or their caregivers. Invasive ventilation is more commonly used in Japan than North America or Europe.

Physical therapy can promote functional independence through aerobic, range of motion, and stretching exercises. Occupational therapy can assist with activities of daily living through adaptive equipment. Speech therapy can assist people with ALS who have difficulty speaking. Preventing weight loss and malnutrition in people with ALS improves both survival and quality of life. Initially, difficulty swallowing (dysphagia) can be managed by dietary changes and swallowing techniques. A feeding tube should be considered if someone with ALS loses 5% or more of their body weight or if they cannot safely swallow food and water. The feeding tube is usually inserted by percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG). There is weak evidence that PEG tubes improve survival. PEG insertion is usually performed with the intent of improving quality of life.

Palliative care should begin shortly after someone is diagnosed with ALS. Discussion of end-of-life issues gives people with ALS time to reflect on their preferences for end-of-life care and can help avoid unwanted interventions or procedures. Hospice care can improve symptom management at the end of life and increases the likelihood of a peaceful death. In the final days of life, opioids can be used to treat pain and dyspnea, while benzodiazepines can be used to treat anxiety.

Medications 

Riluzole has been found to modestly prolong survival by about 2–3 months. It may have a greater survival benefit for those with bulbar-onset ALS. It may work by decreasing release of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate from pre-synaptic neurons. The most common side effects are nausea and a lack of energy (asthenia). People with ALS should begin treatment with riluzole as soon as possible following their diagnosis.

Edaravone has been shown to modestly slow the decline in function in a small group of people with early-stage ALS. It may work by protecting motor neurons from oxidative stress. The most common side effects are bruising and gait disturbance. Treatment with edaravone is expensive and requires daily hour-long IV infusions for 10 days in a two-week period.

Other medications may be used to help reduce fatigue, ease muscle cramps, control spasticity, and reduce excess saliva and phlegm. Gabapentin, pregabalin, and tricyclic antidepressants (e.g., amitriptyline) can be used for neuropathic pain, while nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), acetaminophen, and opioids can be used for nociceptive pain.

Depression can be treated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or tricyclic antidepressants, while benzodiazepines can be used for anxiety. There are no medications to treat cognitive impairment/frontotemporal dementia (FTD); however, SSRIs and antipsychotics can help treat some of the symptoms of FTD. Baclofen and tizanidine are the most commonly used oral drugs for treating spasticity; an intrathecal baclofen pump can be used for severe spasticity. Atropine, scopolamine, amitriptyline or glycopyrrolate may be prescribed when people with ALS begin having trouble swallowing their saliva (sialorrhea).

A 2017 review concluded that mexiletine was safe and effective for treating cramps in ALS based on a randomized controlled trial from 2016. In a study from 2020, AMX0035, a combination of sodium phenylbutyrate and taurursodiol, was shown to prolong the survival of patients by several months.

Breathing support

Non-invasive ventilation 

Non-invasive ventilation (NIV) is the primary treatment for respiratory failure in ALS and was the first treatment shown to improve both survival and quality of life. NIV uses a face or nasal mask connected to a ventilator that provides intermittent positive pressure to support breathing. Continuous positive pressure is not recommended for people with ALS because it makes breathing more difficult. Initially, NIV is used only at night because the first sign of respiratory failure is decreased gas exchange (hypoventilation) during sleep; symptoms associated with this nocturnal hypoventilation include interrupted sleep, anxiety, morning headaches, and daytime fatigue. As the disease progresses, people with ALS develop shortness of breath when lying down, during physical activity or talking, and eventually at rest. Other symptoms include poor concentration, poor memory, confusion, respiratory tract infections, and a weak cough. Respiratory failure is the most common cause of death in ALS.

It is important to monitor the respiratory function of people with ALS every three months, because beginning NIV soon after the start of respiratory symptoms is associated with increased survival. This involves asking the person with ALS if they have any respiratory symptoms and measuring their respiratory function. The most commonly used measurement is upright forced vital capacity (FVC), but it is a poor detector of early respiratory failure and is not a good choice for those with bulbar symptoms, as they have difficulty maintaining a tight seal around the mouthpiece. Measuring FVC while the person is lying on their back (supine FVC) is a more accurate measure of diaphragm weakness than upright FVC. Sniff nasal inspiratory pressure (SNIP) is a rapid, convenient test of diaphragm strength that is not affected by bulbar muscle weakness. If someone with ALS has signs and symptoms of respiratory failure, they should undergo daytime blood gas analysis to look for hypoxemia (low oxygen in the blood) and hypercapnia (too much carbon dioxide in the blood). If their daytime blood gas analysis is normal, they should then have nocturnal pulse oximetry to look for hypoxemia during sleep.

Non-invasive ventilation prolongs survival longer than riluzole. A 2006 randomized controlled trial found that NIV prolongs survival by about 48 days and improves quality of life; however, it also found that some people with ALS benefit more from this intervention than others. For those with normal or only moderately impaired bulbar function, NIV prolongs survival by about seven months and significantly improves quality of life. For those with poor bulbar function, NIV neither prolongs survival nor improves quality of life, though it does improve some sleep-related symptoms. Despite the clear benefits of NIV, about 25–30% of all people with ALS are unable to tolerate it, especially those with cognitive impairment or bulbar dysfunction. Results from a large 2015 cohort study suggest that NIV may prolong survival in those with bulbar weakness, and so NIV should be offered to all people with ALS, even if it is likely that they will have difficulty tolerating it.

Invasive ventilation 
Invasive ventilation bypasses the nose and mouth (the upper airways) by making a cut in the trachea (tracheostomy) and inserting a tube connected to a ventilator. It is an option for people with advanced ALS whose respiratory symptoms are poorly managed despite continuous NIV use. While invasive ventilation prolongs survival, especially for those younger than 60, it does not treat the underlying neurodegenerative process. The person with ALS will continue to lose motor function, making communication increasingly difficult and sometimes leading to locked-in syndrome, in which they are completely paralyzed except for their eye muscles. About half of the people with ALS who choose to undergo invasive ventilation report a decrease in their quality of life but most still consider it to be satisfactory. However, invasive ventilation imposes a heavy burden on caregivers and may decrease their quality of life. Attitudes toward invasive ventilation vary from country to country; about 30% of people with ALS in Japan choose invasive ventilation, versus less than 5% in North America and Europe.

Therapy

Physical therapy plays a large role in rehabilitation for individuals with ALS. Specifically, physical, occupational, and speech therapists can set goals and promote benefits for individuals with ALS by delaying loss of strength, maintaining endurance, limiting pain, improving speech and swallowing, preventing complications, and promoting functional independence.

Occupational therapy and special equipment such as assistive technology can also enhance people's independence and safety throughout the course of ALS. Gentle, low-impact aerobic exercise such as performing activities of daily living, walking, swimming, and stationary bicycling can strengthen unaffected muscles, improve cardiovascular health, and help people fight fatigue and depression. Range of motion and stretching exercises can help prevent painful spasticity and shortening (contracture) of muscles. Physical and occupational therapists can recommend exercises that provide these benefits without overworking muscles, because muscle exhaustion can lead to worsening of symptoms associated with ALS, rather than providing help to people with ALS. They can suggest devices such as ramps, braces, walkers, bathroom equipment (shower chairs, toilet risers, etc.), and wheelchairs that help people remain mobile. Occupational therapists can provide or recommend equipment and adaptations to enable ALS people to retain as much safety and independence in activities of daily living as possible. Since respiratory insufficiency is the primary cause of mortality, physical therapists can help improve respiratory outcomes in people with ALS by implementing pulmonary physical therapy. This includes inspiratory muscle training, lung volume recruitment training, and manual assisted cough therapy aimed at increasing respiratory muscle strength as well as increasing survival rates.

People with ALS who have difficulty speaking or swallowing may benefit from working with a speech-language pathologist. These health professionals can teach people adaptive strategies such as techniques to help them speak louder and more clearly. As ALS progresses, speech-language pathologists can recommend the use of augmentative and alternative communication such as voice amplifiers, speech-generating devices (or voice output communication devices) or low-tech communication techniques such as head mounted laser pointers, alphabet boards or yes/no signals.

Nutrition

Preventing weight loss and malnutrition in people with ALS improves both survival and quality of life. Weight loss in ALS is caused by muscle wasting due to motor neuron death, increased resting energy expenditure, and decreased food intake. Difficulty swallowing (dysphagia) develops in about 85% of people with ALS at some point over the course of their disease and is a major cause of decreased food intake, leading to malnutrition and weight loss. It is important to regularly assess the weight and swallowing ability of people with ALS. Initially, dysphagia may be managed by dietary changes and modified swallowing techniques. Difficulty swallowing liquids usually develops first and can be managed by switching to thicker liquids like fruit nectar or smoothies, or by adding fluid thickeners to thin fluids like water and coffee. People with ALS should eat soft, moist foods, which tend to be easier to swallow than dry, crumbly, or chewy foods. They should also be instructed on proper head posture during swallowing, which can make swallowing easier. There is tentative evidence that high-calorie diets may prevent further weight loss and improve survival.

A feeding tube should be considered if someone with ALS loses 5% or more of their body weight or if they cannot safely swallow food and water. This can take the form of a gastrostomy tube, in which a tube is placed through the wall of the abdomen into the stomach, or a nasogastric tube, in which a tube is placed through the nose and down the esophagus into the stomach. A gastrostomy tube is more appropriate for long-term use than a nasogastric tube, which is uncomfortable and can cause esophageal ulcers. The feeding tube is usually inserted by percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG). There is some evidence that a PEG tube should be inserted before vital capacity drops below 50% of expected, as a low vital capacity may be associated with a higher risk of complications. However, a large 2015 study showed that PEG insertion is safe in people with advanced ALS and low vital capacities, as long as they are on NIV during the procedure.

There is weak evidence that PEG tubes improve survival. PEG insertion is usually performed with the intent of improving quality of life by sustaining nutrition and medication intake. This reduces the risk of weight loss and dehydration, and can decrease anxiety from extended mealtimes and decreased oral food intake.

End-of-life care
Palliative care, which relieves symptoms and improves quality of life without treating the underlying disease, should begin shortly after someone is diagnosed with ALS. Early discussion of end-of-life issues gives people with ALS time to reflect on their preferences for end-of-life care and can help avoid unwanted interventions or procedures. Once they have been fully informed about all aspects of various life-prolonging measures, they can fill out advance directives indicating their attitude toward noninvasive ventilation, invasive ventilation, and feeding tubes. Late in the disease course, difficulty speaking due to muscle weakness (dysarthria) and cognitive dysfunction may impair their ability to communicate their wishes regarding care. Continued failure to solicit the preferences of the person with ALS may lead to unplanned and potentially unwanted emergency interventions, such as invasive ventilation. If people with ALS or their family members are reluctant to discuss end-of-life issues, it may be useful to use the introduction of gastrostomy or noninvasive ventilation as an opportunity to bring up the subject.

Hospice care, or palliative care at the end of life, is especially important in ALS because it helps to optimize the management of symptoms and increases the likelihood of a peaceful death. It is unclear exactly when the end-of-life phase begins in ALS, but it is associated with significant difficulty moving, communicating, and, in some cases, thinking. Although many people with ALS fear choking to death (suffocating), they can be reassured that this occurs rarely, about 0–3% of the time. About 90% of people with ALS die peacefully. In the final days of life, opioids can be used to treat pain and dyspnea, while benzodiazepines can be used to treat anxiety.

Epidemiology
ALS is the most common motor neuron disease in adults and the third most common neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Worldwide the number of people who develop ALS yearly is estimated to be 1.9 people per 100,000 per year, while the number of people who have ALS at any given time is estimated to be about 4.5 people per 100,000. In Europe, the number of new cases a year is about 2.6 people per 100,000, while the number affected is 7–9 people per 100,000. The lifetime risk of developing ALS is 1:350 for European men and 1:400 for European women. Men have a higher risk mainly because spinal-onset ALS is more common in men than women. The number of those with ALS in the United States in 2015 was 5.2 people per 100,000, and was higher in whites, males, and people over 60 years old. The number of new cases is about 0.8 people per 100,000 per year in east Asia and about 0.7 people per 100,000 per year in south Asia. About 80% of ALS epidemiology studies have been conducted in Europe and the United States, mostly in people of northern European descent. There is not enough information to determine the rates of ALS in much of the world, including Africa, parts of Asia, India, Russia, and South America. There are several geographic clusters in the Western Pacific where the prevalence of ALS was reported to be 50–100 times higher than the rest of the world, including Guam, the Kii Peninsula of Japan, and Western New Guinea. The incidence in these areas has decreased since the 1960s; the cause remains unknown.

People of all races and ethnic backgrounds may be affected by ALS, but it is more common in whites than in Africans, Asians, or Hispanics. In the United States in 2015, the prevalence of ALS in whites was 5.4 people per 100,000, while the prevalence in blacks was 2.3 people per 100,000. The Midwest had the highest prevalence of the four US Census regions with 5.5 people per 100,000, followed by the Northeast (5.1), the South (4.7), and the West (4.4). The Midwest and Northeast likely had a higher prevalence of ALS because they have a higher proportion of whites than the South and West. Ethnically mixed populations may be at a lower risk of developing ALS; a study in Cuba found that people of mixed ancestry were less likely to die from ALS than whites or blacks. There are also differences in the genetics of ALS between different ethnic groups; the most common ALS gene in Europe is C9orf72, followed by SOD1, TARDBP, and FUS, while the most common ALS gene in Asia is SOD1, followed by FUS, C9orf72, and TARDBP.

ALS can affect people at any age, but the peak incidence is between 50 and 75 years and decreases dramatically after 80 years. The reason for the decreased incidence in the elderly is unclear. One thought is that people who survive into their 80s may not be genetically susceptible to developing ALS; alternatively, ALS in the elderly might go undiagnosed because of comorbidities (other diseases they have), difficulty seeing a neurologist, or dying quickly from an aggressive form of ALS. In the United States in 2015, the lowest prevalence was in the 18–39 age group, while the highest prevalence was in the 70–79 age group. Sporadic ALS usually starts around the ages of 58 to 63 years, while familial ALS starts earlier, usually around 47 to 52 years. The number of ALS cases worldwide is projected to increase from 222,801 in 2015 to 376,674 in 2040, an increase of 69%. This will largely be due to the aging of the world's population, especially in developing countries.

History

Descriptions of the disease date back to at least 1824 by Charles Bell. In 1850, François-Amilcar Aran was the first to describe a disorder he named "progressive muscular atrophy", a form of ALS in which only the lower motor neurons are affected. In 1869, the connection between the symptoms and the underlying neurological problems were first described by Jean-Martin Charcot, who initially introduced the term amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in his 1874 paper. Flail arm syndrome, a regional variant of ALS, was first described by Alfred Vulpian in 1886. Flail leg syndrome, another regional variant of ALS, was first described by Pierre Marie and his student Patrikios in 1918.

In 1945, American naval doctors reported that ALS was 100 times more prevalent among the Chamorro people of Guam than in the rest of the world. In 1956 the variant of ALS endemic to Guam was named "amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/parkinsonism dementia complex" (ALS/PDC), as it had the typical symptoms of ALS accompanied by parkinsonism-like symptoms; the name in the local language is lytico-bodig disease. Despite a number of genetic and environmental studies, the cause of ALS/PDC remains unknown. Rates peaked in the early 1950s and steadily declined thereafter, and by 1985 the incidence of ALS/PDC in Guam was about the same as the rest of the world.

The first gene to be associated with ALS was SOD1, which was identified in 1993. This led to the development of the first animal model of ALS, the transgenic SOD1 mouse, in 1994. In December 1995, riluzole became the first FDA-approved drug for ALS. It was then approved in Europe in 1996 and in Japan in 1998. In 1996, the ALS Functional Rating Scale (ALSFRS) was first published; it was a 10-item questionnaire that measured the ability of people with ALS to perform activities of daily living. In 1999, the scale was changed to give more weight to respiratory symptoms. The resulting ALS Functional Rating Scale - Revised (ALSFRS-R) is a 12-item questionnaire that replaces the single question about breathing with a question each about dyspnea, orthopnea, and respiratory insufficiency.

In 2006, it was discovered that the protein TDP-43 is a major component of the inclusion bodies seen in both ALS and frontotemporal dementia (FTD), which provided evidence that ALS and FTD are part of a common disease spectrum. This led to the discovery in 2008 that mutations in TARDBP, the gene that codes for TDP-43, are a cause of familial ALS. In 2011, noncoding repeat expansions in C9orf72 were found to be a major cause of ALS and FTD. Edaravone was approved to treat ALS in Japan and South Korea in 2015 and in the United States in 2017. , it has not been approved to treat ALS in Europe.

Diagnostic criteria

In the 1950s, electrodiagnostic testing (EMG and NCV) began to be used to evaluate clinically suspected ALS. In 1969 Edward H. Lambert published the first EMG/NCS diagnostic criteria for ALS, consisting of four findings he considered to strongly support the diagnosis. In 1990, the World Federation of Neurology (WFN) held a meeting at El Escorial, Spain, to come up with precise diagnostic criteria for ALS to help standardize clinical trials; the resulting "El Escorial" criteria were published in 1994. In 1998, the WFN held another meeting to revise the criteria at Airlie House in Warrenton, Virginia; the resulting "Airlie House" or "El Escorial Revised" criteria were published in 2000. In 2006, a meeting was held on Awaji Island in Japan to discuss how to use EMG and NCV tests to help diagnose ALS earlier; the resulting "Awaji" criteria were published in 2008.

Name

Amyotrophic comes from Greek: a- means "no", myo (from mûs) refers to "muscle", and trophḗ means "nourishment". Therefore, amyotrophy means "muscle malnourishment" or the wasting of muscle tissue. Lateral identifies the areas in a person's spinal cord where the affected motor neurons that control muscle are located. Sclerosis means "scarring" or "hardening" and refers to the death of the motor neurons in the spinal cord.

ALS is sometimes referred to as Charcot's disease (not to be confused with Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease and Charcot joint disease), because Jean-Martin Charcot was the first to connect the clinical symptoms with the pathology seen at autopsy. The British neurologist Russell Brain coined the term motor neurone disease in 1933 to reflect his belief that ALS, progressive bulbar palsy, and progressive muscular atrophy were all different forms of the same disease, neurone being a historically incorrect form of neuron. In some countries, especially the United States, ALS is called Lou Gehrig's disease after the American baseball player Lou Gehrig who developed ALS in 1938.

In the United States and continental Europe, the term ALS (as well as Lou Gehrig's disease in the US) refers to all forms of the disease, including "classical" ALS, progressive bulbar palsy, progressive muscular atrophy, and primary lateral sclerosis. In the United Kingdom and Australia, the term motor neurone disease refers to all forms of the disease while ALS only refers to "classical" ALS, meaning the form with both upper and lower motor neuron involvement.

Society and culture 

In August 2014, a challenge went viral online, commonly known as the "ALS Ice Bucket Challenge". Contestants fill a bucket full of ice and water, then state who nominated them to do the challenge, and nominate three other individuals of their choice to take part in it. The contestants then dump the buckets of ice and water onto themselves. However, it can be done in a different order. The contestants then donate at least US$10 (or a similar amount in their local currency) to ALS research at the ALS Association, the ALS Therapy Development Institute, ALS Society of Canada or Motor Neurone Disease Association in the UK. Any contestants who refuse to have the ice and water dumped on them are expected to donate at least US$100 to ALS research. , the Ice Bucket Challenge had raised $115 million for the ALS Association.  Many celebrities have taken part in the challenge. The Ice Bucket Challenge was credited with helping to raise funds that contributed to the discovery that the gene NEK1 may potentially contribute to the development for ALS.

Research

Model organisms

Many different organisms are used as models for studying ALS, including Saccharomyces cerevisiae (a species of yeast), Caenorhabditis elegans (a roundworm), Drosophila melanogaster (the common fruit fly), Danio rerio (the zebrafish), Mus musculus (the house mouse), and Rattus norvegicus (the common rat). None of these models perfectly represents ALS in humans, partly because most animal models are based on gene overexpression, meaning that multiple copies of the mutant human gene are inserted into the transgenic model, and partly because the human nervous system is very different from that of other animals.

The first animal model for ALS was the SOD1G93A transgenic mouse, which was developed in 1994. It expresses about 20–24 copies of the mutant human SOD1 gene and reproduces most of the clinical and pathological findings seen in ALS. Although there are now over 20 different SOD1 mouse models, the SOD1G93A model remains both the most widely used SOD1 mouse model and the most widely used ALS mouse model overall. Much of the present understanding of ALS pathophysiology came from studying mouse models that overexpress mutant SOD1, especially SOD1G93A mice. However, many drug targets that were shown to be effective in the SOD1G93A transgenic mouse failed in clinical trials in humans; other SOD1 models have had similar problems. Most of these drugs were identified as potentially effective based on a single study in a rodent SOD1 model and then failed in clinical trials in patients who primarily had sporadic ALS. It is thought that these clinical trials failed because SOD1 mutations account for only 2% of all ALS cases and because the pathology of SOD1 ALS is thought to be distinct from all other types of ALS; it lacks the abnormal aggregations of TDP-43 protein or FUS protein seen in nearly all other cases of ALS.

As of 2018, there are about 20 TARDBP mouse models, a dozen FUS mouse models, and a number of C9orf72, PFN1, and UBQLN2 mouse models. There are also new methods of developing animal models, including viral transgenesis, in which viruses are used to deliver mutant genes to an animal model, and CRISPR/Cas9, which can be used to give an animal model multiple mutated genes. Both of these methods are faster and cheaper than traditional methods of genetically engineering mice; they also allow scientists to study the effects of a mutation in mice of different genetic backgrounds, which better represents the genetic diversity seen in humans.

Cellular models used to study ALS include the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and rat or mouse motor neurons in culture. Small-animal models include the fruit fly, the roundworm C. elegans, and the zebrafish. Of the three, the fruit fly is the most widely used; it has a rapid life-cycle, short lifespan, a sophisticated nervous system, and many genetic tools available. C. elegans has a short life-cycle, is easy to manipulate genetically, and has a simple but well-understood nervous system. The zebrafish has transparent embryos that can be injected with DNA or RNA and has a lifespan of up to two years. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) can be used to convert skin fibroblasts into motor neurons. It is now possible to generate iPSCs from people with ALS, which can then be converted into spinal motor neurons, which are useful for studying disease mechanisms and for testing potential drugs for ALS. iPSCs allow sporadic ALS to be modelled, which cannot be done with animal models.

Treatments
From the 1960s until 2014, about 50 drugs for ALS were tested in randomized controlled trials (RCTs); of these, riluzole was the only one that showed a slight benefit in improving survival. Drugs tested and not shown to be effective in clinical trials in humans include antiviral drugs, anti-excitotoxic drugs, growth factors, neurotrophic factors, anti-inflammatory drugs, antioxidants, anti-apoptotic drugs, and drugs to improve mitochondria function.

An analysis of 23 large phase II and phase III RCTs that failed between 2004 and 2014 concluded that there were many potential reasons for their lack of success. These trials in humans went ahead on the basis of positive results in SOD1 transgenic mice, which are not a good animal model for sporadic ALS. Additionally, in most preclinical studies the SOD1 mice were given the drug during the presymptomatic stage; this makes the results less likely to apply to people with ALS, who begin treatment well after their symptoms begin. Positive results in small phase II studies in humans could also be misleading and lead to failure in phase III trials. Other potential issues included the drug not reaching its intended site of action in the central nervous system and drug interactions between the study drug and riluzole.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation had been studied in ALS in small and poorly designed clinical trials; , evidence was insufficient to know whether rTMS is safe or effective for ALS. One 2016 review of stem-cell therapy trials found tentative evidence that intraspinal stem cell implantation was relatively safe and possibly effective. A 2019 Cochrane review of cell-based therapies found that there was insufficient evidence to speculate about efficacy. Masitinib has been approved as an orphan drug in Europe and the United States, with studies ongoing . Beta-adrenergic agonist drugs have been proposed as a treatment for their effects on muscle growth and neuroprotection, but research in humans is insufficient to determine their efficacy.

Cause 
With the discovery that TDP-43, FUS, and  C9orf72 can cause ALS as well as related forms of frontotemporal dementia (FTD/ALS) there has been intense effort to understand how these mutations cause disease, and whether other protein dysfunction may be important.  it appeared that differences in the methylation of arginine residues in FUS protein may be relevant, and methylation status may be a way to distinguish some forms of FTD from ALS.

See also
 Lou Gehrig
 Transportin 1

Notes

References

External links 

 Official website

 

 
Motor neuron diseases
Rare diseases
Unsolved problems in neuroscience
Systemic atrophies primarily affecting the central nervous system
Cytoskeletal defects
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Neuromuscular disorders
Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate, Water (chemical formula H2O) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as a solvent). It is vital for all known forms of life, even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. Its chemical formula, H2O, indicates that each of its molecules contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms, connected by covalent bonds. The hydrogen atoms are attached to the oxygen atom at an angle of 104.45°. "Water" is the name of the liquid state of H2O at standard conditions for temperature and pressure. 

A number of natural states of water exist. It forms precipitation in the form of rain and aerosols in the form of fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, its solid state. When finely divided, crystalline ice may precipitate in the form of snow. The gaseous state of water is steam or water vapor.

Water covers approximately 70.9% of the Earth's surface, mostly in seas and oceans. Small portions of water occur as groundwater (1.7%), in the glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and in the air as vapor, clouds (consisting of ice and liquid water suspended in air), and precipitation (0.001%). Water moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea.

Water plays an important role in the world economy. Approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major source of food for many parts of the world. Much of the long-distance trade of commodities (such as oil, natural gas, and manufactured products) is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of substances both mineral and organic; as such it is widely used in industrial processes, and in cooking and washing. Water, ice and snow are also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating and skiing.

Etymology
The word water comes from Old English , from Proto-Germanic *watar (source also of Old Saxon , Old Frisian , Dutch , Old High German , German , , Gothic  (), from Proto-Indo-European *wod-or, suffixed form of root *wed- ("water"; "wet"). Also cognate, through the Indo-European root, with Greek  (), Russian  (), Irish , and Albanian .

History

Properties

Water () is a polar inorganic compound that is at room temperature a tasteless and odorless liquid, nearly colorless with a hint of blue. This simplest hydrogen chalcogenide is by far the most studied chemical compound and is described as the "universal solvent" for its ability to dissolve many substances. This allows it to be the "solvent of life": indeed, water as found in nature almost always includes various dissolved substances, and special steps are required to obtain chemically pure water. Water is the only common substance to exist as a solid, liquid, and gas in normal terrestrial conditions.

States

Along with oxidane, water is one of the two official names for the chemical compound ; it is also the liquid phase of . The other two common states of matter of water are the solid phase, ice, and the gaseous phase, water vapor or steam. The addition or removal of heat can cause phase transitions: freezing (water to ice), melting (ice to water), vaporization (water to vapor), condensation (vapor to water), sublimation (ice to vapor) and deposition (vapor to ice).

Density 
Water differs from most liquids in that it becomes less dense as it freezes. In 1 atm pressure, it reaches its maximum density of  at . The density of ice is , an expansion of 9%. This expansion can exert enormous pressure, bursting pipes and cracking rocks (see Frost weathering).

In a lake or ocean, water at 4 °C (39.2 °F) sinks to the bottom, and ice forms on the surface, floating on the liquid water. This ice insulates the water below, preventing it from freezing solid. Without this protection, most aquatic organisms would perish during the winter.

Magnetism 
Water is a diamagnetic material. Though interaction is weak, with superconducting magnets it can attain a notable interaction.

Phase transitions 
At a pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice melts or water freezes at 0 °C (32 °F) and water boils or vapor condenses at 100 °C (212 °F). However, even below the boiling point, water can change to vapor at its surface by evaporation (vaporization throughout the liquid is known as boiling). Sublimation and deposition also occur on surfaces. For example, frost is deposited on cold surfaces while snowflakes form by deposition on an aerosol particle or ice nucleus. In the process of freeze-drying, a food is frozen and then stored at low pressure so the ice on its surface sublimates.

The melting and boiling points depend on pressure. A good approximation for the rate of change of the melting temperature with pressure is given by the Clausius–Clapeyron relation:

where  and  are the molar volumes of the liquid and solid phases, and  is the molar latent heat of melting. In most substances, the volume increases when melting occurs, so the melting temperature increases with pressure. However, because ice is less dense than water, the melting temperature decreases. In glaciers, pressure melting can occur under sufficiently thick volumes of ice, resulting in subglacial lakes.

The Clausius-Clapeyron relation also applies to the boiling point, but with the liquid/gas transition the vapor phase has a much lower density than the liquid phase, so the boiling point increases with pressure. Water can remain in a liquid state at high temperatures in the deep ocean or underground. For example, temperatures exceed  in Old Faithful, a geyser in Yellowstone National Park. In hydrothermal vents, the temperature can exceed .

At sea level, the boiling point of water is . As atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, the boiling point decreases by 1 °C every 274 meters. High-altitude cooking takes longer than sea-level cooking. For example, at , cooking time must be increased by a fourth to achieve the desired result. (Conversely, a pressure cooker can be used to decrease cooking times by raising the boiling temperature.)
In a vacuum, water will boil at room temperature.

Triple and critical points 

On a pressure/temperature phase diagram (see figure), there are curves separating solid from vapor, vapor from liquid, and liquid from solid. These meet at a single point called the triple point, where all three phases can coexist. The triple point is at a temperature of  and a pressure of ; it is the lowest pressure at which liquid water can exist. Until 2019, the triple point was used to define the Kelvin temperature scale.

The water/vapor phase curve terminates at  and . This is known as the critical point. At higher temperatures and pressures the liquid and vapor phases form a continuous phase called a supercritical fluid. It can be gradually compressed or expanded between gas-like and liquid-like densities, its properties (which are quite different from those of ambient water) are sensitive to density. For example, for suitable pressures and temperatures it can mix freely with nonpolar compounds, including most organic compounds. This makes it useful in a variety of applications including high-temperature electrochemistry and as an ecologically benign solvent or catalyst in chemical reactions involving organic compounds. In Earth's mantle, it acts as a solvent during mineral formation, dissolution and deposition.

Phases of ice and water 
The normal form of ice on the surface of Earth is Ice Ih, a phase that forms crystals with hexagonal symmetry. Another with cubic crystalline symmetry, Ice Ic, can occur in the upper atmosphere. As the pressure increases, ice forms other crystal structures. As of 2019, 17 have been experimentally confirmed and several more are predicted theoretically. The 18th form of ice, ice XVIII, a face-centred-cubic, superionic ice phase, was discovered when a droplet of water was subject to a shock wave that raised the water’s pressure to millions of atmospheres and its temperature to thousands of degrees, resulting in a structure of rigid oxygen atoms in which hydrogen atoms flowed freely. When sandwiched between layers of graphene, ice forms a square lattice.

The details of the chemical nature of liquid water are not well understood; some theories suggest that its unusual behaviour is due to the existence of 2 liquid states.

Taste and odor
Pure water is usually described as tasteless and odorless, although humans have specific sensors that can feel the presence of water in their mouths, and frogs are known to be able to smell it. However, water from ordinary sources (including bottled mineral water) usually has many dissolved substances, that may give it varying tastes and odors. Humans and other animals have developed senses that enable them to evaluate the potability of water by avoiding water that is too salty or putrid.

Color and appearance

Pure water is visibly blue due to absorption of light in the region ca. 600 nm – 800 nm. The color can be easily observed in a glass of tap-water placed against a pure white background, in daylight. The principal absorption bands responsible for the color are overtones of the O–H stretching vibrations. The apparent intensity of the color increases with the depth of the water column, following Beer's law. This also applies, for example, with a swimming pool when the light source is sunlight reflected from the pool's white tiles.
  
In nature, the color may also be modified from blue to green due to the presence of suspended solids or algae.

In industry, near-infrared spectroscopy is used with aqueous solutions as the greater intensity of the lower overtones of water means that glass cuvettes with short path-length may be employed. To observe the fundamental stretching absorption spectrum of water or of an aqueous solution in the region around 3500 cm−1 (2.85 μm) a path length of about 25 μm is needed. Also, the cuvette must be both transparent around 3500 cm−1 and insoluble in water; calcium fluoride is one material that is in common use for the cuvette windows with aqueous solutions.
  
The Raman-active fundamental vibrations may be observed with, for example, a 1 cm sample cell.

Aquatic plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms can live in water up to hundreds of meters deep, because sunlight can reach them.
Practically no sunlight reaches the parts of the oceans below  of depth.

The refractive index of liquid water (1.333 at ) is much higher than that of air (1.0), similar to those of alkanes and ethanol, but lower than those of glycerol (1.473), benzene (1.501), carbon disulfide (1.627), and common types of glass (1.4 to 1.6). The refraction index of ice (1.31) is lower than that of liquid water.

Polar molecule 

In a water molecule, the hydrogen atoms form a 104.5° angle with the oxygen atom. The hydrogen atoms are close to two corners of a tetrahedron centered on the oxygen. At the other two corners are lone pairs of valence electrons that do not participate in the bonding. In a perfect tetrahedron, the atoms would form a 109.5° angle, but the repulsion between the lone pairs is greater than the repulsion between the hydrogen atoms. The O–H bond length is about 0.096 nm.

Other substances have a tetrahedral molecular structure, for example, methane () and hydrogen sulfide (). However, oxygen is more electronegative (holds on to its electrons more tightly) than most other elements, so the oxygen atom retains a negative charge while the hydrogen atoms are positively charged. Along with the bent structure, this gives the molecule an electrical dipole moment and it is classified as a polar molecule.

Water is a good polar solvent, that dissolves many salts and hydrophilic organic molecules such as sugars and simple alcohols such as ethanol. Water also dissolves many gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide—the latter giving the fizz of carbonated beverages, sparkling wines and beers. In addition, many substances in living organisms, such as proteins, DNA and polysaccharides, are dissolved in water. The interactions between water and the subunits of these biomacromolecules shape protein folding, DNA base pairing, and other phenomena crucial to life (hydrophobic effect).

Many organic substances (such as fats and oils and alkanes) are hydrophobic, that is, insoluble in water. Many inorganic substances are insoluble too, including most metal oxides, sulfides, and silicates.

Hydrogen bonding

Because of its polarity, a molecule of water in the liquid or solid state can form up to four hydrogen bonds with neighboring molecules. Hydrogen bonds are about ten times as strong as the Van der Waals force that attracts molecules to each other in most liquids. This is the reason why the melting and boiling points of water are much higher than those of other analogous compounds like hydrogen sulfide. They also explain its exceptionally high specific heat capacity (about 4.2 J/g/K), heat of fusion (about 333 J/g), heat of vaporization (), and thermal conductivity (between 0.561 and 0.679 W/m/K). These properties make water more effective at moderating Earth's climate, by storing heat and transporting it between the oceans and the atmosphere. The hydrogen bonds of water are around 23 kJ/mol (compared to a covalent O-H bond at 492 kJ/mol). Of this, it is estimated that 90% is attributable to electrostatics, while the remaining 10% is partially covalent.

These bonds are the cause of water's high surface tension and capillary forces. The capillary action refers to the tendency of water to move up a narrow tube against the force of gravity. This property is relied upon by all vascular plants, such as trees.

Self-ionisation

Water is a weak solution of hydronium hydroxide - there is an equilibrium  ⇔  + , in combination with solvation of the resulting hydronium ions.

Electrical conductivity and electrolysis
Pure water has a low electrical conductivity, which increases with the dissolution of a small amount of ionic material such as common salt.

Liquid water can be split into the elements hydrogen and oxygen by passing an electric current through it—a process called electrolysis. The decomposition requires more energy input than the heat released by the inverse process (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).

Mechanical properties
Liquid water can be assumed to be incompressible for most purposes: its compressibility ranges from 4.4 to  in ordinary conditions. Even in oceans at 4 km depth, where the pressure is 400 atm, water suffers only a 1.8% decrease in volume.

The viscosity of water is about 10−3 Pa·s or 0.01 poise at , and the speed of sound in liquid water ranges between  depending on temperature. Sound travels long distances in water with little attenuation, especially at low frequencies (roughly 0.03 dB/km for 1 kHz), a property that is exploited by cetaceans and humans for communication and environment sensing (sonar).

Reactivity
Metallic elements which are more electropositive than hydrogen, particularly the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals such as lithium, sodium, calcium, potassium and cesium displace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides and releasing hydrogen. At high temperatures, carbon reacts with steam to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

On Earth

Hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout the Earth. The study of the distribution of water is hydrography. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, of glaciers is glaciology, of inland waters is limnology and distribution of oceans is oceanography. Ecological processes with hydrology are in the focus of ecohydrology.

The collective mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of a planet is called the hydrosphere. Earth's approximate water volume (the total water supply of the world) is 1.386 × 109 cubic kilometers (3.33 × 108 cubic miles).

Liquid water is found in bodies of water, such as an ocean, sea, lake, river, stream, canal, pond, or puddle. The majority of water on Earth is sea water. Water is also present in the atmosphere in solid, liquid, and vapor states. It also exists as groundwater in aquifers.

Water is important in many geological processes. Groundwater is present in most rocks, and the pressure of this groundwater affects patterns of faulting. Water in the mantle is responsible for the melt that produces volcanoes at subduction zones. On the surface of the Earth, water is important in both chemical and physical weathering processes. Water, and to a lesser but still significant extent, ice, are also responsible for a large amount of sediment transport that occurs on the surface of the earth. Deposition of transported sediment forms many types of sedimentary rocks, which make up the geologic record of Earth history.

Water cycle

The water cycle (known scientifically as the hydrologic cycle) refers to the continuous exchange of water within the hydrosphere, between the atmosphere, soil water, surface water, groundwater, and plants.

Water moves perpetually through each of these regions in the water cycle consisting of the following transfer processes:
 evaporation from oceans and other water bodies into the air and transpiration from land plants and animals into the air.
 precipitation, from water vapor condensing from the air and falling to the earth or ocean.
 runoff from the land usually reaching the sea.
Most water vapors found mostly in the ocean returns to it, but winds carry water vapor over land at the same rate as runoff into the sea, about 47 Tt per year whilst evaporation and transpiration happening in land masses also contribute another 72 Tt per year. Precipitation, at a rate of 119 Tt per year over land, has several forms: most commonly rain, snow, and hail, with some contribution from fog and dew. Dew is small drops of water that are condensed when a high density of water vapor meets a cool surface. Dew usually forms in the morning when the temperature is the lowest, just before sunrise and when the temperature of the earth's surface starts to increase. Condensed water in the air may also refract sunlight to produce rainbows.

Water runoff often collects over watersheds flowing into rivers. A mathematical model used to simulate river or stream flow and calculate water quality parameters is a hydrological transport model. Some water is diverted to irrigation for agriculture. Rivers and seas offer opportunities for travel and commerce. Through erosion, runoff shapes the environment creating river valleys and deltas which provide rich soil and level ground for the establishment of population centers. A flood occurs when an area of land, usually low-lying, is covered with water which occurs when a river overflows its banks or a storm surge happens. On the other hand, drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. This occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation either due to its topography or due to its location in terms of latitude.

Water resources

Water occurs as both "stocks" and "flows". Water can be stored as lakes, water vapor, groundwater or aquifers, and ice and snow. Of the total volume of global freshwater, an estimated 69 percent is stored in glaciers and permanent snow cover; 30 percent is in groundwater; and the remaining 1 percent in lakes, rivers, the atmosphere, and biota. The length of time water remains in storage is highly variable: some aquifers consist of water stored over thousands of years but lake volumes may fluctuate on a seasonal basis, decreasing during dry periods and increasing during wet ones. A substantial fraction of the water supply for some regions consists of water extracted from water stored in stocks, and when withdrawals exceed recharge, stocks decrease. By some estimates, as much as 30 percent of total water used for irrigation comes from unsustainable withdrawals of groundwater, causing groundwater depletion.

Sea water and tides

Sea water contains about 3.5% sodium chloride on average, plus smaller amounts of other substances. The physical properties of seawater differ from fresh water in some important respects. It freezes at a lower temperature (about ) and its density increases with decreasing temperature to the freezing point, instead of reaching maximum density at a temperature above freezing. The salinity of water in major seas varies from about 0.7% in the Baltic Sea to 4.0% in the Red Sea. (The Dead Sea, known for its ultra-high salinity levels of between 30–40%, is really a salt lake.)

Tides are the cyclic rising and falling of local sea levels caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun acting on the oceans. Tides cause changes in the depth of the marine and estuarine water bodies and produce oscillating currents known as tidal streams. The changing tide produced at a given location is the result of the changing positions of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth coupled with the effects of Earth rotation and the local bathymetry. The strip of seashore that is submerged at high tide and exposed at low tide, the intertidal zone, is an important ecological product of ocean tides.

Effects on life

From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for the proliferation of life. It carries out this role by allowing organic compounds to react in ways that ultimately allow replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water is vital both as a solvent in which many of the body's solutes dissolve and as an essential part of many metabolic processes within the body. Metabolism is the sum total of anabolism and catabolism. In anabolism, water is removed from molecules (through energy requiring enzymatic chemical reactions) in order to grow larger molecules (e.g., starches, triglycerides, and proteins for storage of fuels and information). In catabolism, water is used to break bonds in order to generate smaller molecules (e.g., glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids to be used for fuels for energy use or other purposes). Without water, these particular metabolic processes could not exist.

Water is fundamental to photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells use the sun's energy to split off water's hydrogen from oxygen. Hydrogen is combined with CO2 (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen. All living cells use such fuels and oxidize the hydrogen and carbon to capture the sun's energy and reform water and CO2 in the process (cellular respiration).

Water is also central to acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. An acid, a hydrogen ion (H+, that is, a proton) donor, can be neutralized by a base, a proton acceptor such as a hydroxide ion (OH−) to form water. Water is considered to be neutral, with a pH (the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration) of 7. Acids have pH values less than 7 while bases have values greater than 7.

Aquatic life forms

Earth surface waters are filled with life. The earliest life forms appeared in water; nearly all fish live exclusively in water, and there are many types of marine mammals, such as dolphins and whales. Some kinds of animals, such as amphibians, spend portions of their lives in water and portions on land. Plants such as kelp and algae grow in the water and are the basis for some underwater ecosystems. Plankton is generally the foundation of the ocean food chain.

Aquatic vertebrates must obtain oxygen to survive, and they do so in various ways. Fish have gills instead of lungs, although some species of fish, such as the lungfish, have both. Marine mammals, such as dolphins, whales, otters, and seals need to surface periodically to breathe air. Some amphibians are able to absorb oxygen through their skin. Invertebrates exhibit a wide range of modifications to survive in poorly oxygenated waters including breathing tubes (see insect and mollusc siphons) and gills (Carcinus). However, as invertebrate life evolved in an aquatic habitat most have little or no specialization for respiration in water.

Effects on human civilization

Civilization has historically flourished around rivers and major waterways; Mesopotamia, the so-called cradle of civilization, was situated between the major rivers Tigris and Euphrates; the ancient society of the Egyptians depended entirely upon the Nile. The early Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE) developed along the Indus River and tributaries that flowed out of the Himalayas. Rome was also founded on the banks of the Italian river Tiber. Large metropolises like Rotterdam, London, Montreal, Paris, New York City, Buenos Aires, Shanghai, Tokyo, Chicago, and Hong Kong owe their success in part to their easy accessibility via water and the resultant expansion of trade. Islands with safe water ports, like Singapore, have flourished for the same reason. In places such as North Africa and the Middle East, where water is more scarce, access to clean drinking water was and is a major factor in human development.

Health and pollution

Water fit for human consumption is called drinking water or potable water. Water that is not potable may be made potable by filtration or distillation, or by a range of other methods. More than 660 million people do not have access to safe drinking water.

Water that is not fit for drinking but is not harmful to humans when used for swimming or bathing is called by various names other than potable or drinking water, and is sometimes called safe water, or "safe for bathing". Chlorine is a skin and mucous membrane irritant that is used to make water safe for bathing or drinking. Its use is highly technical and is usually monitored by government regulations (typically 1 part per million (ppm) for drinking water, and 1–2 ppm of chlorine not yet reacted with impurities for bathing water). Water for bathing may be maintained in satisfactory microbiological condition using chemical disinfectants such as chlorine or ozone or by the use of ultraviolet light.

Water reclamation is the process of converting wastewater (most commonly sewage, also called municipal wastewater) into water that can be reused for other purposes. 

Freshwater is a renewable resource, recirculated by the natural hydrologic cycle, but pressures over access to it result from the naturally uneven distribution in space and time, growing economic demands by agriculture and industry, and rising populations. Currently, nearly a billion people around the world lack access to safe, affordable water. In 2000, the United Nations established the Millennium Development Goals for water to halve by 2015 the proportion of people worldwide without access to safe water and sanitation. Progress toward that goal was uneven, and in 2015 the UN committed to the Sustainable Development Goals of achieving universal access to safe and affordable water and sanitation by 2030. Poor water quality and bad sanitation are deadly; some five million deaths a year are caused by water-related diseases. The World Health Organization estimates that safe water could prevent 1.4 million child deaths from diarrhoea each year.

In developing countries, 90% of all municipal wastewater still goes untreated into local rivers and streams. Some 50 countries, with roughly a third of the world's population, also suffer from medium or high water scarcity and 17 of these extract more water annually than is recharged through their natural water cycles. The strain not only affects surface freshwater bodies like rivers and lakes, but it also degrades groundwater resources.

Human uses

Agriculture
The most substantial human use of water is for agriculture, including irrigated agriculture, which accounts for as much as 80 to 90 percent of total human water consumption. In the United States, 42% of freshwater withdrawn for use is for irrigation, but the vast majority of water "consumed" (used and not returned to the environment) goes to agriculture.

Access to fresh water is often taken for granted, especially in developed countries that have build sophisticated water systems for collecting, purifying, and delivering water, and removing wastewater. But growing economic, demographic, and climatic pressures are increasing concerns about water issues, leading to increasing competition for fixed water resources, giving rise to the concept of peak water. As populations and economies continue to grow, consumption of water-thirsty meat expands, and new demands rise for biofuels or new water-intensive industries, new water challenges are likely.

An assessment of water management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by the International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka to see if the world had sufficient water to provide food for its growing population. It assessed the current availability of water for agriculture on a global scale and mapped out locations suffering from water scarcity. It found that a fifth of the world's people, more than 1.2 billion, live in areas of physical water scarcity, where there is not enough water to meet all demands. A further 1.6 billion people live in areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where the lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity make it impossible for authorities to satisfy the demand for water. The report found that it would be possible to produce the food required in the future, but that continuation of today's food production and environmental trends would lead to crises in many parts of the world. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industries and cities find ways to use water more efficiently.

Water scarcity is also caused by production of water intensive products. For example, cotton: 1 kg of cotton—equivalent of a pair of jeans—requires  water to produce. While cotton accounts for 2.4% of world water use, the water is consumed in regions that are already at a risk of water shortage. Significant environmental damage has been caused: for example, the diversion of water by the former Soviet Union from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers to produce cotton was largely responsible for the disappearance of the Aral Sea.

As a scientific standard
On 7 April 1795, the gram was defined in France to be equal to "the absolute weight of a volume of pure water equal to a cube of one-hundredth of a meter, and at the temperature of melting ice". For practical purposes though, a metallic reference standard was required, one thousand times more massive, the kilogram. Work was therefore commissioned to determine precisely the mass of one liter of water. In spite of the fact that the decreed definition of the gram specified water at —a highly reproducible temperature—the scientists chose to redefine the standard and to perform their measurements at the temperature of highest water density, which was measured at the time as .

The Kelvin temperature scale of the SI system was based on the triple point of water, defined as exactly , but as of May 2019 is based on the Boltzmann constant instead. The scale is an absolute temperature scale with the same increment as the Celsius temperature scale, which was originally defined according to the boiling point (set to ) and melting point (set to ) of water.

Natural water consists mainly of the isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but there is also a small quantity of heavier isotopes oxygen-18, oxygen-17, and hydrogen-2 (deuterium). The percentage of the heavier isotopes is very small, but it still affects the properties of water. Water from rivers and lakes tends to contain less heavy isotopes than seawater. Therefore, standard water is defined in the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification.

For drinking

The human body contains from 55% to 78% water, depending on body size. To function properly, the body requires between  of water per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this is ingested through foods or beverages other than drinking straight water. It is not clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people, though the British Dietetic Association advises that 2.5 liters of total water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration, including 1.8 liters (6 to 7 glasses) obtained directly from beverages. Medical literature favors a lower consumption, typically 1 liter of water for an average male, excluding extra requirements due to fluid loss from exercise or warm weather.

Healthy kidneys can excrete 0.8 to 1 liter of water per hour, but stress such as exercise can reduce this amount. People can drink far more water than necessary while exercising, putting them at risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), which can be fatal. The popular claim that "a person should consume eight glasses of water per day" seems to have no real basis in science. Studies have shown that extra water intake, especially up to  at mealtime was associated with weight loss. Adequate fluid intake is helpful in preventing constipation.

An original recommendation for water intake in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the United States National Research Council read: "An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food. Most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods." The latest dietary reference intake report by the United States National Research Council in general recommended, based on the median total water intake from US survey data (including food sources):  for men and  of water total for women, noting that water contained in food provided approximately 19% of total water intake in the survey.

Specifically, pregnant and breastfeeding women need additional fluids to stay hydrated. The Institute of Medicine (US) recommends that, on average, men consume  and women ; pregnant women should increase intake to  and breastfeeding women should get 3 liters (12 cups), since an especially large amount of fluid is lost during nursing. Also noted is that normally, about 20% of water intake comes from food, while the rest comes from drinking water and beverages (caffeinated included). Water is excreted from the body in multiple forms; through urine and feces, through sweating, and by exhalation of water vapor in the breath. With physical exertion and heat exposure, water loss will increase and daily fluid needs may increase as well.

Humans require water with few impurities. Common impurities include metal salts and oxides, including copper, iron, calcium and lead, and/or harmful bacteria, such as Vibrio. Some solutes are acceptable and even desirable for taste enhancement and to provide needed electrolytes.

The single largest (by volume) freshwater resource suitable for drinking is Lake Baikal in Siberia.

Washing
The propensity of water to form solutions and emulsions is useful in various washing processes. Washing is also an important component of several aspects of personal body hygiene. Most of the personal water use is due to showering, doing the laundry and dishwashing, reaching hundreds of liters per day per person in developed countries.

Transportation

The use of water for transportation of materials through rivers and canals as well as the international shipping lanes is an important part of the world economy.

Chemical uses
Water is widely used in chemical reactions as a solvent or reactant and less commonly as a solute or catalyst. In inorganic reactions, water is a common solvent, dissolving many ionic compounds, as well as other polar compounds such as ammonia and compounds closely related to water. In organic reactions, it is not usually used as a reaction solvent, because it does not dissolve the reactants well and is amphoteric (acidic and basic) and nucleophilic. Nevertheless, these properties are sometimes desirable. Also, acceleration of Diels-Alder reactions by water has been observed. Supercritical water has recently been a topic of research. Oxygen-saturated supercritical water combusts organic pollutants efficiently. Water vapor is used for some processes in the chemical industry. An example is the production of acrylic acid from acrolein, propylene and propane. The possible effect of water in these reactions includes the physical-, chemical interaction of water with the catalyst and the chemical reaction of water with the reaction intermediates.

Heat exchange
Water and steam are a common fluid used for heat exchange, due to its availability and high heat capacity, both for cooling and heating. Cool water may even be naturally available from a lake or the sea. It's especially effective to transport heat through vaporization and condensation of water because of its large latent heat of vaporization. A disadvantage is that metals commonly found in industries such as steel and copper are oxidized faster by untreated water and steam. In almost all thermal power stations, water is used as the working fluid (used in a closed-loop between boiler, steam turbine, and condenser), and the coolant (used to exchange the waste heat to a water body or carry it away by evaporation in a cooling tower). In the United States, cooling power plants is the largest use of water.

In the nuclear power industry, water can also be used as a neutron moderator. In most nuclear reactors, water is both a coolant and a moderator. This provides something of a passive safety measure, as removing the water from the reactor also slows the nuclear reaction down. However other methods are favored for stopping a reaction and it is preferred to keep the nuclear core covered with water so as to ensure adequate cooling.

Fire considerations

Water has a high heat of vaporization and is relatively inert, which makes it a good fire extinguishing fluid. The evaporation of water carries heat away from the fire. It is dangerous to use water on fires involving oils and organic solvents because many organic materials float on water and the water tends to spread the burning liquid.

Use of water in fire fighting should also take into account the hazards of a steam explosion, which may occur when water is used on very hot fires in confined spaces, and of a hydrogen explosion, when substances which react with water, such as certain metals or hot carbon such as coal, charcoal, or coke graphite, decompose the water, producing water gas.

The power of such explosions was seen in the Chernobyl disaster, although the water involved in this case did not come from fire-fighting but from the reactor's own water cooling system. A steam explosion occurred when the extreme overheating of the core caused water to flash into steam. A hydrogen explosion may have occurred as a result of a reaction between steam and hot zirconium.

Some metallic oxides, most notably those of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, produce so much heat on reaction with water that a fire hazard can develop. The alkaline earth oxide quicklime is a mass-produced substance that is often transported in paper bags. If these are soaked through, they may ignite as their contents react with water.

Recreation

Humans use water for many recreational purposes, as well as for exercising and for sports. Some of these include swimming, waterskiing, boating, surfing and diving. In addition, some sports, like ice hockey and ice skating, are played on ice. Lakesides, beaches and water parks are popular places for people to go to relax and enjoy recreation. Many find the sound and appearance of flowing water to be calming, and fountains and other water features are popular decorations. Some keep fish and other flora and fauna inside aquariums or ponds for show, fun, and companionship. Humans also use water for snow sports i.e. skiing, sledding, snowmobiling or snowboarding, which require the water to be frozen.

Water industry
The water industry provides drinking water and wastewater services (including sewage treatment) to households and industry. Water supply facilities include water wells, cisterns for rainwater harvesting, water supply networks, and water purification facilities, water tanks, water towers, water pipes including old aqueducts. Atmospheric water generators are in development.

Drinking water is often collected at springs, extracted from artificial borings (wells) in the ground, or pumped from lakes and rivers. Building more wells in adequate places is thus a possible way to produce more water, assuming the aquifers can supply an adequate flow. Other water sources include rainwater collection. Water may require purification for human consumption. This may involve the removal of undissolved substances, dissolved substances and harmful microbes. Popular methods are filtering with sand which only removes undissolved material, while chlorination and boiling kill harmful microbes. Distillation does all three functions. More advanced techniques exist, such as reverse osmosis. Desalination of abundant seawater is a more expensive solution used in coastal arid climates.

The distribution of drinking water is done through municipal water systems, tanker delivery or as bottled water. Governments in many countries have programs to distribute water to the needy at no charge.

Reducing usage by using drinking (potable) water only for human consumption is another option. In some cities such as Hong Kong, seawater is extensively used for flushing toilets citywide in order to conserve freshwater resources.

Polluting water may be the biggest single misuse of water; to the extent that a pollutant limits other uses of the water, it becomes a waste of the resource, regardless of benefits to the polluter. Like other types of pollution, this does not enter standard accounting of market costs, being conceived as externalities for which the market cannot account. Thus other people pay the price of water pollution, while the private firms' profits are not redistributed to the local population, victims of this pollution. Pharmaceuticals consumed by humans often end up in the waterways and can have detrimental effects on aquatic life if they bioaccumulate and if they are not biodegradable.

Municipal and industrial wastewater are typically treated at wastewater treatment plants. Mitigation of polluted surface runoff is addressed through a variety of prevention and treatment techniques. (See Surface runoff#Mitigation and treatment.)

Industrial applications
Many industrial processes rely on reactions using chemicals dissolved in water, suspension of solids in water slurries or using water to dissolve and extract substances, or to wash products or process equipment. Processes such as mining, chemical pulping, pulp bleaching, paper manufacturing, textile production, dyeing, printing, and cooling of power plants use large amounts of water, requiring a dedicated water source, and often cause significant water pollution.

Water is used in power generation. Hydroelectricity is electricity obtained from hydropower. Hydroelectric power comes from water driving a water turbine connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. The energy is supplied by the motion of water. Typically a dam is constructed on a river, creating an artificial lake behind it. Water flowing out of the lake is forced through turbines that turn generators.

Pressurized water is used in water blasting and water jet cutters. Also, high pressure water guns are used for precise cutting. It works very well, is relatively safe, and is not harmful to the environment. It is also used in the cooling of machinery to prevent overheating, or prevent saw blades from overheating.

Water is also used in many industrial processes and machines, such as the steam turbine and heat exchanger, in addition to its use as a chemical solvent. Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (thermal pollution). Industry requires pure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water supply and discharge.

Food processing

Boiling, steaming, and simmering are popular cooking methods that often require immersing food in water or its gaseous state, steam. Water is also used for dishwashing. Water also plays many critical roles within the field of food science.

Solutes such as salts and sugars found in water affect the physical properties of water. The boiling and freezing points of water are affected by solutes, as well as air pressure, which is in turn affected by altitude. Water boils at lower temperatures with the lower air pressure that occurs at higher elevations. One mole of sucrose (sugar) per kilogram of water raises the boiling point of water by , and one mole of salt per kg raises the boiling point by ; similarly, increasing the number of dissolved particles lowers water's freezing point.

Solutes in water also affect water activity that affects many chemical reactions and the growth of microbes in food. Water activity can be described as a ratio of the vapor pressure of water in a solution to the vapor pressure of pure water. Solutes in water lower water activity—this is important to know because most bacterial growth ceases at low levels of water activity. Not only does microbial growth affect the safety of food, but also the preservation and shelf life of food.

Water hardness is also a critical factor in food processing and may be altered or treated by using a chemical ion exchange system. It can dramatically affect the quality of a product, as well as playing a role in sanitation. Water hardness is classified based on concentration of calcium carbonate the water contains. Water is classified as soft if it contains less than 100 mg/l (UK) or less than 60 mg/l (US).

According to a report published by the Water Footprint organization in 2010, a single kilogram of beef requires  of water; however, the authors also make clear that this is a global average and circumstantial factors determine the amount of water used in beef production.

Medical use
Water for injection is on the World Health Organization's list of essential medicines.

Distribution in nature

In the universe

Much of the universe's water is produced as a byproduct of star formation. The formation of stars is accompanied by a strong outward wind of gas and dust. When this outflow of material eventually impacts the surrounding gas, the shock waves that are created compress and heat the gas. The water observed is quickly produced in this warm dense gas.

On 22 July 2011, a report described the discovery of a gigantic cloud of water vapor containing "140 trillion times more water than all of Earth's oceans combined" around a quasar located 12 billion light years from Earth. According to the researchers, the "discovery shows that water has been prevalent in the universe for nearly its entire existence".

Water has been detected in interstellar clouds within our galaxy, the Milky Way. Water probably exists in abundance in other galaxies, too, because its components, hydrogen, and oxygen, are among the most abundant elements in the universe. Based on models of the formation and evolution of the Solar System and that of other star systems, most other planetary systems are likely to have similar ingredients.

Water vapor
Water is present as vapor in:
 Atmosphere of the Sun: in detectable trace amounts
 Atmosphere of Mercury: 3.4%, and large amounts of water in Mercury's exosphere
 Atmosphere of Venus: 0.002%
 Earth's atmosphere: ≈0.40% over full atmosphere, typically 1–4% at surface; as well as that of the Moon in trace amounts
 Atmosphere of Mars: 0.03%
 Atmosphere of Ceres
 Atmosphere of Jupiter: 0.0004% – in ices only; and that of its moon Europa
 Atmosphere of Saturn – in ices only; Enceladus: 91% and Dione (exosphere)
 Atmosphere of Uranus – in trace amounts below 50 bar
 Atmosphere of Neptune – found in the deeper layers
 Extrasolar planet atmospheres: including those of HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b, Tau Boötis b, HAT-P-11b, XO-1b, WASP-12b, WASP-17b, and WASP-19b.
 Stellar atmospheres: not limited to cooler stars and even detected in giant hot stars such as Betelgeuse, Mu Cephei, Antares and Arcturus.
 Circumstellar disks: including those of more than half of T Tauri stars such as AA Tauri as well as TW Hydrae, IRC +10216 and APM 08279+5255, VY Canis Majoris and S Persei.

Liquid water
Liquid water is present on Earth, covering 71% of its surface. Liquid water is also occasionally present in small amounts on Mars. Scientists believe liquid water is present in the Saturnian moons of Enceladus, as a 10-kilometre thick ocean approximately 30–40 kilometres below Enceladus' south polar surface, and Titan, as a subsurface layer, possibly mixed with ammonia. Jupiter's moon Europa has surface characteristics which suggest a subsurface liquid water ocean. Liquid water may also exist on Jupiter's moon Ganymede as a layer sandwiched between high pressure ice and rock.

Water ice
Water is present as ice on:

 Mars: under the regolith and at the poles.
 Earth–Moon system: mainly as ice sheets on Earth and in Lunar craters and volcanic rocks NASA reported the detection of water molecules by NASA's Moon Mineralogy Mapper aboard the Indian Space Research Organization's Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft in September 2009.
 Ceres
 Jupiter's moons: Europa's surface and also that of Ganymede and Callisto
 Saturn: in the planet's ring system and on the surface and mantle of Titan and Enceladus
 Pluto–Charon system
 Comets and other related Kuiper belt and Oort cloud objects

And is also likely present on:
 Mercury's poles
 Tethys

Exotic forms
Water and other volatiles probably comprise much of the internal structures of Uranus and Neptune and the water in the deeper layers may be in the form of ionic water in which the molecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions, and deeper still as superionic water in which the oxygen crystallises, but the hydrogen ions float about freely within the oxygen lattice.

Water and planetary habitability

The existence of liquid water, and to a lesser extent its gaseous and solid forms, on Earth are vital to the existence of life on Earth as we know it. The Earth is located in the habitable zone of the Solar System; if it were slightly closer to or farther from the Sun (about 5%, or about 8 million kilometers), the conditions which allow the three forms to be present simultaneously would be far less likely to exist.

Earth's gravity allows it to hold an atmosphere. Water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere provide a temperature buffer (greenhouse effect) which helps maintain a relatively steady surface temperature. If Earth were smaller, a thinner atmosphere would allow temperature extremes, thus preventing the accumulation of water except in polar ice caps (as on Mars).

The surface temperature of Earth has been relatively constant through geologic time despite varying levels of incoming solar radiation (insolation), indicating that a dynamic process governs Earth's temperature via a combination of greenhouse gases and surface or atmospheric albedo. This proposal is known as the Gaia hypothesis.

The state of water on a planet depends on ambient pressure, which is determined by the planet's gravity. If a planet is sufficiently massive, the water on it may be solid even at high temperatures, because of the high pressure caused by gravity, as it was observed on exoplanets Gliese 436 b and GJ 1214 b.

Law, politics, and crisis

Water politics is politics affected by water and water resources. For this reason, water is a strategic resource in the globe and an important element in many political conflicts. It causes health impacts and damage to biodiversity.

Access to safe drinking water has improved over the last decades in almost every part of the world, but approximately one billion people still lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in some developing regions of the world, water demand will exceed supply by 50%.

1.6 billion people have gained access to a safe water source since 1990. The proportion of people in developing countries with access to safe water is calculated to have improved from 30% in 1970 to 71% in 1990, 79% in 2000 and 84% in 2004.

A 2006 United Nations report stated that "there is enough water for everyone", but that access to it is hampered by mismanagement and corruption. In addition, global initiatives to improve the efficiency of aid delivery, such as the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, have not been taken up by water sector donors as effectively as they have in education and health, potentially leaving multiple donors working on overlapping projects and recipient governments without empowerment to act.

The authors of the 2007 Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture cited poor governance as one reason for some forms of water scarcity. Water governance is the set of formal and informal processes through which decisions related to water management are made. Good water governance is primarily about knowing what processes work best in a particular physical and socioeconomic context. Mistakes have sometimes been made by trying to apply 'blueprints' that work in the developed world to developing world locations and contexts. The Mekong river is one example; a review by the International Water Management Institute of policies in six countries that rely on the Mekong river for water found that thorough and transparent cost-benefit analyses and environmental impact assessments were rarely undertaken. They also discovered that Cambodia's draft water law was much more complex than it needed to be.

The UN World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from the World Water Assessment Program indicates that, in the next 20 years, the quantity of water available to everyone is predicted to decrease by 30%. 40% of the world's inhabitants currently have insufficient fresh water for minimal hygiene. More than 2.2 million people died in 2000 from waterborne diseases (related to the consumption of contaminated water) or drought. In 2004, the UK charity WaterAid reported that a child dies every 15 seconds from easily preventable water-related diseases; often this means lack of sewage disposal.

Organizations concerned with water protection include the International Water Association (IWA), WaterAid, Water 1st, and the American Water Resources Association. The International Water Management Institute undertakes projects with the aim of using effective water management to reduce poverty. Water related conventions are United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and Ramsar Convention. World Day for Water takes place on 22 March and World Oceans Day on 8 June.

In culture

Religion

Water is considered a purifier in most religions. Faiths that incorporate ritual washing (ablution) include Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, the Rastafari movement, Shinto, Taoism, and Wicca. Immersion (or aspersion or affusion) of a person in water is a central sacrament of Christianity (where it is called baptism); it is also a part of the practice of other religions, including Islam (Ghusl), Judaism (mikvah) and Sikhism (Amrit Sanskar). In addition, a ritual bath in pure water is performed for the dead in many religions including Islam and Judaism. In Islam, the five daily prayers can be done in most cases after washing certain parts of the body using clean water (wudu), unless water is unavailable (see Tayammum). In Shinto, water is used in almost all rituals to cleanse a person or an area (e.g., in the ritual of misogi).

In Christianity, holy water is water that has been sanctified by a priest for the purpose of baptism, the blessing of persons, places, and objects, or as a means of repelling evil.

In Zoroastrianism, water (āb) is respected as the source of life.

Philosophy

The Ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles saw  water as one of the four classical elements (along with fire, earth, and air), and regarded it as an ylem, or basic substance of the universe. Thales, whom  Aristotle portrayed as an astronomer and an engineer, theorized that the earth, which is denser than water, emerged from the water. Thales, a monist, believed further that all things are made from water. Plato believed that the shape of water is an icosahedron - thus explaining why it flows easily compared to the cube-shaped earth.

The theory of the four bodily humors associated water with phlegm, as being cold and moist. The  classical element of water was also one of the five elements in traditional Chinese philosophy (along with earth, fire, wood, and metal).

Some traditional and popular  Asian philosophical systems take water as a role-model. James Legge's 1891 translation of the Dao De Jing states, "The highest excellence is like (that of) water. The excellence of water appears in its benefiting all things, and in its occupying, without striving (to the contrary), the low place which all men dislike. Hence (its way) is near to (that of) the Tao" and "There is nothing in the world more soft and weak than water, and yet for attacking things that are firm and strong there is nothing that can take precedence of it—for there is nothing (so effectual) for which it can be changed." Guanzi in the "Shui di" 水地 chapter further elaborates on the symbolism of water, proclaiming that "man is water" and attributing natural qualities of the people of different Chinese regions to the character of local water resources.

Folklore 
"Living water" features in Germanic and Slavic folktales as a means of bringing the dead back to life. Note the Grimm fairy-tale ("The Water of Life") and the Russian dichotomy of  and dead water ). The Fountain of Youth represents a related concept of  magical waters allegedly preventing aging.

Art and activism
Painter and activist Fredericka Foster curated The Value of Water, at the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York City,  which anchored a year long initiative by the Cathedral on our dependence on water. The largest exhibition to ever appear at the Cathedral, it featured over forty artists, including Jenny Holzer, Robert Longo, Mark Rothko, William Kentridge, April Gornik, Kiki Smith, Pat Steir, William Kentridge, Alice Dalton Brown, Teresita Fernandez and Bill Viola.   Foster created Think About Water, an ecological collective of artists who use water as their subject or medium. Members include Basia Irland, Aviva Rahmani, Betsy Damon, Diane Burko, Leila Daw, Stacy Levy, Charlotte Coté, Meridel Rubenstein, Stacy Levy, Anna Macleod, and Aviva Rahmani.

To mark the 10th anniversary of access to water and sanitation being declared a human right by the UN, the charity WaterAid commissioned ten visual artists to show the impact of clean water on people’s lives.

Dihydrogen monoxide parody

Water's technically correct but rarely used chemical name, dihydrogen monoxide, has been used in a series of hoaxes and pranks that mock scientific illiteracy. This began in 1983, when an April Fools' Day article appeared in a newspaper in Durand, Michigan. The false story consisted of safety concerns about the substance.

See also

 Outline of water
 Water (data page) is a collection of the chemical and physical properties of water.
 Aquaphobia (fear of water)
 Human right to water and sanitation
 Mpemba effect
 Oral rehydration therapy
 Thirst
 Water pinch analysis

References

Further reading

 Debenedetti, PG., and HE Stanley, "Supercooled and Glassy Water", Physics Today 56 (6), pp. 40–46 (2003). Downloadable PDF (1.9 MB)

 Gleick, PH., (editor), The World's Water: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources. Island Press, Washington, D.C. (published every two years, beginning in 1998.) The World's Water, Island Press
 
 Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education
 Postel, S., Last Oasis: Facing Water Scarcity. W.W. Norton and Company, New York. 1992
 Reisner, M., Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water. Penguin Books, New York. 1986.
 United Nations World Water Development Report. Produced every three years.
 St. Fleur, Nicholas. The Water in Your Glass Might Be Older Than the Sun. "The water you drink is older than the planet you're standing on." The New York Times (15 April 2016)

External links

 OECD Water statistics
 The World's Water Data Page
 FAO Comprehensive Water Database, AQUASTAT
 The Water Conflict Chronology: Water Conflict Database
 Water science school (USGS)
 Portal to The World Bank's strategy, work and associated publications on water resources
 America Water Resources Association 
 Water on the web
 Water structure and science 
 Why water is one of the weirdest things in the universe BBC Ideas, Video, 3:16 minutes, 2019
 The chemistry of water (NSF special report)
 The International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam
 H2O:The Molecule That Made Us, a 2020 PBS documentary

Articles containing video clips
Hydrogen compounds
Inorganic solvents
Liquids
Materials that expand upon freezing
Nuclear reactor coolants
Oxides
Oxygen compounds, This article gives a chronological list of years in Australian Test cricket (descending order), with series, notable matches, and events listed with their respective years.  The list of years commences in 1877, the year of the first cricket Test played between Australia and England.

Note: inclusion of death notes are for Australian Test captains, and significant figures within the game. Results of Test matches show close or large wins or losses, and ties. Individual batting scores or bowling figures show significant performances. See List of Australia Test cricket records.

21st century

2010s 
2020 India beat Australia in Australia 

2017

2016
 Indian cricket team in Australia in 2015–16, the 5-ODI series is won by Australia 4–1, the 3-T20 series is won by India 3–0.
 Australian cricket team in New Zealand in 2015–16 Australia won the 2 match test series 2-0.
 Australian cricket team in Sri Lanka in 2016, the 3-Test series was won 3-0 by Sri Lanka.
 Pakistani cricket team in Australia in 2016–17, the 3-Test series was won 3-0 by Australia.

2015
 Australian cricket team in the West Indies in 2015, the 2-Test series is won by Australia 2–0.
 Adam Voges 130* on debut vs West Indies at Roseau. 
 Australian cricket team in England and Ireland in 2015, the 5-Test series is won by England 3–2.
 New Zealand cricket team in Australia in 2015–16, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–0.
 David Warner scores a century in both innings vs New Zealand at Brisbane. 
 First day-night Test cricket match is held in Adelaide using a pink ball.
 West Indian cricket team in Australia in 2015–16, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–0.
 Death of Richie Benaud.

2014
 Australian cricket team in South Africa in 2013–14, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–1. 
 David Warner scores a century in both innings vs South Africa at Cape Town. 
 Australian cricket team against Pakistan in the UAE in 2014–15, the 2-Test series is won by Pakistan 2–0. 
 Pakistan defeats Australia by 356 runs at Abu Dhabi. 
 Indian cricket team in Australia in 2014–15, the 4-Test series is won by Australia 2–0.
 David Warner scores a century in both innings vs India at Adelaide.   
 Josh Hazlewood 5/68 on debut vs India at Brisbane.
 Ryan Harris and Chris Rogers named Wisden Cricketers of the Year.
 Death of Ian Craig. 
 Death of Phillip Hughes.

2013
 Australian cricket team in India in 2012–13, the 4-Test series is won by India 4–0. 
 Australian cricket team in England in 2013, the 5-Test series is won by England 3–0. 
 England defeats Australia by 347 runs at Lord's. 
 English cricket team in Australia in 2013–14, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 5–0.

2012
 Michael Clarke 329* vs India at Sydney. 
 Ricky Ponting & Michael Clarke 386 for the 4th wicket vs India at Adelaide. 
 Australian cricket team in the West Indies in 2011–12, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–0. 
 Sri Lankan cricket team in Australia in 2012–13, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 3–0. 
 South African cricket team in Australia in 2012–13, the 3-Test series is won by South Africa 1–0.

2011
 Australian cricket team in Sri Lanka in 2011, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 1–0. 
 Nathan Lyon dismisses Sri Lankan batsman Kumar Sangakkara with his first ball in Test cricket at Galle.
 Nathan Lyon 5/34 on debut vs Sri Lanka at Galle.
 Shaun Marsh 141 on debut vs Sri Lanka at Pallekele. 
 Australian cricket team in South Africa in 2011–12, the 2-Test series is drawn 1–1. 
 Australia 47 vs South Africa at Newlands. 
 Pat Cummins 6/79 on debut vs South Africa at Johannesburg.
 Australia defeats South Africa by 2 wickets at Johannesburg.
 New Zealand cricket team in Australia in 2011–12, the 2-Test series is drawn 1–1. 
 James Pattinson 5/27 on debut vs New Zealand at Brisbane.
 New Zealand defeats Australia by 7 runs at Hobart.
 Indian cricket team in Australia in 2011–12, the 4-Test series is won by Australia 4–0.

2010
 Australian cricket team in New Zealand in 2009–10, the 2-Test series is won by Australia 2–0. 
 Australian cricket team against Pakistan in England in 2010, the 2-Test series is drawn 1–1. 
 Australian cricket team in India in 2010–11, the 2-Test series is won by India 2–0. 
 India defeats Australia by 1 wicket at Mohali. 
 English cricket team in Australia in 2010–11, the 5-Test series is won by England 3–1. 
 Peter Siddle takes a hat-trick vs England at Brisbane. 
 Ryan Harris scores a king pair vs England at Adelaide. 
 Michael Clarke named Wisden Cricketer of the Year.

2000s 
2009
 Australian cricket team in South Africa in 2008–09, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–1. 
 Marcus North 117 on debut vs South Africa at Johannesburg. 
 Phillip Hughes scores a century in both innings vs South Africa at Durban. 
 Australian cricket team in England in 2009, the 5-Test series is won by England 2–1.
 West Indian cricket team in Australia in 2009–10, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–0.
 Pakistani cricket team in Australia in 2009–10, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 3–0.

2008 
 Australian cricket team in the West Indies in 2008, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–0. 
 Australian cricket team in India in 2008–09, the 4-Test series is won by India 2–0.
 Jason Krejza 8/215 on debut vs India at Nagpur. 
 New Zealand cricket team in Australia in 2008–09, the 2-Test series is won by Australia 2–0.
 South African cricket team in Australia in 2008–09, the 3-Test series is won by South Africa 2–1. 
 Death of Bill Brown.

2007
 Sri Lankan cricket team in Australia in 2007–08, the 2-Test series is won by Australia 2–0.
 Indian cricket team in Australia in 2007–08, the 4-Test series is won by Australia 2–1.

2006 
 Ricky Ponting scores a century in both innings vs South Africa at Sydney. 
 Australian cricket team in South Africa in 2005–06, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 3–0. 
 Stuart Clark 5/55 on debut vs South Africa at Cape Town.
 Ricky Ponting scores a century in both innings vs South Africa at Kingsmead. 
 Australia defeats South Africa by 2 wickets at Johannesburg. 
 Australian cricket team in Bangladesh in 2005–06, the 2-Test series is won by Australia 2–0.
 Australia plays its first Test at Chittagong. 
 Jason Gillespie 201* as a nightwatchman vs Bangladesh at Chittagong. 
 English cricket team in Australia in 2006–07, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 5–0.
 Ricky Ponting and Brett Lee named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

2005
 Australian cricket team in New Zealand in 2004–05, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–0. 
 Ricky Ponting scores a century in both innings vs West Indies at Brisbane. 
 Australian cricket team in England in 2005, the 5-Test series is won by England 2–1. 
 England defeat Australia by 2 runs at Edgbaston. 
 West Indian cricket team in Australia in 2005–06, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 3–0.
 South African cricket team in Australia in 2005–06, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–0.

2004
 Australian cricket team in Sri Lanka in 2003–04, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 3–0.
 Sri Lankan cricket team in Australia in 2004 the 2-Test series is won by Australia 1–0. 
 Matthew Hayden scores a century in both innings vs Sri Lanka at Cairns. 
 Australian cricket team in India in 2004–05, the 4-Test series is won by Australia 2–1.
 Michael Clarke 151 on debut vs India at Bangalore. 
 New Zealand cricket team in Australia in 2004–05, the 2-Test series is won by Australia 2–0.
 Pakistani cricket team in Australia in 2004–05, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 3–0.
 Australia defeat Pakistan by 491 runs at Perth. 
 Ian Harvey named as Wisden Cricketer of the Year. 
 Death of David Hookes.

2003
 Bangladesh cricket team in Australia in 2003, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 3–0. 
 Australia plays its first Test at Darwin. 
 Australia plays its first Test at Cairns. 
 Australian cricket team in the West Indies in 2003, the 4-Test series is won by Australia 3–1. 
 Zimbabwean cricket team in Australia in 2003–04, the 2-Test series is won by Australia 2–0. 
 Matthew Hayden 380 vs Zimbabwe at Perth. 
 Australia 735-6d vs Zimbabwe at Perth. 
 Indian cricket team in Australia in 2003–04, the 4-Test series is drawn 1–1.
 Matthew Hayden named Wisden Cricketer of the Year.

2002
 Australian cricket team in South Africa in 2001–02, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–1.
 Australia defeats South Africa by an innings and 360 runs at Johannesburg. 
 English cricket team in Australia in 2002–03, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 4–1.
 Matthew Hayden scores a century in both innings vs England at Brisbane.
 Australia defeats England by 384 runs at Brisbane.
 Adam Gilchrist, Jason Gillespie and Damien Martyn named Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

2001
 Australian cricket team in India in 2000–01, the 3-Test series is won by India 2–1.
 Adam Gilchrist scores a king pair vs India at Kolkata. 
 India defeats Australia by 171 runs after following-on at Kolkata.
 Australian cricket team in England in 2001, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 4–1. 
 New Zealand cricket team in Australia in 2001–02, the 3-Test series is drawn 0–0.
 South African cricket team in Australia in 2001–02, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 3–0. 
 Justin Langer and Darren Lehmann named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year. 
 Death of Don Bradman.

2000
 Australian cricket team in New Zealand in 1999–2000, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 3–0. 
 West Indian cricket team in Australia in 2000–01, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 5–0.
 Glenn McGrath takes a hat-trick vs West Indies at Perth. 
 Tom Moody named as Wisden Cricketer of the Year.

20th century

1990s 
1999 
 Australian cricket team in the West Indies in 1998–99, the 4-Test series is drawn 2–2. 
 West Indies defeats Australia by 1 wicket at Bridgetown.
 Australian cricket team in Sri Lanka in 1999, the 3-Test series is won by Sri Lanka 1–0.
 Australian cricket team in Zimbabwe in 1999–2000, the 1-Test series is won by Australia 1–0.
 Pakistani cricket team in Australia in 1999–2000, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 3–0.
 Indian cricket team in Australia in 1999–2000, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 3–0.
 Brett Lee 5/47 on debut vs India at Melbourne.

1998 
 Australian cricket team in India in 1997–98, the 3-Test series is won by India 2–1.
 India defeats Australia by an innings and 219 runs at Calcutta.
 Australian cricket team in Pakistan in 1998–99, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 1–0.
 Mark Taylor 334* vs Pakistan at Peshawar.
 English cricket team in Australia in 1998–99, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 3–1.
 Matthew Elliott, Stuart Law and Glenn McGrath named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.
 Death of Ian Johnson.

1997 
 Australian cricket team in South Africa in 1996–97, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–1.
 Steve Waugh & Greg Blewett 385 for the 5th wicket vs South Africa at Johannesburg.
 Australia defeats South Africa by 2 wickets at Port Elizabeth.
 Australian cricket team in England in 1997, the 6-Test series is won by Australia 3–2. 
 Steve Waugh scores a century in both innings vs England at Old Trafford.
 New Zealand cricket team in Australia in 1997–98, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–0. 
 Simon Cook 5/39 on debut vs New Zealand at Perth.
 South African cricket team in Australia in 1997–98, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 1–0.

1996 
 Australian cricket team in India in 1996–97, the 1-Test series is won by India 1–0.
 West Indian cricket team in Australia in 1996–97, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 3–2.
 Death of Ray Lindwall.

1995 
 Greg Blewett 102* on debut vs England at Adelaide. 
 Peter McIntyre scores a pair on debut vs England at Adelaide. 
 Australian cricket team in the West Indies in 1994–95, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 2–1. 
 Pakistani cricket team in Australia in 1995–96, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–1.
 Sri Lankan cricket team in Australia in 1995–96, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 3–0.

1994 
 South Africa defeats Australia by 5 runs at Sydney. 
 Australian cricket team in South Africa in 1993–94, the 3-Test series is drawn 1–1. 
 Australian cricket team in Pakistan in 1994–95, the 3-Test series is won by Pakistan 1–0.
 Pakistan defeats Australia by 1 wicket at Karachi. 
 Damien Fleming takes a hat-trick vs Pakistan at Rawalpindi. 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1994–95, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 3–1.
 Shane Warne takes a hat-trick vs England at Melbourne. 
 David Boon, Ian Healy, Merv Hughes and Shane Warne named Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

1993 
 West Indies defeats Australia by 1 run at Adelaide. 
 Australian cricket team in New Zealand in 1992–93, the 3-Test series is drawn 1–1. 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1993, the 6-Test series is won by Australia 4–1. 
 New Zealand cricket team in Australia in 1993–94, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–0.
 Australia defeats New Zealand by an innings and 222 runs at Hobart. 
 South African cricket team in Australia in 1993–94, the 3-Test series is drawn 1–1. 
 Death of Lindsay Hassett.

1992
 South Africa defeats Australia by 5 runs at Sydney. 
 Australian cricket team in Sri Lanka in 1992, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 1–0.
 Australia defeats Sri Lanka by 16 runs at Colombo. 
 West Indian cricket team in Australia in 1992–93, 5-Test series is won by West Indies 2–1.

1991
 Mark Waugh 138 on debut vs England at Adelaide. 
 Australian cricket team in the West Indies in 1990–91, the 5-Test series is won by West Indies 2–1. 
 West Indies defeats Australia by 343 runs at Bridgetown. 
 Indian cricket team in Australia in 1991–92, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 4–0.
 Mark Waugh named as Wisden Cricketer of the Year.

1990
 Dean Jones scores a century in both innings vs Pakistan at Adelaide. 
 Australian cricket team in New Zealand in 1989–90, the 1-Test series is won by New Zealand 1–0. 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1990–91, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 3–0.
 Dean Jones and Mark Taylor named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

1980s 
1989 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1989, the 6-Test series is won by Australia 4–0. 
 New Zealand cricket team in Australia in 1989–90, the 1-Test series is drawn 0–0.
 Sri Lankan cricket team in Australia in 1989–90, the 2-Test series is won by Australia 1–0. 
 Australia plays its first Test at Bellerive Oval in Hobart.
 Pakistani cricket team in Australia in 1989–90, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 1–0.
 Steve Waugh named as Wisden Cricketer of the Year.

1988 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1987–88, the 1-Test series, to celebrate Australia's Bicentennial, is drawn.
 Australian cricket team in Pakistan in 1988–89, the 3-Test series is won by Pakistan 1–0.
 West Indian cricket team in Australia in 1988–89, the 5-Test series is won by the West Indies 3–1.
 Merv Hughes takes a hat-trick vs West Indies at Perth.

1987 
 Peter Taylor 6/78 on debut vs England at Sydney. 
 Sri Lankan cricket team in Australia in 1987–88, the 1-Test series is won by Australia 1–0.
 New Zealand cricket team in Australia in 1987–88, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 1–0.
 Tony Dodemaide 6/58 on debut vs New Zealand at Melbourne.

1986 
 Australian cricket team in New Zealand in 1985–86, the 3-Test series is won by New Zealand 1–0. 
 Allan Border scores a century in both innings vs New Zealand at Christchurch. 
 Australian cricket team in India in 1986–87, the 3-Test series is drawn 0–0.
 Australia ties Test vs India at Madras. 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1986–87, the 5-Test series is won by England 2–1.
 Craig McDermott named as Wisden Cricketer of the Year.

1985 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1985, the 6-Test series is won by England 3–1.
 New Zealand cricket team in Australia in 1985–86, the 3-Test series is won by New Zealand 2–1.
 Indian cricket team in Australia in 1985–86, the 3-Test series is drawn 0–0.

1984 
 Australian cricket team in the West Indies in 1983–84, the 5-Test series is won by West Indies 3–0.
 West Indian cricket team in Australia in 1984–85, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 3–1.

1983
 Australian cricket team in Sri Lanka in 1982–83, the 1-Test series is won by Australia 1–0.
 Tom Hogan 5/66 on debut vs Sri Lanka at Kandy.
 Pakistani cricket team in Australia in 1983–84, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 2–0.
 Wayne Phillips 159 on debut vs Pakistan at Perth.

1982 
 Australian cricket team in New Zealand in 1981–82, the 3-Test series is drawn 1–1. 
 Australian cricket team in Pakistan in 1982–83, the 3-Test series is won by Pakistan 3–0.
 English cricket team in Australia in 1982–83, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 2–1.
 Kepler Wessels 162 on debut vs England at Brisbane. 
 England defeats Australia by 3 runs at Melbourne. 
 Terry Alderman, Allan Border and Rod Marsh named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

1981 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1981, the 5-Test series is won by England 3–1. 
 Terry Alderman 5/62 on debut vs England at Trent Bridge.
 England defeats Australia by 18 runs after following-on. 
 Mike Whitney scores a pair on debut vs England at Old Trafford. 
 Dirk Wellham 103 on debut vs England at The Oval. 
 West Indian cricket team in Australia in 1981–82, the 3-Test series is drawn 1–1.
 Kim Hughes named as Wisden Cricketer of the Year.

1980 
 West Indies defeats Australia by 408 runs at Adelaide. 
 Australian cricket team in Pakistan in 1979–80, the 3-Test series is won by Pakistan 1–0.
 Allan Border scores a century in both innings vs Pakistan at Lahore. 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1980, the 1-Test series is drawn 0–0; this was the Centenary Test to mark 100 years of Test cricket in England. 
 New Zealand cricket team in Australia in 1980–81, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–0.
 Indian cricket team in Australia in 1980–81, the 3-Test series is drawn 1–1.

1970s 
1979 
 Pakistani cricket team in Australia in 1978–79, the 2-Test series is drawn 1–1.
 Australian cricket team in India in 1979–80, the 6-Test series is won by India 2–0.
 West Indian cricket team in Australia in 1979–80, the 3-Test series is won by West Indies 2–0.
 English cricket team in Australia in 1979–80, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 3–0.

1978 
 Australian cricket team in the West Indies in 1977–78, the 5-Test series is won by West Indies 3–1.
 English cricket team in Australia in 1978–79, the 6-Test series is won by England 5–1.
 Rodney Hogg 6/74 on debut vs England at Brisbane.

1977 
 Australian cricket team in New Zealand in 1976–77, the 2-Test series is won by Australia 1–0. 
 Centenary Test Australia vs England at Melbourne.
 Australian cricket team in England in 1977, the 5-Test series is won by England 3–0. 
 Mick Malone 5/63 on debut vs England at The Oval.
 Indian cricket team in Australia in 1977–78, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 3–2.
 Australia defeats India by 16 runs at Brisbane.
 Australia defeats India by 2 wickets at Perth.
 Death of Jack Ryder.

1976 
 Pakistani cricket team in Australia in 1976–77, the 3-Test series is drawn 1–1.
 Ian Chappell and Rick McCosker named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

1975 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1975, the 4-Test series is won by Australia 1–0. 
 West Indian cricket team in Australia in 1975–76, the 6-Test series is won by Australia 5–1.
 Greg Chappell scores centuries in both innings vs West Indies at Brisbane.
 Gary Cosier 109 on debut vs West Indies at Melbourne.

1974 
 Geoff Dymock 5/58 on debut vs New Zealand at Adelaide.
 Australian cricket team in New Zealand in 1973–74, the 3-Test series is drawn 1–1. 
 Greg Chappell and Ian Chappell both score centuries in both innings vs New Zealand in Wellington.
 English cricket team in Australia in 1974–75, the 6-Test series is won by Australia 4–1.

1973
 Australian cricket team in the West Indies in 1972–73, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 2–0. 
 New Zealand cricket team in Australia in 1973–74, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–0.
 Greg Chappell, Dennis Lillee, Bob Massie and Keith Stackpole named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

1972
 Australian cricket team in England in 1972, the 5-Test series is won by England 2–1.
 Bob Massie 8/84 and 8/53 on debut vs England at Lord's.
 Pakistani cricket team in Australia in 1972–73, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 3–0.

1971
 Dennis Lillee 5/84 on debut vs England at Adelaide.
 After South Africa is banned from international cricket and its 1971–72 tour of Australia is cancelled, a Rest of the World team tours Australia but these are not recognised as Test matches.

1970
 Australian cricket team in South Africa in 1969–70, the 4-Test series is won by South Africa 4–0.
 English cricket team in Australia in 1970–71, the 6-Test series is won by England 1–0.
 Australia plays its first Test at the WACA Ground in Perth.
 Greg Chappell 108 on debut vs England at Perth.

1960s 
1969 
 Doug Walters scores a double-century and a century vs West Indies at Sydney, the first Test batsman to do so. 
 Australian cricket team in India in 1969–70, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 3–1. 
 Death of Vic Richardson.

1968 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1968, the 5-Test series is drawn 1–1. 
 West Indian cricket team in Australia in 1968–69, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 3–1.

1967 
 Indian cricket team in Australia in 1967–68, the 4-Test series is won by Australia 4–0.

1966 
 Bob Cowper 307 vs England at Melbourne. 
 Australian cricket team in South Africa in 1966-67, the 5-Test series is won by South Africa 3–1.

1965 
 Australian cricket team in the West Indies in 1964–65, the 5-Test series is won by West Indies 2–1. 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1965–66, the 5-Test series is drawn 1–1. 
 Doug Walters 155 on debut vs England at Brisbane. 
 Peter Burge, Graham McKenzie and Bob Simpson named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year. 
 Death of Bill Woodfull.

1964 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1964, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 1–0. 
 Bob Simpson 311 vs England at Old Trafford. 
 Australian cricket team in India in 1964–65, the 3-Test series is drawn 1–1.
 Australian cricket team in Pakistan in 1964–65, the 1-Test series is drawn 1–0.
 Bob Simpson scores a century in both innings vs Pakistan at Karachi. 
 Pakistani cricket team in Australia in 1964–65, the 1-Test series is drawn 0–0.

1963 
 South African cricket team in Australia in 1963–64, the 5-Test series is drawn 1–1.

1962 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1962–63, the 5-Test series is drawn 1–1. 
 Bill Alley, Richie Benaud, Alan Davidson, Bill Lawry and Norm O'Neill named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

1961 
 Australia defeats West Indies by 2 wickets at Melbourne.
 Australian cricket team in England in 1961, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 2–1.
 Graham McKenzie 5/37 on debut vs England at Lord's.

1960 
 West Indian cricket team in Australia in 1960–61, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 2–1. 
 Australia ties Test vs West Indies at Brisbane.

1950s 
1959 
 Australian cricket team in India in 1959–60, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 2–1. 
 Australian cricket team in Pakistan in 1959–60, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–0. 
 Death of Herbie Collins.

1958 
 Lindsay Kline takes a hat-trick vs South Africa at Cape Town. 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1958–59, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 4–0.

1957 
 Australian cricket team in South Africa in 1957–58, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 3–0. 
 Ian Meckiff 5/125 on debut vs South Africa at Johannesburg.
 Gil Langley named as Wisden Cricketer of the Year.

1956 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1956, the 5-Test series is won by England 2–1. 
 Australian cricket team in India in 1956–57, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–0. 
 Australian cricket team in Pakistan in 1956–57, the 1-Test series is won by Pakistan 1–0.

1955 
 Australian cricket team in the West Indies in 1954–55, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 3–0. 
 Australia 758-8d vs West Indies at Kingston.

1954 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1954–55, the 5-Test series is won by England 3–1. 
 Neil Harvey and Keith Miller named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.
 Death of Warren Bardsley.

1953 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1953, the 5-Test series is won by England 1–0.

1952 
 South African cricket team in Australia in 1952–53, the 5-Test series is drawn 2–2.

1951 
 Jim Burke 101* on debut vs England at Adelaide. 
 West Indian cricket team in Australia in 1951–52, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 4–1. 
 Australia defeats West Indies by 1 wicket at Melbourne.

1950
 Jack Moroney scores a century in both innings vs South Africa at Old Wanderers. 
 Australia defeats South Africa by an innings and 259 runs at Port Elizabeth. 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1950–51, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 4–1.

1940s 
1949 
 Australian cricket team in South Africa in 1949–50, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 4–0. 
 Lindsay Hassett, Bill Johnston, Ray Lindwall, Arthur Morris and Don Tallon named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

1948 
 Don Bradman scores a century in both innings vs India at Melbourne. 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1948, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 4–0.
 Australia defeats England by 409 runs at Lord's.

1947 
 Arthur Morris scores a century in both innings vs England at Adelaide. 
 Indian cricket team in Australia in 1947–48, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 4–0. 
 Australia defeats India by an innings and 226 runs at Brisbane. 
 Death of Warwick Armstrong.

1946 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1946–47, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 3–0. 
 Australia defeats England by an innings and 332 runs at Brisbane. 
 Sid Barnes & Don Bradman 405 for 5th wicket vs England at Sydney. 
 Death of Joe Darling.

1945
 No Test cricket played due to World War II.
 Death of Clem Hill.

1944
 No Test cricket played due to World War II.

1943
 No Test cricket played due to World War II.

1942
 No Test cricket played due to World War II.

1941
 No Test cricket played due to World War II.

1940 
 No Test cricket played due to World War II.
 Death of Monty Noble.

1930s 
1939 
 Bill Brown named as Wisden Cricketer of the Year.

1938 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1938, the 5-Test series is drawn 1–1. 
 England defeats Australia by an innings and 579 runs at The Oval. 
 Death of Hugh Massie. 
 Death of Hugh Trumble.

1937

1936 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1936–37, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 3–2. 
 Frank Ward 5/66 on debut vs England at Brisbane.

1935 
 Stan McCabe, Bill O'Reilly and Bill Ponsford named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

1934 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1934, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 2–1. 
 Don Bradman 304 vs England at Headingley. 
 Bill Ponsford & Don Bradman 388 for 4th wicket vs England at Headingley.
 Australia 701 vs England at The Oval. 
 Australia defeats England by 562 runs at The Oval. 
 Bill Ponsford & Don Bradman 451 for 2nd wicket vs England at The Oval.

1933
 England defeats Australia by 338 runs at Adelaide in what comes to be known as the defining moment of the 1932–33 Bodyline series.

1932 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1932–33, the 5-Test series is won by England 4–1. 
 Death of Jack Blackham.

1931 
 Australia plays its last Test at Exhibition Ground in Brisbane. 
 South African cricket team in Australia in 1931–32, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 5–0. 
 Australia plays its first Test at the Gabba in Brisbane. 
 Don Bradman and Clarrie Grimmett named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

1930 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1930, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 2–1. 
 Australia 729-6d vs England at Lord's. 
 Don Bradman 334 vs England at Headingley. 
 Australia 695 vs England at The Oval. 
 West Indian cricket team in Australia in 1930–31, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 4–1.

1920s 
1929 
 Archie Jackson 129 on debut vs England at Adelaide. 
 Tim Wall 5/66 on debut vs England at Melbourne. 
 Death of Syd Gregory.

1928 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1928–29, the 5-Test series is won by England 4–1. 
 Australia plays its first Test at Exhibition Ground in Brisbane. 
 England defeat Australia by 675 runs at Brisbane.

1927  
 Bert Oldfield and Bill Woodfull named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.
 Death of George Giffen.

1926 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1926, the 5-Test series is won by England 1–0.

1925
 Australia defeats England by 11 runs at Adelaide.
 Clarrie Grimmett 5/45 and 6/37 on debut vs England at Sydney.

1924 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1924–25, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 4–1. 
 Bill Ponsford 110 on debut vs England at Sydney.

1923 
 No Test cricket played by Australia during the year.

1922 
 Jack Gregory, Charlie Macartney and Ted McDonald named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

1921 
 Arthur Mailey 9/121 vs England at Melbourne. 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1921, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 3–0.

1920
 English cricket team in Australia in 1920–21, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 5–0. 
 Herbie Collins 104 on debut vs England at Sydney.

1910s 
1919 
 Death of Dave Gregory.

1918
 No Test cricket played due to World War I.

1917
 No Test cricket played due to World War I.
 Death of Harry Trott.

1916 
 No Test cricket played due to World War I.
 Death of Tom Horan.

1915
 No Test cricket played due to World War I.

1914
 No Test cricket played due to World War I.

1913
 No Test cricket played by Australia during the year.

1912 
 England defeats Australia by an innings and 225 runs at Melbourne. 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1912, this is the first and only triangular series. The 9-Test series is won by England 4–0, with Australia 2–1, and South Africa 0–5. 
 Jimmy Matthews takes a hat-trick in each innings vs South Africa at Manchester.

1911 
 Victor Trumper 214* vs South Africa at Adelaide. 
 Ranji Hordern 5/66 on debut vs South Africa at Melbourne. 
 Australia defeats South Africa by 530 runs at Melbourne. 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1911–12, the 5-Test series is won by England 4–1. 
 Death of Billy Murdoch.

1910 
 South African cricket team in Australia in 1910–11, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 4–1. 
 Warren Bardsley named as Wisden Cricketer of the Year.
 Death of Tup Scott.

1900s 
1909 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1909, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 2–1. 
 Frank Laver 8/31 vs England at Old Trafford. 
 Warren Bardsley scores centuries in both innings vs England at The Oval. 
 Alan Marshal named as Wisden Cricketer of the Year.

1908 
 England defeats Australia by 1 wicket at Melbourne. 
 Roger Hartigan 116 on debut vs England at Adelaide.
 Jack O'Connor 5/65 on debut vs England at Adelaide.

1907
 English cricket team in Australia in 1907–08, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 4–1.
 Australia defeats England by 2 wickets at Sydney.

1906
 No Test cricket is played by Australia during this year.

1905
 Australian cricket team in England in 1905, the 5-Test series is won by England 2–0.

1904
 Hugh Trumble takes a hat-trick vs England at Melbourne.

1903
 English cricket team in Australia in 1903–04, the 5-Test series is won by England 3–2. 
 Warwick Armstrong, Jim Kelly and Victor Trumper named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

1902 
 Reggie Duff 104 on debut vs England at Melbourne. 
 Hugh Trumble takes a hat-trick vs England at Melbourne. 
 Jack Saunders 5/43 on debut vs England at Sydney. 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1902, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 2–1. 
 Australia 36 vs England at Edgbaston.
 Australia defeats England by 3 runs at Old Trafford. 
 England defeats Australia by 1 wicket at The Oval. 
 Australian cricket team in South Africa in 1902–03, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–0.

1901 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1901–02, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 4–1.

1900 
 Joe Darling, Clem Hill and Monty Noble named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

19th century

1890s 
1899 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1899, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 1–0.

1898 
 Monty Noble 6–49 on debut vs England at Adelaide.

1897 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1897–98, the 5-Test series is won by Australia 4–1. 
 Syd Gregory and Hugh Trumble named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

1896 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1896, the 3-Test series is won by England 2–1. 
 Australia 53 vs England at Lord's. 
 Australia 44 vs England at The Oval. 
 Death of Percy McDonnell.

1895 
 Albert Trott 8–43 on debut vs England at Adelaide.

1894 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1894–95, the 5-Test series is won by England 3–2. 
 England defeats Australia by 10 runs after following-on at Sydney. 
 Arthur Coningham dismisses English batsman Archie MacLaren with his first ball in Test cricket at Sydney. 
 George Giffen and Harry Trott named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

1893
 Australian cricket team in England in 1893, the 3-Test series is won by England 1–0. 
 Harry Graham 107 on debut vs England at Lord's.

1892
 Bob McLeod 5–53 on debut vs England at Melbourne.
 England defeats Australia by an innings and 230 runs at Adelaide.

1891
 English cricket team in Australia in 1891–92, the 3-Test series is won by Australia 2–1.

1890
 Australian cricket team in England in 1890, the 3-Test series is won by England 2–0.

1880s 
1889
 No Test cricket is played by Australia during this year.

1888 
 Australia 42 vs England at Sydney. 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1888, the 3-Test series is won by England 2–1.

1887 
 English cricket teams in Australia in 1887–88, the 1-Test series is won by England 1–0. 
 Charlie Turner 5–76 on debut vs England at Sydney. 
 J.J. Ferris 6–15 on debut vs England at Sydney.

1886 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1886, the 3-Test series is won by England 3–0. 
 England defeats Australia by an innings and 217 runs at The Oval.
 English cricket team in Australia in 1886–87, the 2-Test series is won by England 2–0.

1885 
 Australia defeats England by 6 runs at Sydney.

1884 
 Australian cricket team in England in 1884, the 3-Test series is won by England 1–0. 
 Billy Murdoch 211 vs England at The Oval. 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1884–85, the 5-Test series is won by England 3–2. 
 Australia plays its first Test at Adelaide.

1883 
 Tom Horan dismisses English batsman Walter Read with his first ball in Test cricket at Sydney.

1882
 Australian cricket team in England in 1882, the 1-Test series is won by Australia 1–0. 
 Australia 63 vs England at The Oval. 
 Australia defeats England by 7 runs at The Oval. 
 English cricket team in Australia in 1882–83 in what becomes known as the first Ashes Series, the 4-Test series is drawn 2–2. 
 Australia plays its first Test at Sydney.

1881
 English cricket team in Australia in 1881–82, the 4-Test series is won by Australia 2–0. 
 William Cooper 6–120 on debut vs England at Melbourne.

1880
 Australian cricket team in England in 1880, the 1-Test series is won by England 1–0.

1870s 
1879
 Fred Spofforth takes a hat-trick vs England at Melbourne.

1878
 English cricket team in Australia in 1878–79, the 1-Test series is won by Australia 1–0.

1877
 English cricket team in Australia in 1876–77, the 2-Test series is drawn 1–1. 
 First Test between Australia and England at Melbourne. 
 Charles Bannerman 165* on debut vs England at Melbourne. 
 Billy Midwinter 5–78 on debut vs England at Melbourne. 
 Tom Kendall 7–55 on debut vs England at Melbourne.

See also 
 List of Test cricket records
 List of Australia Test cricket records
 List of cricketers who have scored centuries in both innings of a Test match
 Pairs in Test and first-class cricket
 List of Australia cricketers who have taken five-wicket hauls on Test debut
 List of bowlers who have taken a wicket with their first ball in international cricket
 List of Test cricket hat-tricks
 List of Test cricket grounds

Notes

References 

Cricket in Australia by year
Years in Australia Test cricket
Years in Australia Test cricket, source_sentence: What is the syntax for the shorthand of the conditional operator in PHP 5.3?
sentences: This article on military tanks deals with the history and development of tanks of the British Army from their first use in the First World War, the interwar period, during the Second World War, the Cold War and modern era.

Overview

Tanks first appeared on the battlefield as a solution to trench warfare. They were large, heavy, slow moving vehicles capable of driving right over the top of enemy trenches; thereby eliminating the need to send soldiers "over the top" only to be blasted to pieces by enemies. The British Army was the first to use them, who built them in secret to begin with. To keep the enemy from finding out about this new solution, the public were informed that the vehicles were large water carriers, or tanks, and the name stuck.

The First World War established the validity of the tank concept. After the war,  many nations needed to have tanks, but only a few had the industrial resources to design and build them. During and after the war, Britain and France were the intellectual leaders in tank design, with other countries generally following and adopting their designs. This early lead would be gradually lost during the course of the 1930s to the Soviet Union who with Germany began to design and build their own tanks.

While the First World War saw the first use of the tank as a weapon of war, it was during the Second World War that the tank soon became a dominant force on the battlefield. The British, American, German and Soviet armies all had different approaches to tanks and tank warfare, each with their fair share of successes and failures. The infantry tank was a concept developed by the British and French in the years leading up to the Second World War. Infantry tanks were tanks designed to support the infantry in the attack. To achieve this they were generally heavily armoured compared to the cruiser tanks, to allow them to operate in close concert with infantry even under heavy gun fire. The extra armouring came at the expense of speed, which was not an issue when supporting relatively slow moving infantry.

Once the infantry tank-supported attack had broken through heavily defended areas in the enemy lines, other tanks such as cruisers, or light tanks, were expected to exploit their higher speed and longer range to operate far behind the front in order to cut lines of supply and communications.

Background 

No one individual was responsible for the development of the tank. Rather, a number of gradual technological developments brought the development of the tank as we know it closer until its eventual form was unveiled out of necessity by the British Army. The British Army designs were forced by the trench warfare in which neither side could achieve more than small incremental gains without heavy loss of soldiers lives, but tanks changed that. They were made to cross the trenches and quickly break into the enemy rear, while other tanks supported the main attack. The development between the infantry tank and the cruiser tanks had its origins in the First World War division between the first British heavy tanks which supported the infantry and the faster Whippet Medium Mark A and its successors the Medium Mark B and Medium Mark C. During the interbellum British tank experiments generally followed these basic classifications, which were made part of the overall doctrine with the work of Percy Hobart and Captain B. H. Liddell Hart. The next development of the more heavily armoured and upgunned tanks was brought about by the tank on tank battles in the Second World War German Blitzkrieg. This continued throughout the war, and led to heavy tanks which became the basis of the current Main Battle Tanks seen throughout the armies today.

British development

The Landship Committee commissioned Lieutenant Walter Gordon Wilson of the Royal Naval Air Service and William Tritton of William Foster & Co. of Lincoln, to produce a small landship. Constructed in great secrecy, the machine was given the code-name tank by Swinton.

The "Number 1 Lincoln Machine", nicknamed "Little Willie" weighed 14 tons and could carry a crew of three, at speeds of less than 2 mph over rough ground. Trench-crossing ability was deemed insufficient however, leading to the development of a rhomboidal design, which became known as "HMLS Centipede" and later "Mother", the first of the British heavy tanks. After completion on 29 January 1916 very successful trials were made, and an order was placed by the War Office for 100 units to be used on the Western Front in France, on 12 February 1916, and a second order for 50 additional units was placed in April 1916.

The great secrecy surrounding tank development, coupled with the skepticism of infantry commanders, often meant that infantry at first had little training to cooperate with tanks.

The first use of the British tanks on the battlefield was the use of 49 Mark I tanks during the Battle of the Somme on 15 September 1916, with mixed, but still impressive results. Many broke down but nearly a third succeeded in breaking through. Finally, in a preview of later developments, the British developed the lighter Whippet. This tank was specifically designed to exploit breaches in the enemy front. The Whippet was faster than most other tanks, although it carried only machinegun armament. Postwar tank designs would reflect this trend towards greater tactical mobility.

While the British took the lead in tank development, the French were not far behind and fielded their first tanks in 1917. The Germans, on the other hand, were slower to develop tanks, concentrating on anti-tank weapons.

Following the Great War, many experiments involving armoured vehicles were conducted in the United Kingdom. Particularly many advances were made in the areas of suspensions, tracks, communications, and the organization of these vehicles on the battlefield. Britain continued its technical dominance of tank design from 1915 through to at least the early 1930s. British designs, particularly those from Vickers-Armstrong, formed the basis for many of the most common tanks of the 1930s and early WWII. The Vickers 6-Ton, which was arguably the most influential design of the late 1920s, was not adopted by the British Army.

The Carden Loyd tankettes (two-man vehicles with machine guns) influenced the tankette concept through export and similar designs such as the Soviet T-27, Italian CV-33, German Panzer I and other copies. Another notable design was the Vickers Medium Mk II, a pivotal design which combined some of the best traits of WWI tanks into a much faster tank. Eventually, by the 1930s, British experiments and policy and their strategic situation led to a tank development programme with three main types of tank: light, cruiser, and infantry. The infantry tanks were intended to support dismounted infantry. The maximum speed requirement matched the walking pace of a rifleman, and the armour on these tanks was expected to be heavy enough to provide immunity to towed anti-tank guns. Armament had to be sufficient to suppress or destroy enemy machine gun positions and bunkers as well as enemy tanks. Cruiser tanks were to carry out the traditional cavalry roles of pursuit and exploitation, working relatively independently of the infantry. This led to cruiser tank designs requiring greater speed. To achieve this they were unable to carry as much armour as the infantry tanks, and tended to carry anti-tank armament. In practice both cruiser and infantry tanks entered the Second World War with the same gun. The light tanks were tasked with reconnaissance and constabulary-type colonial roles, with cost the major design factor.

An outstanding achievement of the British Army had been the creation of the Experimental Mechanised Force in the late 1920s. This was a small Brigade-sized unit developed to field-test the use of tanks and other vehicles. The unit pioneered the extensive use of radio to control widely separated small units. The unit was short-lived, however. However even though the British in the 1930s continued the design and development of tanks themselves, the Germans began to further develop tank strategy and incorporate them into their tactical employment more than the British. This doctrine of deployment led armies to equip their tanks with radios, to provide unmatched command and control, Germany along with the USSR also led the way with welding, although the US followed closely. Riveting and bolting remained in use in British designs.

Infantry tanks were a continuation of the Great War tanks, heavily armoured and designed to accompany an advancing infantry unit and hence slow. Once the infantry tanks had punched through an enemy line, lighter and faster cruiser tanks would be let loose to disrupt supply lines.

The main problem with this strategy however, was that the British infantry tanks were just too slow and the cruisers of the time were vulnerable, and often mechanically unreliable. Come 1940, most of the British armour had been abandoned in France when the British Expeditionary Force was evacuated from Dunkirk, but this encouraged new designs. By the end of the war the increase in speed of the infantry tanks, and the increased armour of the cruisers, meant that there was little difference between the two classes of British tank. However, the British had to quickly build more reliable and more heavily armoured designs from the experienced gained in the early battles or acquire US designs to meet the needs.

At the start of the war most British tanks were equipped with the Ordnance QF 2-pounder (40mm) gun which was able to penetrate contemporary German armour. The trend towards bigger guns and thicker armour which resulted in heavier tanks, made itself felt as the Second World War progressed, and some tanks began to show weakness' in design.

In 1939, most tanks had maximum armour of 30 mm or less, with guns no heavier than 37–47 mm. Medium tanks of 1939 weighed around 20 tons. Also if the tank's gun was to be used to engage both unarmoured and armoured targets, then it needed to be as large and powerful as possible, making one large gun with an all-round field of fire vital. Also, mounting the gun in a turret ensured that the tank could fire from behind some cover. Hull-mounted guns required that most of the vehicle be exposed to enemy fire. Multiple-turreted or multi-gun designs such as the British A9 Cruiser Mk I slowly became less common.

British tanks armament and use in the battles also had to change as German Blitzkrieg tactics and doctrine shifted towards faster medium and heavy tanks fighting large multi-tank battles, with the role of the infantry tank in assaults taken by simpler self-propelled artillery. In British practice, the main armament of the infantry tank went in three phases. The pre-Dunkirk British Army Matilda I infantry tank had only a single Vickers machine gun, a compromise forced by the low cost to which they had been built. The Matilda II had a capable anti-tank gun with the 40mm 2 pounder but these were only issued with solid-shot (i.e. non-explosive) for anti-tank use and was of little use for artillery close-support of infantry. The follow-up gun to the 2pdr was already in development but the need to rapidly replace the losses in France delayed its production. Eventually QF 6-pounder (57mm) guns were put into the British tanks, and these could deal with pretty much anything but head on attacks on the German Tiger and Panther tanks - thanks to their special armour piercing rounds. As the war progressed many British tanks were equipped with a gun firing the same 75mm ammunition as American Sherman tanks. These had better performance using high explosive or smoke ammunition, but could not match the 6-pounder against armour. Then the 17-pounder (76.2 mm) was developed, becoming the best British gun of the war - able to deal with almost any armour put up against it.

Operational use

First World War

The British Mark I was the world's first combat tank, entering service in August 1916, and first used in action on the morning of 15 September 1916. It was developed to be able to cross trenches, resist small-arms fire, travel over difficult terrain, carry supplies, and be able to capture fortified enemy positions. The Mark I was a development of Little Willie, the experimental tank built for the Landships Committee by Lieutenant Walter Wilson and William Tritton in the summer of 1915. A small number of Mark I tanks took part in the battle of the Somme during the Battle of Flers-Courcelette in September 1916. They were used to cut through barbed wire to clear the way for infantry, and were even driven through houses to destroy machine gunner's emplacements. Although many broke down or became stuck, almost a third that attacked made it across no mans land, and their effect on the enemy was noted, leading to a request by the British C-in-C Douglas Haig for a thousand more. The Mark II and Mark III incorporated minor improvements and changes over the Mark I with the Mark II used in the Battle of Arras in April 1917 because of delays in the production of the Mark I tank. The Mk IV incorporated thicker armour to resist German armour-piercing bullets. The Mark V had more power (150 bhp) and could be steered by one man, thanks to the epicyclic gear system created by Walter Wilson. It was first used in the Battle of Hamel on 4 July 1918 when 60 tanks contributed to a successful assault by Australian units on the German lines. During the Battle of Amiens in August 1918, several hundred of the Mark V and the lengthened Mk V* tanks, together with the new Whippet tanks, penetrated the German lines in a foretaste of modern armoured warfare.

The Mark VI did not progress past the stage of a wooden mock-up; the project was cancelled in December 1917 in order that a tank co-developed with the US (the Mark VIII) could go forward. Because of technical troubles the Mark VII, almost identical to Mks I to V, had only three produced out of an order for 74 when war ended. The Mark VIII was a cooperative design between the Allies and was also known as "Liberty," "International," or Anglo-American tank. It did not see combat in the war but was used and upgraded until the 1930s when given to Canada for training. The Mark IX was designed in 1917 as the world's first specialised Armoured Personnel Carrier (APC). Thirty-four were completed, but none saw service. One was experimentally equipped as an armoured ambulance, and another rebuilt as an amphibious tank by the staff of the test base at Dollis Hill. There is photographic evidence that some Mk IX were used post-WWI as Infantry Carriers, but no record of their peacetime service is known to exist. The Mark X, a further improvement on the Mk V, was planned but never built.
The Medium Mark A Whippet was a British tank of the First World War. It was intended to complement the slower British heavy tanks by using its relative mobility and speed in exploiting any break in the enemy lines.
The Whippet tanks arrived late in the First World War, and went into action in March 1918. Alongside Mark V and V* tanks, they took part in the Amiens offensive (8 August 1918) where they broke through into the German rear areas causing the loss of the artillery in an entire front sector.

A first offensive using 49 Mark I tanks took place on 15 September 1916, during the Battle of the Somme, under Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig, with limited success. Not until 20 November 1917, at Cambrai, did the British Tank Corps get the conditions it needed for success. Around 400 tanks penetrated almost six miles on a 7-mile front. This was their first large-scale deployment in combat. Unfortunately, success was not complete because the infantry failed to exploit and secure the tanks' gains. The British scored another victory the following year, on 8 August 1918, with 600 tanks in the Amiens salient. General Erich Ludendorff referred to that date as the "Black Day" of the German Army.

The German response to the Cambrai assault was to develop its own armoured program. Soon the massive A7V appeared. The A7V was a clumsy monster, weighing 30 tons with a crew of eighteen. By the end of the war, only twenty had been built. Although other tanks were on the drawing board, material shortages limited the German tank corps to these A7Vs and some captured Mark IVs. The A7V would be involved in the first tank vs. tank battle of the war on 24 April 1918 at Villers-Bretonneux—a battle in which there was no clear winner.

Parallel to the British development, France designed its own tanks. The first two, the medium Schneider CA and heavy Saint-Chamond, were not well-conceived, though produced in large numbers and showing technical innovations, as for the latter type a petro-electrical transmission and a long 75 mm gun. The later Renault FT was the first operational tank with a "modern" configuration: a revolving turret on top and an engine compartment in the back; it would be the most numerous tank of the war. A last development was the superheavy Char 2C, the largest tank ever built, be it some years after the armistice.

Numerous mechanical failures and the inability of the British and French to mount any sustained drives in the early tank actions cast doubt on their usefulness—and by 1918, tanks were extremely vulnerable unless accompanied by infantry and ground-attack aircraft, both of which worked to locate and suppress anti-tank defenses.

The first American-produced heavy tank was the 43.5-ton Mark VIII, a US-British development of the successful British heavy tank design. Armed with two 6-pounder cannon and five .30-caliber machine guns, it was operated by an 11-man crew, had a maximum speed of 6.5 miles per hour, and a range of 50 miles. Production difficulties meant that none was produced before the War ended.

Between the wars 

After the Great War, General Erich Ludendorff of OHL, the German High Command, praised the Allied tanks as being a principal factor in Germany's defeat. The Germans had been too late in recognizing their value to consider them in their own plans.

At a time when most soldiers regarded the tank as a specialised infantry-support weapon for crossing trenches, officers in the Royal Tank Corps had gone on to envision much broader roles for mechanized organizations. In May 1918, Colonel J.F.C. Fuller, the acknowledged father of tank doctrine, had used the example of German infiltration tactics to refine what he called "Plan 1919". This was an elaborate concept for a mass armoured offensive in 1919.

An outstanding achievement of the British Army was the creation of the Experimental Mechanised Force (EMF) in the late 1920s. This was a small brigade-sized unit developed to field-test the use of tanks and other vehicles. The EMF formed by the British demonstrated a mobile force with its own motorised infantry and self-propelled guns. The unit pioneered the extensive use of radio to control widely separated small units. The unit was short-lived.

In 1920 the Infantry had plans to acquire a Light Infantry Tank. Colonel Johnson of the Tank Design Department derived such a type from the Medium Mark D. In competition Vickers built the Vickers Light Tank. but the project was abandoned in 1922 in favour of a more conventional design: the Vickers Light Tank Mark I, that would be renamed to Vickers Medium Tank Mark I in 1924. The first prototypes were sent to Bovington for trials in 1923. The Medium Mark I replaced some of the Mark V heavy tanks and served in the Royal Tank Regiment, being the first type of in total 200 tanks to be retired in 1938. The Medium Mark I was the first tank to see "mass" production since the last of the ten Char 2C's had been finished in 1921. As of the next tank, the Renault NC27, only about thirty were built, the British Mediums represented most of the world tank production during the Twenties.

The Medium Mark I successor, the Vickers Medium Mk II combined some of the best traits of Great War tanks into a much faster tank. It was derived from the Vickers Medium Mark I and was developed to replace the last of the Medium Mark Cs still in use. It had a rotating turret on top like the FT but mounted a dual-purpose 3-pounder gun (that could fire both high-explosive and anti-tank shells) with a coaxial machine gun.

The Medium Mark III was ordered in 1928 and proved reliable and a good gun platform. It suffered from a poorly-designed suspension, road speed increased to  but during cross-country rides the bogies were often overloaded. Three Mark IIIs were built, one by Vickers and two by the Royal Ordnance Factory at Woolwich: Medium III E1, E2 and E3. The third had an improved suspension and the vehicles were in 1934 taken into use by the HQ of the Tank Brigade. One of the Mark IIIs was fitted as a command vehicle with an extra radio aerial around the turret. This was used by Brigadier Percy Hobart for the Salisbury Plain exercises during 1934.

The cavalry and the Royal Tank Corps wanted fast, lightly armoured, mobile vehicles for reconnaissance and raiding—the light and medium (or "cruiser") tanks. In practice the "light tanks" were often small armoured personnel carriers. Army Tank Battalions for infantry-support required thickly armoured tanks. As a consequence of this doctrinal split, firepower was neglected in tank design.

After the First World War, the British began to produce a series of similar light tanks and developed them right up to the Second World War; the Light Tanks Mk II through to the Mk V. Eventually, by the 1930s, British experiments and their strategic situation led to a tank development programme with three main types of tank: light, cruiser and infantry. The Infantry tanks were for the support of infantry. The maximum speed requirement matched the walking pace of a rifleman and the armour on these tanks was expected to be thick enough to provide immunity against towed anti-tank guns. Armament had to be sufficient to suppress or destroy enemy machine gun positions and bunkers. Cruiser tanks gained the traditional cavalry roles of pursuit and exploitation, working relatively independently of the infantry. This led to cruiser tank designs having great speed. To achieve this they were lightly armoured and tended to carry anti-tank armament.

The light tanks were for reconnaissance and colonial repression, with cheapness the major design factor. They were not expected to fight anything other than other light tanks nor need a gun for fighting heavier tanks. They saw use in training and in limited engagements with British Empire units such as the South African Army during the East African Campaign against forces of the Italian Empire. Up until the Mk V, they had a driver–commander and a gunner. The Mk V had a driver, gunner and the commander helping on the gun. The light tanks were kept in use for training until around 1942. Some saw use in the Western Desert Campaign or Abyssinia. They were followed by the Light Tank Mk VI from 1936.

The Light Tank Mk VI was the sixth and final design in the line of tanks built by Vickers-Armstrongs for the British Army during the interwar period. The company had achieved a degree of standardization with their earlier five models and the Mark VI was identical in all but a few respects. Production of the Mk VI began in 1936 and ended in 1940 with approximately 1,000 Mark VI tanks built.

When the Mk VI was first produced in 1936, the Imperial General Staff considered the tank to be superior to any light tank produced by other nations, and well suited to the dual roles of reconnaissance and colonial warfare. Like many of its predecessors, the Mark VI was used by the British Army for imperial policing duties in British India and other colonies in the British Empire, a role for which it and the other Vickers-Armstrongs light tanks were found to be well suited. When the British government began rearming in the 1930s, the Mk VI was the only tank with which the War Office was ready to proceed with manufacture, the development of a medium tank for the Army had hit severe problems after the cancellation of the proposed "Sixteen Tonner" medium tank in 1932 due to the cost and cheaper models only existed as prototypes with a number of mechanical problems. When the Second World War began in September 1939, the vast majority of the tanks available to the British Army were Mk VIs - there were 1,002 Mk VI Light Tanks. The British and Commonwealth forces employed a relatively small number of these light tanks and armoured vehicles in East Africa against the forces of the Italian Empire from June 1940 to November 1941. For the most part, an assortment of armoured cars was used. B Squadron 4th Royal Tank Regiment did include small number of Matilda II infantry tanks.

In 1934 the best features of the earlier Mk III light tank were incorporated into a cruiser tank design. Sir John Carden of Vickers-Armstrong produced this new tank, to General Staff specification A9, which was subsequently accepted as the Cruiser Mk I (A9).  A prototype was tested in 1936 and it went into production the following year, 125 examples being produced in 1937 and 1938. The follow-up to the A9, the Cruiser Mk II (A10), was also designed by Carden. Designated as a "heavy cruiser" tank, it was put into production in July 1938. It resembled the Cruiser Mk I but had thicker armour and was one of the first British tanks with Spaced armour  and the first to be equipped with the Besa machine gun.

Orders for the cruisers Mk I and Mk II were restricted, since the British Army had already decided to produce a more advanced and faster cruiser tank which would incorporate the Christie suspension acquired from the American inventor J. Walter Christie and have better armour. In 1936, Giffard LeQuesne Martel, a pioneer in tank design who had published works on armoured warfare and pioneered the lightly armoured "tankette" to enhance infantry mobility, became Assistant Director of Mechanization at the War Office. Earlier that year Martel had witnessed demonstrations of Soviet tank designs including the BT tank, which had been influenced by Christie's work. He urged the adoption of a tank that would use the suspension system and also follow Christie's practice of using a lightweight aircraft engine such as the Liberty Engine. The government authorized purchase and licensing of a Christie design via the newly formed Nuffield Mechanisation and Aero.

The vehicle obtained from Christie became the basis of the Cruiser Mk III (A13 Mk 1) though Christie's tank required extensive redesign as it was too small. Following testing of two prototypes, the A13 was ordered into production and 65 were manufactured. The Mk III weighed , had a crew of four, a 340 hp engine which gave a top speed of  and was armed with a Ordnance QF 2 pounder gun and a machine gun. When it was introduced into service in 1937, the Army still lacked a formal tank division. The Cruiser Mk IV (A13 Mk II) was a more heavily armoured version of the Mk III and was used in some of the early campaigns of the war.

Second World War

Fall of France 

By the time the Second World War had come around, the design of the tank had shifted from its uses as a terrain covering vehicle, and the full potential of the tank as an armoured, combat vehicle had been realised.

Since the infantry tanks were to work at the pace of the infantry units, which would be attacking on foot, high speed was not a requirement and they were able to carry heavier armour. The Infantry Tank came about as a result of a 1934 requirement by the General Staff for a tank that would directly support an infantry attack. Armament would consist of a machine gun and an overall speed of a walking man when moving. Vickers designed an inexpensive (cost was a serious consideration) pilot which was delivered and accepted in 1936. Although heavily armoured it was slow and under-armed. Most would be lost or left behind in France.

The first purpose-designed infantry tanks were the Matilda I armed with a machine-gun and Matilda II, which was armed with a machine gun and a QF 2 pounder anti-tank gun. It was quickly seen that the Matilda I, with only a machine gun, was inadequate for its intended role. The second Matilda was ordered directly off the drawing board in 1937. During its production years of 1940 to 1943, 2,987 of these sturdy tanks were built. Though small, the tank presented a massive appearance due to its armoured skirts and cast armour. The Matilda 2 totally dominated all Italian armour and could claim title to "Queen of the Desert" until the arrival of German tanks in North Africa.

The British Army were pioneers in tank combat but by 1939 it could be argued they were behind the times in terms of strategy and tactics, their methods based on the trench warfare of the First World War. The British Army entered the Second World War with an array of poor designs and hobbled by poor doctrine. According to the theories of Captain BH Liddell Hart and Major-General Sir Percy Hobart, they split their tank force into two groups; Infantry tanks and Cruiser tanks. British tank use focused on cavalry-type missions and infantry support without the focus on the combined-arms tactics that dominated German and later Soviet thinking.

The result was a series of under-armed, mechanically unreliable designs such as the A9 which Sir John Carden of Vickers-Armstrong produced in 1934 and A10 and Crusader (A15) cruiser tanks, and the Matilda (A11) also by Vickers-Armstrongs Ltd, began in 1935 and Matilda II (A12) infantry tanks, and a series of deathtrap light tanks, the Light Tank Mk I built earlier by Vickers Armstrong from 1929, up to the Light Tank Mk V produced during 1936, that were suitable for reconnaissance work only.

The Matilda Mk I, (A11) and Matilda II (A12) infantry tanks fought together in France as part of the 1st Army Tank Brigade of the British Expeditionary Force in the Battle of France. They participated in the defence and counter-attack operation at Arras against the invasion by Nazi Germany in May 1940, temporarily discomfiting the 7th Panzer Division under Rommel. In the battle, elements of motorized SS regiment "Totenkopf" (later to be expanded into SS-Division Totenkopf)—were overrun, their standard  PaK 36/37 anti-tank guns proving ineffective against the heavily armoured British Matilda tank. Rommel committed some of his armour to local counterattacks, only to find the guns of the Panzer II and Panzer 38(t) tanks could not penetrate the Matildas' armour. Desperate to prevent a British breakthrough, Rommel ordered the division's  FlaK 18 anti-aircraft guns and  field guns be formed into a defensive line and fire anti-tank and HE rounds in a last-ditch effort to stop the Matildas, and this stopped the British tanks.  The attack made the German commanders nervous, and the battle is historically credited with shaking the confidence of the German High Command (OKW) and it may have been one of the factors for the surprise German halt on 24 May that gave the BEF the slimmest of opportunities to begin evacuation from Dunkirk.  The main British force consisted of only 58 machine gun armed Matilda Is and 16 QF 2-pounder gun armed Matilda IIs supported by a few lighter armoured vehicles.

Secondary Campaigns

The Mk I (A9)  cruiser was used in the French, Greek and early North African campaigns. Sixty British Cruiser Mk II's went to Greece with the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment and fought against the German tanks, but over 90% suffered mechanical breakdowns as opposed to enemy action. The Cruiser Mk III saw action in Greece and early North African campaigns where they equipped units of the 7th Armoured Division. The Cruiser Mk IV tank saw action in the French and early North African campaigns.

The Cruiser tank Mk V  Covenanter was  first cruiser tank design to be given a name, and never deployed outside the British Isles. They first were used to re-equip the British 1st Armoured Division after the Fall of France.

The Crusader tanks became the main British tank, the A15 Crusader Mark I and II variants had QF 2 pounder (40mm) main gun, but the 'Crusader III' was fitted with an Ordnance QF 6 pounder (57mm) main gun. It used the same main turret as the A13 Mk III Covenanter  designs, and over 5,000 tanks were manufactured. The A15 Crusader Mark 111 and Mark IV finally replaced most tanks in the British forces after the fall of France and was used extensively during the North African Campaign.

Desert Campaign 

When the BEF returned to the United Kingdom, nearly all their armour was left behind and the remaining Matilda Mk Is were withdrawn. The Matilda II was used up to early 1942, in the war in North Africa, the Matilda II proved highly effective against Italian tanks, although vulnerable again to the larger calibre and medium calibre anti-tank guns. When the German Afrika Korps arrived in North Africa, the  anti-aircraft gun was again pressed into the anti-tank role against the Matilda, causing heavy losses, and, by the time of the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942, few Matildas were still in service.

Combat experience against the Germans in the Western Desert Campaign demonstrated to the British many shortcomings with their cruiser tanks. The Cruiser Mk I was an effective tank in the French, Greek and early North African campaigns. The 2-pdr gun was lethal against the primitive Italian tanks encountered first during the North African campaign, but was, at best, a mediocre weapon against the modern German armour of the Afrika Korps. The heavier Cruiser, Mk II (A10), were part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) sent to France in the early stages of the Second World War. Their cross-country performance was initially recorded as poor but they were still used later in North Africa at the defence of Tobruk in 1941, where reliability and suspension performance in the desert conditions was praised.

Hence a request was made in 1941 to the Nuffield Organization's subsidiary and Leyland Motors for a new heavy cruiser tank that could achieve battle superiority over German models. With the A34 Specification later called "Comet" the tank designers were to use a new gun, the "77mm HV". This gun used the same calibre (76.2 mm) projectiles as the 17-pounder but the shell casing was from the older QF 3 inch 20 cwt gun (loaded to higher pressures) permitting a smaller gun that could be readily fitted into a tank.  The A34 Comet began to be delivered by September 1944. Intended to be in service by December 1944, crew training was delayed by the German Ardennes Offensive. By the end of the war, 1,200 had been produced.

They were followed by the Valentine tank (Infantry Tank Mk III) and Churchill tank (Infantry Tank Mk IV). Designed using the interior and chassis layout of the experimental A10, the Valentine met an emergency 1938 requirement for a tank to supplement the Matilda. Ordered "off the drawing board" in 1939, by the time production ceased in 1944, some 8,275 of these sturdy tanks had been built. Considered stable and reliable by its crews, the tank was only hampered by its small size. Unlike the Matilda tanks, this model allowed the later fitting of a larger main gun but at the expense of operating a two-man turret. The initial riveted construction soon was replaced by welding. The Valentine proved to be difficult to develop further but the Churchill went through successive variants and served up to the end of the war. The early Churchills were fraught with mechanical defects and required many changes before they were considered sound. The army had this machine designed to meet a possible need for a tank to operate in a "shelled area" on the Western Front which in 1939 was expected to eventually look like 1918. The initial A20 design was not successful which caused Vauxhall to take over from Harland and Wolff. The Vauxhall design was called the A22 and the first production vehicles were delivered around the middle of 1941. Eventually, the teething problems were resolved and the tank went on to become one of the best tanks in the army. The tank was refined into many special roles, mostly with the Royal Engineers. The tank had excellent weight distribution and was considered very stable in movement.

As British cruiser tank designs developed into larger tanks with more powerful engines, they could carry larger guns and more armour yet still achieved high speeds. At the end of the war the cruiser tank lineage led to the "universal tank" in the form of the Centurion.

In practice the British did not operate only infantry and cruiser tanks. Lack of production capacity meant the large scale adoption of US medium tanks.

The Cruiser Mk I was an effective tank in the French, Greek and early North African campaigns. The 2 pdr gun was lethal against the primitive Italian tanks encountered during the North African campaign, but was, at best, a mediocre weapon against the modern German armour of the Afrika Korps. Engaging the more thinly armoured flanks and rear of German tanks was generally the only way to have any effect. The minimal armour made the A9 an easy kill for most German anti-tank weapons. Also problematic was the lack of High Explosive shells for the 2 pdr gun and even worse the lack of AP for the 95 mm gun on the Close Support version. Another issue was that the areas around the front machine gun turrets created a frontal surface that was more vulnerable to enemy fire than it would have been had it been a flat plate, let alone a sloped glacis.

A number of Cruiser Mark IIs were part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) sent to France in the early stages of the Second World War II. The A10 cross country performance was recorded as poor, but they were still used later in North Africa at the defence of Tobruk in 1941, where reliability and suspension performance in the desert conditions was praised. Sixty worn out examples were taken to Greece, by the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment and although they performed well against the German tanks, over 90% were lost due to mechanical breakdowns as opposed to enemy action (mainly tracks). (See "A Tankie's Travels" By Robert Watt )

The bright spots of British tank design included the Valentine, Churchill (A22), Cromwell (A27M), and Comet I (A34), which together made up a little over half of total British tank production during WWII. The Valentine was a reliable, heavily armoured infantry-support tank used successfully in the desert and by the Red Army as a light tank. The Churchill had heavy armour and good off-road capability. The Cromwell was in most respects the equal of the early model Sherman of the United States or the German Panzer IV, though by the time of its first major deployment in France in the summer of 1944, it was unremarkable compared to many other vehicles being fielded by then, its best advantage being its speed and mobility. The Comet was a design that improved on the Cromwell, fielded in the final months of the war with a modified, slightly less powerful, variant of the 17pdr, known as the 77mm QF. As a stop-gap, the Challenger (A30) Cruiser Tank, mounted a 17 Pounder gun on a lengthened Cromwell chassis with an extra road wheel each side and a widened hull centre section. From June 1944, it added heavier anti-tank firepower to cruiser tank reconnaissance units until the Comet became widely available.

US imports 

Beginning about 1942, most British tank units were equipped with vehicles supplied from the United States, such as the Stuart light tank, the Lee (or the Grant variant thereof) and the Lee's/Grant's replacement, the Sherman. The  Stuart tanks were the first to come in with the 8th Hussars, and were part of the force of the 1st Armoured Division and also were part of the 4th Armoured Brigade and used for Operation Crusader.

D-Day 

Immediately before and during the war, the British produced an enormous array of prototype tanks and modified tanks for a variety of specialist tasks (see Hobart's Funnies). For example, the Churchill AVRE mounted a 290 mm (11.4") direct-fire mortar which was used for destroying buildings and clearing obstacles. Responsibility for the buildup of vehicles and the training of crews to use them was given to armoured warfare expert Percy Hobart after whom the collection was named.

Many of the ideas had already been tried, tested or were in experimental development both by Britain and other nations. For example, the Scorpion flail tank (a modified Matilda tank) had already been used during the North African campaign to clear paths through German minefields. Soviet T-34 tanks had been modified with mine-rollers. Close-support tanks, bridgelayers, and fascine carriers had been developed elsewhere also. However, the Funnies were the largest and most elaborate collection of engineering vehicles available.

By early 1944, Hobart could demonstrate to Eisenhower and Montgomery a brigade each of swimming DD tanks, Crab mine clearers, and AVRE (Engineer) tanks along with a regiment of Crocodile flamethrowing tanks.

Montgomery considered that the U.S. forces should use them, and offered them a half-share of all the vehicles available, but take-up was minimal. Eisenhower was in favour of the amphibious tanks but left the decision on the others to Lieutenant General Omar Bradley, then commanding the U.S. First Army. Bradley requested 25 flail tanks and 100 Churchill Crocodiles and the British War Office agreed to supply them as well as British-crewed AVREs. In the event though there was insufficient time to produce the vehicles and train the crews so on the day American forces were limited to DD tanks and their own Sherman bulldozer tanks and armoured bulldozers.

The British at Normandy were re-equipped with some of the newer British and American tanks and a few days after D-Day, the Armoured Reconnaissance regiment of the 7th Armoured Division landed at Le Hamel on Gold Beach with Cromwell tanks and began going into action almost immediately in the fighting around Villers-Bocage. The tanks were used in the advance through the Bocage with the 22nd Armoured Brigade. They were involved in action against the 2nd Panzer Division, with the tanks leading the way out of the bridgehead.

Early Cold War
During the Cold War (1945–1990), the two opposing forces in Europe were the Warsaw Pact countries on the one side, and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) countries on the other side. Soviet domination of the Warsaw Pact led to effective standardization on a few tank designs. In comparison, the main NATO countries, Britain, France, Germany, and the USA, developed their own tank designs with little in common, and the smaller counties generally adopted one or more of these designs.

For the UK regiments, the Centurion  was the primary British tank of the post-Second World War period. Development of the tank began in 1943 and manufacture of the Centurion, began in January 1945. With the 20-pounder gun it  first entered combat with the British Army in the Korean War in 1950, in support of the UN forces. It was noted for its high mobility, able to climb to the top of hills that were considered difficult for infantry, let alone tanks. Upgraded to mount the 105 mm L7 gun, it became the UK's first  main battle tank. Between 1946 and 1962, 4,423 Centurions were produced, consisting of 13 basic marks and numerous variants.

At first, the Centurion was not considered capable of dealing with all Soviet tanks and it was joined by a traditional heavy tank design, the Conqueror. This design was almost as heavy as the German WWII King Tiger and was tasked with dealing with the heavy Soviet designs like the Joseph Stalin IS-3. They were issued at nine for each regiment in Germany; usually grouped in three tank troops. It used the American 120 mm gun and was expected to give long range firepower and support to the Centurion tanks that made up the bulk of British tank force. To provide even more firepower for the British Army of the Rhine tank units, Charioteer, a variant of the Cromwell tank with a 20 pounder gun, was deployed; it was a defensive weapon, in practice more a self-propelled anti-tank gun.

This hodge-podge of designs was far from ideal, and there were efforts to improve the Centurion. When equipped with the L7 105 mm gun, along with greatly improved shells, the Centurion was able to penetrate even the heaviest Soviet designs. It became the truly "Universal tank" it had originally been intended and began to displace other designs in service. With future combat thought to be dominated by nuclear weapons, rendering armour as ineffective as infantry, development of newer tank designs began to wane. Instead, designs like the Centurion continued to be improved with the addition of better fire control, stabilization and NBC protection. The Centurion would go on to be one of the most widely used tank designs, equipping armies around the world. Between 1946 and 1962, 4,423 Centurions were produced, consisting of 13 basic marks and numerous variants. As recently as the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict the Israel Defense Forces employed modified Centurions as armoured personnel carriers and combat engineering vehicles. South Africa still employs over 200 Centurions.

Later cold war to today

While the L7 equipped Centurion was an excellent tank, improvements in gunnery and especially drivetrain made it possible to equip a tank with the protection and firepower of the Conqueror with the mobility of Centurion. Leyland began experiments on such a design as early as 1956 with early prototypes in 1959. This emerged as the Chieftain, one of the most heavily armed and armoured tanks of its era, and one of the most modern designs in any force of the era. From this point the Army forces relied on single designs, adopting the main battle tank concept whole heartedly.

Iranian orders for an improved Chieftain led to what were initially relatively minor upgrades, but the development of Chobham armour in the 1960s led to the design of a new tank combining a wide variety of improvements, the Challenger. Among its many improvements, the Challenger used a laser rangefinder in a highly automated fire control system, an improved engine, a greatly improved suspension that offered far better off-road performance. Entering service in 1983, it was beaten into NATO service by the M-1 Abrams, which also used Chobham armour.

Almost immediately after the Chieftain entered development, the West German government began collaborating with the British on a new tank design combining features of the Chieftain with a number of new concepts. Development officially began in September 1978 with the aim of introducing a new design in the late 1980s that would replace both British and German designs. This project fell apart, but a number of experimental design concepts were then worked into the Challenger 2, which first entered service in July 1994. The Challenger 2 forms the core of the Army's heavy tank units today.

The Challenger 2 is the main tank currently being used today by the British military in combat situations. It is renowned for its durability and endurance. Only one has ever been recorded as destroyed, of which was due to a friendly fire incident involving another Challenger 2 tank. This is possibly due to the use of Chobham armour for the Challenger's outer armour. Chobham armour is an incredibly tough armour, the details of which still remain secret to the developers. It uses layers of ceramics and other materials, combined in such a way as to withstand extreme heat and impact.

In May 2021 the Ministry of Defence announced that 148 Challenger 3 tanks would be produced by upgrading current Challenger tanks with fully-digitised systems and a smoothbore gun. The contract costing £800 million to be carried out by Rheinmetall BAE Systems Land (RBSL) to be delivered  2027-2030.

Recent and current conflicts

Gulf War 

The headquarters of the 1st Armoured Division was deployed to Saudi Arabia in 1990 to command British land forces. It had two brigades under its command, 4th and 7th Armoured Brigade. During the war, it came under the US VII Corps and was part of the great armoured left-hook that destroyed many Iraqi Republican Guard formations. The two brigades in the division alternated heading the advance. The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards saw active service during the Gulf War in 1991 deploying 57 Challenger tanks.

The Army contributed 50,000 troops to the coalition force that fought Iraq in the Persian Gulf War. This included Challenger tank units within the 1st Armoured Division

Balkans conflicts 

The British Army was deployed to Yugoslavia in 1992; initially this force formed part of the United Nations Protection Force. Units of the 1st Armoured Division were deployed as part of the Implementation Force (IFOR) in 1995.

War in Afghanistan 

In November 2001 the United Kingdom, as a part of Operation Enduring Freedom with the United States, invaded Afghanistan to topple the Taliban. The 3rd Division were deployed in Kabul, to assist in the liberation of the troubled capital. The British Army is today concentrating on fighting Taliban forces and bringing security to Helmand province. Combat operations ended in 2014, although there are some small units that operate in a non combat role to protect healthcare staff and foreign diplomats, as well as a select few who still help train the Afghan National Army.

Iraq War 

The United Kingdom participated in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, sending a force that would reach 46,000 military personnel. The 7th Armoured Brigade, consisting of 112 Challenger 2 tanks, 140 Warriors and 32 AS-90 155 mm self-propelled howitzers, entered Iraq on 21 March and advanced towards Iraq's second largest city, Basra and helped encircle and isolate it. The brigade, led by the 1st Fusiliers Battlegroup, made a rapid advance towards the city and soon reached its outskirts, securing Basra Airport and the bridges across the Shatt al-Arab. The advance by the brigade met sporadic though fierce resistance, with The Queen's Royal Irish Hussars, including an engagement between 14 Challenger 2s of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards and 14 Iraqi tanks, all of the Iraqi tanks being destroyed; it was the largest tank engagement by the British Army since WWII.

The 1st Armoured Division, including 7th Brigade, raided the city several times and the Desert Rats, led by Challenger 2s of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, Queen's Royal Lancers and 2nd Royal Tank Regiment with Warriors of the 1st Fusiliers, Irish Guards and Black Watch pushed into the city on 6 April and stayed. For the most part, Basra was controlled by 1st Division, though further engagements took place. The war was officially declared over on 1 May. The Desert Rats remained in Iraq after the war, acting as peacekeepers and helping to rebuild the country while based in the British sector in the south of Iraq. The brigade began to leave in late June, being replaced by 19th Mechanised Brigade. The remaining British troops were withdrawn from Iraq after the Iraqi government refused to extend their mandate.

See also

 History of the tank
 Tanks in World War I
 List of interwar armoured fighting vehicles
 Tanks in World War II
 Comparison of early World War II tanks
 Tank classification
 List of military vehicles
 Rhino tank

Notes

References 
 
 
 
 
 https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-shropshire-57025266

British Army
British Army
Articles containing video clips, In computer programming,  is a ternary operator that is part of the syntax for basic conditional expressions in several programming languages. It is commonly referred to as the conditional operator, inline if (iif), or ternary if. An expression  evaluates to  if the value of  is true, and otherwise to . One can read it aloud as "if a then b otherwise c".

It originally comes from CPL, in which equivalent syntax for e1 ? e2 : e3 was e1 → e2, e3.

Although many ternary operators are possible, the conditional operator is so common, and other ternary operators so rare, that the conditional operator is commonly referred to as the ternary operator.

Variations
The detailed semantics of "the" ternary operator as well as its syntax differs significantly from language to language.

A top level distinction from one language to another is whether the expressions permit side effects (as in most procedural languages) and whether the language provides short-circuit evaluation semantics, whereby only the selected expression is evaluated (most standard operators in most languages evaluate all arguments).

If the language supports expressions with side effects but does not specify short-circuit evaluation, then a further distinction exists about which expression evaluates first—if the language guarantees any specific order (bear in mind that the conditional also counts as an expression).

Furthermore, if no order is guaranteed, a distinction exists about whether the result is then classified as indeterminate (the value obtained from some order) or undefined (any value at all at the whim of the compiler in the face of side effects, or even a crash).

If the language does not permit side-effects in expressions (common in functional languages), then the order of evaluation has no value semantics—though it may yet bear on whether an infinite recursion terminates, or have other performance implications (in a functional language with match expressions, short-circuit evaluation is inherent, and natural uses for the ternary operator arise less often, so this point is of limited concern).

For these reasons, in some languages the statement form  can have subtly different semantics than the block conditional form } (in the C language—the syntax of the example given—these are in fact equivalent).

The associativity of nested ternary operators can also differ from language to language. In almost all languages, the ternary operator is right associative so that  evaluates intuitively as , but PHP in particular is notoriously left-associative, and evaluates as follows: , which is rarely what any programmer expects. (The given examples assume that the ternary operator has low operator precedence, which is true in all C-family languages, and many others.)

Equivalence to map
The ternary operator can also be viewed as a binary map operation.

In R—and other languages with literal expression tuples—one can simulate the ternary operator with something like the R expression  (this idiom is slightly more natural in languages with 0-origin subscripts).

However, in this idiom it is almost certain that the entire tuple expression will evaluate prior to the subscript expression, so there will be no short-circuit semantics.

Nested ternaries can be simulated as  where the function  returns the index of the first true value in the condition vector. Note that both of these map equivalents are binary operators, revealing that the ternary operator is ternary in syntax, rather than semantics. These constructions can be regarded as a weak form of currying based on data concatenation rather than function composition.

If the language provides a mechanism of futures or promises, then short-circuit evaluation can sometimes also be simulated in the context of a binary map operation.

Conditional assignment
 is used as follows:

 condition ? value_if_true : value_if_false

The condition is evaluated true or false as a Boolean expression. On the basis of the evaluation of the Boolean condition, the entire expression returns value_if_true if condition is true, but value_if_false otherwise. Usually the two sub-expressions value_if_true and value_if_false must have the same type, which determines the type of the whole expression. The importance of this type-checking lies in the operator's most common use—in conditional assignment statements. In this usage it appears as an expression on the right side of an assignment statement, as follows:

 variable = condition ? value_if_true : value_if_false

The ?: operator is similar to the way conditional expressions (if-then-else constructs) work in functional programming languages, like Scheme, ML, and Haskell, since if-then-else forms an expression instead of a statement in those languages.

Usage
The conditional operator's most common usage is to make a terse simple conditional assignment statement. For example, if we wish to implement some C code to change a shop's normal opening hours from 9 o'clock to 12 o'clock on Sundays, we may use

int opening_time = (day == SUNDAY) ? 12 : 9;

instead of the more verbose

int opening_time;

if (day == SUNDAY)
    opening_time = 12;
else
    opening_time = 9;

The two forms are nearly equivalent. Keep in mind that the  is an expression and if-then-else is a statement. Note that neither the true nor false portions can be omitted from the conditional operator without an error report upon parsing. This contrasts with if-then-else statements, where the else clause can be omitted.

Most of the languages emphasizing functional programming don't need such an operator as their regular conditional expression(s) is an expression in the first place e.g. the Scheme expression  is equivalent in semantics to the C expression . This is also the case in many imperative languages, starting with ALGOL where it is possible to write , or Smalltalk () or Ruby (, although  works as well).

Note that some languages may evaluate both the true- and false-expressions, even though only one or the other will be assigned to the variable. This means that if the true- or false-expression contain a function call, that function may be called and executed (causing any related side-effects due to the function's execution), regardless of whether or not its result will be used. Programmers should consult their programming language specifications or test the ternary operator to determine whether or not the language will evaluate both expressions in this way. If it does, and this is not the desired behaviour, then an if-then-else statement should be used.

ActionScript 3
condition ? value_if_true : value_if_false

Ada
The 2012 edition of Ada has introduced conditional expressions (using  and ), as part of an enlarged set of expressions including quantified expressions and expression functions. The Rationale for Ada 2012 states motives for Ada not having had them before, as well as motives for now adding them, such as to support "contracts" (also new).

Pay_per_Hour := (if Day = Sunday
   then 12.50
   else 10.00);

When the value of an if_expression is itself of Boolean type, then the  part may be omitted, the value being True. Multiple conditions may chained using .

ALGOL 68
Both ALGOL 68's choice clauses (if and the case clauses) provide the coder with a choice of either the "bold" syntax or the "brief" form.

 Single if choice clause:
 if condition then statements [ else statements ] fi
 "brief" form:  ( condition | statements | statements )

 Chained if choice clause:
 if condition1 then statements elif condition2 then statements [ else statements ] fi
 "brief" form:  ( condition1 | statements |: condition2 | statements | statements )

APL
With the following syntax, both expressions are evaluated (with  evaluated first, then , then ):

result ← value_if_true ⊣⍣ condition ⊢ value_if_false

This alternative syntax provides short-circuit evaluation:

result ← { condition : expression_if_true ⋄ expression_if_false } ⍬

AWK
result = condition ? value_if_true : value_if_false

Bash
A true ternary operator only exists for arithmetic expressions:

((result = condition ? value_if_true : value_if_false))

For strings there only exist workarounds, like e.g.:

result=$([[ "$a" = "$b" ]] && echo "value_if_true" || echo "value_if_false")

Where  can be any condition  construct can evaluate. Instead of the  there can be any other bash command. When it exits with success, the first echo command is executed, otherwise the second one is executed.

C
A traditional if-else construct in C, Java and JavaScript is written:

if (a > b) {
    result = x;
}
else {
    result = y;
}

This can be rewritten as the following statement:

result = a > b ? x : y;

As in the if-else construct only one of the expressions 'x' and 'y' is evaluated. This is significant if the evaluation of 'x' or 'y' has side effects. The behaviour is undefined if an attempt is made to use the result of the conditional operator as an lvalue.

A GNU extension to C allows omitting the second operand, and using implicitly the first operand as the second also:

a == x ? : y;

The expression is equivalent to

a == x ? (a == x) : y;

except that if x is an expression, it is evaluated only once. The difference is significant if evaluating the expression has side effects. This shorthand form is sometimes known as the Elvis operator in other languages.

C#
In C#, if condition is true, first expression is evaluated and becomes the result; if false, the second expression is evaluated and becomes the result. As with Java only one of two expressions is ever evaluated.

// condition ? first_expression : second_expression;

static double sinc(double x) 
{
     return x != 0.0 ? Math.Sin(x) / x : 1.0;
}

C++
Unlike in C, the precedence of the  operator in C++ is the same as that of the assignment operator ( or ), and it can return an lvalue. This means that expressions like  and  are both legal and are parsed differently, the former being equivalent to .

In C++ there are conditional assignment situations where use of the if-else statement is impossible, since this language explicitly distinguishes between initialization and assignment. In such case it is always possible to use a function call, but this can be cumbersome and inelegant. For example, to pass conditionally different values as an argument for a constructor of a field or a base class, it is impossible to use a plain if-else statement; in this case we can use a conditional assignment expression, or a function call. Bear in mind also that some types allow initialization, but do not allow assignment, or even that the assignment operator and the constructor do totally different things. This last is true for reference types, for example:

#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
#include <string>

int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
    std::string name;
    std::ofstream fout;

    if (argc > 1 && argv[1])
    {
        name = argv[1];
        fout.open(name.c_str(), std::ios::out | std::ios::app);
    }

    std::ostream &sout = name.empty() ? std::cout : fout;

    sout << "Hello, world!\n";

    return 0;
}

In this case there is no possibility of using an if-else statement in place of the  operator (Although we can replace the use of  with a function call, inside of which can be an if-else statement).

Furthermore, the conditional operator can yield an lvalue, i.e. a value to which another value can be assigned. Consider the following example:

#include <iostream>

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) 
{
    int a = 0;
    int b = 0;

    (argc > 1 ? a : b) = 1;

    std::cout << "a: " << a
              << " b: " << b
              << '\n';

    return 0;
}

In this example, if the boolean expression  yields the value  on line 8, the value  is assigned to the variable , otherwise the value  is assigned to the variable .

In C++ and other various languages, ternary operators like  are also possible but are very rare.

CFML
Example of the  operator in CFML:

result = randRange(0,1) ? "heads" : "tails";

Roughly 50% of the time the  expression will return 1 (true) or 0 (false); meaning result will take the value "heads" or "tails" respectively.

Lucee, Railo, and ColdFusion 11-specific
Lucee, Railo, and ColdFusion 11 also implement the Elvis operator,  which will return the value of the expression if it is not-null, otherwise the specified default.

Syntax:

result = expression ?: value_if_expression_is_null

Example:

result = f() ?: "default";

// where...
function f(){
    if (randRange(0,1)){ // either 0 or 1 (false / true)
        return "value";
    }
}

writeOutput(result);

The function  will return  roughly 50% of the time, otherwise will not return anything. If  returns "value",  will take that value, otherwise will take the value "default".

CoffeeScript
Example of using this operator in CoffeeScript:

if 1 is 2 then "true value" else "false value"

Returns "false value".

Common Lisp
Assignment using a conditional expression in Common Lisp:

(setf result (if (> a b) x y))

Alternative form:

(if (> a b)
  (setf result x)
  (setf result y))

Crystal
Example of using this operator in Crystal:

1 == 2 ? "true value" : "false value"

Returns .

The Crystal compiler transforms conditional operators to  expressions, so the above is semantically identical to:

if 1 == 2
  "true value"
else
  "false value"
end

Dart
The Dart programming language's syntax belongs to the C family, primarily inspired by languages like Java, C# and JavaScript, which means it has inherited the traditional  syntax for its conditional expression.

Example:

return x.isEven ? x ~/ 2 : x * 3 + 1;

Like other conditions in Dart, the expression before the  must evaluate to a Boolean value.

The Dart syntax uses both  and  in various other ways, which causes ambiguities in the language grammar. An expression like:

{ x as T ? [1] : [2] }

could be parsed as either a "set literal" containing one of two lists or as a "map literal" {((x as T?)[1]) : [2]}. The language always chooses the conditional expression in such situations.

Dart also has a second ternary operator, the  operator commonly used for setting values in lists or maps, which makes the term "the ternary operator" ambiguous in a Dart context.

Delphi
In Delphi the  function can be used to achieve the same as . If the  library is used, the  function returns a numeric value such as an Integer, Double or Extended. If the  library is used, this function can also return a string value.

Using 

function IfThen(AValue: Boolean; const ATrue: Integer; const AFalse: Integer): Integer;
function IfThen(AValue: Boolean; const ATrue: Int64; const AFalse: Int64): Int64;
function IfThen(AValue: Boolean; const ATrue: UInt64; const AFalse: UInt64): UInt64;
function IfThen(AValue: Boolean; const ATrue: Single; const AFalse: Single): Single;
function IfThen(AValue: Boolean; const ATrue: Double; const AFalse: Double): Double;
function IfThen(AValue: Boolean; const ATrue: Extended; const AFalse: Extended): Extended;

Using the  library

function IfThen(AValue: Boolean; const ATrue: string; AFalse: string = ''): string;

Usage example:

function GetOpeningTime(Weekday: Integer): Integer;
begin
  { This function will return the opening time for the given weekday: 12 for Sundays, 9 for other days }
  Result := IfThen((Weekday = 1) or (Weekday = 7), 12, 9);
end;

Unlike a true ternary operator however, both of the results are evaluated prior to performing the comparison. For example, if one of the results is a call to a function which inserts a row into a database table, that function will be called whether or not the condition to return that specific result is met.

F#

In F# the built-in syntax for if-then-else is already an expression that always must return a value.

let num = if x = 10 then 42 else 24

F# has a special case where you can omit the else branch if the return value is of type unit. This way you can do side-effects, without using a else branch.

if x = 10 then
    printfn "It is 10"

But even in this case, the if expression would return unit. You don't need to write the else branch, because the compiler will assume the unit type on else.

FORTH
Since FORTH is a stack-oriented language, and any expression can leave a value on the stack, all // sequences can generate values:

: test ( n -- n )  1 AND  IF 22 ELSE 42 THEN ;

This word takes 1 parameter on the stack, and if that number is odd, leaves 22. If it's even, 42 is left on the stack.

Fortran
With the additions to the code in the 1995 release, the ternary operator was added to the Fortran compiler as the intrinsic function :

variable = merge(x,y,a>b)

Note that both x and y are evaluated before the results of one or the other are returned from the function. Here, x is returned if the condition holds true and y otherwise.

FreeMarker 
This built-in exists since FreeMarker 2.3.20.

Used like booleanExp?then(whenTrue, whenFalse), fills the same role as the ternary operator in C-like languages.

<#assign x = 10>
<#assign y = 20>
<#-- Prints the maximum of x and y: -->
${(x > y)?then(x, y)}

Go
There is no ternary if in Go, so use of the full if statement is always required.

Haskell
The built-in if-then-else syntax is inline: the expression

if predicate then expr1 else expr2

has type

Bool -> a -> a -> a

The base library also provides the function :

bool :: a -> a -> Bool -> a

In both cases, no special treatment is needed to ensure that only the selected expression is evaluated, since Haskell is non-strict by default. This also means an operator can be defined that, when used in combination with the  operator, functions exactly like  in most languages:

(?) :: Bool -> a -> a -> a
(?) pred x y = if pred then x else y
infix 1 ?

-- example (vehicle will evaluate to "airplane"):
arg = 'A'
vehicle = arg == 'B' ? "boat" $
          arg == 'A' ? "airplane" $
          arg == 'T' ? "train" $
                       "car"

However, it is more idiomatic to use pattern guards

-- example (vehicle will evaluate to "airplane"):
arg = 'A'
vehicle | arg == 'B' = "boat"
        | arg == 'A' = "airplane"
        | arg == 'T' = "train"
        | otherwise  = "car"

Java
In Java this expression evaluates to:

// If foo is selected, assign selected foo to bar. If not, assign baz to bar.
Object bar = foo.isSelected() ? foo : baz; 

Note that Java, in a manner similar to C#, only evaluates the used expression and will not evaluate the unused expression.

Julia
In Julia, "Note that the spaces around  and  are mandatory: an expression like  is not a valid ternary expression (but a newline is acceptable after both the  and the )."

JavaScript
The conditional operator in JavaScript is similar to that of C++ and Java, except for the fact the middle expression cannot be a comma expression. Also, as in C++, but unlike in C or Perl, it will not bind tighter than an assignment to its right— is equivalent to  instead of .

var timeout = settings !== null ? settings.timeout : 1000;

Just like C# and Java, the expression will only be evaluated if, and only if, the expression is the matching one for the condition given; the other expression will not be evaluated.

Kotlin 
Kotlin does not include the traditional  ternary operator, however, s can be used as expressions that can be assigned, achieving the same results. Note that, as the complexity of your conditional statement grows, you might consider replacing your - expression with a  expression.

val max = if (a > b) a else b

Lua 
Lua does not have a traditional conditional operator. However, the short-circuiting behaviour of its  and  operators allows the emulation of this behaviour:

-- equivalent to var = cond ? a : b;
var = cond and a or b

This will succeed unless  is logically false (i.e.  or ); in this case, the expression will always result in . This can result in some surprising behaviour if ignored.

SQL
The SQL  expression is a generalization of the ternary operator. Instead of one conditional and two results, n conditionals and n+1 results can be specified.

With one conditional it is equivalent (although more verbose) to the ternary operator:

SELECT (CASE WHEN a > b THEN x ELSE y END) AS CONDITIONAL_EXAMPLE
  FROM tab;

This can be expanded to several conditionals:

SELECT (CASE WHEN a > b THEN x WHEN a < b THEN y ELSE z END) AS CONDITIONAL_EXAMPLE
  FROM tab;

MySQL
In addition to the standard  expression, MySQL provides an  function as an extension:

IF(cond, a, b);

SQL Server
In addition to the standard  expression, SQL Server (from 2012) provides an  function:

IIF(condition, true_value, false_value)

Oracle SQL
In addition to the standard  expression, Oracle has a variadic functional counterpart which operates similarly to a switch statement and can be used to emulate the conditional operator when testing for equality.

-- General syntax takes case-result pairs, comparing against an expression, followed by a fall-back result:
DECODE(expression, case1, result1,
                   ...
                   caseN, resultN,
                          resultElse)

-- We can emulate the conditional operator by just selecting one case:
DECODE(expression, condition, true, false)

The  function is, today, deprecated in favour of the standard  expression. This can be used in both Oracle SQL queries as well as PL/SQL blocks, whereas  can only be used in the former.

Perl
A traditional if-else construct in Perl is written:

if ($a > $b) {
    $result = $x;
} else {
    $result = $y;
}

Rewritten to use the conditional operator:

$result = $a > $b ? $x : $y;

The precedence of the conditional operator in perl is the same as in C, not as in C++. This is conveniently of higher precedence than a comma operator but lower than the precedence of most operators used in expressions within the ternary operator, so the use of parentheses is rarely required.

Its associativity matches that of C and C++, not that of PHP. Unlike C but like C++, perl allows the use of the conditional expression as an L-value; for example:

$a > $b ? $x : $y = $result;

will assign  to either  or  depending on the logical expression's boolean result.

The respective precedence rules and associativities of the operators used guarantee that the version absent any parentheses is equivalent to this explicitly parenthesized version:

(($a > $b) ? $x : $y) = $result;

This is equivalent to the if-else version:

if ($a > $b) {
    $x = $result;
} else {
    $y = $result;
}

PHP
A simple PHP implementation is this:

$abs = $value >= 0 ? $value : -$value;

Due to an unfortunate design of the language grammar, the conditional operator in PHP is left associative in contrast to other languages, thus given a value of T for arg, the PHP code in the following example would yield the value horse instead of train as one might expect:

<?php
$arg = "T";
$vehicle = ( ( $arg == 'B' ) ? 'bus' : 
             ( $arg == 'A' ) ? 'airplane' : 
             ( $arg == 'T' ) ? 'train' : 
             ( $arg == 'C' ) ? 'car' : 
             ( $arg == 'H' ) ? 'horse' : 
                               'feet' );
echo $vehicle;

The reason is that nesting two conditional operators produces an oversized condition with the last two options as its branches:  is really . This is acknowledged and will probably not change. To avoid this, nested parenthesis are needed, as in this example:

<?php
$arg = "T";
$vehicle = $arg == "B" ? "bus" :
          ($arg == "A" ? "airplane" :
          ($arg == "T" ? "train" :
          ($arg == "C" ? "car" :
          ($arg == "H" ? "horse" :
                         "feet"))));
echo $vehicle;

This will produce the result of train being printed to the output, analogous to a right associative conditional operator.

PHP 5.3

Since PHP 5.3 there is a shorthand of the conditional operator, sometimes referred to as the "Elvis Operator". The syntax for this shorthand is below:

$c = $a ?: $b; // equivalent to $c = $a ? $a : $b;

Python
Though it had been delayed for several years by disagreements over syntax, an operator for a conditional expression in Python was approved as Python Enhancement Proposal 308 and was added to the 2.5 release in September 2006. Python's conditional operator differs from the common  operator in the order of its operands. The general form is:

result = x if a > b else y

This form invites considering  as the normal value and  as an exceptional case. 

Prior to Python 2.5 there were a number of ways to approximate a conditional operator (for example by indexing into a two element array), all of which have drawbacks as compared to the built-in operator.

R
The traditional if-else construct in R (which is an implementation of S) is:

if (a < b) {
  x <- "true"
} else {
  x <- "false"
}

If there is only one statement in each block, braces can be omitted, like in C:

if (a < b)
  x <- "true"
else
  x <- "false"

The code above can be written in the following non-standard condensed way:

x <- if (a < b) "true" else "false"

There exists also the function  that allows rewriting the expression above as:

x <- ifelse(a < b, "true", "false")

The  function is automatically vectorized. For instance:

> ifelse(c (0, 2) < 1, "true", "false")
[1] "true"  "false"

Raku
Raku uses a doubled  symbol instead of single 
and a doubled  symbol instead of 

$result = $a > $b ?? $x !! $y;

Ruby
Example of using this operator in Ruby:

1 == 2 ? "true value" : "false value"

Returns "false value".

A traditional if-else construct in Ruby is written:

if a > b
  result = x
else
  result = y
end

This could also be written as:

result = if a > b
  x
else
  y
end

These can be rewritten as the following statement:

result = a > b ? x : y

Rust
Being an expression-oriented programming language, Rust's existing if expr1 else expr2 syntax can behave as the traditional  ternary operator does. Earlier versions of the language did have the  operator but it was removed due to duplication with .

Note the lack of semi-colons in the code below compared to a more declarative ... block, and the semi-colon at the end of the assignment to .

let x = 5;

let y = if x == 5 {
    10
} else {
    15
};

This could also be written as:

let y = if x == 5 { 10 } else { 15 };

Note that curly braces are mandatory in Rust conditional expressions.

You could also use a  expression:

let y = match x {
    5 => 10,
    _ => 15,
};

Scheme
Same as in Common Lisp. Every expression has a value. Thus the builtin  can be used:

(let* ((x 5)
       (y (if (= x 5) 10 15)))
  ...)

Smalltalk
Every expression (message send) has a value. Thus  can be used:

|x y|

x := 5.
y := (x == 5) ifTrue:[10] ifFalse:[15].

Swift
The ternary conditional operator of Swift is written in the usual way of the C tradition, and is used within expressions.

let result = a > b ? a : b

Tcl
In Tcl, this operator is available in expr expressions only:

set x 5
set y [expr {$x == 5 ? 10 : 15}]

Outside of expr, if can be used for a similar purpose, as it also returns a value:
package require math

set x 5
set y [if {$x == 5} {
    ::math::random $x
} else {
    ::math::fibonacci $x
}]

TestStand
In a National Instruments TestStand expression, if condition is true, the first expression is evaluated and becomes the output of the conditional operation; if false, the second expression is evaluated and becomes the result. Only one of two expressions is ever evaluated.

condition ? first_expression : second_expression

For example:

RunState.Root.Parameters.TestSocket.Index == 3 ? Locals.UUTIndex = 3 : Locals.UUTIndex = 0

Sets the  local variable to 3 if  is 3, otherwise it sets  to 0.

Similar to other languages, first_expression and second_expression do not need to be autonomous expressions, allowing the operator to be used for variable assignment:

Locals.UUTIndex = ( RunState.Root.Parameters.TestSocket.Index == 3 ? 3 : 0 )

Verilog
Verilog is technically a hardware description language, not a programming language though the semantics of both are very similar. It uses the  syntax for the ternary operator.

// using blocking assignment
wire out;
assign out = sel ? a : b;

This is equivalent to the more verbose Verilog code:

// using blocking assignment
wire out;
if (sel === 1)  // sel is 1, not 0, x or z
    assign out = a;
else if (sel === 0)  // sel is 0, x or z (1 checked above)
    assign out = b;
else  // sel is x or z (0 and 1 checked above)
    assign out = [comment];  // a and b are compared bit by bit, and return for each bit
                             // an x if bits are different, and the bit value if the same

Visual Basic
Visual Basic doesn't use  per se, but has a very similar implementation of this shorthand  statement. Using the first example provided in this article, it can do:

' variable = IIf(condition, value_if_true, value_if_false)
Dim opening_time As Integer = IIf((day = SUNDAY), 12, 9)

In the above example,  is a ternary function, but not a ternary operator. As a function, the values of all three portions are evaluated before the function call occurs. This imposed limitations, and in Visual Basic .Net 9.0, released with Visual Studio 2008, an actual conditional operator was introduced, using the  keyword instead of . This allows the following example code to work:

Dim name As String = If(person Is Nothing, "", person.Name)

Using ,  would be evaluated even if person is  (Nothing), causing an exception. With a true short-circuiting conditional operator,  is not evaluated unless person is not .

Visual Basic Version 9 has added the operator  in addition to the existing  function that existed previously. As a true operator, it does not have the side effects and potential inefficiencies of the  function.

The syntaxes of the tokens are similar:  vs . As mentioned above, the function call has significant disadvantages, because the sub-expressions must all be evaluated, according to Visual Basic's evaluation strategy for function calls and the result will always be of type variant (VB) or object (VB.NET). The operator however does not suffer from these problems as it supports conditional evaluation and determines the type of the expression based on the types of its operands.

Result type
Clearly the type of the result of the  operator must be in some sense the type unification of the types of its second and third operands. In C this is accomplished for numeric types by arithmetic promotion; since C does not have a type hierarchy for pointer types, pointer operands may only be used if they are of the same type (ignoring type qualifiers) or one is void or NULL. It is undefined behaviour to mix pointer and integral or incompatible pointer types; thus

number = spell_out_numbers ? "forty-two" : 42;

will result in a compile-time error in most compilers.

?: in style guidelines
Conditional operators are widely used and can be useful in certain circumstances to avoid the use of an  statement, either because the extra verbiage would be too lengthy or because the syntactic context does not permit a statement. For example:

 #define MAX(a, b) (((a)>(b)) ? (a) : (b))

or

 for (i = 0; i < MAX_PATTERNS; i++)
    c_patterns[i].ShowWindow(m_data.fOn[i] ? SW_SHOW : SW_HIDE);

(The latter example uses the Microsoft Foundation Classes Framework for Win32.)

Initialization
An important use of the conditional operator is in allowing a single initialization statement, rather than multiple initialization statements. In many cases this also allows single assignment and for an identifier to be a constant.

The simplest benefit is avoiding duplicating the variable name, as in Python:

x = 'foo' if b else 'bar'

instead of:

if b:
    x = 'foo'
else:
    x = 'bar'

More importantly, in languages with block scope, such as C++, the blocks of an if/else statement create new scopes, and thus variables must be declared before the if/else statement, as:

std::string s;
if (b)
    s = "foo";
else
    s = "bar";

Use of the conditional operator simplifies this:

std::string s = b ? "foo" : "bar";

Furthermore, since initialization is now part of the declaration, rather than a separate statement, the identifier can be a constant (formally, of  type):

const std::string s = b ? "foo" : "bar";

Case selectors
When properly formatted, the conditional operator can be used to write simple and coherent case selectors. For example:

vehicle = arg == 'B' ? bus :
          arg == 'A' ? airplane :
          arg == 'T' ? train :
          arg == 'C' ? car :
          arg == 'H' ? horse :
                       feet;

Appropriate use of the conditional operator in a variable assignment context reduces the probability of a bug from a faulty assignment as the assigned variable is stated just once as opposed to multiple times.

Programming languages without the conditional operator
The following are examples of notable general-purpose programming languages that don't provide a conditional operator:

 CoffeeScript
 Go programming language
 MATLAB
 Pascal although Object Pascal / Delphi do have a function  to do the same (with caveats)
 Rust The  construct is an expression and can be used to get the same functionality.
 
 PowerShell (in old versions) an elegant workaround is to use (<value for true>,<value for false>)[!(<condition>)]

See also
 IIf, inline if function
 Null coalescing operator,  operator
 Elvis operator, , or sometimes , as a shorthand binary operator
 Conditioned disjunction, equivalent ternary logical connective.

References

External links
 Description of If operator in Visual Basic
 Description of Conditional Expression in Python (PEP 308)
 Description in the Java Language Specification
 Description in the PHP Language Documentation

Conditional constructs
Operators (programming)
Ternary operations
Articles with example code

de:Bedingte Anweisung und Verzweigung#Auswahloperator, Impression Products, Inc. v. Lexmark International, Inc., 581 U.S. ___ (2017), is a decision of the Supreme Court of the United States on the exhaustion doctrine in patent law in which the Court held that after the sale of a patented item, the patent holder cannot sue for patent infringement relating to further use of that item, even when in violation of a contract with a customer or imported from outside the United States. The case concerned a patent infringement lawsuit brought by Lexmark against Impression Products, Inc., which bought used ink cartridges, refilled them, replaced a microchip on the cartridge to circumvent a digital rights management scheme, and then resold them. Lexmark argued that as they own several patents related to the ink cartridges, Impression Products was violating their patent rights. The U.S. Supreme Court, reversing a 2016 decision of the Federal Circuit, held that the exhaustion doctrine prevented Lexmark's patent infringement lawsuit, although Lexmark could enforce restrictions on use or resale of its contracts with direct purchasers under regular contract law (but not as a patent infringement lawsuit). Besides printer and ink manufacturers, the decision of the case could affect the markets of high tech consumer goods and prescription drugs.

Background

Factual setting

Lexmark International, Inc. makes and sells printers and toner cartridges for its printers. Lexmark owns a number of patents that cover its cartridges and their use. Lexmark sold the cartridges at issue in this case—some in the United States and some abroad.

Domestic sales 

Lexmark's domestic sales were in two categories. A "Regular Cartridge" is sold at "list price" and confers an absolute title and property right on the buyer. A "Return Program Cartridge" is sold at a discount of about 20 percent, and is subject to post-sale restrictions: The buyer may not reuse the cartridge after the toner runs out and may not transfer it to anybody else. The first branch of the case turns on the legal status of these post-sale restrictions.

Lexmark manufactured the toner cartridges with microchips in them, which send signals to the printers indicating toner level. When the amount of toner in a cartridge falls below a certain level, the printer will not operate with that cartridge. Also, the printer will not operate with a Return Program Cartridge that has been refilled by a third party. Thus, Lexmark's technology prevented violation of the post-sale restriction against refilling the Return Program Cartridges. The Regular Cartridges do not have this anti-refill feature and can therefore be refilled and reused (but they cost 20 percent more).

"To circumvent this technological measure," however, "third parties have 'hacked' the Lexmark microchips. They created their own "unauthorized replacement" microchips that, when installed in a Return Program cartridge, fool the printer into allowing reuse of that cartridge. Various companies purchase used Return Program Cartridges from the customers who bought them from Lexmark. They replace the microchips with "unauthorized replacement" microchips, refill the cartridges with toner, and sell the "re-manufactured" cartridges to resellers such as Impression Products for marketing to consumers for use with Lexmark printers. Lexmark had previously argued in Lexmark International, Inc. v. Static Control Components, Inc. that replacing these microchips violated copyright law and the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), but both federal and the Supreme Court have ruled against Lexmark, affirming that replacing the microchips is not in violation of copyright.

Imported cartridges

The second branch of the case involves cartridges that Lexmark sold outside the US. While some of the foreign-sold cartridges were Regular Cartridges and some were Return Program Cartridges, this branch of the case does not involve any distinction among the two types of imported cartridges.

Trial court decision

The district court granted Impression's motion to dismiss Lexmark's claim of infringement involving the single-use cartridges Lexmark had first sold in the United States. The district court concluded that the Supreme Court in Quanta Computer, Inc. v. LG Electronics, Inc.  found exhaustion where "the Supreme Court determined that the agreements [at issue] broadly authorized Intel [the seller] to sell the licensed products without restrictions or conditions." The district court said "that Quanta overruled Mallinckrodt sub silentio," and therefore "those post-sale use restrictions do not prevent patent rights from being exhausted given that the initial sales were authorized and unrestricted."

The district court held, however, that the exhaustion doctrine did not apply to the cartridges that Lexmark had sold abroad. It said that international exhaustion did not apply to patents because Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., which established international exhaustion in at least some cases, applied only to copyrights. The court therefore denied Impression's motion to dismiss Lexmark's claim of infringement involving the cartridges Lexmark had sold abroad.

Government amicus curiae position

In its amicus curiae brief, the US Government argued that Mallinckrodt had been wrongly decided in 1992 and in any case it had been overruled sub silentio in Quanta. It stated:
In the view of the United States, the first authorized sale of a patented article in the United States wholly exhausts the patentee's exclusive rights in that article, notwithstanding any post-sale restriction imposed by the patentee.
The government also argued that the decision of Jazz Photo Corp. v. United States International Trade Commission (2001) should be partially overruled in light of Kirtsaeng insofar as it held that foreign sales can never exhaust US patent rights. When the patentee neither makes nor authorizes a foreign sale, as occurred in Boesch v. Graff, it is proper to say no exhaustion occurred. But when the patentee makes or authorizes a foreign sale, and fails expressly to reserve its US rights, then exhaustion should be found. In the present case, Lexmark made the foreign sales and failed to expressly reserve its US rights; therefore, the sale exhausted the patent rights.

Federal Circuit decision

The parties each appealed.  After a three judge panel had heard oral argument the Federal Circuit sua sponte set the case for argument en banc in the first instance and invited the filing of amicus curiae briefs.

Majority opinion

Judge Taranto, writing for a 10-2 majority, reaffirmed both of the prior Federal Circuit rulings. In summary, the court held:

First, we adhere to the holding of Mallinckrodt, Inc. v. Medipart, Inc. that a patentee, when selling a patented article subject to a single-use/no-resale restriction that is lawful and clearly communicated to the purchaser, does not by that sale give the buyer, or downstream buyers, the resale/reuse authority that has been expressly denied. Such resale or reuse, when contrary to the known, lawful limits on the authority conferred at the time of the original sale, remains unauthorized and therefore remains infringing conduct under the terms of § 271. Under Supreme Court precedent, a patentee may preserve its § 271 rights through such restrictions when licensing others to make and sell patented articles; Mallinckrodt held that there is no sound legal basis for denying the same ability to the patentee that makes and sells the articles itself. We find Mallinckrodt's principle to remain sound after the Supreme Court's decision in Quanta Computer, Inc. v. LG Electronics, Inc. . . .

Second, we adhere to the holding of Jazz Photo Corp. v. International Trade Comm'n, that a U.S. patentee, merely by selling or authorizing the sale of a U.S.-patented article abroad, does not authorize the buyer to import the article and sell and use it in the United States, which are infringing acts in the absence of patentee-conferred authority. Jazz Photo's no-exhaustion ruling recognizes that foreign markets under foreign sovereign control are not equivalent to the U.S. markets under U.S. control in which a U.S. patentee's sale presumptively exhausts its rights in the article sold. A buyer may still rely on a foreign sale as a defense to infringement, but only by establishing an express or implied license—a defense separate from exhaustion, as Quanta holds—based on patentee communications or other circumstances of the sale. We conclude that Jazz Photo's no-exhaustion principle remains sound after the Supreme Court's decision in Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., in which the Court did not address patent law or whether a foreign sale should be viewed as conferring authority to engage in otherwise-infringing domestic acts. Kirtsaeng is a copyright case holding that 17 U.S.C. § 109(a) entitles owners of copyrighted articles to take certain acts "without the authority" of the copyright holder. There is no counterpart to that provision in the Patent Act, under which a foreign sale is properly treated as neither conclusively nor even presumptively exhausting the U.S. patentee's rights in the United States.

Domestic exhaustion

In this part of its opinion, the Federal Circuit reaffirmed its Mallincrodt decision and rejected contentions that Quanta had silently overruled it.

§ 271 abrogates common-law rule

The court began by distinguishing the Patent Act's and Copyright Act's respective approaches to infringement. in 17 U.S.C. § 109(a) the Copyright Act says, "Notwithstanding the provisions of section 106(3)," defining infringement by selling, a purchaser "is entitled, without the authority of the copyright owner, to sell or otherwise dispose of the possession" of a purchased copy of a work. In contrast, the Patent Act contains no exhaustion provision. Therefore, the Patent Act requires a "conferral of 'authority' by the patentee . . . in order for the actions listed in § 271(a) not to constitute infringement." This means there must be "permission from the patentee" to avoid infringement. The court does not accept exhaustion as a form of "constructive" permission. Hence, if the patentee places explicit limits or conditions on its permission, they qualify the scope of the permission. This has the effect of limiting the common law.

General Talking Pictures rule applies to "conditional" sale

The court turned to the General Talking Pictures decision, which holds "that Lexmark would not have exhausted its patent rights in those cartridges, upon the manufacturing licensee's sale (the first sale), if a buyer with knowledge of the restrictions resold or reused them in violation of the restrictions." Although the government in its amicus curiae brief and defendant Impression argue "that a different result is required—that Lexmark automatically lost its patent rights—simply because Lexmark sold the Return Program cartridges itself, subject to the same communicated restriction, rather than having left the manufacture and sale to others under license," the court does not accept that:

We conclude otherwise, as we did in Mallinckrodt and subsequent decisions. A sale made under a clearly communicated, otherwise-lawful restriction as to post-sale use or resale does not confer on the buyer and a subsequent purchaser the "authority" to engage in the use or resale that the restriction precludes. And there is no sound reason, and no Supreme Court precedent, requiring a distinction that gives less control to a practicing-entity patentee that makes and sells its own product than to a non-practicing-entity patentee that licenses others to make and sell the product.

Quanta distinguishable and inapplicable

The court turned to the Quanta decision and found it inapplicable to the present issues. "'Quanta did not involve a patentee's sale at all, let alone one subject to a restriction or, more particularly, a single-use/no-resale restriction." Rather, Quanta involved a patentee's (LGE's) license to a manufacturer (Intel) that sold to the accused infringer (Quanta). LGE had not limited Intel's license to manufacture the patented product, although it imposed contractual obligations on Intel. "No conditions limited Intel's authority to sell products substantially embodying the patents." The Federal Circuit emphasized: "There were no patentee sales, and there were no restrictions on the sales made by the licensee." Those facts were removed from the case at bar. Thus the Quanta "Court's discussion of that issue does not undermine Mallinckrodts ruling that a patentee can preserve its patent rights through restrictions on its sales." The Federal Circuit also emphasized as significant the failure of the Quanta Court to explicitly repudiate Mallinckrodt despite the fact that in its amicus brief "the government prominently featured an argument that Mallinckrodt was incorrect and should be repudiated."

Prior cases

The court then turned to the prior Supreme Court cases. Reviewing them, it found that although they used sweeping language that a patentee's sale of the patented product placed it beyond the reach of the patent, so that no post-sale restriction could be enforced under the patent laws, that language went beyond the actual facts of the cases. First, the sales were in most cases without any condition or restriction on what the buyer might do with the product. Second, in the cases where an explicit condition or restriction was imposed, the case involved a tie-in or a price-fix.

The Court conceded that in the General Electric case, the Supreme Court had said: "It is well settled, as already said, that where a patentee makes the patented article, and sells it, he can exercise no future control over what the purchaser may wish to do with the article after his purchase. It has passed beyond the scope of the patentee's rights." But that case involved an antitrust challenge to GE's distribution of lamps that did not meet that description. The case involved price restrictions on a licensed manufacturer. The Federal Circuit then explained that the word "settled" in the Supreme Court's statement had a special, narrow meaning:
"We read that language to deem 'settled' only what was settled in the cited precedents—a patentee's sales without restrictions exhaust patent rights in the item sold." Thus, the Supreme Court's sweeping exhaustion language applies precedentially only to cases in which either the sale was without condition or restriction or else the sale was made with a tie-in or price-fixing condition. "But the Court did not rule that all restrictions on a patentee's sale were ineffective to preserve the patentee's patent-law rights."

Similarly, in United States v. Univis Lens Co., the Supreme Court's sweeping language must now be limited to the factual context of the case:

Moreover, although some language in Univis,  like language in other decisions in the area, can be taken out of context and read as going beyond the specific restrictions involved, the most the Court ruled, even as to patent law all by itself, was that a vertical price-control restriction was ineffective to preserve patent rights after sales of articles embodying the patents. While Univis is controlling on what it decided on the issues before it, we do not think it appropriate to give broad effect to language in Univis, taken out of context, to support an otherwise-unjustified conclusion here on a question not faced there.

The Federal Circuit therefore drew this conclusion from the past series of Supreme Court cases on exhaustion:

For the foregoing reasons, we think that the best lesson to draw from the Supreme Court's precedents, as applied to the question before us, is that a patentee may preserve its patent rights by otherwise-proper restrictions when it makes and sells patented articles itself and not only when it contracts out manufacturing and sales.

Patent law trumps common law

The Federal Circuit returned to the common law and Lord Coke's commentary on it. Again, the court insisted that Congress had overridden the common law's prohibitions on post-sale restraints, in order to promote technological progress:

[W]hatever considerations might go into a jurisdiction's choice as to the background rule for personal property in general, lawmaking authorities may reasonably make different choices for particular kinds of property. Notably, as to intellectual property in its various forms, Congress, implementing the Constitution, has long deemed it important to incentivize creation and disclosure through grants to the creator of rights to exclude others for a time. . . . That overriding legislative prescription removes the patented-article sale from the scope of Lord Coke's 1628 description of his country's general judicially fashioned property law. . . . In short, notwithstanding Lord Coke's description of English general personal-property judge-made law, the patent-specific statutory analysis must govern here.

Likely effects on public

The court then turned to what it called "the likely real-world consequences of one answer or another to the exhaustion question presented here." The court noted that in Kirtsaeng the Supreme Court had envisioned serious adverse effects on competition unless Coke's 1628 property law rules were followed. The Federal Circuit said that did not apply to patents:

[W]e see no basis for predicting the extreme, lop-sided impacts the Court found plausible in Kirtsaeng in different circumstances. Mallinckrodt has been the governing case law since 1992 and has been reiterated in subsequent precedent. And yet we have been given no reliable demonstration of widespread problems not being solved in the marketplace. Given General Talking Pictures, the only question is about patentees' ability to do for their own sales what they already can do by contracting out their manufacturing and sales. Regarding the specific scenario we are addressing today—in which the patentee has sought to preserve its patent rights by conditioning its first sale on a single-use/no-resale restriction of which the accused infringer had adequate notice at the time of purchase—we have been given no proof of a significant problem with enforcing patent rights.

Furthermore, the Federal Circuit maintained, the conduct challenged here can have benefits. Under Lexmark's program, customers who agree to the restriction pay a lower price than those who do not. It could be that the companies that refill the cartridges use inferior products that could harm the Lexmark machines, which "could harm Lexmark's reputation." To assume that the restrictions are illegitimate would run counter to the trends "over the last four decades, that have displaced the strict condemnation of various vertical restrictions that characterized" earlier antitrust and patent-misuse law in the first part of the twentieth century. "Field-of-use, territorial, and other limitations on intellectual property licenses may serve procompetitive ends by allowing the licensor to exploit its property as efficiently and effectively as possible." Therefore, the court concluded it is appropriate to apply to post-sale restrictions the same tolerance that the General Talking Pictures doctrine accords limitations in manufacturing licenses.

International exhaustion

In this part of its opinion, the Federal Circuit reaffirmed its Jazz Photo opinion and rejected contentions that Kirtsaeng had undermined the basis for Jazz Photo. The Federal Circuit insisted that "Kirtsaeng says nothing about patent law."

The court emphasized the differences between patent law and copyright law. For example, patent law gives patentees an exclusive right to use of the invention but copyright law gives no general exclusionary right as to use (it gives exclusive public performance and display "use" rights, but not others). Also, it is much more costly and time-consuming to obtain a patent than a copyright. The court did not explain, however, the way that or other differences between copyrights and patents called for contrary results as to international exhaustion.

The court did say that the US patent statute gives patentees the reward available from "sales in American markets, not from sales in foreign markets." A sale in a foreign market therefore does not furnish a proper basis for finding exhaustion. "American markets differ substantially from markets in many other countries, and not just because of disparities in wealth that can lead to dramatically different prices" in this country and abroad (as was the case in Kirtsaeng). "Government policies differ dramatically, including policies on price regulation and, most particularly, policies on the availability and scope of patent protection." The court did not explain further, however, whether and how such dramatic differences in policy applied to the toner cartridges at issue in the present case.

The court then turned to the only Supreme Court case on foreign exhaustion, Boesch v. Graff. In that case, Graff was the assignee of a US patent. Boesch bought the product from a German supplier who had a prior-user right under German law to make and sell the product, because the supplier had begun activity before the application for the German counterpart patent was filed. The US assignee and the inventor had no connection with Boesch. When Graff imported the product into the US, Boesch sued for infringement. The US courts found Boesch liable. The rights that Boesch had under German law did not entitle him to import the product into the US. That is governed by US law. The US patentee had never "received any royalty or given any license to use the patented article in any part of the United States."
Accordingly, the court held, a foreign sale does not of its own force authorize importation into the US.

This does not mean, however, that a patentee by its conduct cannot waive its US rights, be estopped from asserting them, or be found to have granted an implied license.

The court expressed concern that overruling Jazz Photo would harm the US drug industry:

There seems to be no dispute that U.S.-patented medicines are often sold outside the United States at substantially lower prices than those charged here and, also, that the practice could be disrupted by the increased arbitrage opportunities that would come from deeming U.S. rights eliminated by a foreign sale made or authorized by the U.S. patentee.

Finally, the court rejected a proposal that exhaustion should be presumed unless the patentee express states that it reserves its US rights. Foreign governments might "prohibit sellers from stating reservations of rights that would make importation into and sale in the United States more difficult." Also: "Intermediary companies between the foreign purchase and the importation into the United States may be created that make it difficult for the U.S. patentee to carry an affirmative burden of proving adequate notice of reservations attached to a foreign-sold article."

Dissenting opinion

Judge Dyk, joined by Judge Hughes, dissented from both branches of the court's exhaustion analysis. Judge Dyk summarized his dissent in these terms:

I would overrule our decision in Mallinckrodt as inconsistent with governing Supreme Court authority and overrule Jazz Photo to the extent that it imposes a blanket ban on foreign exhaustion. I would recognize foreign exhaustion where the U.S. rights holder has not notified the buyer of its retention of the U.S. patent rights.

Domestic exhaustion

In this part of the dissent, Judge Dyk argued that the majority had misunderstood the Supreme Court's exhaustion jurisprudence in order to substitute its own ideas of the proper balance between patent rights and public rights. He began by saying:

First, I agree with the government that Mallinckrodt was wrong when decided, and in any event cannot be reconciled with the Supreme Court's recent decision in Quanta Computer, Inc. v. LG Electronics, Inc. We exceed our role as a subordinate court by declining to follow the explicit domestic exhaustion rule announced by the Supreme Court.

He argued that since 1850 the Supreme Court has held that a sale by the patentee or its licensee exhausts all patent rights. In such cases, "The question of whether the seller has 'authorized' the buyer to use or resell the item is simply irrelevant." Post-sale restrictions could not be enforced under federal patent law. The only Supreme Court case to depart from that principle was Henry v. A.B. Dick Co., and it was explicitly overruled five years later by Motion Picture Patents Co. v. Universal Film Mfg. Co. The principle of the overruled Dick case that a patentee could impost a post-sale restriction by giving a buyer notice of it was "the same as the panel's holding in Mallinckrodt and the majority's holding in this case."

He insisted that the majority opinion misread the Motion Picture Patents decision by asserting "that it only 'held particular restrictions improper' . . . but 'did not rule that all restrictions on a patentee's sale were ineffective to preserve the patentee's patent-law rights.'" He explained:

That is not accurate. Motion Picture Patents did not leave behind the remnants of A.B. Dick—minus tie-ins and resale price maintenance. To the contrary, the Court in Motion Picture Patents found that "[t]he patent law furnishes no warrant for" the restrictions imposed by the patent owner.

Later cases, such as Quanta, confirmed this "broad patent exhaustion rule [in Motion Picture Patents] and left no room for a resurrection of A.B. Dick."

He next turned to the majority's referenced to "conditional sales" and "unconditional sales," and said that the majority misconstrued the terms. "Conditional sales," he said, as used in pre-Mallinckrodt case law referred only to the retention of title for a security interest in installment purchases. "In other words, a sale with restrictions could nonetheless be an 'unconditional' sale in which title passes, with the restrictions invalid under the patent laws because of exhaustion."

He then criticized the majority for making up special rules for patent cases that differed from the common law and general legal principles, citing Supreme Court admonitions not to do that--"The Supreme Court has repeatedly instructed us not to ignore traditional legal principles to fashion rules 'unique to patent disputes.'"

Finally, Judge Dyk took issue on multiple grounds with the majority's efforts to distinguish and limit the Supreme Court's rulings. "The majority's justifications for refusing to follow Supreme Court authority establishing the exhaustion rule misconceive our role as a subordinate court." Each justification in the majority decision was unsupportable, he said.

 "First, the majority characterizes the statement of the exhaustion rule in the Supreme Court cases as mere dictum because in those cases there was either no restriction imposed or the restriction would otherwise violate the antitrust laws. But the cases impose no such qualification on the rule announced. The Supreme Court has repeatedly advised the courts of appeals that our task is to follow the rules proclaimed by the Court, and not to attempt to distinguish Supreme Court cases on their facts."
 "Second, the majority relies on 35 U.S.C. §§ 271(a) and 154(a)(1) to suggest that a broad reading of the exhaustion doctrine is inconsistent with statutory language making an act of infringement . . . any use or sale of a patented invention 'without authority' of the patent owner, and providing the patent owner with a 'right to exclude.'" But the patent exhaustion doctrine is a limitation on the operation of those sections, and applies notwithstanding them.
 "Third, the majority claims that giving full sweep to the articulation of the exhaustion doctrine in Quanta and other cases would be inconsistent with the Supreme Court's decision in General Talking Pictures Corp. v. Western Electric Co. . . . The majority suggests it would be incongruous if 'a patentee cannot preserve its patent rights against uses of a patented article . . . if, instead of licensing someone else to make and sell the article, it chooses to make and sell the article itself.' "

But General Talking Pictures was a case of a license to manufacture in a limited field,  not a sale with a post-sale restriction. The cases recognize that distinction. Thus, in Quanta the Supreme Court stated that General Talking Pictures "held that exhaustion did not apply because the manufacturer had no authority to sell the amplifiers for commercial use." And where the manufacturer in that case (Intel) did have a general authority to make and sell, the Supreme Court held that exhaustion applied to the sale.

The majority found "tension" between "the Supreme Court's broad statement of the exhaustion rule and General Talking Pictures" and sought to resolve it by extending the rule of General Talking Pictures and contracting the exhaustion doctrine in the area of possible conflict. But, Dyk maintained:

[I]t is not our task to ignore Supreme Court rulings as "unjustifi[ed]" or "unsound" because they are purportedly inconsistent with other Supreme Court cases. The distinction between restrictions on sales (impermissible) and restrictions on licensees (permissible) exists in the Court's precedent, and it is not for us to decide if it is a sound distinction.

 "Finally, the majority proposes that we should somehow sustain the restriction here because it may be pro-competitive. Exhaustion does not turn on whether a particular post-sale restriction is desirable or undesirable, pro-competitive or anti-competitive, but whether the sale was authorized and the item has passed beyond the scope of the patent monopoly." Furthermore, the Supreme Court said in Kirtsaeng that a prohibition on resale is "manifestly anti-competitive."

Dyk concluded his discussion of domestic exhaustion with the statement: "There is, in sum, no colorable basis for the majority's failure to follow the exhaustion rule for domestic sales as articulated by the Court in Quanta and numerous other cases."

International exhaustion

In this part of the dissent, Judge Dyk argued for a nuanced balance that called for different results depending on whether the patentee was responsible for the sale abroad that was alleged to trigger exhaustion.

He began by pointing out that because Lexmark's foreign sales were made without any restrictions or reservations, "even under the majority's cramped view of exhaustion, there is no question that the sales would have exhausted Lexmark's domestic patent rights. The issue is whether the foreign location of the sale should lead to a different result, as we previously held in Jazz Photo."

He then turned to "the centerpiece of the majority's holding that there is a doctrinal blanket ban on foreign exhaustion, namely the Supreme Court's decision in Boesch v. Graff. But "Boesch announced no such blanket ban," he said. "It did not even involve an authorized sale by the holder of U.S. patent rights but rather a sale by a third party under a foreign law's prior use exception." But "Boesch does not apply here because the foreign sales were made by Lexmark."

In every US lower court decision before Jazz Photo: "When the sale was made by an entity not holding U.S. patent rights, as in Boesch, or when the authorized foreign seller clearly reserved U.S. rights, there was no exhaustion." In contrast, "where the foreign sale was made by a seller holding U.S. patent rights without a contractual reservation of U.S. rights, exhaustion occurred as a result of an authorized foreign sale."

Dyk maintained that "Kirtsaeng provides significant guidance and cannot be dismissed as simply a copyright case, or as limited to the 'first sale' provision of the Copyright Act." Rather, the policies that animated Kirtsaeng typically apply to patent exhaustion. But because in some cases a difference may be significant, there should be abalanced approach. Dyk argued for "put[ting] the burden on the U.S. rights holder to provide notice of a reservation of U.S. rights to the purchaser." Thus, he "would recognize foreign exhaustion where the U.S. rights holder has not notified the buyer of its retention of the U.S. patent rights."

Supreme Court
In March 2016, Impression filed a petition for certiorari in the U.S. Supreme Court. Impression presented these questions in its petition:

   1. Whether a "conditional sale" that transfers title to the patented item while specifying post-sale restrictions on the article's use or resale avoids application of the patent exhaustion doctrine and therefore permits the enforcement of such post-sale restrictions through the patent law's infringement remedy.
   2. Whether, in light of this Court's holding in Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 133 S. Ct. 1351, 1363 (2013), that the common law doctrine barring restraints on alienation that is the basis of exhaustion doctrine "makes no geographical distinctions," a sale of a patented article—authorized by the U.S. patentee—that takes place outside of the United States exhausts the U.S. patent rights in that article.

On June 20, 2016, the Court invited the Solicitor General to file briefs in this case expressing the views of the United States. In October 2016, the government filed the requested amicus curiae brief. It recommended grant of certiorari on both questions. The brief argues that the "Federal Circuit's decision misreads" the Supreme Court's precedents and "would substantially erode the exhaustion doctrine." The Supreme Court granted certiorari on December 2, 2016 and heard oral argument in the case on March 21, 2017. The Court published its decisions on May 30, 2017.

Majority
A unanimous Court found that Lexmark exhausted its patent rights upon first sale domestically, even with the single-use/no-resale restrictions imposed by Lexmark in contracts with its customers, although such restrictions could be enforced under contract law. The Court noted that the exhaustion doctrine has a long history and that any change would have significant effects on commerce in the modern world, noting that "extending the patent rights beyond the first sale would clog the channels of commerce, with little benefit from the extra control that the patentees retain," noting that complex modern supply chains can involve large numbers of patents. Chief Justice Roberts, in his opinion, compared the situation to automobile repair shops: "The business works because the shop can rest assured that, so long as those bringing in the cars own them, the shop is free to repair and resell those vehicles. That smooth flow of commerce would sputter if companies that make the thousands of parts that go into a vehicle could keep their patent rights after the first sale."

Seven justices joined the Court's opinion extending that reasoning to items imported from abroad. Lexmark had argued, and the Federal Circuit agreed, that sale abroad "does not trigger patent exhaustion unless the patentee 'expressly or implicitly transfers or licenses' its rights." The Court, however, ruled that "[a]n authorized sale outside the United States, just as one within the United States, exhausts all rights under the Patent Act." The Court relied on its 2013 decision in Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. on a nearly identical issue under copyright law. Because the underlying statute was not clear as to its geographical scope, the Court in Kirtsaeng decided that, because the statute was based in the common law exhaustion doctrine, which is not limited in geographic extent, the statute at issue was therefore not intended to be limited to only U.S. sales. Applying the same principle to patent law, which historically has a close connection with copyright law, was "straightforward" and "the bond between [copyright and patent law] leaves no room for a rift on the question of international exhaustion".

Partial dissent
Justice Ginsburg dissented from the Court's holding with respect to imported items. Adhering to substantially the same reasoning of her dissent in Kirtsaeng, Justice Ginsburg argued that because patent law is territorial and the sale of an item abroad is "independent[] of the U.S. patent system, it makes little sense to say that such a sale exhausts an inventor's U.S. patent rights." She would have upheld the Federal Circuit's decision that sale abroad does not exhaust a patentee's rights in the United States.

Commentary

Gerstein

Robert M. Gerstein concluded that further review in the Supreme Court was likely:
Given the Supreme Court's interest in patent cases, a vigorous dissent in Lexmark that relies on a number of Supreme Court precedents, including Quanta and Kirtsaeng, and the position of the Justice Department that Quanta overruled Mallinckrodt, it would not be surprising to see the Supreme Court take up Lexmark in its next term.

Dodd and Dowd

Jeff C. Dodd and Matthew J. Dowd viewed the decision as an affirmation of strong patent rights:
Lexmark embraces a very strong view of patent rights and a narrow view of the scope of exhaustion. It affirms that patent holders have wide latitude to segment and control distribution in the market channels for products covered by patents. This latitude is particularly wide with respect to limiting the import into the United States of patented goods sold in authorized sales in foreign markets even where restrictions on resale were not proven to have been communicated to foreign buyers. Even so, the court left open the possibility that foreign sales, under the right circumstances, may incorporate an implied license to import and use the product within the United States.

Cukierski and Masia

Kevin J. Cukierski and Adam H. Masia see the decision as "pro-patent owner" but warn again premature celebration:
But take caution—it is likely that the Supreme Court will be asked to hear the case. Given the tension between this case and the Supreme Court's language in Quanta and Kirtsaeng, along with the discord at the district court level and among commentators before the Federal Circuit's decision, there's a good chance the Supreme Court will do so. Until the Supreme Court has its say, you should take precautions in case the Supreme Court takes an expansive view of patent exhaustion and decides to remove these exceptions.

"Without Precedent"

Another commentator (unsigned comment) indicated a skeptical view of the Federal Circuit's tendency to march to a different drummer. After quoting Judge Dyk's admonition, "We exceed our role as a subordinate court by declining to follow the explicit domestic exhaustion rule announced by the Supreme Court," he (or she) observed:
For present purposes, it is simply worth noting that the Federal Circuit appears to be inching closer again to the concept that patent law is simply a unique beast, with unique rules and requirements. The Supreme Court has taken a skeptical view of that approach in the past. And may well again.

Jahn, Pichler, and Lo

Paul Jahn, Rufus Pichler and Lincoln Lo raise many questions (mostly about "clear communication") about what the Lexmark majority opinion left unresolved:

 Conflict or tension with Quanta: "Quanta expressly distinguished implied licenses and exhaustion, holding that disclaimers of license rights are 'irrelevant' where 'the right to practice the patents is based not on implied license but on exhaustion.' " But "the Federal Circuit appears to treat exhaustion like an implied license—one that the patentee can disclaim by 'clearly communicate[d]' restrictions." Quanta appears to hold that the patentee's attempt to impose a post-sale restriction on a manufacturing licensee is ineffective if the license does not conform to the General Talking Pictures case.
 "[W]hat arrangement between a seller and buyer is sufficient to deny 'authority.'? It was undisputed in Lexmark that there was 'an express and enforceable contractual agreement' between Lexmark and each end-user, and that the no-resale and no-reuse restrictions were binding on end users.  Yet throughout the Lexmark opinion, the majority suggests that restrictions may be sufficient if 'clearly communicated'—even if well short of a contractual meeting of the minds."
 Another way to put this is what is a "clear communication"? In Jazz Photo, the Federal Circuit noted that the "package instructions [were] not in the form of a contractual agreement by the purchaser to limit reuse of the cameras."  Accordingly, "There was no showing of a 'meeting of the minds' whereby the purchaser, and those obtaining the purchaser's discarded camera, may be deemed to have breached a contract or violated a license limited to a single use of the camera." The writers conclude, therefore, "It is unclear if the Federal Circuit intended an expansion of the patentee-seller's ability to avoid exhaustion."
 Also, how clear must a "clear communication" be? "The Federal Circuit appears to limit infringement claims against subsequent downstream buyers to those 'having knowledge of the restrictions.' The appellate court did not elaborate on what defenses a subsequent downstream purchaser without knowledge may have, assuming no exhaustion. The court only mentions in passing that 'we do not have before us the questions that would arise, whether under principles governing bona fide purchasers or otherwise, if a downstream re-purchaser acquired a patented article with less than actual knowledge of the restriction.' "
 Finally, does the court's focus on "clear communication" have a negative impact on post-sale restrictions that a limited licensee under General Talking Pictures is required to impose? "The Federal Circuit suggested repeatedly that buyers' knowledge of the licensee's field of use limitation may be required for a licensee's sale to be non-exhaustive. While General Talking Pictures did not clearly resolve this question, many licensors have assumed that sales by a licensee outside of its licensed field are unauthorized altogether and are therefore non-exhaustive regardless of the purchaser's knowledge of the field of use limitation." Therefore, does the emphasis, here "on the buyer's knowledge, even if dicta, add to the uncertainty concerning this issue"?

Castanias, Nix, and Kazhdan

Gregory A. Castanias, Kelsey I. Nix, and Daniel Kazhdan also point to unresolved issues over which patent owners "must still be cautious":
Lexmark explicitly left open several fact-specific questions, including (i) what happens if someone acquires a patented article with "less than actual knowledge" of the restrictions placed on the original sale by the patent owner and (ii) when would a foreign buyer have an "implied license" to sell in the United States, independent of patent exhaustion. These issues will surely be raised in future cases.

Crouch

Dennis Crouch, in Patently-O commented on the issues and provided a summary of the merits briefs filed in the Supreme Court as of January 31, 2017. Crouch opposed the Federal Circuit's ruling on these grounds:
With personal property courts long ago rejected servitudes (such as use and resale restrictions) that bind subsequent purchasers. Unlike real property, personal property moves and is often transferred without substantial paperwork or record-keeping, and allowing a set of unique restrictions has the potential of gumming up the marketplace.  The Federal Circuit in this case went all the way to the other side — holding that the presumption in foreign sales is that no US patent rights are exhausted.  I purchased my last couple of smart phones through the used market – and have also repaired them several times.  Under the law, I probably should have taken steps to ensure that all of the original equipment manufacturers affirmatively granted repair and resale rights.  Coming together, the Federal Circuit's approach here has the potential to limit the market for the repair and reselling of goods.  I would suggest that those activities are incredibly beneficial to our society in terms of resource allocation and avoiding waste as well as empowering citizens and avoiding anticompetitive market behavior.

Notes and references

Notes

References

External links
 
 SCOTUSblog coverage
 Podcast – Interview with proprietor of Impression Products

Intellectual property law
United States patent case law
United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit cases
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Roberts Court
2015 in United States case law
2017 in United States case law
Lexmark, source_sentence: Who is one of Jesus' Seventy Apostles named Cephas?
sentences: Aristagoras (), d. 497/496 BC, was the leader of the Ionian city of Miletus in the late 6th century BC and early 5th century BC and a key player during the early years of the Ionian Revolt against the Persian Achaemenid Empire. He was the son-in-law of Histiaeus, and inherited the tyranny of Miletus from him.

Background 

By the time extant history hears of him, Aristagoras is already serving as deputy governor of Miletus, a polis on the western coast of Anatolia around 500 BC. He was the son of Molpagoras, previous tyrant of an independent Miletus, and brother-in-law (and nephew) of Histiaeus, whom the Persians had set up as tyrant, but never quite trusted. After general Megabazus presented his complaints about Histiaeus to Darius I of Persia, the latter summoned Histiaeus to his court and detained him at Susa, the main reason being that he wanted a trustworthy advisor. On the recommendation of Histiaeus, the Achaemenids then appointed Aristagoras as the new ruler of Miletus. Aristagoras ruled Miletus while Histiaeus remained in Susa. The assignment was put forward as temporary. Privately, everyone knew that he was being kept under observation away from his troops.

Aristagoras was the main orchestrator of the Ionian Revolt on secret instruction by Histiaeus, when the latter learned of Persian plans to interfere directly in Miletus. Aristagoras took advantage of Greek dissatisfaction with Persian rule to incite an alliance of the Greek poleis of Ionia. Soliciting assistance from the states of mainland Greece he failed to obtain the help of a major state, Sparta. He did obtain the half-hearted assistance of Athens. Their attack on the satrapy of Lydia having been defeated, they withdrew, abandoning Aristagoras to his fate.

In the last months of the failing revolt, the Persians were reconquering rebel country city by city. Choosing not to remain and make a stand alone, Aristagoras led a colony to Thrace, where he had negotiated a franchise to settle from the Thracians. No sooner did he arrive than he and all his men were massacred in a surprise attack by the Thracians, for reasons unspecified by Herodotus, whether loyal to the Great King, or influenced by the Scythians, who hated the Ionians for their rescue of the Great King, or just because they changed their minds about the number of Hellenes they would allow in their country. The revolt gained momentum briefly but then began to fail again. When all was nearly lost, the Great King allowed Histiaeus to convince him that he could settle the conflict and now should be sent back to Miletus. Aristagoras was gone. According to Herodotus, they never met again.

Histiaeus never succeeded in reaching Miletus. Reporting first to Sardis, undoubtedly still recovering from fire, whether with or without the Great King's complicity (Herodotus does not say), he was interrogated concerning his true loyalties. Histiaeus swore complete ignorance of the events of the revolt and unquestionable loyalty to the Persians. He admitted nothing, but the satrap, Artaphernes, was not in the least deceived. He said, "I will tell thee how the case stands, Histaeus: this shoe is of thy stitching; Aristagoras has but put it on."

Seeing that the jig was up, Histiaeus escaped that night and took ship at the coast, probably at Ephesus. He had no trouble raising troops and finding ships, but he found that he was not trusted by the revolutionaries. Miletus would not have him back. He became a soldier of fortune in the Aegean until he was hunted down and executed by Artaphernes. The Ionian revolt was finally settled in 494/493 BC. The Persians went on to plot the conquest of Greece under the pretext of a punitive campaign against Athens.

Failure of the Naxos expedition 

Certain exiled citizens of Naxos came to Miletus to seek refuge. They asked Aristagoras to supply them with troops, so that they could regain control of their homeland. Aristagoras considered that if he was able to supply troops to the Naxians, then he could become ruler of Naxos.  So he agreed to assist the Naxians. He explained that he did not have enough troops of his own, but that Artaphernes, Darius’ brother and the Persian satrap of Lydia, who commanded a large army and navy on the coast of Asia, could help supply troops. The Naxians agreed to Aristagoras seeking Artaphernes' support and supplied him with money.

Aristagoras travelled to Sardis and suggested that Artaphernes attack Naxos and restore the exiles. The Persians would then gain control of the island. He explained to Artaphernes that Naxos “was a fine and fertile island, close to the Ionian coast, and rich both in treasures and slaves.”  It was also the gateway to the Cyclades, which the Persians did not yet rule. Aristagoras promised that he would both fund the expedition and give Artaphernes a bonus sum. He also tempted Artaphernes by adding that capturing the island would place other poleis of the Cyclades under his control. They would serve as bases for an invasion of  Euboea. After securing the permission of Susa, Artaphernes agreed and promised 200 ships.

The following spring, Aristagoras and the Naxian exiles sailed with the fleet. Unfortunately for the success of the invasion, Aristagoras quarrelled with the Persian admiral Megabates. He interfered in the discipline of the latter over the ship captains to save a friend from harsh punishment for an infraction (failure to set a watch on his ship). Aristagoras saved his friend but lost the friendship and loyalty of the Persian admiral, who expected to be in overall command. The schism was irreparable, being the very first incident of the subsequent Ionian revolt. Megabates sabotaged the entire operation by secretly informing the Naxians that they were about to be attacked, taking away the element of surprise.  Naxos then had enough time to prepare for a siege. Four months later, the siege still held, the Persians were out of supplies and had only limited funds remaining. The expedition was then considered a failure and the Persians sailed home.

Ionian Revolt 

Due to his failure to make good on his Naxian promises, Aristagoras’ political position was at risk. He began to plan a revolt with the Milesians and the other Ionians. Meanwhile, Histiaeus, still detained at Susa, had tattooed a message upon the shaved head of a slave. Once his hair had grown back, he sent him to Aristagoras. The message told Aristagoras to revolt. Histiaeus, desperate to resume his authority at Miletus, hoped Darius would send him to deal with a Milesian revolt.

Both leaders being of the same mind, Aristagoras conferred with a council of his supporters, who agreed to a rebellion in Miletus in 499 BC. Aristagoras was supported by most of the citizens in council, except the historian Hecataeus. Hecataeus voted against the revolt because he believed that the Ionians would be out-matched. Defeat would be inevitable. Once the vote was taken, however, there is no evidence that he recused himself from the revolt. In fact, he had suggestions to make. Once the war began, the Ionians did not allow any fence-sitting among themselves, although they could not stop the larger allies from withdrawing. In general knowledge, warring nations do not allow citizens of any social status to comment from the sidelines without participating in the war effort.

As soon as the vote for war was certain, Aristagoras took steps to secure Persian military assets. The Naxos fleet was recovering from its ordeal at Myus. Now in a position of command – Herodotus is not specific – Aristagoras sent a party under Iatragoras to arrest the admirals still with the fleet, some several men. Ironically, these were mainly Greek. They were later released and sent home. Now that the rebellion was in the open, Aristagoras “set himself to damage Darius in every way he could think of.”

The scope of the revolt spread rapidly to all Ionia. Aristagoras foresaw that one city would soon be crushed. He therefore set about to create an alliance of all the Ionian cities, but the members also came from regions beyond Ionia. He made a number of constitutional changes, not all of which are clear. First he relinquished his own tyranny. Approaching the other states, he convinced them to end theirs. Finally he ordered all of the states to create a board of generals to report, apparently, to him. When his government was in place he sailed to Lacedaemon and other states of Greece in search of allies.

There has been some question as to the exact meaning of Herodotus' governmental terms, and as to the form of government of the Ionian alliance. The most fundamental question is where Aristagoras got his authority over the Ionians in the first place. They were all under the satrapy of Lydia, not under Miletus. The satrap was Persian. The tyrant of Miletus was appointed by the satrap, but he also appointed all the other tyrants. For reasons not specified in Herodotus, Miletus had the upper hand.

One can only assume a leadership role of some kind of Aristagoras over the other tyrants, whether personal or according to some unspecified convention. In order to gain the participation of the people in the revolt, we are told, Aristagoras "let go" the tyranny and established isonomia, which the translators translate variously with imprecise terms, such as "equality of government." According to Liddell and Scott, a standard dictionary of ancient Greek, Thucydides uses it to mean the "equality of rights" in a democracy.

Apparently Aristagoras established democracy, but then he went on to "put a stop to tyranny" in all the other Ionian cities, and moreover to insist that they select boards of generals reporting to him, which are not democratic powers. No voting is mentioned. Apparently a new sovereign state had been formed with Aristagoras as its chief. He had not stepped down, but up. The state had the power to levy taxes and troops. Aristagoras was commander of the joint armed forces. Miletus was to be the new capital. In fact the new sovereign Ionia issued its own coinage between 499 and its destruction by the Persians in 494.

Spartan refusal to provide assistance 

Aristagoras appealed to the Spartan king, Cleomenes I, to help them throw off the Persian yoke. He praised the quality of the Spartan warriors, and argued that a pre-emptive invasion of Persia would be easy. To illustrate his view, he had brought along a "bronze tablet on which a map of all the earth was engraved, and all the sea, and all the rivers." No more information is given about the map, but the circumstantial evidence suggests it was most likely the world map of Hecataeus of Miletus, an important player in Milesian political life of the times.

Aristagoras claimed that the Persians would be easy to defeat, as they fought in “trousers and turbans,” clearly not a sign of good warriors. He also tempted him with Persian riches. Cleomenes asked Aristagoras to wait two days for an answer. When they next met, Cleomenes asked how long it would take to reach Susa, and upon learning that it was a three months’ journey, he firmly refused Spartan assistance as his troops would be gone for too long. At the time, Sparta was concerned over possible attacks from the Argives. The Greek historian Herodotus claimed that Aristagoras attempted to change Cleomenes’ mind with bribes, until the king's young daughter Gorgo warned that Aristagoras would corrupt him. Aristagoras left without the requested assistance.

Defeat of the Athenians 

Aristagoras next went to Athens, where he made a convincing speech, promising “everything that came into his head, until at last he succeeded.” Won over, the Athenians agreed to send ships to Ionia and Aristagoras went before them. The Athenians subsequently arrived in Miletus with twenty triremes and five others that belonged to the Eretrians. Herodotus described the arrival of these ships as the beginning of troubles between Greeks and barbarians. Once all his allies had arrived, Aristagoras put his brother Charopinus and another Milesian, Hermophantus, in charge of the expedition, and the whole contingent set out for the provincial capital, Sardis, while Aristagoras remained to govern at Miletus.

The first leg of the journey was to proceed along the coast to Ephesus. Using it as base, they went overland to Sardis, on which they descended by surprise. The satrap Artaphernes and his forces retreated to the acropolis immediately. A fire, started by accident in the town, accidentally burned down the temple of the Lydian goddess Cybebe (Cybele). Attributing the fire to Ionian maliciousness, the Persians later used it as an excuse for burning Greek temples.

The fire forced the defenders of the acropolis to abandon it in favor of the marketplace. Its defence coincided fortuitously with the arrival of Persian reinforcements. Interpreting the tumult as a counter-attack, the Ionians retreated to Tmolus, a nearby elevation, from which they escaped by night. The reinforcements followed the Ionians, caught up with them near Ephesus and soundly defeated them.

The Persians had obtained Lydia, including all the Greek cities, by defeating the last Anatolian-speaking kingdom of the same name. They made such a show of mercy as to win the hearts and minds of the Anatolians, as well as of some of the Greeks. In that sense, the "Ionian Revolt" was de facto an Anatolian civil war. A call for assistance went rapidly around the satrapy. Joint Persian-Anatolian forces hastened overnight to the assistance of the satrap.

They arrived with such short notice and major fanfare as to frighten away the Ionian-Athenian forces. The Cambridge Ancient History article attributes this swift arrival to the Persian cavalry, which also had no trouble tracking and catching the Ionians before the gates of Ephesus. The losses of the East Greeks were so great that they slunk away, so to speak, leaving Aristagoras and the rebels to fend for themselves. An air of doom pervaded the revolt, but they fought with such spirit that the rebellion spilled over into the islands

After this battle, the Athenians refused to continue to fight in the Ionian Revolt and returned to Athens. Because of their participation in this battle, however, the Persian king, Darius, swore vengeance on Athens and commanded a servant to repeat to him three times every day at dinner, “Master, remember the Athenians.” The story is somewhat and probably hypocritically naive (but not necessarily on that account false), as the Persians intended expansion into the Balkans all along. They still held parts of Thrace from their previous abortive expedition into Scythia, only stopped when they learned the true size of the country (most of Russia) and the danger of their position in it.

The Ionians fought on, gaining control of Byzantium and the surrounding towns as well as the greater part of Caria and Caunus. They were not, however, alone. In this last phase of the conflict, almost all of Cyprus also rebelled against the Persians. Onesilus, the younger brother of Gorgus, the ruler of Salamis, tried to convince his brother to rebel against Persia and join in the Ionian Revolt. When his brother refused to support the revolt, Onesilus waited until he left Salamis and then shut the city gates on him. Gorgus fled to the Persians while Onesilus took over and convinced the Cyprians to revolt. They then proceeded to lay siege to the city of Amathus.

Manville's theory of a power struggle between Aristagoras and Histiaeus
Herodotus’ account is the best source we have on the events that amounted to a collision between Persia, which was expanding westward, and classical Greece at its peak. Nevertheless, its depictions are often scanty and uncertain, or incomplete. One of the major uncertainties of the Ionian revolt in Herodotus is why it occurred in the first place.
  
In retrospect the case seems obvious: Persia disputed the Hellenes for control of cities and territories. The Hellenes had either to fight for their freedom or submit. The desirability of these material objects was certainly economic, although considerations of defence and ideology may well have played a part. These are the motives generally accepted today, after long retrospect.

Herodotus apparently knew of no such motives, or if he did, he did not care to analyse history at that level. J D Manville characterizes his approach as the attribution of “personal motivation” to players such as Aristagoras and Histiaeus. In his view, Herodotus “may seem  to overemphasize personal motivation as a cause,” but he really does not. We have either to fault Herodotus for his lack of analytical perspicacity or try to find credible reasons in the historical context for actions to which Herodotus gives incomplete explanations.
 
Manville suggests that the unexplained places mark  events in a secret scenario about which Herodotus could not have known, but he records what he does know faithfully. It is up to the historian to reconstruct the secret history by re-interpretation and speculation, a technique often used by historical novelists. Manville puts it forward as history.

The main players are portrayed by Herodotus as naturally hypocritical. They always have an ulterior motive which they go to great lengths to conceal behind persuasive lies. Thus neither Aristagoras nor Histiaeus are fighting for freedom, nor do they cooperate or collaborate. Each has a personal motive related to greed, ambition, or fear. Manville fills in the uncertainties with hypothetical motives. Thus he arrives, perhaps less credibly for his invention, at a behind-the-scenes struggle for dominance between Aristagoras and Histiaeus. They can best be described as rivals or even enemies.  Some of the high points of the argument are as follows.
  
While Histiaeus was away serving Darius, Aristagoras acted in his stead as deputy of Miletus where, it is argued, he worked on securing his own power. The word for deputy is epitropos, which he was when the Naxian deputation arrived. By the time the fleet departs for Naxos, Aristagoras has promoted himself to “tyrant of Miletus.”  There is no explicit statement that he asked Histiaeus’ permission or was promoted by Histaeus. Instead, Aristagoras turned to Artaphernes, who was said to be jealous of Histiaeus. It is true that Artaphernes would not move without consulting the Great King, and that the latter's advisor on Greek affairs was Histiaeus. However, Manville sees a coup by Aristagoras, presuming not only that the Great King's advisor did not advise, but was kept in the dark about his own supersession.

When the expedition failed, Histiaeus sent his tattooed slave to Aristagoras, not as encouragement to revolt, but as an ultimatum. Manville provides an underlying value system to fill in the gap left by Herodotus: revolt was so unthinkable that Histiaeus could bring the fantasies of his opponent back to reality by suggesting that he do it, a sort of “go ahead, commit suicide.”  Histiaeus was, in Manville's speculation, ordering Aristagoras to give up his rule or suffer the consequences. Apparently, he was not being kept in the dark by the king after all. Manville leaves us to guess why the king did not just crush the revolt by returning the supposedly loyal Histiaeus to power.

However, at this time Histiaeus was still required to remain in Susa and, despite his threat, he was unable to do anything if Aristagoras did revolt. Realizing that this would be his last chance to gain power Aristagoras started the revolt despite Histiaeus’ threat. This is a surprise to Manville's readers, as we thought he already had power via a coup. Manville does note the contradiction mentioned above, that Aristagoras gave up tyranny, yet was able to force democracy on the other cities and command their obedience to him. We are to see in this paradox a strategy to depose Histiaeus, whom we thought was already deposed.
 
The tale goes on to an attempt by Histiaeus to form an alliance with Artaphernes to depose the  usurper and regain his power at Miletus. Artaphernes, though he was involved in open war with Aristagoras, refuses. The tale told by Manville thus contains events related by Herodotus supplemented by non-events coming from Manville's imagination.

Myres’ Theory of a balance of power between thalassocracies 
John Myres, classical archaeologist and scholar, whose career began in the reign of Queen Victoria and did not end until 1954, close friend and companion of Arthur Evans, and intelligence officer par excellence of the British Empire, developed a theory of the Ionian Revolt that explains it in terms of the stock political views of the empire, balance of power and power vacuum. Those views, still generally familiar, assert that peace is to be found in a region controlled by competing geopolitical powers, none of which are strong enough to defeat the others. If a power drops from the roster for any reason, a “vacuum” then exists, which causes violent competition until the balance is readjusted.

In a key article of 1906, while Evans was excavating Knossos, the Ottoman Empire had lost Crete due to British intervention,  and questions of the  “sick man of Europe”  were being considered by all the powers. Referring to the failing Ottoman Empire and the power vacuum that would be left when it fell, the young Myres published an article studying the balance of what he termed “sea-power” in the eastern Mediterranean in classical times. The word "sea-power" was intended to define his “thalassocracy.”

Myres was using sea-power in a specifically British sense for the times. The Americans had their own idea of sea power, expressed in Alfred Thayer Mahan’s great strategic work, ‘’The Influence of Sea Power upon History’’. which advocated maintaining a powerful navy and using it for strategic purposes, such as “command of the sea,” a kind of domination.  The United States Naval Academy used this meaning for its motto, ‘’ex scientia tridens’’, “sea-power through knowledge.” It named one of its buildings, Mahan Hall.

Far different is Myres’ “sea-power”  and the meaning of thalassocracy, which means “rule of the seas.“ In contrast to “tridens,” rule of the seas is not a paternalistic but democratic arrangement. Where there are rulers, there are the ruled. A kind of exclusivity is meant, such as in Rule, Britannia!. Specifically, in a thalassocracy,  the fleets of the ruler may go where they will and do as they please, but the ruled may go nowhere and engage in no operation without express permission of the ruler. You need a license, so to speak, to be on ruled waters, and if you do not have it, your ships are attacked and destroyed. “Shoot on sight” is the policy. And so Carthaginian ships sank any ships in their waters, etc.

The list of thalassocracies 
Thalassocracy was a new word in the theories of the late 19th century, from which some conclude it was a scholarly innovation of the times. It was rather a resurrection of a word known from a very specific classical document, which Myres calls “the List of Thalassocracies.” It occurs in the Chronicon of Eusebius,  the early 4th century Bishop of Caesarea Maritima, the ruins now in Israel. In Eusebius, the list is a separate chronology. Jerome, 4th-century theologian and historian, creator of the Vulgate,  interspersed the same items, translated into Latin, in his Chronicon of world events. The items contain the words “obtinuerunt mare,” strictly speaking, “obtained the sea,” and not “hold sea power,” although the latter meaning may be implied as a result. Just as Jerome utilized the chronology of Eusebius, so Eusebius utilized the chronology of Castor of Rhodes,  a 1st-century BC historian. His work has been entirely lost except for fragments, including his list of thalassocracies. A thousand years later, the Byzantine monk, George Syncellus, also used items from the list in his massive Extract of Chronography.

Over the centuries the realization grew that all these references to sea-power in the Aegean came from a single document, a resource now reflected in the fragments of those who relied on it. C Bunsen, whose translator was one of the first to use thalassocracy, attributed its discovery to the German scholar, Christian Gottlob Heyne In a short work composed in 1769, published in 1771,  Eusebius’ Chronicon being known at that time only through fragments in the two authors mentioned, Heyne reconstructed the list in their Greek and Latin (with uncanny accuracy), the whole title of the article being Super Castoris epochis populorum thalattokratesanton H.E. (hoc est) qui imperium maris tenuisse dicuntur, “About Castor's epochs of thalattocratizing peoples; that is, those who are said to have held the imperium over the sea.”  To thalattokratize is “to rule the sea,” not just to hold sea power like any other good fellow with  a strong navy. The thalattokratizer holds the imperium over the watery domain just as if it were a country, which explains how such a people can “obtain” and “have” the sea. The list presented therefore is one of successive exclusive domains. No two peoples can hold the same domain or share rule over it, although they can operate under the authority of the thalassocrat, a privilege reserved for paying allies.

According to Bunsen, the discovery and translation of the Armenian version of Eusebius’ Chronicon changed the nature of the search for thalassocracy. It provided the original document, but there was a disclaimer attached, that it was in fact “an extract from the epitome of Diodorus,” meaning Diodorus Siculus, a 1st-century BC historian. The disclaimer cannot be verified, as that part of Diodorus’ work is missing, which, however, opens the argument to another question: if Eusebius could copy a standard source from Diodorus, why cannot Diodorus have copied it from someone else?

It is at this point that Myres picks up the argument. Noting that thalassokratesai, “be a thalassocrat,”  meaning “rule the waves,” was used in a number of authors: elsewhere by Diodorus, by Polybius, 2nd century BC historian, of Carthage, of Chios by Strabo, 1st century BC geographer and some others,  he supposes that the source document might have been available to them all (but not necessarily, the cautious Myres points out).  The document can be dated by its content: a list of 17 thalassocracies extending from the Lydian after the fall of Troy to the Aeginetan, which ended with the cession of power to Athens in 480 BC. The Battle of Salamis included 200 new Athenian triremes plus all the ships of its new ally, Aegina. Despite various revolts Aegina went on to become part of the Delian League, an imperial treaty of the new Athenian thalassocracy. Thucydides writes of it after 432 BC, but Herodotus, who visited Athens “as late as 444 B.C.” does not know a thing about it. This tentative date for the Eusebian list does not exclude the possibility of an earlier similar document used by Herodotus.

Myres’ historical reconstruction of the list 

The order of thalassocracies in the various versions of the list is nearly fixed, but the dates need considerable adjustment, which Myres sets about to reconcile through all historical sources available to him. He discovers some gaps. The solidest part of the list brackets the Ionian Revolt.  The Milesian thalassocracy is dated 604-585 BC. It was ended by Alyattes of Lydia, founder of the Lydian Empire, who also fought against the Medes. The latter struggle was ended by the Eclipse of Thales at the Battle of the Halys River in 585 BC, when the combatants, interpreting the phenomenon as a sign, made peace. The Lydians were now free to turn on Miletus, which they did for the next 11 years, reducing it. When the Persians conquered Lydia in 547/546 they acquired the Ionian cities.

After 585 BC there is a gap in the list. Lesbos and one or more unknown thalassocrats held the sea in unknown order.  In 577 BC began the thalassocracy of Phocaea. Breaking out of its Anatolian cage, it founded Marseilles and cities in Spain and Italy, wresting a domain away from Carthage and all other opponents. Their thalassocracy ended when, in the revolt of the Lydian Pactyas, who had been instructed to collect taxes by the Persians, but used them to raise an army of revolt, the Ionian cities were attacked by the Persians. The Phocaeans abandoned Phocaea about 534 BC and after  much adventuring settled in the west.

The thalassocracy of Samos spans the career of the tyrant, Polycrates, there. The dates of the tyrant are somewhat uncertain and variable, but at some time prior to 534 BC, he and his brothers staged a coup during a festival at Samos. Samos happened to have a large navy of pentekonters. Becoming a ship collector, he attacked and subdued all the neighbouring islands, adding their ships to his fleet. Finally he added a new model, the trireme. His reign came to an end about 517 BC when, taking up the Great King's invitation to a friendly banquet for a discussion of prospects, he was suddenly assassinated. There were no prospects.

However, if he had chosen not to attend, he was doomed anyway. Some of his trireme captains, learning of a devious plot by him to have them assassinated by Egyptian dignitaries while on official business, sailed to Sparta to beg help, which they received. The adventurous young king, Cleomenes I, was spared the trouble of killing Polycrates, but led an expedition to Samos anyway, taking the thalassocracy for two years, 517-515. Adventure and piracy not being activities approved by the Spartan people, they tagged him as insane and insisted he come home. The sea was now available to Naxos, 515-505.

Aftermath 

The Hellenes had obtained a foothold on the coast of Anatolia by siding with rebel coastal Anatolian states against the Hittite Empire. Their position was made more solid by the fall of Troy against a coalition of mainland Greek kings. The coastal cities managed to retain their positions against the subsequent Phrygian invasion of Anatolia by joining with the rump Anatolian states, while the Hittites withdrew into neo-Hittite states in Syria. The coastal cities, now entirely Hellenic, continued to receive immigrants from mainland Greece.

The massive transfer of Persian-speaking population from the steppes of Central Asia to the range they now occupy presented the Anatolian Hellenes with an impossible strategic problem. They could not hope to oppose their small armies against the resources of the vast Persian empire unless they could once again receive major support from the mainland Greek states, especially the maritime power of Athens. Those states, however, were reluctant to take on the might of ancient Persia.

Consequently, the Hellenic states in Anatolia submitted reluctantly to Persian rule, and were placed in the new satrapy of Lydia, with capital at Sardis. The satrap of Lydia allowed self-rule as long as taxes were paid and the supremacy of ancient Persia was granted. Many of the Anatolian cities proved loyal subjects. However, underlying resentment against Persian rule was universal.

Persia was not interested in the status quo. Their desire to expand to the west brought them into conflict with Ionia over the question of self-rule, one of the principles of the agreement of the city-states to submit. Their interference in Miletus was the spark that set off the Ionian revolt. Aristagoras, the first rebel ruler, appeared then as the champion of Greek freedom. The Ionians had high hopes of independence.

Due to the disparity in resources and the reluctance of the mainland states to involve themselves, the tide soon turned in favour of the Persians. After only one year, the Cyprians were once again forced into submission by Persia. The cities around the Hellespont fell one after another to Daurises, the son-in-law of king Darius. The Carians fought the Persians at the Maeander River and were defeated with severe casualties.

Aristagoras, seeing the rebellion falling to pieces around him, and little help forthcoming from the Greeks, began looking for a shelter to which he could execute a strategic retreat. He and his men resolved on Myrcinus in Thrace, which had been an Ionian stronghold in the abortive Persian invasion of Scythia. He put Pythagoras, “a man of distinction,”  in charge of Miletus and set sail for Thrace, where he attempted to establish a colony on the Strymon river, at the same site as the later Athenian colony of Amphipolis.

The Thracians, not now disposed to tolerate any further presence of Greeks in their country, opposed this incursion. He gained control of the territory but later, while besieging a neighbouring town, Aristagoras was killed in battle.

Expecting a swift Persian victory, Aristagoras had hoped to establish a redoubt of Ionians, who would come to the assistance of Miletus at a later time.  By an accidental sequence of historical events his reputation drew the ire of his main historian, Herodotus of Halicarnassus, an Ionian partisan, to such a degree that it suffers yet. Although a champion of freedom, Aristagoras is the only man in all his histories that Herodotus openly calls a coward, blaming his supposed flight for the defeat of the revolt. The revolt apparently intensified and spread into the islands. Aristagoras had no way of knowing that he would have been in the van of it, or that the Thracians would not allow a redoubt.

The revolt was over by 494/493 BC. Going directly for Miletus in 494, the Persians defeated the Ionians with their own weapon, the ship, in the Battle of Lade, an island off Miletus. The city was then subject to a siege and the war lost at its fall. Although there was some mild devastation of rebel cities (except for Miletus, which was razed and the population decimated and transported), the Persians were interested in ruling rather than revenge. They began to plan forthwith for the largest invasion of Greece yet undertaken, executed starting 490 BC in a series of conflicts called the Greco-Persian Wars, which are yet famous. Unfortunately for the Persians, they were forced to adopt contingents of Ionian Greeks into their armies and navies.

Herodotus as a source 

Most of the information on Aristagoras and his actions comes from the writings of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus. On the one hand he is virtually the only literary source for the events he presents as history. While in many ways he reflects some of the best of ancient historiography, on the other hand, his work is sprinkled with motivational and logical lacunae, creating textual paradoxes everywhere, causing some scholars to be critical of his value as a historical source, especially regarding the Ionian Revolt. For purposes of this presentation, textual criticism may be polarized into two camps: the cynical, discrediting Herodotus as an unreliable source, and the affirmative, which credits him with being reliable as far as he goes.

The cynical view

Manville's cynical view concerning an imaginary power struggle between Aristagoras and Histiaeus isolated from the usual contexts of war and society has already been mentioned above. Manville has no confidence in Herodotus' ability to relate connected history and therefore supplies connections for him out of his own speculations. He was preceded in this method by the earlier work of Mabel Lang. A 1968 article by Lang focuses on the paradoxes of the Ionian revolt. For example, Histiaeus originally won the Great King's favor by protecting his escape from Scythia over a key bridge of the Danube. Despite this vital rescue to save the king and all his forces, he shortly after plots a rebellion!

Lang suggests that one might conclude to an ulterior motive at the bridge, "to ingratiate himself with Darius so that he could be on the inside of the king's policy." Apparently, to be on the inside of his policy he has to save his life and the lives of all his army by letting him escape from the large Scythian army not far behind. He prefers to keep him alive for nothing more serious than keeping an eye on him. Nonchalantly Lang writes: "Presumably revolt was already in the air,...." It could not have been far in the air if Histiaeus passed up a chance for total victory at the outset, a prized goal of many a lightning campaign in world history afterwards.

The basic problem is Lang's cynicism: "we should not hope to discover the truth about the result merely by accepting the narrative ...." Accordingly, she rehearses a catalogue of paradoxes similar to Manville's weaving her own fantasy of unattested events to contain it. Her explanation of why such a tale is necessary is similarly speculative: "the failure of the revolt not only gave prominence to every aspect and event which would explain, justify or anticipate the disastrous results but also cast into the shade any intentions which deserved a better fate and any temporary successes during the course of the war." Not having any other account with which to compare these events, she cannot possibly know that.

The affirmative view 

The cynical view described above reflects a difference in expectation between Herodotus and his target audiences, which  by the accidents of time are multiple and various. He did not write for us moderns. Reading that he was the first historian whose work survived in anything more than scattered fragments, we expect him to have the proper concern of modern historians for continuity and causality, which other ancient historians, such as Thucydides, have. Herodotus is not one of those. With regard to causation, the Cambridge Ancient History article asserts: “...Herodotus does not seem to have innovated: he merely accepted the causation appropriate to his subject and period.”

It would be convenient to attribute this unconcern to a sort of intermediate phase between mythology and history, as many do. Such a view is neglectful of the ravages of time. Herodotus was not the first historian in any way, only the first whose work survived. He wrote of the Ionian Revolt a full generation after it happened; moreover, he was not a participant. He relied on the work of several previous historians at Miletus, of which fragments and mention have survived, chief of which was Hecataeus of Miletus.

Herodotus apparently designed his work according to a specific plan and style. Whether the previous historians used it is not known, due to the paucity of evidence, but it seems unlikely. He appears to use Hecataeus as a framework for his historical events. The fragments of Hecataeus suggest that he wrote only an annal-like sequence long on names and events but short on connecting narrative. To this framework Herodotus adds the logoi, or independent anecdotes of persons and events derived from independent oral traditions, which Herodotus obtained by interview with record-keepers and state historians. The disconnectedness comes from their being independent. It is pointless, therefore, to  try to invent connections.

The ancient historians have therefore invented a special category for Herodotus, that he was a logographer, or teller of logoi, based on his own characterization of his sources as logopoioi, “story makers.” Usually the logographers include Hecataeus and the other historians of his generation, who lived through the revolt. There is little evidence of their logography. Whether Herodotus stands alone or is part of a Milesian tradition is a matter of speculation.

Validation of Herodotus therefore rests on validation of his logoi. There is no general validation, but the much-desired archaeological and inscriptional evidence appears to validate a few events as far as they go: some names, circumstances of war, and similar peripheral facts. He cannot be validated as a modern historian, but he does have an overall design, which is “Biblical” or “Bible-like” in scope. He is trying to do an epic in prose similar to the Homerica in verse. His topic is not the Trojan War, but the Graeco-Persian Wars. (The Homerica have been called the pagan Greek “Bible.") Says Oswyn Murray in the Cambridge Ancient History, 
It is certainly hard to find fault with his general view that the only adequate explanation for the Persian Wars must be a complete account of relations between the two peoples since the conquest of the Ionian cities in 545 B.C.

In short, Herodotus is personal because the Homerica are personal. Both genres intend to portray the illustrious or non-illustrious deeds and doings of persons in the contexts of mighty wars. Thus Aristagoras personally can be called a “coward.” The lying that they do is metis, “cunning,” an admired Greek virtue practised by the greatest hero of them all, the crafty Odysseus. The literary tradition of it went on. Virgil could include the half-line Timeo Graecos dona ferentes, “I fear Greeks bearing Gifts,” in the Aeneid.

The expectation of modernity in Herodotus is misplaced. Validation must be sought for individual logoi. The whole work or any part of it cannot logically be condemned on the basis of one or a group of paradoxes. All scepticism must have a reason for doubting. The inconsistencies of Herodotus are not a valid reason, which is generally true. But few stories are ever free of inconsistency, and if they are, they are suspect on that account (“too good to be true”).

Denials of Herodotus' validity, from mild to severe, although widespread, were never universal. As an example of ancient information generally agreed to be invalid, many works attributed to various authors have been placed in the "pseudo-" category after as much as centuries of review. There was never any such universal and long-standing denial of Herodotus. On the contrary, the main events, such as the Battles of Marathon and Thermopylae, have been accepted as basically credible by many scholars of many ages. It is therefore misplaced to speak of the "rehabilitation" of Herodotus in medical or neo-ideologic terms.

Accordingly, the most sanguine view treats his work as though no problems exist regarding it. Referring to the Cambridge Ancient History article on the Ionian Revolt by Murray, Georges addresses "the question of Herodotus' veracity and reliability." Repeating Murray's criticism that "the traditions concerning the revolt itself are ... fragmented into individual episodes of folly, treachery, or heroism" and therefore are not "trustworthy materials for the history of the revolt," he asserts to the contrary that "Herodotus' account furnishes the material for a coherent and credible account of the actions and events it presents ...."

Having said this, Georges must now show that, rather than being paradoxical, Herodotus is coherent and credible. Like Lang, having no other account to offer, he must make his demonstrations from the text of Herodotus, which he spends the rest of the article doing, disputing most of Murray's interpretations. The contradictions are not to be viewed as contradictions. He does not address the question of why, if they are not so, it is necessary to spend an article in disputation over them. The result is a new set of speculations fully as imaginary as Murray's, not being based on any alternative texts.

There is hope, however, as fragments of Greek texts and inscriptions continue to be discovered. Meanwhile, it seems common knowledge that the public of any age is not going to relinquish credibility in Herodotus' great depiction of the Persian Wars.

Notes

References

External links 
 

Ionian Revolt
Ancient Milesians
Archaic tyrants
6th-century BC Greek people
5th-century BC Greek people
6th-century BC births
5th-century BC deaths
Greek people of the Greco-Persian Wars
Ancient Greeks from the Achaemenid Empire
Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire, The language of Jesus and his disciples is believed to be Aramaic. This is the common language of Judea in the first century AD, most likely a Galilean dialect distinguishable from that of Jerusalem. This is generally agreed upon by historians. The villages of Nazareth and Capernaum in Galilee, where Jesus spent most of his time, were Aramaic-speaking communities. It is also likely that Jesus knew enough Koine Greek to converse with those not native to Judea, and it is reasonable to assume that Jesus was well versed in Hebrew for religious purposes.

Cultural and linguistic background

Aramaic was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean during and after the Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Achaemenid empires (722–330 BC) and remained a common language of the region in the first century AD. In spite of the increasing importance of Greek, the use of Aramaic was also expanding, and it would eventually be dominant among Jews both in the Holy Land and elsewhere in the Middle East around 200 AD and would remain so until the Islamic conquests in the seventh century.

Dead Sea Scrolls
According to Dead Sea Scrolls archaeologist Yigael Yadin, Aramaic was the language of Hebrews until Simon Bar Kokhba's revolt (132 AD to 135 AD). Yadin noticed the shift from Aramaic to Hebrew in the documents he studied, which had been written during the time of the Bar Kokhba revolt. In his book, Bar Kokhba: The rediscovery of the legendary hero of the last Jewish Revolt Against Imperial Rome, Yigael Yadin notes, "It is interesting that the earlier documents are written in Aramaic while the later ones are in Hebrew. Possibly the change was made by a special decree of Bar Kokhba who wanted to restore Hebrew as the official language of the state".

In another book by Sigalit Ben-Zion, Yadin said: "it seems that this change came as a result of the order that was given by Bar Kokhba, who wanted to revive the Hebrew language and make it the official language of the state." Yadin points out that Aramaic was the lingua franca at the time.

Josephus
Hebrew historian Josephus comments on learning Greek in first century Judea:

In the first century AD, the Aramaic language was widespread throughout the Middle East, as is supported by the testimony of Josephus's The Jewish War.

Josephus chose to inform people from what are now Iran, Iraq, and remote parts of the Arabian Peninsula about the war of the Jews against the Romans through books he wrote "in the language of our country", prior to translating into Greek for the benefit of the Greeks and Romans:

H. St. J. Thackeray (who translated Josephus' Jewish Wars from Greek into English) also points out, "We learn from the proem that the Greek text was not the first draft of the work. It had been preceded by a narrative written in Aramaic and addressed to "the barbarians in the interior", who are more precisely defined lower down as the natives of Parthia, Babylonia, and Arabia, the Jewish dispersion in Mesopotamia, and the inhabitants of Adiabene, a principality of which the reigning house, as was proudly remembered, were converts to Judaism (B. i, 3, 6). Of this Aramaic work the Greek is described as a "version" made for the benefit of the subjects of the Roman Empire, i.e. the Graeco-Roman world at large.

In , the "Field of Blood" was known to all the inhabitants of Jerusalem in their own language as Akeldama, which is the transliteration of the Aramaic words "Haqal Dama".

Josephus differentiated Hebrew from his language and that of first-century Israel. Josephus refers to Hebrew words as belonging to "the Hebrew tongue" but refers to Aramaic words as belonging to "our tongue" or "our language" or "the language of our country".

Josephus refers to a Hebrew word with the phrase "the Hebrew tongue": "But the affairs of the Canaanites were at this time in a flourishing condition, and they expected the Israelites with a great army at the city Bezek, having put the government into the hands of Adonibezek, which name denotes the Lord of Bezek, for Adoni in the Hebrew tongue signifies Lord."

In this example, Josephus refers to an Aramaic word as belonging to "our language": "This new-built part of the city was called 'Bezetha,' in our language, which, if interpreted in the Grecian language, may be called 'the New City.'"

On several occasions in the New Testament, Aramaic words are called Hebrew. For example, in  (KJV), the gospel-writer narrates that Jesus, "bearing his cross[,] went forth into a place called the place of a skull, which is called in the Hebrew Golgotha." The last word is, in fact, Aramaic. The word "Golgotha" is a transliteration of an Aramaic word, because -tha in Golgotha is the Aramaic definite article on a feminine noun in an emphatic state.

Phonology

Aramaic phrases in the Greek New Testament

The Greek New Testament transliterates a few Semitic words. When the text itself refers to the language of such Semitic glosses, it uses words meaning "Hebrew"/"Jewish" (Acts 21:40; 22:2; 26:14: têi hebraḯdi dialéktōi, lit. 'in the Hebrew dialect/language') but this term is often applied to unmistakably Aramaic words and phrases; for this reason, it is often interpreted as meaning "the (Aramaic) vernacular of the Jews" in recent translations.<ref>E.g. Geoffrey W.Bromley (ed.)The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, W.B.Eeerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan 1979, 4 vols. vol.1 sub.'Aramaic' p.233: 'in the Aramaic vernacular of Palestine</ref>

A small minority of scholars believe that most or all of the New Testament was originally written in Aramaic.Glenn David Bauscher. 2007. The Original Aramaic New Testament in Plain English. . This theory is known as Aramaic primacy.

Talitha kum (Ταλιθὰ κούμ)

Mark :
 And taking the hand of the child, he said to her, "Talitha kum", which translates as, "Little girl, I say to you, get up."This verse gives an Aramaic phrase, attributed to Jesus bringing the girl back to life, with a transliteration into Greek, as ταλιθὰ κούμ. A few Greek manuscripts (Codex Sinaiticus, Vaticanus) of Mark's Gospel have this form of the text, but others (Codex Alexandrinus, the text-type known as the Majority Text, and also the Latin Vulgate) write κοῦμι (koumi, cumi) instead. The latter is in the Textus Receptus and is the version which appears in the KJV.

The Aramaic is ṭlīthā qūm. The word ṭlīthā is the feminine form of the word ṭlē, meaning "young". Qūm is the Aramaic verb 'to rise, stand, get up'. In the feminine singular imperative, it was originally qūmī. However, there is evidence that in speech, the final -ī was dropped so the imperative did not distinguish between masculine and feminine genders. The older manuscripts, therefore, used a Greek spelling that reflected pronunciation whereas the addition of an 'ι' was perhaps due to a bookish copyist.

In square script Aramaic, it could be טליתא קומי or טליתא קום.

Ephphatha (Ἐφφαθά)

Mark 
 And looking up to heaven, he sighed and said to him, "Ephphatha," which is 'be opened'.Once again, the Aramaic word is given with the transliteration, only this time, the word to be transliterated is more complicated. In Greek, the Aramaic is written ἐφφαθά. This could be from the Aramaic ethpthaḥ, the passive imperative of the verb pthaḥ, 'to open', since the th could assimilate in western Aramaic. The pharyngeal ḥ was often omitted in Greek transcriptions in the Septuagint (Greek Old Testament) and was also softened in Galilean speech.

In Aramaic, it could be אתפתח or אפתח. This word was adopted as the official motto of Gallaudet University, the United States' most prominent school for the deaf.

Abba (Ἀββά[ς])

Mark 14:36"Abba, Father," he said, "everything is possible for you. Take this cup from me. Yet not what I will, but what you will."Galatians 4:6Because you are his sons, God sent the Spirit of his Son into our hearts, the Spirit who calls out, "Abba, Father."Romans 8:15The Spirit you received does not make you slaves, so that you live in fear again; rather, the Spirit you received brought about your adoption to sonship. And by him we cry, "Abba, Father."Abba, an originally Aramaic form borrowed into the Greek Old Testament as a name (2Chr 29:1) [standing for the Hebrew Abijah ()], common in Mishnaic Hebrew and still used in Modern Hebrew (written Αββά[ς] in Greek, and ’abbā in Aramaic), is immediately followed by the Greek equivalent (Πατήρ) with no explicit mention of it being a translation. In Aramaic, it would be אבא.

Note, the name Barabbas is a Hellenization of the Aramaic Bar Abba (בר אבא), literally "Son of the Father".

Raca (Ρακά)

Matthew 5:22But I say unto you, That whosoever is angry with his brother [without a cause] shall be in danger of the judgment: and whosoever shall say to his brother, Raca, shall be in danger of the council: but whosoever shall say, Thou fool, shall be in danger of hell fire.(The bracketed text does not appear in all recensions and is absent in the Latin Vulgate.)

Raca, or Raka, in the Aramaic and Hebrew of the Talmud, means empty one, fool, empty head.

In Aramaic, it could be ריקא or ריקה.

Mammon (Μαμωνάς)

Gospel of Matthew 6:24No one can serve two masters: for either they will hate the one, and love the other; or else they will hold to the one, and despise the other. You cannot serve God and mammon.Luke 16:9–13And I say unto you, Make to yourselves friends of the mammon of unrighteousness; that, when ye fail, they may receive you into everlasting habitations. He that is faithful in that which is least is faithful also in much: and he that is unjust in the least is unjust also in much. If therefore ye have not been faithful in the unrighteous mammon, who will commit to your trust the true riches? And if ye have not been faithful in that which is another man's, who shall give you that which is your own? No servant can serve two masters: for either he will hate the one, and love the other; or else he will hold to the one, and despise the other. Ye cannot serve God and mammon.2 Clement 6Now the Lord declares, "No servant can serve two masters." If we desire, then, to serve both God and mammon, it will be unprofitable for us. "For what will it profit if a man gain the whole world, and lose his own soul?" This world and the next are two enemies. The one urges to adultery and corruption, avarice and deceit; the other bids farewell to these things. We cannot, therefore, be the friends of both; and it behoves us, by renouncing the one, to make sure of the other. Let us reckon that it is better to hate the things present, since they are trifling, and transient, and corruptible; and to love those [who are to come,] as being good and incorruptible. For if we do the will of Christ, we shall find rest; otherwise, nothing shall deliver us from eternal punishment, if we disobey His commandments. (Roberts-Donaldson)

In Aramaic, it could be ממון (or, in the typical Aramaic "emphatic" state suggested by the Greek ending, ממונא). This is usually considered to be an originally Aramaic word borrowed into Rabbinic Hebrew, but its occurrence in late Biblical Hebrew and, reportedly, in 4th century Punic may indicate that it had a more general "common Semitic background".

In the New Testament,  the word  Mamōnâs is declined like a Greek word, whereas many of the other Aramaic and Hebrew words are treated as indeclinable foreign words.

Rabbuni (Ραββουνί)Jesus saith unto her, Mary. She turned herself, and saith unto him, Rabboni; which is to say, Master. (KJV)

Also in Mark 10:51. Hebrew form rabbi used as title of Jesus in Matthew 26:25,49; Mark 9:5, 11:21, 14:45; John 1:38, 1:49, 4:31, 6:25, 9:2, 11:8.

In Aramaic, it would have been רבוני.

Maranatha (Μαραναθά)

Didache 10:6 (Prayer after Communion)Let grace come, and let this world pass away. Hosanna to the God (Son) of David! If any one is holy, let him come; if any one is not so, let him repent. Maran-Atha. Amen. (Roberts-Donaldson)

1 Corinthians 16:22If any man love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be Anathema Maranatha.Depending on how one selects to split the single Greek expression of the early manuscripts into Aramaic, it could be either מרנא תא (marana tha, "Lord, come!") or מרן אתא (maran atha, "Our Lord has come").

Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani (Ἠλί, Ἠλί, λεμὰ σαβαχθανί)

Matthew 27:46
 Around the ninth hour, Jesus shouted in a loud voice, saying "Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani?" which is, "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?"Mark 15:34
 And at the ninth hour, Jesus shouted in a loud voice, "Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?" which is translated, "My God, my God, for what have you forsaken me?"This phrase, among the Sayings of Jesus on the cross, is given in these two versions. The Matthean version of the phrase is transliterated in Greek as Ἠλί, Ἠλί, λεμὰ σαβαχθανί. The Markan version is Ἐλωΐ, Ἐλωΐ, λαμὰ σαβαχθανί (elōi rather than ēli and lama rather than lema).

Overall, both versions appear to be Aramaic rather than Hebrew because of the verb  (šbq) "abandon", which is originally Aramaic.Davies, William D. and Dale C. Allison. 1997. Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew. Volume III. P.624 The "pure" Biblical Hebrew counterpart to this word,  (‘zb) is seen in the second line of Psalm 22, which the saying appears to quote. Thus, Jesus is not quoting the canonical Hebrew version (ēlī ēlī lāmā ‘azabtānī) attributed in some Jewish interpretations to King David cited as Jesus' ancestor in Matthew's Genealogy of Jesus if the Eli, Eli version of Jesus' outcry is taken; he may be quoting the version given in an Aramaic Targum (surviving Aramaic Targums do use šbq in their translations of the Psalm 22 ).

The Markan word for "my god", Ἐλωΐ, definitely corresponds to the Aramaic form אלהי, elāhī. The Matthean one, Ἠλί, fits in better with the אלי of the original Hebrew Psalm, as has been pointed out in the literature; however, it may also be Aramaic because this form is attested abundantly in Aramaic as well.Williams P.J. 2004. The linguistic background to Jesus' Dereliction Cry. The New Testament in its first century setting (ed. Williams P.J., Andre D. Clarke et al.) p. 7-8.

In the next verse, in both accounts, some who hear Jesus' cry imagine that he is calling for help from Elijah (Ēlīyā in Aramaic).
Almost all ancient Greek manuscripts show signs of trying to normalize this text. For instance, the peculiar Codex Bezae renders both versions with ηλι ηλι λαμα ζαφθανι (ēli ēli lama zaphthani). The Alexandrian, Western and Caesarean textual families all reflect harmonization of the texts between Matthew and Mark. Only the Byzantine textual tradition preserves a distinction.

The Aramaic word form šəḇaqtanī is based on the verb šəḇaq/šāḇaq, 'to allow, to permit, to forgive, and to forsake', with the perfect tense ending -t (2nd person singular: 'you'), and the object suffix -anī (1st person singular: 'me').

In Hebrew, the saying would be "", the Aramaic phrase would be "" or "".

Jot and tittle ()

Matthew 5:18For assuredly, I say to you, till heaven and earth pass away, one jot or one tittle will by no means pass from the Law (that is, the Torah) till all is fulfilled.The quotation uses them as an example of extremely minor details. In the Greek text translated as English jot and tittle is found iota and keraia. Iota is the smallest letter of the Greek alphabet (ι), but since only capitals were used at the time the Greek New Testament was written (Ι; still, it is the smallest of all the Greek majuscules) and because the Torah was written in Hebrew, it probably represents the Hebrew yodh (י) which is the smallest letter of the Hebrew alphabet. Keraia is a hook or serif.

Korban (Κορβάν)

Matthew 27:6But the chief priests, taking the pieces of silver, said, ‘It is not lawful to put them into the treasury, since they are blood money.’In Aramaic (קרבנא) it refers to the treasury in the Temple in Jerusalem, derived from the Hebrew Korban (קרבן), found in Mark 7:11 and the Septuagint (in Greek transliteration), meaning religious gift or offering.

The Greek  is declined as a Greek noun, much like other examples.

Sikera (Σίκερα)

Luke 1:15for he will be great in the sight of the Lord. He must never drink wine or strong drink; even before his birth he will be filled with the Holy Spirit.Hosanna ()

Mark 11:9Then those who went ahead and those who followed were shouting, Hosanna! Blessed is the one who comes in the name of the Lord!This word is derived from הושע נא. It is generally considered to be a quote from Psalms 118:25 "O , save (us)", but the original Biblical Hebrew form was הושיעה נא. The shortened form הושע could be either Aramaic or Hebrew.Balz, Horst. Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament, Volume 3. P.509

Aramaic personal names in the New Testament
Personal names in the New Testament come from a number of languages; Hebrew and Greek are most common. However, there are a few Aramaic names as well. The most prominent feature in Aramaic names is bar (Greek transliteration βαρ, Aramaic bar), meaning 'son of', a common patronym prefix. Its Hebrew equivalent, ben, is conspicuous by its absence. Some examples are:
  – Bartholomew (Βαρθολομαῖος from bar-Tōlmay, perhaps "son of furrows" or "ploughman").
  – Simon bar-Jona (Σίμων Βαριωνᾶς from Šim‘ōn bar-Yōnā, "Simon son of Jonah").
  – Simon bar-Jochanan ("Simon son of John").
  – Barabbas (Βαραββᾶς from bar-Abbā, "son of the father").
  – Bartimaeus (Βαρτιμαῖος possibly from combination of Aramaic bar and Greek timaios meaning "honorable" or "highly prized", perhaps "honorable son").
  – Barsabbas (Βαρσαββᾶς from bar-Šabbā, "son of the Sabbath").
  – Joseph who is called Barnabas (Βαρνάβας from bar-Navā meaning "son of prophecy", "the prophet", but given the Greek translation υἱὸς παρακλήσεως; usually translated as "son of consolation/encouragement", the Greek could mean "invocation" as well).
  – Bar-Jesus (Βαριησοῦς from bar-Išo, "son of Jesus/Joshua").

Boanerges (Βοανηργές)
Mark 3:17
 And James, the son of Zebedee, and John, the brother of James, and he gave them the name Boanerges, which is Sons of Thunder.Jesus surnames the brothers James and John to reflect their impetuosity. The Greek rendition of their name is Βοανηργές (Boanērges).

There has been much speculation about this name. Given the Greek translation that comes with it ('Sons of Thunder'), it seems that the first element of the name is bnē, 'sons of' (the plural of 'bar'), Aramaic (בני). This is represented by βοάνη (boanē), giving two vowels in the first syllable where one would be sufficient. It could be inferred from this that the Greek transliteration may not be a good one. The second part of the name is often reckoned to be rḡaš ('tumult') Aramaic (רגיש), or rḡaz ('anger') Aramaic (רגז). Maurice Casey, however, argues that it is a simple misreading of the word for thunder, r‘am (due to the similarity of s to the final m). This is supported by one Syriac translation of the name as bnay ra‘mâ. The Peshitta reads ܒܢܝ ܪܓܫܝ bnay rḡešy, which would fit with a later composition for it, based on a Byzantine reading of the original Greek.

Cephas (Κηφᾶς)
John 1:42
 He brought him to Jesus. Jesus looked at him and said, "You are Simon son of John, you shall be called Cephas", which is translated 'Peter'. (New International Version)
1 Corinthians 1:12
 But I say that each of you says "I am of Paul", or "I am of Apollos", or "I am of Cephas", or "I am of Christ".Galatians 1:18 NRSVThen after three years I did go up to Jerusalem to visit Cephas and stayed with him for fifteen days;In these passages, 'Cephas' is given as the nickname of the apostle better known as Simon Peter. The Greek word is transliterated  (Kēphâs).

The apostle's given name appears to be Simon, and he is given the Aramaic nickname, kēpā, meaning 'rock' or 'stone'. The final sigma (ς) is added in Greek to make the name masculine rather than feminine. That the meaning of the name was more important than the name itself is evidenced by the universal acceptance of the Greek translation,  (Petros). It is not known why Paul uses the Aramaic name rather than the Greek name for Simon Peter when he writes to the churches in Galatia and Corinth. He may have been writing at a time before Cephas came to be popularly known as Peter.

According to Clement of Alexandria, there were two people named Cephas: one was Apostle Simon Peter, and the other was one of Jesus' Seventy Apostles. Clement goes further to say it was Cephas of the Seventy who was condemned by Paul in Galatians 2 for not eating with the Gentiles, though this is perhaps Clement's way of deflecting the condemnation from Simon Peter. In 1708, a French Jesuit, Jean Hardouin, wrote a dissertation that argues "Peter" was actually "another Peter", thus the emphasis of using the name Cephas (Aramaic for Peter). In 1990 Bart D. Ehrman wrote an article on the Journal of Biblical Literature, similarly arguing that Peter and Cephas should be understood as different people, citing the writing of Clement of Alexandria and the Epistula Apostolorum and in support of his theory; Ehrman's article received a detailed critique by Dale Allison, who argued that Peter and Cephas are the same person. Ehrman later retracted his proposal, deeming it "highly unlikely".

In Aramaic, it could be כיפא.

Thomas (Θωμᾶς)
John 11:16
 Then Thomas, who was called Didymus, said to his co-disciples, "Now let us go that we might die with him!"Thomas () is listed among the disciples of Jesus in all four gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. However, it is only in John's Gospel that more information is given. In three places (John 11:16, 20:24 and 21:2), he is given the name Didymus (), the Greek word for a twin. In fact, "the Twin" is not just a surname, it is a translation of "Thomas". The Greek —Thōmâs—comes from the Aramaic tōmā, "twin". Therefore, rather than two personal names, Thomas Didymus, there is a single nickname, the Twin. Christian tradition gives him the personal name Judas, and he was perhaps named Thomas to distinguish him from others of the same name.

In Aramaic, it could be ܬܐܘܡܐ.

Tabitha (Ταβιθά)
Acts 9:36
 In Joppa, there was a disciple named Tabitha, which is translated Dorcas.The disciple's name is given both in Aramaic (Ταβιθά) and Greek (Δορκάς). The Aramaic name is a transliteration of Ṭḇīthā, the female form of  (Ṭaḇyā). Both names mean 'gazelle'.

It may be just coincidence that Peter's words to her in verse 40, "Tabitha, get up!" (), are similar to the "talitha kum" phrase used by Jesus.

In Aramaic, it could be טביתא.

Aramaic place names in the New Testament
Gethsemane (Γεθσημανῆ)
Matthew 26:36
 Then Jesus went with them to a place called Gethsemane.Mark 14:32
 And they went to a place that has the name Gethsemane.The place where Jesus takes his disciples to pray before his arrest is given the Greek transliteration Γεθσημανῆ (Gethsēmanē). It represents the Aramaic Gath-Šmānē, meaning 'the oil press' or 'oil vat' (referring to olive oil).

In Aramaic, it could be ܓܕܣܡܢ. This place name is more properly an Aramaized version of an original Hebrew place name. Gath גת is a normal word for press in Hebrew, generally used for a wine press not an olive press though; and shemanei שמני is the Hebrew word shemanim שמנים meaning "oils", the plural form of the word shemen שמן, the primary Hebrew word for oil, just in a construct form (-ei instead of the ordinary plural suffix -im). The word in Aramaic for "oil" is more properly mišḥa (משחא), as also attested in Jewish writings in Aramaic from the Galilee (see Caspar Levias, A Grammar of Galilean Aramaic, Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1986).

Golgotha (Γολγοθᾶ)
Mark 15:22
 And they took him up to the place Golgotha, which is translated Place of the Skull.John 19:17
 And carrying his cross by himself, he went out to the so-called Place of the Skull, which is called in 'Hebrew' Golgotha.Gagūltā Aramaic, means 'skull'. The name appears in all of the gospels except Luke, which calls the place simply Kranion (Κρανίον)  'the Skull' in Greek, with no Semitic counterpart. The name 'Calvary' is taken from the Latin Vulgate translation, Calvaria.

In Aramaic, it could be ܓܓܘܠܬܐ. Though this word has the Aramaic final form -ta / -tha, it is otherwise also closer to the Hebrew word for skull, gulgolet גולגולת, than to the Aramaic form.

Gabbatha (Γαββαθᾶ)
John 19:13
 When Pilate heard these words, he brought Jesus outside and sat on the judge's bench at a place called The Stone Pavement, or in Hebrew, Gabbatha.The place name appears to be Aramaic.  According to Josephus, War, V.ii.1, #51, the word Gabath means high place, or elevated place, so perhaps a raised flat area near the temple.  The final "א" could then represent the emphatic state of the noun.

In Aramaic, it could be גבהתא.

Akeldama (Ἀκελδαμά) 
Acts 1:19
 And this became known to all the inhabitants of Jerusalem, so that field was called, in their own dialect, Akeldama, that is Field of Blood.The place of Judas Iscariot's death is clearly named Field of Blood in Greek. However, the manuscript tradition gives a number of different spellings of the Aramaic. The Majority Text reads Ἀκελδαμά (Akeldama); other manuscript versions give Ἀχελδαμάχ (Acheldamach), Ἁκελδαμά (Hakeldama), Ἁχελδαμά (Hacheldama) and Ἁκελδαμάχ (Hakeldamach). Despite these variant spellings the Aramaic is most probably ḥqēl dmā, 'field of blood'. While the seemingly gratuitous Greek sound of kh  at the end of the word is difficult to explain, the Septuagint similarly adds this sound to the end of the Semitic name Ben Sira to form the Greek name for the Book of Sirakh (). The sound may be a dialectic feature of either the Greek speakers or the original Semitic language speakers.

In Aramaic, it could be חקל דמא.

Pool of Bethesda (Βηθεσδά)
John 5:2
 Now there is in Jerusalem near the Sheep Gate a pool, which in Aramaic is called Bethesda and which is surrounded by five covered colonnades.Bethesda was originally the name of a pool in Jerusalem, on the path of the Beth Zeta Valley, and is also known as the Sheep Pool. Its name in Aramaic means "House of Grace". It is associated with healing. In John 5, Jesus was reported healing a man at the pool.

For other Aramaic place names in the New Testament beginning with beth'' ("house of"), see  Bethabara, Bethany, Bethphage and Bethsaida and Bethlehem.

In Aramaic, "Bethesda" could be spelled בית חסדא.

See also
 Semitic languages

References

Sources 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

1st-century Christianity
Jesus
Language and mysticism
Jesus, 

Co (continued)

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| class="fn org" | Combe St Nicholas
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| class="adr" | Somerset
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| class="adr" | Derbyshire
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| class="fn org" | Combs Ford
| class="adr" | Suffolk
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| class="adr" | Somerset
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| class="adr" | Aberdeenshire
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| class="adr" | Cornwall
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| class="fn org" | Commercial End
| class="adr" | Cambridgeshire
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| class="adr" | North Yorkshire
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| class="adr" | Lancashire
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| class="adr" | Cumbria
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| class="adr" | Cornwall
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| class="adr" | Cheshire
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| class="adr" | Kent
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| class="fn org" | Compton (Plymouth)
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| class="fn org" | Compton (Marldon)
| class="adr" | Devon
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| class="fn org" | Compton (near Winchester)
| class="adr" | Hampshire
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| class="fn org" | Compton (King's Somborne)
| class="adr" | Hampshire
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| class="adr" | Leeds
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| class="fn org" | Compton (Waverley, near Farnham)
| class="adr" | Surrey
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| class="adr" | West Sussex
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| class="adr" | Oxfordshire
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| class="adr" | Somerset
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| class="adr" | Wiltshire
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| class="fn org" | Compton Common
| class="adr" | Bath and North East Somerset
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| class="fn org" | Compton Dando
| class="adr" | Bath and North East Somerset
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| class="fn org" | Compton Dundon
| class="adr" | Somerset
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| class="fn org" | Compton Durville
| class="adr" | Somerset
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| class="fn org" | Compton End
| class="adr" | Hampshire
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| class="fn org" | Compton Green
| class="adr" | Gloucestershire
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| class="fn org" | Compton Greenfield
| class="adr" | South Gloucestershire
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| class="fn org" | Compton Martin
| class="adr" | Bath and North East Somerset
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| class="fn org" | Compton Pauncefoot
| class="adr" | Somerset
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| class="adr" | Sunderland
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| class="adr" | North Lanarkshire
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| class="fn org" | Coneygar
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| class="adr" | Hampshire
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| class="fn org" | Congdon's Shop
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| class="adr" | Norfolk
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| class="adr" | Cheshire
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| class="adr" | Gwynedd
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| class="fn org" | Congresbury
| class="adr" | North Somerset
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| class="fn org" | Congreve
| class="adr" | Staffordshire
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| class="fn org" | Conham
| class="adr" | South Gloucestershire
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| class="fn org" | Conicavel
| class="adr" | Moray
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| class="adr" | Lincolnshire
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| class="fn org" | Conington (South Cambridgeshire)
| class="adr" | Cambridgeshire
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| class="fn org" | Conington (Huntingdonshire)
| class="adr" | Cambridgeshire
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| class="fn org" | Conisbrough
| class="adr" | Doncaster
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| class="fn org" | Conisby
| class="adr" | Argyll and Bute
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| class="fn org" | Conisholme
| class="adr" | Lincolnshire
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|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coniston
| class="adr" | East Riding of Yorkshire
| class="note" | 
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|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coniston
| class="adr" | Cumbria
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|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coniston Cold
| class="adr" | North Yorkshire
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|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Conistone
| class="adr" | North Yorkshire
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|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Conkwell
| class="adr" | Wiltshire
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| class="fn org" | Connah's Quay
| class="adr" | Flintshire
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|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Connel
| class="adr" | Argyll and Bute
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|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Connel Park
| class="adr" | East Ayrshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Conniburrow
| class="adr" | Milton Keynes
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Connista
| class="adr" | Highland
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Connon
| class="adr" | Cornwall
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Connor Downs
| class="adr" | Cornwall
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Conock
| class="adr" | Wiltshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Conon Bridge
| class="adr" | Highland
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cononish
| class="adr" | Stirling
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cononley
| class="adr" | North Yorkshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cononley Woodside
| class="adr" | North Yorkshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cononsyth
| class="adr" | Angus
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Conordan
| class="adr" | Highland
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Conquermoor Heath
| class="adr" | Shropshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Consall
| class="adr" | Staffordshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Consett
| class="adr" | Durham
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Constable Burton
| class="adr" | North Yorkshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Constable Lee
| class="adr" | Lancashire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Constantine
| class="adr" | Cornwall
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Constantine Bay
| class="adr" | Cornwall
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Contin
| class="adr" | Highland
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Conwy
| class="adr" | Conwy County Borough
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Conyer
| class="adr" | Kent
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Conyer's Green
| class="adr" | Suffolk
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|}

Coo

|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooden
| class="adr" | East Sussex
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cookbury
| class="adr" | Devon
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cookbury Wick
| class="adr" | Devon
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cookham
| class="adr" | Berkshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cookham Dean
| class="adr" | Berkshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cookham Rise
| class="adr" | Berkshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cookhill
| class="adr" | Worcestershire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooklaw
| class="adr" | Northumberland
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cookley
| class="adr" | Worcestershire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cookley Green
| class="adr" | Oxfordshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cookney
| class="adr" | Aberdeenshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cookridge
| class="adr" | Leeds
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooksbridge
| class="adr" | East Sussex
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooksey Corner
| class="adr" | Worcestershire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooksey Green
| class="adr" | Worcestershire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cook's Green
| class="adr" | Suffolk
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cook's Green
| class="adr" | Essex
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cookshill
| class="adr" | City of Stoke-on-Trent
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooksland
| class="adr" | Cornwall
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooksmill Green
| class="adr" | Essex
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooksongreen
| class="adr" | Cheshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coolham
| class="adr" | West Sussex
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coolhurst Wood
| class="adr" | West Sussex
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooling
| class="adr" | Kent
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coolinge
| class="adr" | Kent
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooling Street
| class="adr" | Kent
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe
| class="adr" | Buckinghamshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe (Bude)
| class="adr" | Cornwall
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe (Camborne)
| class="adr" | Cornwall
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe (Liskeard)
| class="adr" | Cornwall
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe (St Austell)
| class="adr" | Cornwall
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe (Truro)
| class="adr" | Cornwall
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe (Sidmouth)
| class="adr" | Devon
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe (Teignmouth)
| class="adr" | Devon
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe (Tiverton)
| class="adr" | Devon
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe
| class="adr" | Gloucestershire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe
| class="adr" | Hampshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe
| class="adr" | Kent
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe
| class="adr" | Kingston upon Thames
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe (Crewkerne)
| class="adr" | Somerset
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe (Taunton)
| class="adr" | Somerset
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe
| class="adr" | Wiltshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe Bissett
| class="adr" | Wiltshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe Dingle
| class="adr" | City of Bristol
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombe Keynes
| class="adr" | Dorset
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombelake
| class="adr" | Devon
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombes
| class="adr" | West Sussex
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombesdale
| class="adr" | Staffordshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombeswood
| class="adr" | Dudley
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coomb Hill
| class="adr" | Kent
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coomb Islands
| class="adr" | Highland
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombs End
| class="adr" | South Gloucestershire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coombses
| class="adr" | Somerset
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coopersale
| class="adr" | Essex
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coopersale Street
| class="adr" | Essex
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooper's Corner
| class="adr" | Kent
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooper's Green
| class="adr" | East Sussex
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooper's Green
| class="adr" | Hertfordshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooper's Hill
| class="adr" | Bedfordshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooper's Hill
| class="adr" | Surrey
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooper Street
| class="adr" | Kent
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cooper Turning
| class="adr" | Bolton
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cootham
| class="adr" | West Sussex
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|}

Cop

|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copcut
| class="adr" | Worcestershire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copdock
| class="adr" | Suffolk
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coped Hall
| class="adr" | Wiltshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copenhagen
| class="adr" | Denbighshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copford
| class="adr" | Essex
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copford Green
| class="adr" | Essex
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copgrove
| class="adr" | North Yorkshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copinsay
| class="adr" | Orkney Islands
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copister
| class="adr" | Shetland Islands
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coplandhill
| class="adr" | Aberdeenshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cople
| class="adr" | Bedfordshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copley
| class="adr" | Durham
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copley
| class="adr" | Calderdale
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copley
| class="adr" | Tameside
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copley Hill
| class="adr" | Kirklees
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coplow Dale
| class="adr" | Derbyshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copmanthorpe
| class="adr" | York
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copmere End
| class="adr" | Staffordshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copnor
| class="adr" | City of Portsmouth
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copp
| class="adr" | Lancashire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coppathorne
| class="adr" | Cornwall
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coppenhall
| class="adr" | Cheshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coppenhall
| class="adr" | Staffordshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coppenhall Moss
| class="adr" | Cheshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copperhouse
| class="adr" | Cornwall
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coppice
| class="adr" | Oldham
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coppicegate
| class="adr" | Shropshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coppingford
| class="adr" | Cambridgeshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coppins Corner
| class="adr" | Kent
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coppleham
| class="adr" | Somerset
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copplestone
| class="adr" | Devon
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coppull
| class="adr" | Lancashire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coppull Moor
| class="adr" | Wigan
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copsale
| class="adr" | West Sussex
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copse Hill
| class="adr" | Merton
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copshaw Holm (Newcastleton)
| class="adr" | Scottish Borders
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copster Green
| class="adr" | Lancashire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copster Hill
| class="adr" | Oldham
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copston Magna
| class="adr" | Warwickshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cop Street
| class="adr" | Kent
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copt Green
| class="adr" | Warwickshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copthall Green
| class="adr" | Essex
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copt Heath
| class="adr" | Solihull
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copt Hewick
| class="adr" | North Yorkshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copthill
| class="adr" | Durham
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copthorne
| class="adr" | West Sussex
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copthorne
| class="adr" | Cornwall
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copthorne
| class="adr" | Cheshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copthorne
| class="adr" | Shropshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coptiviney
| class="adr" | Shropshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copt Oak
| class="adr" | Leicestershire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copton
| class="adr" | Kent
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copy's Green
| class="adr" | Norfolk
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Copythorne
| class="adr" | Hampshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|}

Coq

|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coquet Island
| class="adr" | Northumberland
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|}

Cor

|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corarnstilbeg
| class="adr" | Highland
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corbets Tey
| class="adr" | Havering
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corbridge
| class="adr" | Northumberland
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corbriggs
| class="adr" | Derbyshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corby
| class="adr" | Northamptonshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corby Glen
| class="adr" | Lincolnshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corby Hill
| class="adr" | Cumbria
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cordon
| class="adr" | North Ayrshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cordwell
| class="adr" | Norfolk
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Coreley
| class="adr" | Shropshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cores End
| class="adr" | Buckinghamshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corfe
| class="adr" | Somerset
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corfe Castle
| class="adr" | Dorset
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corfe Mullen
| class="adr" | Dorset
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corfhouse
| class="adr" | Argyll and Bute
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corfton
| class="adr" | Shropshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corfton Bache
| class="adr" | Shropshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corgarff
| class="adr" | Aberdeenshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corgee
| class="adr" | Cornwall
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corhampton
| class="adr" | Hampshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corlannau
| class="adr" | Neath Port Talbot
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corley
| class="adr" | Warwickshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corley Ash
| class="adr" | Warwickshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corley Moor
| class="adr" | Coventry
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cornaa
| class="adr" | Isle of Man
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cornaigbeg
| class="adr" | Argyll and Bute
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cornaigmore
| class="adr" | Argyll and Bute
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cornard Tye
| class="adr" | Suffolk
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cornbank
| class="adr" | Midlothian
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cornbrook
| class="adr" | Shropshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corner Row
| class="adr" | Lancashire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cornett
| class="adr" | Herefordshire
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Corney
| class="adr" | Cumbria
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cornforth
| class="adr" | Durham
| class="note" | 
| class="note" | 
|- class="vcard"
| class="fn org" | Cornhill
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|}, source_sentence: What were the names of the regular battalions in the King's Own (Royal Lancaster Regiment)?
sentences: The 1st Royal Lancashire Militia (The Duke of Lancaster's Own) was an auxiliary regiment raised in the county of Lancashire in North West England during the 17th Century. Primarily intended for home defence, it saw active service in Ireland under King William III, as well as against the Jacobite Risings of 1715 and 1745. It spent long periods on defence duties during the wars of the 18th Century and early 19th Century, and was stationed on the Ionian Islands during the Crimean War. It later became part of the King's Own (Royal Lancaster Regiment) and saw active service in the Second Boer War. After its conversion to the Special Reserve under the Haldane Reforms, it supplied reinforcements to the fighting battalions during World War I. After a shadowy postwar existence the unit was finally disbanded in 1953.

Background

Universal obligation to military service in the Shire levy was long established in England, and its legal basis was updated by two Acts of 1557. This legislation placed selected men, the 'Trained Bands', under the command of a Lord Lieutenant appointed by the monarch; this is seen as the starting date for the organised county militia in England. The trained bands were an important element in the country's defence at the time of the Armada in the 1580s, and control of the bands was an area of dispute between King Charles I and Parliament that led to the English Civil War. Lord Wharton had been appointed Lord Lieutenant of Lancashire by Parliament in 1641, and on the outbreak of hostilities in July 1642 he attempted to seize the trained bands' magazine at Manchester. However, he was forestalled by Lord Strange and William Farington (appointed Commissioner of Array by the King), who had already gained control of the magazines at Liverpool and Preston for the Royalists. The resulting skirmish at Manchester on 15 July, when Strange and his men were driven out by Wharton's Parliamentarians, was among the first battles of the war.

Once Parliament had established full control in 1648 it passed new Militia Acts that replaced lords lieutenant with county commissioners, who were appointed by Parliament or the Council of State, after which the term 'Trained Band' began to disappear in most counties. Under the Commonwealth and Protectorate, the militia received pay when called out and operated alongside the New Model Army to control the country.

Old County Regiment

After the Restoration of the Monarchy, the English Militia was re-established by the Militia Act of 1661 under the control of the king's lords-lieutenant, the men to be selected by ballot. It was popularly seen as the 'Constitutional Force' to counterbalance a 'Standing Army', a concept that was tainted by association with the New Model Army that had supported Cromwell's military dictatorship, and almost the whole burden of home defence and internal security was entrusted to the militia. 

The Lancashire Militia were called out in 1663 when there were rumours of plots against the new regime, and no sooner had they been sent home in October than they were called out again on receipt of new information. Some counties were slacking in training and equipping their men: in 1674 most of the weapons of the Lancashire Militia were found to be defective, and many had to be replaced again in 1689.

Nine Years' War
Following the Glorious Revolution, in which King William III supplanted James II, the militia were called out in 1689. The Lord Lieutenant of Lancashire, William Stanley, 9th Earl of Derby, organised three regiments of foot and three Troops of horse from the County palatine of Lancaster:
 Colonel the Earl of Derby – 7 companies
 Colonel Roger Nowell – 7 companies
 Colonel Alexander Rigby – 8 companies
 The Earl of Derby's Troop
 Captain Thomas Greenhalgh's Troop
 Captain Sir Roger Bradshaigh's Troop.

These regiments volunteered for service in William's campaign in Ireland. After training on Fulwood Moor, near Preston, the Lancashire brigade, commanded by the Earl of Derby's brother, Lieutenant-Colonel the Hon James Stanley (1st Foot Guards), sailed with the army from Wallasey and landed at Carrickfergus on 14 June 1690. It played a full part in the campaign, serving in the Siege of Carrickfergus, at the Battle of the Boyne, and the Siege of Athlone. After a short tour of garrison duty in Dublin, the Lancashire brigade embarked at Howth in September to return to England to be disembodied on 15 October. Lieutenant-Colonel Stanley then recruited a number of veterans from the brigade for the regiment he was joining in Flanders. He succeeded to the command after his colonel was killed at the Battle of Steenkerque, after which the unit became 'Stanley's Regiment' (later the Bedfordshire Regiment). Colonel Stanley succeeded his brother as 10th Earl of Derby and Lord Lieutenant of Lancashire in 1702.

At the end of the Nine Years War in 1697 the militia in Lancashire consisted of 1601 men organized into 22 companies and three regiments, with 150 horsemen in three Troops. The three colonels were Major-General the Earl of Macclesfield (lord lieutenant), Roger Kirkby, MP, and Sir Ralph Assheton, 2nd Baronet, of Middleton, MP.

Jacobite Rising of 1715

After the outbreak of the Jacobite Rising of 1715 the Lancashire Militia was ordered in August to assemble at Lancaster Castle under the command of Col Philip Hoghton. He found that fewer than half of the balloted men turned out, only 560 in all, enough to organise a single battalion. When a force of reputedly 3–4000 Scottish Highlanders and English Jacobites advanced from Carlisle, Hoghton was ordered to fall back from Lancaster to Preston to await further orders. He marched out early on 7 November and the Jacobites entered Lancaster the same day, taking over the ordnance stores in the castle. From Preston the Lancashire Militia and a newly arrived regiment of dragoons were ordered to Wigan, and the Jacobites occupied Preston on 9 November, where they built street barricades and placed the town in a state of defence. However, they were disappointed by the small number of Lancashire Jacobites who joined them, about 1200 badly-armed men. Major-General Charles Wills reached Wigan from Manchester on 11 November with a considerable force of government troops. Further troops under Lieutenant-General George Carpenter were also approaching from Clitheroe.

Wills advanced on Preston next day, and finding the bridge over the River Ribble unguarded, began his attack on the town. Brigadier-General Philip Honywood led the Lancashire Militia together with three dismounted troops of dragoons against the barricade at the west end of Fishergate. They first stormed the houses west of the churchyard and set fire to them as a diversion to assist the column attacking the churchyard barricade, and then moved against Fishergate, preceded by skirmishers. Colonel Hoghton detached the left wing of the Lancashire Militia and a troop of dragoons to attack the Friargate barricade while he led the right wing and remaining dragoons in columns of attack against Fishergate. Hoghton and his men reached the top of the barricade but were driven back by heavy musketry fire from the neighbouring houses, having suffered serious casualties; Honywood ordered them to withdraw. The attack at Friargate fared no better. But the Government troops renewed the attack after dark, Col Hoghton leading his men silently up to the Fishergate barricade then rushed it with the bayonet. The rebels took refuge in the houses, which were set on fire, and the street fighting continued by the light of the fires. Carpenter's troops arrived in the morning, to relieve the exhausted militia and completely invest the town, poised to complete the task of capturing it. A brigade of Dutch troops was also about to arrive, having marched from London. The rebel commanders, realising that they could hold out no longer, surrendered.

The Lancashire Militia had four officers killed, seven wounded, and 105 non-commissioned officers (NCOs) and privates killed and wounded, around a third of the total government casualties at the Battle of Preston. On 16 November the regiment marched back to Lancaster with 250 prisoners to be lodged in the castle. It remained there for the rest of the year, escorting parties of prisoners for trial, until it was disembodied about 15 January 1716.

Jacobite Rising of 1745
The Lancashire Militia was next called out for service against the Jacobite Rising of 1745. Orders to embody the militia were issued to the lord lieutenant, Edward Stanley, 11th Earl of Derby, on 26 September after the government's forces had been defeated at the Battle of Prestonpans. Derby complained that although there were sufficient weapons (though of poor quality), the three regiments of foot and three troops of horse had not been called out for training in the 30 years since the Battle of Preston. He and his deputy lieutenants scrambled to raise money and find officers and army pensioners who could train the raw troops gathering at Bury. By 5 November Derby had assembled a regiment of eight companies. The Lancaster and Lonsdale Company, under the command of Captain William Bradshaw, was left at Lancaster to guard the ordnance stores and prison there. Major William Ffarington of Shaw Hall, Leyland, was sent with a detachment of two companies to guard Chorley. In the meantime, the Corporation of Liverpool had raised a 648-strong volunteer regiment, the Liverpool Blues, which was fully armed and could be put into the field. 

On 17 November the Jacobite army reached Carlisle, which soon surrendered, and began moving south. Two days later Derby ordered the companies at Bury and Chorley to concentrate at Liverpool, and ordered Bradshaw to requisition as many waggons and carts as he could to move the ordnance stores out of Lancaster to 'a secure and secret place' at Ulverston. These moves were carried out next day, regimental headquarters (HQ) was established at the Talbot Hotel in Liverpool, and the Earl handed over command to Maj Ffarington. The commander of the government forces, Field Marshal George Wade, advised the militia to operate in small bodies to harry the advancing rebel army, firing from hedges and preventing it from sending out plundering parties. The Jacobites reached Lancaster on 24 November and Preston on 27 November, while detachments marched through Wigan, Chorley and Bolton. They hoped to gather recruits in Lancashire but were disappointed until they reached Manchester on 28 November, where there were sufficient volunteers to form the Manchester Regiment.

The Liverpool Blues, being better armed and equipped than the Lancashire Militia, were sent out on 29 November under Colonel Campbell to Warrington to prevent the rebels from using the bridge over the Mersey. As darkness approached they opened fire on what was thought to be a group of Highlanders but turned out to be a flock of geese. Next day they repulsed the Jacobite detachment from Preston, and broke down Warrington Bridge. On 1 December Col Campbell marched to Cheadle and Stockport, blowing up the bridges there and forcing the Jacobite artillery and baggage to cross by temporary rafts. After feinting towards Wales, the Jacobites reached Derby on 4 December. Government forces were now closing in on the Jacobite army and it was clear that there was not going to be an uprising in their favour in England. The Jacobite commanders decided to retreat to Scotland. Hindered by the Liverpool Blues' demolitions, they did not reach Manchester until 8 December, with stragglers being picked off by the Blues.

The advance guards of the government forces under Maj-Gens James Oglethorpe and Sir John Ligonier joined the Liverpool Blues at Lancaster on 14 December. Next day Capt Bradshaw and his company (95 all ranks) arrived from Ulverston with orders to put himself under Campbell's command. By now the Duke of Cumberland had arrived to take overall command, and he sent Oglethorpe with his dragoons and the Liverpool Blues to harry the Jacobite rearguard. They marched via Kendal (17 December) and continued over Shap Fell in moonlight and a snowstorm to surprise the Jacobites next morning. The dragoons pursued the Jacobite rearguard through Shap village as far as Clifton Moor, where the Jacobites were drawn up to cover the retreat of their guns across the bridges into Penrith. The Liverpool Blues deployed in front of Clifton, with Bradshaw's company and some dragoons covering the road at Clifton Dykes. They piled arms and cooked a meal, then at 20.00 that evening Oglethorpe ordered them to advance in support of his dragoons. Bradshaw's company formed on the right of the Liverpool Blues (the position taken by the grenadier company in a line regiment). The delaying action (the Clifton Moor Skirmish) was well handled by the Jacobite commander, Lord George Murray, who led a counter-charge of Highlanders, and Oglethorpe was blamed for the heavy losses suffered by his dragoons in their dismounted attack. The Liverpool Blues followed the Highlanders with volley fire, but the Jacobites succeeded in reaching Penrith with the loss of a few guns and waggons. Bradshaw commended Corporal Shaw of his company for rescuing three people from a burning house in Clifton. The company had lost one killed and three wounded in the two skirmishes at Shap and Clifton

Cumberland's army followed the Jacobites through Penrith to Carlisle. The Lancashire Militia company was left at Penrith to guard the prisoners, while the Liverpool Blues were present at the 10-day siege of Carlisle Castle. Cumberland marched into Scotland on 4 January 1746 (finally defeating the Jacobites at the Battle of Culloden on 16 April) while the Liverpool Blues escorted the prisoners from Carlisle (including those of the Manchester Regiment) to Lancashire for trial. Bradshaw's company similarly escorted the prisoners from Penrith to Lancaster. The Lancashire Militia was then disembodied on 12 January 1746; it was not called out again for training or active service until the Seven Years' War.

1st Royal Lancashire Militia

Seven Years' War
Under threat of French invasion during the Seven Years' War a series of Militia Acts from 1757 reorganised the county militia regiments, the men being conscripted by means of parish ballots (paid substitutes were permitted) to serve for three years. Lancashire's quota was set at 800 men in one regiment, but despite the enthusiasm of the acting lord lieutenant, Lord Strange, the county was slow to raise its quota. A regiment would have its arms issued from the Tower of London when it reached 60 per cent of its established strength, but in the case of Lancashire this was not until 18 July 1760, and the regiment was finally embodied for service on 23 December that year.

The regiment assembled on 28 December with six companies at Preston and four at Manchester. After training, it marched on 9 July 1761 to join other militia regiments at Warley Camp in Essex, arriving on 13 August. On 15 October King George III presented the Lancashire Militia with its new Regimental Colours, and on 23 October they were granted the title Royal Lancashire Militia (RLM) with the colonel's company designated 'the King's Company'. The regiment then marched to Nottingham for winter quarters. On 11 June 1762 the regiment was marched south again to join the militia camp at Winchester in Hampshire on 30 June. Preliminaries of peace having been signed, the regiment was ordered on 18 October to march back to Lancashire, where it was disembodied at Manchester on 15 December 1762.

In peacetime, the reformed militia regiments were supposed to be assembled for 28 days' annual training. In 1763 part of the RLM camped at Fulwood Moor near Preston from 18 May to 14 June, but it was not called out again until 1778.

War of American Independence
The militia was called out after the outbreak of the War of American Independence when the country was threatened with invasion by the Americans' allies, France and Spain. The Royal Warrant for the embodiment of the Royal Lancashire Militia was issued on 26 March and the regiment was embodied on 1 April 1778 under the command of the 12th Earl of Derby. After six weeks' training the regiment was marched to camp at Winchester. In October it was billeted among small Hampshire towns: Lymington (HQ + 3 companies), Romsey (3 companies), Ringwood, Christchurch, Downton and Fordingbridge (1 company each). Then in November it marched back to Liverpool for the winter, setting up its HQ at the Talbot Hotel once more.

While at Liverpool a large number of unfit and time-expired men were discharged and a new ballot held to refill the ranks, necessitating a great deal of training. In June 1779 the regiment moved to Newcastle upon Tyne, with two companies detached to Sunderland until February 1780 when they relieved the Regular garrison of Tynemouth Castle. In June 1780 the regiment marched to Chester Castle; three companies were detached at Macclesfield and two at Nantwich. It spent the winter from November 1780 at Manchester, with some companies detached to Warrington. In June 1781 two companies each from Manchester and Warrington moved to Chester, returning to Warrington the following November. By now the regiment was organised like the regulars with a Grenadier Company (the King's Company), a Light Company, and eight line or 'hat' companies. From April 1782 the regiment was broken up in detachments across Cumberland: Carlisle Castle (4 companies), Cockermouth (2 companies), Workington (2 companies), Whitehaven and Maryport (1 company each). Although Cumberland was remote from a possible French invasion, Whitehaven had been attacked by John Paul Jones in 1778. The regiment remained at these stations until 22 January 1783, when two companies were ordered from Carlisle Castle to Lancaster, and then on 17 February marched with HQ from Lancaster to Manchester. By now a peace treaty had been drawn up (it was signed in September) and orders were issued to the Earl of Derby on 28 February to disembody the RLM. This was carried out at Manchester in March 1783. The Earl of Derby then resigned the colonelcy to concentrate on his parliamentary duties; he nominated a distant kinsman, Thomas Stanley of Cross Hill, MP, to succeed him.

From 1784 to 1792 the militia were generally assembled for their 28 days' annual training, but to save money only two-thirds of the men were actually called out each year. However, it appears that the Royal Lancashire Militia did no training until the Stanleys called them out in 1790.

French Revolutionary War
The militia were re-embodied in January 1793 shortly before Revolutionary France declared war on Britain. The Royal Lancashire Militia assembled at Preston on 22 January, but on 25 January were ordered to disperse across Lancashire – Liverpool (4 companies), Wigan (3 companies), Blackburn (2 companies) and Chorley (1 company) – which hindered training. 

During the French Wars the militia were employed anywhere in the country for coast defence, manning garrisons, guarding prisoners of war, and for internal security, while the regulars regarded them as a source of trained men if they could be persuaded to transfer. Their traditional local defence duties were taken over by the part-time Volunteers and later by a compulsory Local Militia.

In February 1793 the civil authorities in the West Riding of Yorkshire feared an outbreak of disorder and requested a military force. The RLM was sent, with HQ and four companies going to Leeds, three companies to Halifax, then to Sheffield and Barnsley, and three to Wakefield, Horset and Horbury. When regular troops arrived to keep the peace in May the RLM was moved to Doncaster, with detached companies at Bawtry, Blyth, Retford and Moorgate. During the rest of the year companies and pairs of companies went out to other towns before returning to Doncaster. In April 1794 the regiment was moved to the East Midlands, with six companies at Stamford and four at Peterborough. In June 1794 the RLM joined the great anti-invasion camp on the South Downs above Brighton, which included regular and fencible regiments as well as militia. In November it moved to winter quarters across Kent, with HQ at Canterbury Barracks. In 1795 it went to Dover Castle, spending May in camp at Hythe, returning to Canterbury in October with the companies in billets across north Kent. The regiment was then moved to billets around Greenwich and Deptford in November as part of a concentration round London to prevent disorder. In the spring of 1796 detachments were marched through Surrey before returning to Greenwich, then in June the regiment crossed to Warley Camp before going into winter quarters at Chelmsford.

Lancashire's militia quota set in 1760 was small in proportion to its population, which soared during the Industrial Revolution. By 1796 it represented only one man in every 43 of those eligible. But in that year an additional ballot was carried out to raise men for the 'Supplementary Militia' to reinforce the standing militia regiments and to form additional temporary regiments. Lancashire's quota was increased to five regiments, and on 1 March 1797 the RLM was ordered to send a party to Lancaster to begin training them. Although recruitment of such large numbers became difficult, the 1st Royal Lancashire Supplementary Militia was raised on 1 March 1797 at Liverpool under the personal command of the 13th Earl of Derby as lord lieutenant. On 17 August 1798 it was placed on a permanent footing as the 2nd Royal Lancashire Militia (2nd RLM), after which the 'Old County Regiment' became the 1st Royal Lancashire Militia (1st RLM).

In March 1797 the 1st RLM was scattered across villages north of London, but on 11 April it was ordered to Plymouth, where it was quartered at the Maker Redoubts overlooking Plymouth Sound for the rest of the year. By the end of the year, with so many senior officers in parliament and the parties away training the supplementary militia, the strength of the regiment at Plymouth was down to about 400 men, under the command of the senior captain. Two of the companies may have been organised and equipped as rifle companies at this time.

Irish Rebellion
In March 1798 legislation was passed to allow the militia to volunteer for service in Ireland, where a Rebellion had broken out. The 1st Royal Lancashire Militia immediately volunteered, and the regiment was recruited to full strength (1200 men) from the supplementary militia to replace the time-expired men. The contractors having failed to provide enough uniforms in time, the 136 time-expired men were stripped of their uniforms, hats and boots to clothe the recruits, leading to a serious complaint to the War Office about their treatment. The recruits arrived at Plymouth from Lancashire and the regiment embarked at the end of June. But the news from Ireland having improved the voyage was cancelled and the regiment returned to camp on Maker Heights. It was not until the end of August that the 1st RLM embarked again as part of a militia brigade in response to the French intervention in Ireland. The regiment landed at Ballyhack in Waterford Harbour on 11 September and then marched to New Ross, preparatory to moving north. However, the French expedition had already been defeated at the Battle of Ballinamuck, and the follow-up expedition was defeated at sea without landing. When the regiment reached Clonmel on 21 October the rebellion was effectively over. The regiment went into winter quarters but guard and picket duties heavy while the area was still in disorder.

With the end of the Irish Rebellion the government encouraged militiamen to volunteer for the regular army: the 1st RLM was one of a number of regiments that offered to serve abroad as a complete unit. However the legislation did not allow for this and the offer was declined, though Col Stanley encouraged his men to volunteer as individuals, and some 350 did so, over 150 joining the 20th Foot (later the Lancashire Fusiliers). Meanwhile, the trials of the rebels were continuing, and in May 1799 the militia brigade at Clonmel was put on alert to march at short notice in case of trouble, or of another French landing. In September, after a year's service in Ireland, the 1st RLM prepared to embark for England. Before departure one whole company, about 100 strong, recruited from Bolton and its neighbourhood, volunteered to transfer to the 36th Foot. The reduced regiment – about 560 other ranks (ORs) – embarked from Waterford on 9 October, landing at Bristol on 12 October. It rested at Tetbury and then on 21 October it began its march back to Lancashire. On arrival at Preston on 6 November the regiment was ordered to disembody.

The supplementary militia having been abolished, the remaining balloted men in Lancashire were distributed to the 1st, 2nd and 3rd RLM to fill vacancies – the officers of the 1st RLM complaining about the quality of the men they were assigned. The regiment completed disembodiment on 28 December 1799. It was called out again for training 5 August 1801, assembling at Lancaster (now its permanent HQ). A few days later it was informed that it would be embodied for active service again at the end of the training. On 26 September it began the march to its new station of Tynemouth Castle. On arrival, with the newly balloted men, it had a strength of 900 ORs. The Peace of Amiens was signed on 27 March 1802, and on 1 April the regiment was ordered to march back to Lancaster to disembody once more, apart from the small permanent staff.

Napoleonic Wars
The Peace of Amiens was short-lived, and the militia was called out again on 1 April 1803. After establishing a depot at Lancaster to train the newly balloted men the 1st RLM marched on 23 May to join the encampment at Danbury, Essex, under the command of Lt-Col John Plumbe, Col Stanley being unwell. The recruits followed from Lancaster on 20 July, bringing the regiment up to full strength of 1200 men in 12 companies. It remained at Danbury Camp until August 1804, when it was transferred to Brabourne Lees Camp in Kent, and then in June 1805 to Portsmouth. In August and September 1805 the 1st RLM was at Weymouth, Dorset, while the royal family was in residence, then in October moved to Exeter and the surrounding villages, where it spent the winter. In the spring it returned to Weymouth where it trained the newly balloted men, who replaced those time-expired and those who had volunteered for the regulars (one whole company had done so). It returned to Exeter for the winter of 1806, staying there and at Stonehouse Barracks, Plymouth, until May 1809. At that time it was ordered to Tavistock and then to Bristol, detaching 100 men to embark at Ilfracombe to sail to Milford Haven and Haverfordwest to reinforce the garrison there. The detachment rejoined HQ at Bristol in June, and the regiment stayed there until March 1811. During 1810 it had recruiting parties detached to Bolton, Manchester, Preston and Wigan. On 8 March 1811 the 1st RLM was ordered to march from Bristol to Hull; however on 25 March it was diverted en route to deal with Luddite disturbances that had broken out at Nottingham. It was ordered to resumed its march to Hull Barracks on 22 April. In October it was sent to Berwick-upon-Tweed and Tweedmouth, with detachments at Eyemouth and Holy Island. In March 1812 it moved into Scotland, to Dunbar and Haddington, and then to Dalkeith. It remained there, with occasional detachments to Penicuik where there was a large Prisoner-of-war camp to be guarded, until December 1814.

The militia had become one of the biggest sources of recruits to the regular army, and the 1st RLM was expected to supply a quota of 100 volunteers each year, rising to a draft or 244 men in February 1814. Colonel Plumbe also volunteered the whole regiment for service in Ireland, and roughly half the men agreed to extend their service accordingly. In March 1814 this body (12 officers and about 340 ORs) embarked at Portpatrick for Donaghadee, from where it marched to Belfast and then Athlone, arriving on 14 June. Napoleon had abdicated in April and peace was declared on 30 May, but the 1st RLM had still not been disembodied in February 1815 when he escaped from Elba and the war was resumed. The three regiments of Lancashire Militia, which happened to be stationed together at Dublin, were allowed to recruit back to full strength by ballot and 'by beat of drum'. They also provided drafts of around 1000 volunteers to the regular regiments being sent to Belgium. The 1st RLM supplied 23 NCOs and men to the 1st Foot Guards, and 11 each to the 33rd Foot and 71st (Highland) Light Infantry, with individuals to other regiments. There is a story that many of the Guardsmen at the Battle of Waterloo were still wearing their Militia uniforms.

Waterloo ended the war, but much of the regular army remained in France as part of the Army of Occupation for several months, and the Lancashire Militia continue their garrison duty at Dublin. The 1st RLM now being very weak, drafts of balloted men continued to be despatched from Lancaster until February 1816, when it was finally ordered to return for disembodiment. It embarked from Dublin on 25 March and landed at Liverpool, arriving at Lancaster on 5 April and being disembodied on 15 April.

Long peace
Militia training was suspended in most years after Waterloo, but the 1st RLM was called out for its 28 days' training in 1821, 1825 and 1831. Balloting continued, but the permanent staff was progressively reduced over the years. Just before the 1831 training King William IV bestowed on the three Lancashire Militia Regiments the additional title The Duke of Lancaster's Own. No further militia training took place for the next 21 years. Although officers continued to be appointed to fill vacancies the ballot was suspended.

1852 reforms
The Militia of the United Kingdom was revived by the Militia Act of 1852, enacted during a period of international tension. As before, units were raised and administered on a county basis, and filled by voluntary enlistment (although conscription by means of the Militia Ballot might be used if the counties failed to meet their quotas). Training was for 56 days on enlistment, then for 21–28 days per year, during which the men received full army pay. Under the Act, Militia units could be embodied by Royal Proclamation for full-time service in three circumstances:
 1. 'Whenever a state of war exists between Her Majesty and any foreign power'.
 2. 'In all cases of invasion or upon imminent danger thereof'.
 3. 'In all cases of rebellion or insurrection'.

In the case of the 1st RLM some younger officers were appointed, including John Talbot Clifton of Lytham Hall, formerly of the 1st Life Guards, as colonel, together with new permanent staff officers and regular army NCOs, and the revived regiment was called out for its first 21 day training on 8 November 1852. The staff NCOs and the few experienced officers had their hands full when the special trains brought the 500 undisciplined recruits from Bolton and Manchester, but had made good progress after three weeks' drilling on Giant Axe Field. The officers' mess now adopted the traditional Lancashire form of the Loyal toast: 'The Queen, Duke of Lancaster', which the regiment kept thereafter.

Crimean War
In May 1853, in view of the worsening international situation, the government ordered the lord lieutenant (the Earl of Sefton) to recruit the three Lancashire militia regiments up to their full strengths of 1200 each. The 1st RLM was called out for 28 day's annual training on 24 May, in which the staff were assisted by drill sergeants from the 50th Foot stationed nearby at Preston.

War having broken out with Russia in March 1854 and an expeditionary force sent to the Crimea, the Militia were called out for home defence. The 1st RLM assembled at Lancaster on 24 May for 28 days' training before embodiment. Colonel Clifton had already offered the regiment for overseas service – the first such offer made in this war by a militia regiment – and the government accepted a body of 500 men. On 16 June the regiment divided, 500 men for the service companies, the other 700 dismissed to their homes until further notice. The service battalion travelled by train to Deptford Dockyard, moving on 16 July to Portsmouth. In September, training began with the new Enfield rifled musket. In November there was a call to reinforce the army in the Crimea, and 250 men from the service companies of the 1st RLM volunteered. It was not until December that Parliament passed Acts allowing whole militia regiments to volunteer, and recalling out the men who had been disembodied in order to fill the vacancies.
 
The regiment now prepared to embark for the Ionian Islands (then a British protectorate) to release the garrison to fight in the Crimea. The men who had not volunteered or were unfit for overseas service were formed into a regimental depot at Fort Cumberland, Portsmouth. The depot returned to Lancaster on 1 March 1855, and the service companies embarked on the transport Calcutta two days later. It sailed on 4 March and they disembarked at Corfu on 16 March, taking up quarters in the Citadel Barracks, with detachments on the islands of Fano, Paxo and Santa Maura. Its first task was to send the Grenadier Company on 20 March to suppress a riot on Vido among the convalescent soldiers from the Crimea. On 15 May the bulk of the regiment re-embarked for Zante, leaving detachments on Santa Maura, Cerigo and Cephalonia. In September there was a cholera outbreak at Zante, and in two weeks the regiment lost one officer, two NCOs and 275 men dead, and 54 invalided home. Two drafts of reinforcements arrived from the depot at Lancaster, 150 men on 25 November and 250 more on 15 January 1856. The Grenadier Company at Santa Maura had been unaffected by cholera, and was chosen to go to the Crimea to reinforce the army for its projected operations following the fall of Sevastopol in September 1855 (the only militia unit accepted). However, there were no further operations and the war ended on 30 March 1856 before the company had left the islands. The 1st RLM embarked on the troopship Colombo on 21 May, but its passage was delayed when the ship ran aground at Argostoli Bay, where it had gone to pick up the Grenadier Company. The ship was deemed to be overcrowded, and two companies were left at Malta to follow by a later steamer. The main body reached Portsmouth on 3 June, and went by trains to Lancaster on 8 and 9 June. The two companies from Malta were not disembodied until 16 July. After the regiment was disembodied it was awarded the Battle honour Mediterranean for its service.

Further militia regiments had been raised in Lancashire after 1852, bringing the total to seven of infantry and one of artillery. Each had its own recruiting areas across the county, those of the 1st RLM being Bolton (Great and Little), Fylde, Lancaster and Manchester. During the Crimean War the depot of the 1st RLM built a barracks on Windy Hill at Lancaster for 200 men and a storehouse with a parade ground for 800 men later known as Springfield Barracks. Plans to convert some old warehouses at St Georges Quay were scrapped when the war ended. Annual training for the 1st RLM resumed in 1857. It was usually held on Giant Axe Field, but at Ulverston when camp coincided with elections in Lancaster. In some years a joint field day was held with one of the Lancashire Rifle Volunteer Corps during annual training. From 1876 the regiment adopted the practice of camping at Scale Hall field, about  from Lancaster, during its annual training.

Cardwell reforms

Under the 'Localisation of the Forces' scheme introduced by the Cardwell Reforms of 1872, Militia regiments were brigaded with their local regular and Volunteer battalions – for the 1st RLM this was with the 4th (King's Own) Regiment of Foot in Sub-District No 11 (County of Lancaster). The Militia now came under the War Office rather than their county lords lieutenant, and officers' commissions were signed by the Queen.

Although often referred to as brigades, the sub-districts were purely administrative organisations, but in a continuation of the Cardwell Reforms a mobilisation scheme began to appear in the Army List from December 1875. This assigned regular and militia units to places in an order of battle of corps, divisions and brigades for the 'Active Army', even though these formations were entirely theoretical, with no staff or services assigned. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd Royal Lancashire Militia formed 1st Brigade of 3rd Division, VI Corps. The brigade would have mustered at Manchester in time of war.

The Hon Frederick Stanley, MP, formerly captain in the Grenadier Guards, was appointed lieutenant-colonel commandant of the regiment (later of the 1st Battalion) on 23 June 1874, the rank of colonel in the militia having been abolished. He was also Financial Secretary to the War Office from 1874 to 1877, and Secretary of State for War 1878–80, which meant that he was often absent during training.

Cardwell's localisation scheme provided for the regular and militia regiments to be linked in pairs, sharing a single permanent depot. The 4th (King's Own) already had two battalions; the 1st RLM split to form its own second battalion on 26 September 1877, each being initially of six companies. A new regimental depot, Bowerham Barracks, was built at Lancaster between 1876 and 1880.

Militia battalions now had a large cadre of permanent staff (about 30). Around a third of the recruits and many young officers went on to join the regular army. In addition, the Militia Reserve introduced in 1867 consisted of present and former militiamen who undertook to serve overseas in case of war. During the international crisis caused by the Russo-Turkish War in 1877, the 1st RLM offered its service and was informed that it might be embodied for garrison duty. In the event the militia was not embodied, but the regular and militia reserves were called out the following year, those belonging to Sub-District No 11 assembling at Lancaster on 3 April. On 22 April they entrained to join the depot of the 4th (King's Own) at the Portsdown Hill Forts, where they served until 30 July when they were dismissed to heir homes.

3rd and 4th Battalions, King's Own (Royal Lancaster Regiment)
The Childers Reforms of 1881 took Cardwell's reforms further, with the linked regular and militia regiments becoming single county regiments. In the case of the Lancaster district this was the King's Own (Royal Lancaster Regiment) ('The King's Own') of four battalions: the 1st and 2nd were the regulars, while the 1st Royal Lancashire Militia (The Duke of Lancaster's Own) became the 3rd and 4th Bns, together with affiliated Volunteer Force battalions. As the regimental history put it, the 1st and 2nd Bns King's Own had amalgamated with the 1st and 2nd Bns Duke's Own. The two militia battalions continued to be administered as a single double-battalion regiment until 1 August 1900.

In 1882 the 3rd and 4th Battalions began their annual training at Lancaster on 3 July, but at the end of the month their training was extended for 56 days, embodying them for garrison duty during the crisis surrounding the Anglo-Egyptian War. Both battalions entrained for Preston on 31 July, and went to Fulwood Barracks, which were grossly overcrowded by the arrival of their 12 companies in addition to the reservists of the regular regiment stationed there. The two battalions returned to Lancaster on 26 August to be disembodied.

Second Boer War
After the disasters of Black Week at the start of the Second Boer War in December 1899, most of the regular army was sent to South Africa, and many militia units were embodied to replace them for home defence and to garrison certain overseas stations. The 4th Bn King's Own was embodied on 13 December 1899 and the 3rd Bn on 23 January 1900. Both battalions volunteered for overseas service.

The 4th Battalion left first, embarking with a strength of 25 officers and 666 ORs under the command of Lt-Col W. Kemmis and landing at Cape Town on 1 February 1900. It proceeded to the advanced base at Naauwpoort and was employed on the lines of communication with detachments guarding towns, bridges and culverts between Norvalspont and Port Elizabeth, Graaff-Reinet and Hanover Road. In August 1900 a column consisting of 200 men of the battalion and 40 of Nesbitt's Horse carried out a demonstration through the disaffected district of Hanover. On 30 December the Boers attacked and burned a train at the 'Gates of Hell' about  from Naauwpoort: two companies of the battalion only arrived in time to exchange a few shots with the retiring enemy. In December, Lt-Col Kemmis was appointed commandant of Naauwpoort. On 23 February 1901 2nd Lt Hunt with 30 men guarding the Fish River bridge and station successfully held off Commandant Kritzinger and about 250 Boers for four hours before the armoured train came to their assistance and drove off the Boers. On 7 March Capt Worsley Taylor with 40 men of the 4th Bn and about 60 Mounted infantry (MI) was attacked by a superior force while repairing the Colesberg–Philippolis telegraph line. Taylor and his men took up a defensive position on a Kopje and held it for 24 hours until a relief column arrived from Colesberg. On 29 May Battalion HQ moved to Norvalspont and the battalion occupied the northern bank of the Orange River. Finally, it concentrated at De Aar on 5 July preparatory to embarking for home. During the campaign the battalion lost one officer and 21 ORs killed or died of disease. The 4th Bn was disembodied on 3 August 1901. It was awarded the battle honour South Africa 1900–01, and the officers and men received the Queen's South Africa Medal with the clasps 'Cape Colony', 'Orange Free State', and 'South Africa 1901'.

The 3rd Bn embarked for South Africa with a strength of 25 officers and 686 ORs under the command of Col B.N. North. It landed at Cape Town on 1 March 1900 and was deployed along the lines of communication in Orange River Colony, with Battalion HQ and three companies guarding the important railway bridge and supply depot at Zand River Bridge. They were attacked on 14 March by a Boer force that included artillery, driving them off after a day's fighting. The battalion also supplied an MI company that took part in the action at Ventersburg with a column under Col North operating with armoured trains. This force obliged the Boers to abandon their position at Zeegatacht, near Brandfort, on 16 January 1901, and North with the MI and armoured train drove them from Huten Beck on 28 January. At this time the rest of the battalion was holding the blockhouse line and railway from Kroonstad to Bloemfontein, driving off several attacks. In October 1901 the battalion was divided into several detachments that engaged Theron's Commando around Ceres. The battalion re-assembled on 10 January 1902 to embark for England, where it was disembodied on 8 February 1902. During the campaign the battalion had lost 51 ORs killed or died of disease. It was awarded the battle honour South Africa 1900–02, the Queen's South Africa Medal with the clasps 'Cape Colony' and 'Orange Free State', and the King's South Africa Medal with the clasps 'South Africa 1901' and 'South Africa 1902', and Lt-Col North was awarded a Companionship of the Order of the Bath (CB).

Special Reserve
After the Boer War, the future of the Militia was called into question. There were moves to reform the Auxiliary Forces (Militia, Yeomanry and Volunteers) to take their place in the six Army Corps proposed by the Secretary of State for War, St John Brodrick. However, little of Brodrick's scheme was carried out. Under the more sweeping Haldane Reforms of 1908, the militia was replaced by the Special Reserve, (SR) a semi-professional force whose role was to provide reinforcement drafts for Regular units serving overseas in wartime, rather like the earlier Militia Reserve. The 3rd Battalion became the 3rd (Reserve) Battalion, King's Own, on 19 July 1908, but the 4th Bn was disbanded on 31 August.

World War I

On the outbreak of war on 4 August 1914 the battalion was embodied at Lancaster under Lt-Col J.M.A. Graham. It then moved to its war station at Saltash, Cornwall, for a few days before the bulk of the battalion moved to Sunderland. It probably helped to organise the 10th (Reserve) Battalion, King's Own, from Kitchener's Army volunteers, when that was formed at Saltash in October 1914. From 1915 to 1917 the 3rd Bn was at Plymouth, but by November 1917 it had moved to Harwich. As well as forming part of the Plymouth and Harwich Garrisons, the battalion's role was to train and despatch drafts of reservists, special reservists, recruits and returning wounded for the regular battalions. The 1st King's Own served on the Western Front, while the 2nd Bn returned from India and after a few months on the Western Front spent the rest of the war on the Macedonian Front. 

Thousands of men for the regular battalions would have passed through the ranks of the 3rd Bn during the war. It was disembodied on 30 July 1919, when the remaining personnel were drafted to the 1st Bn.

Postwar
The SR resumed its old title of Militia in 1921 and then became the Supplementary Reserve in 1924, but like most militia battalions the 3rd King's Own remained in abeyance after World War I. By the outbreak of World War II in 1939, no officers remained listed for the battalion. The militia was formally disbanded in April 1953.

Commanders
The following officers commanded the regiment as Colonel, as Honorary Colonel, or served as Lt-Col Commandant of one of its battalions:
 William Stanley, 9th Earl of Derby appointed 1689
 Philip Hoghton, appointed 1 June 1715
 Edward Stanley, 11th Earl of Derby appointed 25 October 1745
 James Smith-Stanley, Lord Strange, appointed 15 July 1760, died 1 June 1771
 Edward Smith-Stanley, 12th Earl of Derby appointed 14 February 1772, resigned
 Thomas Stanley of Cross Hill, MP, appointed 28 October 1783, died 26 December 1816
 Peter Patten Bold, appointed 8 June 1817, died 1819
 John Plumbe-Tempest, promoted 4 November 1819, resigned 1852
 John Talbot Clifton, formerly 1st Life Guards, appointed 2 October 1852, resigned 1870
 William Assheton Cross, promoted 8 December 1870, appointed Hon Col 13 May 1871
 Robert Whitle, appointed 31 May 1872.
 Frederick Stanley, 16th Earl of Derby, KG, GCB, GCVO, Lt-Col Commandant, 1st Bn, 23 June 1874; appointed Hon Col 27 February 1886, died 14 June 1908
 Thomas Dawson Sheppard, Lt-Col Commandant, 2nd Bn, 26 September 1877
 George Blucher Heneage Marton, 20 March 1886, Lieutenant-Colonel Commandant, commanding 3rd Battalion.
 Joseph Lawson Whalley, 26 November 1887, commanding 4th Battalion
 B.N. North, CB, MVO, former Lt-Col Commandant, 3rd Bn, appointed Hon Col 19 July 1908

Uniforms & Insignia
The uniform of the Royal Lancashire Militia was red with the blue facings appropriate to 'Royal' regiments. The regimental colour presented in 1761 was blue and bore the coat of arms of the Duchy of Lancaster (on a shield gules, three lions of England (passant gardant) or, in chief a label azure of three points, each charged with three fleur-de-lis of France). The regimental colour presented by Queen Charlotte at Weymouth in 1806 simply carried the words 'FIRST ROYAL LANCASHIRE MILITIA' surrounded by a wreath of roses, thistles and shamrocks.

As a reward for its service in Ireland in 1798 the badge of the 'Harp and Crown' was bestowed on the regiment, and the 'Red Rose of Lancaster' in 1803. The set of colours believed to have been presented by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland when the regiment was stationed in Dublin in 1816 bore the harp in the centre of the King's colour and the crowned red rose with 'LANCASTER' in Old English script in the three outer corners of the regimental colour. The colonel's wife, Mrs Clifton, presented new colours to the reformed regiment in 1853 and again in 1870 after the regulation size of colours was made smaller. The regimental colour bore a red rose inside a circle with the words 'DUKE OF LANCASTER'S OWN' surrounded by a wreath of roses, thistles and shamrocks. Above was a crown, below were the Roman numeral 'I' and two scrolls, the upper saying 'ROYAL LANCASHIRE MILITIA', the lower the battle honour 'MEDITERRANEAN'; the crown, numeral and upper scroll also appeared on the Queen's colour. The smaller 1870 colours were similar, but the numeral I had disappeared and the scroll now read '1. ROYAL LANCASHIRE MILITIA'. Lady Constance Stanley presented the 2nd Bn's colours in 1880: the design was the same, but the lettering on the scrolls was 'First Royal Lancashire Militia, 2nd Battalion, Mediterranean', which was repeated in black on a yellow ground in the centre of the Queens colour.

About 1790 the buttons had the letters 'RL' inside a crowned star; the figure '1' was added above the letters after the creation of the 2nd RLM, and these buttons were retained until 1829. The officers' shako plate in 1812–16 consisted of the stylised cipher 'GR' above an enamelled red rose, with a silver spray of leaves beneath and the numeral '1' at the bottom, the whole plate a highly stylised escutcheon topped with a crown. The ORs' plate was plain brass, the word 'LANCASTER" appearing between the cipher and rose, and no numeral at the bottom. The cap badge of 1852 was circular, with 'LANCASTER' in Old English lettering above a red rose, a spray of leaves below; the officer's belt plate carried this badge without the spray of leaves but surmounted by a crown, on a decorated star. The OR's Glengarry badge of 1874–81 had the royal crest (a crowned lion statant gardant on a crown) over the red rose within a spray of grass, with a scroll underneath inscribed 'THE DUKE OF LANCASTER'S OWN'.

In 1881 the regiment combined the insignia of the King's Own and the Duke's Own, with the Red Rose of Lancaster surmounted by the Lion of England. Later this was replaced by the lion over the words 'KING'S OWN'.

Precedence
In September 1759 it was ordered that militia regiments on service were to take their relative precedence from the date of their arrival in camp. In 1760 this was altered to a system of drawing lots where regiments did duty together. During the War of American Independence all the counties were given an order of precedence determined by ballot each year, beginning in 1778. For the Lancashire Militia the positions were:
 38th on 1 June 1778
 43rd on 12 May 1779
 30th on 6 May 1780
 12th on 28 April 1781
 32nd on 7 May 1782

The militia order of precedence balloted for in 1793 (when Lancashire was 37th) remained in force throughout the French Revolutionary War: this covered all the regiments formed in the county. Another ballot for precedence took place at the start of the Napoleonic War, when Lancashire was 52nd. This order continued until 1833. In that year the King drew the lots for individual regiments and the resulting list remained in force with minor amendments until the end of the militia. The regiments raised before the peace of 1763 took the first 47 places: the 1st RLM was 45th. Formally, the regiment became the 45th, or 1st Royal Lancashire Militia, but the 1st RLM like most regiments seems to have paid little attention to the additional number.

See also
 Militia (English)
 Militia (Great Britain)
 Militia (United Kingdom)
 Special Reserve
 Lancashire Militia
 King's Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster)

Footnotes

Notes

References

 W.Y. Baldry, 'Order of Precedence of Militia Regiments', Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, Vol 15, No 57 (Spring 1936), pp. 5–16.
 Ian F.W. Beckett, The Amateur Military Tradition 1558–1945, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1991, .
 Burke's Peerage, Baronetage and Knightage, 100th Edn, London, 1953.
 W.Y. Carman, 'Militia Uniforms 1780', Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, Vol 36, No 147 (September 1958), pp. 108–9.
 Col John K. Dunlop, The Development of the British Army 1899–1914, London: Methuen, 1938.
 Cross Fleury, Time-Honoured Lancaster: Historic Notes on the Ancient Borough of Lancaster, Lancaster: Eaton & Bulfield, 1891.
 Sir John Fortescue, A History of the British Army, Vol I, 2nd Edn, London: Macmillan, 1910.
 Sir John Fortescue, A History of the British Army, Vol II, London: Macmillan, 1899.
 Sir John Fortescue, A History of the British Army, Vol III, 2nd Edn, London: Macmillan, 1911.
 Sir John Fortescue, A History of the British Army, Vol IV, Pt II, 1789–1801, London: Macmillan, 1906.
 J.B.M. Frederick, Lineage Book of British Land Forces 1660–1978, Vol I, Wakefield: Microform Academic, 1984, .
 Lt-Col James Moncrieff Grierson (Col Peter S. Walton, ed.), Scarlet into Khaki: The British Army on the Eve of the Boer War, London: Sampson Low, 1899/London: Greenhill, 1988, .
 H.G. Hart, The New Annual Army List (various dates).
 Col George Jackson Hay, An Epitomized History of the Militia (The Constitutional Force), London:United Service Gazette, 1905/Ray Westlake Military Books, 1987, .
 Richard Holmes, Soldiers: Army Lives and Loyalties from Redcoats to Dusty Warriors, London: HarperPress, 2011, .
 Brig E.A. James, British Regiments 1914–18, Samson Books 1978/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2001, .
 Roger Knight, Britain Against Napoleon: The Organization of Victory 1793–1815, London: Allen Lane, 2013/Penguin, 2014, .
 H.G. Parkyn, 'English Militia Regiments 1757–1935: Their Badges and Buttons', Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, Vol 15, No 60 (Winter 1936), pp. 216–248.
 Edward M. Spiers, The Army and Society 1815–1914, London: Longmans, 1980, .
 Edward M. Spiers, The Late Victorian Army 1868–1902, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992/Sandpiper Books, 1999, .
 Katherine Thomasson & Francis Buist, Battles of the '45, London: Batsford 1962/Pan 1967.
 J.R. Western, The English Militia in the Eighteenth Century, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1965.
 Maj R.J.T. Williamson & Col J. Lawson Whalley, History of the Old County Regiment of Lancashire Militia, London: Simpkin, Marshall, 1888.

External sources
 British History Online
 Electric Scotland
 King's Own Royal Regiment Museum, Lancaster
 Lancashire Infantry Museum
 Lancashire Record Office, Handlist 72 Archived from the original
 Museum of the Manchester Regiment
 Richard A. Warren, This Re-illuminated School of Mars: Auxiliary forces and other aspects of Albion under Arms in the Great War against France

Lancashire Militia
Lancashire
Military units and formations in Lancashire
Military units and formations in Lancaster, Lancashire
Military units and formations established in 1661
Military units and formations disestablished in 1881, João Pedro Coelho Marinho de Sousa (born 30 March 1989), known as João Sousa (), is a Portuguese professional tennis player. He is currently ranked world No. 137 by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP). Continuously ranked in the world's top-100 between July 2013 and March 2021, and with four ATP Tour singles titles, Sousa is often regarded as the best Portuguese tennis player of all time. He is nicknamed Conquistador (Portuguese for "Conqueror") for sharing his birthplace of Guimarães with Afonso I, the country's first king. Sousa is coached by former player Frederico Marques and practices at the BTT Tennis Academy in Barcelona.

Sousa began playing tennis at the age of seven. After winning national youth titles, he decided at the age of fifteen to invest in his career by moving to Barcelona. After an unimpressive junior career, Sousa turned professional in 2008 and won his first singles tournament in 2009. He started playing in the ATP Challenger Tour in 2008, winning his first tournament at this level in 2011. Sousa debuted in the top-level ATP World Tour in 2008, and rose to prominence at the 2013 Malaysian Open, where he became the first Portuguese player to win a World Tour-level singles tournament.

Sousa holds several Portuguese men's tennis records. In October 2013, he ranked 49th in the world after his victory at the Malaysian Open, becoming the first Portuguese player to break into the singles top 50. In November 2015, Sousa reached a career-high and Portuguese-best ranking of world  33, following his second ATP World Tour singles title at the Valencia Open. In May 2016, he improved his personal ranking best, becoming the first Portuguese player to enter the top 30, as a result of reaching his first Masters 1000 quarter-finals in Madrid. In 2014, he was the first Portuguese player to compete exclusively at the ATP World Tour in a single season; the first to be seeded in a Grand Slam tournament (2014 US Open); and the second to reach the quarterfinals in a Grand Slam event (2015 US Open doubles). Sousa is the fourth Portuguese player to reach the singles top 100, and the second to do so in both singles and doubles rankings, after Nuno Marques. He is also the Portuguese player with the largest career prize money, and the most wins at Grand Slam singles tournaments.

Early and personal life 
João Sousa was born on 30 March 1989 in Guimarães, Portugal, to Armando Marinho de Sousa, a judge and amateur tennis player, and Adelaide Coelho Sousa, a bank clerk. Sousa has a younger brother named Luís Carlos. At age seven, Sousa began playing tennis with his father at a local club. In 2001, he won the national under-12 singles title, beating future Davis Cup partner Gastão Elias in the semifinals, and was runner-up in doubles. In 2003, he partnered with Elias to win the national under-14 doubles title. Sousa also played football at local clubs Vitória de Guimarães – of which he is a keen supporter – and Os Sandinenses until the age of 14, when he decided to give up on football and the goal of studying medicine to pursue a professional tennis career. He briefly joined the National Tennis Training Center in Maia until he was forced to leave after its closure.

In September 2004, aged 15, Sousa moved to Barcelona, Spain, to attend a boarding school and join the Catalan Tennis Federation. A year later, he joined the BTT Tennis Academy, which was recommended to him by former member and countryman Rui Machado. He was first coached by Álvaro Margets, under the supervision of one of his mentors, Francisco Roig. At the academy, he met and shared a flat with his future coach, Frederico Marques. Sousa continues to practice at BTT, even after joining the ATP Tour.

During his youth, Sousa's idols were Pete Sampras, Juan Carlos Ferrero, and Roger Federer. He is fluent in Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan, as well as English, French and Italian. Since 2008, Sousa has been dating Júlia Villanueva, whom he met during his training in Barcelona.

Tennis career

Pre-2008: Junior years
Sousa made his debut in a junior tournament in August 2004 at the Grade 4 Taça Diogo Nápoles in Porto, reaching the semifinals. His first junior doubles title came in April 2005 at a Grade 4 tournament in Guadeloupe, where he also reached his first junior singles final. Though he never won a singles title on the junior circuit, Sousa reached three singles finals and won five doubles titles, including a Grade 2 tournament in France. In 2005 Sousa was runner-up at the Portugal under-16 National Championship, losing in the final to Gastão Elias. He had previously won the doubles title at the 2004 edition in the same age category.

Sousa peaked at number 61 in the world junior rankings in early 2007, shortly after entering the main draw of the 2006 Orange Bowl. His only participation at a junior Grand Slam was short-lived; he lost in the first qualifying round of the 2007 French Open Boys' Singles tournament. Sousa's last junior tournament was the European Junior Championships in Austria in July 2007.

Despite not having turned professional before 2008, Sousa made his debut at a senior tournament in October 2005 after entering as a wild card in the main draw of a Futures doubles tournament in Barcelona. His first win as a senior came at a Futures doubles tournament, in August 2006 in Oviedo, and his debut singles tournament participation and win both came in May 2007 at a Futures tournament in Lleida, Spain. Sousa would not go beyond quarterfinals at any Futures event until 2008.

2008–2012: Early career
In 2008, Sousa began the season by winning his first professional title at the final of a Futures doubles tournament in Murcia. He reached two more doubles finals that year, winning a second title in August in Bakio. The biggest achievement in his 2008 campaign came at the Estoril Open. Entering through qualifying rounds, Sousa made his debut at the main draw of an ATP Tour-level tournament. He had his first ATP win over Austrian Oliver Marach, losing to Frederico Gil in the second round. Sousa also started playing at the ATP Challenger Tour and for the Portugal Davis Cup team in 2008. He played two singles dead rubbers, winning over Cyprus' Eleftherios Christou in July and losing to Ukraine's Illya Marchenko in September.

Besides winning two more Futures doubles titles in three finals in Irun and Espinho, Sousa reached his first four singles finals at the same level in 2009. He won the title in the La Palma final. At the Estoril Open, Sousa was granted a wild card to participate in his first doubles ATP World Tour level tournament, but lost in the first round. During 2009, Sousa was twice called to the Portugal Davis Cup team, winning both singles dead rubbers he took part in – over Philippos Tsangaridis from Cyprus in March and Algeria's Sid-Ali Akkal in July. In 2010, Sousa won his first Challenger title at the Tampere's doubles tournament in August. In the 2010 season, Sousa did not enter any ATP tournament; he began shifting his schedule increasingly from the Futures circuit to the Challenger tour. He was more successful in the Futures, winning three singles titles in four finals at Valldoreix, Tenerife and Lanzarote, and doubles titles in Lanzarote, Córdoba and two in Tenerife. At the Davis Cup, Sousa played two more dead rubbers, winning for the second time in three seasons over Cyprus' Christou and losing to Bosnian Damir Džumhur.

Sousa reached several milestones in 2011. At the Challenger Tour, he won his first singles title at that level in Fürth in June. At the ATP World Tour, Sousa participated as a wildcard in the singles and doubles events in Estoril, losing in the second round of the former to Canadian Milos Raonic. He also made his first attempt at entering the main draw of a Grand Slam tournament, but fell in the qualifying rounds at the Australian Open, Wimbledon and the US Open. In October, Sousa's participation at the Sabadell Futures was his last presence in the main draw of a tournament in that category. He won three more singles and one doubles Futures titles, making his career titles at this level seven singles and nine doubles titles. Once again, Sousa was called for two dead rubbers at Davis Cup, winning over Martin Kližan from Slovakia and losing to Switzerland's Marco Chiudinelli. In October 2011, he hired Frederico Marques as a coach when he was ranked world number 220.

At the 2012 Estoril Open, Sousa reached the quarterfinals of an ATP tour tournament for the first time, losing to Albert Ramos. At the 2012 French Open, he made his debut as a qualifier in the main draw of a Grand Slam tournament. He would lose in the first round to 20th seed Marcel Granollers in four sets. He did not progress past the qualifying rounds at the other three Grand Slam tournaments. He also entered main draw events at the Barcelona Open (lost to Frederico Gil in the 2nd round) and the Croatia Open (lost to Matthias Bachinger in the 1st round). At Challenger tournaments, Sousa won two singles titles out of three finals – Mersin and Tampere – and one doubles title at Fürth.

His role at the 2012 Davis Cup rose in importance. Sousa played his first doubles rubber against Israel, partnering with Gastão Elias in a loss against Andy Ram and Jonathan Erlich. Ram also beat Sousa in a dead rubber – his last as of 2016. In September, Sousa played three rubbers against Slovakia. He won the first singles match over Lukáš Lacko but lost the doubles with Elias and his second singles match to Martin Kližan, meaning Portugal's relegation from Europe/Africa Zone Group I to Group II in 2013. In this same month, Sousa became the top-ranked Portuguese tennis player for the first time, at No. 107. In October, his world ranking rose to No. 99, and Sousa became the fourth Portuguese player to enter the ATP top-100 singles ranking after Nuno Marques, Frederico Gil and Rui Machado.

2013: Breakthrough in the ATP
Sousa started the 2013 season with his first participation in ATP tour level hardcourt tournaments at the Chennai Open and the Sydney International. Despite being knocked out of both tournaments in the first round, he returned to the top-100 world rankings. At the Australian Open, Sousa won his first Grand Slam on his second attempt, following a first-round win over wildcard John-Patrick Smith. He lost to world number three Andy Murray in straight sets in the second round. In February, Sousa participated in the Portugal Davis Cup team in their Europe/Africa Zone Group II tie against Benin. He won his singles match against Loic Didavi and the doubles match partnering with Pedro Sousa. Portugal won the tie 5–0 and progressed to the second round. Sousa then played his first clay court tournaments of the season at the Chile Open and ATP Buenos Aires, where he again lost in the first round. At the Mexican Open, he defeated former top 10 Jürgen Melzer in the first round, but lost in the second round to Santiago Giraldo.

Despite failing to qualify for the Indian Wells Masters, Sousa entered for the first time in his career in the main draw of a Masters event at the Miami Masters. He lost in the first round to former world number 1 Lleyton Hewitt in straight sets. Sousa did not play in April after fracturing his left foot during a Davis Cup training session. He was scheduled to return as a wild card at the Portugal Open. His invitation was given to world number 4 David Ferrer instead, which stirred some controversy in Portuguese media. Later in the season, Sousa showed uncertainties about his future Portugal Open participation, which prompted tournament director João Lagos to comment on the contention. Ahead of the 2014 edition, the controversy was no longer an issue.

Sousa returned to action at the Madrid Masters qualifying rounds and at his first Challenger tournament of the season in Bordeaux, but he lost early in these attempts. At the 2013 French Open, Sousa won his first round match over Go Soeda in straight sets, and lost in the second round to Spaniard Feliciano López. He returned to the Challenger circuit with a singles title at Fürth and an early loss at Košice. It was also his second title in Fürth, after the triumph in 2011. Sousa missed the 2013 Wimbledon Championships main draw after losing in the third qualifying round to Julian Reister. He would also lose in the qualifying rounds of the doubles competition, while partnering with Teymuraz Gabashvili. In July, he played exclusively in Challenger tournaments, being runner-up in singles and doubles in San Benedetto, re-entering the top 100 rankings, which he has maintained ever since. He won the singles title in his hometown Guimarães. This remains his last participation at the ATP Challenger Tour, having won five singles and two doubles titles at the level. After losing in the qualifying rounds of the Cincinnati Masters, Sousa returned to the ATP World Tour at the Winston-Salem Open in August, losing to Alex Bogomolov, Jr. in the second round. In his first US Open appearance, Sousa reached the third round after defeating 25th seed Grigor Dimitrov and Jarkko Nieminen in back-to-back 5-set matches. He ended his campaign losing to world No. 1 Novak Djokovic. This was his best result at Grand Slams yet.

In September, Sousa joined Portugal's Davis Cup team to face Moldova in the semifinals of Europe/Africa Zone Group II. He won his first singles match over Maxim Dubarenco and the doubles match with Gastão Elias. He lost his second singles match to Radu Albot in an epic five-set duel which lasted nearly five hours. Portugal won 3–2 and was promoted to Group I in 2014. Following early-round wins over Paolo Lorenzi and Sergiy Stakhovsky at the St. Petersburg Open, Sousa beat former ATP top 20 player Dmitry Tursunov in the quarterfinals to advance to his first career ATP tour semifinal. He would lose there to Guillermo García-López.

Sousa's breakthrough title came at the Malaysian Open, in the early rounds of which he defeated Ryan Harrison and Pablo Cuevas. In the quarterfinals, Sousa defeated world No. 4 David Ferrer in straight set; Sousa's first career win over a top-10 player. Then, he qualified to his first ATP tour level final after getting past Jürgen Melzer in three sets. Sousa beat Frenchman Julien Benneteau in three sets in the final after saving one match point, becoming the first Portuguese player to win an ATP World Tour singles tournament. He also became the highest ranked Portuguese ever, climbing from No. 77 to No. 51. The previous record holder was Rui Machado, who was world No. 59 in 2011. Sousa officially entered the top 50 for the first time on 7 October 2013.

In October, Sousa had a first-round loss at the Kremlin Cup and a second round appearance at the Valencia Open. After beating Guillermo Garcia-Lopez in the first round, Sousa lost to 2013 Wimbledon semifinalist Jerzy Janowicz. Sousa finished his 2013 season by being eliminated from the Paris Masters in the qualifying round. At world No. 49, he became the first Portuguese to finish the season in the top 50. In November, Sousa was nominated for the 2013 Portuguese Sportsman of the Year award, losing to cyclist Rui Costa. At the same ceremony, he was named Tennis Personality of the Year by the Portuguese Tennis Federation.

2014: Consolidating presence in the ATP World Tour
Sousa began the 2014 season with a first-round loss at the 2014 Qatar Open. At the Sydney International's doubles competition, he partnered with Lukáš Rosol to defeat the Bryan brothers, the then-world No. 1 doubles team, en route to the semifinals. At the 2014 Australian Open, he was beaten by world No. 137 and future Grand Slam champion Dominic Thiem in the first round. Partnering with Colombian Santiago Giraldo, Sousa was eliminated in the first round of the doubles competition by Mahesh Bhupathi and Rajeev Ram. Later in January, Sousa joined the Portugal Davis Cup team to face Slovenia for the Europe/Africa Group I 1st Round. He won his first singles match against Janez Semrajc, but then lost in the doubles match and his second singles match against Blaž Kavčič. Portugal eventually lost 3–2 and fell to a relegation playoff. In February, he started with early round losses at the Open Sud de France and ATP Buenos Aires. Sousa played at the Rio Open and reached the quarterfinals, where he was beaten by world No. 1 Rafael Nadal. Sousa ended February with a second-round defeat and exit to Andy Murray at the Mexican Open. During the North American hard court Masters swing in March, Sousa started the Indian Wells Masters with a win over Aleksandr Nedovyesov, followed with a second-round loss to 20th seed Ernests Gulbis. At the 2014 Sony Open Tennis in Miami, Florida, Sousa reached the third round. After beating 26th seed Gilles Simon in the second round, he lost to world No. 7 Tomáš Berdych.

Sousa began the spring clay court season at the Grand Prix Hassan II in Casablanca, where he was beaten by world No. 273 Roberto Carballés Baena in a second-round match lasting over three hours. This loss started an eight-match losing streak that lasted the remainder of the clay court season – it included losses at the Monte-Carlo Masters, at the Barcelona Open, at the Portugal Open, at the Madrid Masters, at the Rome Masters, and at the Düsseldorf Open. In the first round of the 2014 French Open, Sousa suffer his eighth consecutive loss against world No. 2 Novak Djokovic. During this run of losses, Sousa reached the semifinals of the Portugal Open's doubles competition and the third round at the 2014 French Open doubles competition, where he partnered with American Jack Sock and lost to Andrey Golubev and Sam Groth.

Sousa made his debut at an ATP grass tournament main draw at the Halle Open. In the first round, he beat German wild card Jan-Lennard Struff and snapped the eight match losing streak. Then, he faced former world No. 1 and 6-time Halle champion Roger Federer in the second round. After winning a close first set, Sousa ended up losing in three sets to the Swiss. At the Rosmalen Grass Court Championships, Sousa became the first Portuguese player ever to reach the semifinal of an ATP tour level grass tournament. He beat in succession Paolo Lorenzi, Mate Pavić and Thiemo de Bakker, losing in the semifinals to Benjamin Becker. To cap his grass court season, Sousa played his first ever Wimbledon Championships main draw match at the 2014 edition, with a straight sets loss in the first round to world No. 3 Stan Wawrinka. In the doubles competition, he partnered with Argentinian Carlos Berlocq to play a four-hour, five-set first round loss to Martin Kližan and Dominic Thiem.

In July, Sousa reached his second-career ATP tour level final and his first of 2014 at the Swedish Open, defeating the defending champion Carlos Berlocq in the semifinals. He lost the final to the Uruguayan Pablo Cuevas in straight sets. After losing in early rounds at the German Open and the Croatia Open, Sousa entered the Canada Masters, where he was defeated in the first round by 11th seed Gulbis. At the Cincinnati Masters, Sousa was defeated by Andy Murray in the second round. Sousa was also eliminated in the second round of the Winston-Salem Open. At that tournament's doubles competition, Sousa reach his third semifinal of the season, teaming up with Romanian Florin Mergea. At the 2014 US Open, Sousa became the first Portuguese player to be seeded at a Grand Slam tournament, with the 32nd seed at the singles competition. He started with a five-set win over Canadian Frank Dancevic. In the second round, he lost to David Goffin. In the doubles competition, Sousa partnered with Serbian Dušan Lajović and beat the Americans Marcos Giron and Kevin King in the first round. They eventually fell to 4th seed Marcelo Melo and Ivan Dodig in the second round.

In September, Sousa was selected to join Portugal Davis Cup team against Russia for the Europe/Africa's Group I Relegation Playoff. He lost both his singles and doubles matches, confirming the relegation of Portugal to Group II in 2015. Sousa rebounded at the 2014 Moselle Open with his second ATP singles final of the season, after defeating former ATP top-10 Gaël Monfils in the semifinals. He lost the final in straight sets to Goffin. Sousa followed this with a first-round loss to Benjamin Becker at the 2014 Malaysian Open, where Sousa was the defending champion, and dropped out of the Top-50 for the first time in 11 months. However, a quarterfinal appearance at the doubles tournament enabled him to enter the ATP doubles top-100 for the first time. He became the second Portuguese player to reach the top-100 of both ATP rankings, after Nuno Marques. It was the first time since January 1996 that a Portuguese player held a spot on the singles and doubles top-100s simultaneously. At the China Open, Sousa lost in the second round to reigning US Open champion Marin Čilić. He followed it with a debut at the Shanghai Masters, where he lost to Juan Mónaco in the first round. Sousa also lost in the first round at the Stockholm Open, but rebounded at the Valencia Open with his second career win over a top-10 doubles team, the defending champions Alexander Peya and Bruno Soares, in the first round. Alongside Leonardo Mayer, he reached his fourth doubles semifinal that season, the first at ATP 500 level. At the Paris Masters, Sousa suffered another early exit, ending his 2014 ATP tour campaign.

Sousa ended 2014 as world No. 54, failing to keep his top-50 status from the previous season. He became the first Portuguese player to maintain top-100 status by playing exclusively on the ATP World Tour in a single season. In November, he was nominated for the 2014 Portuguese Sportsman of the Year award, again losing to cyclist Rui Costa.

2015: Second ATP title and quarterfinal at Grand Slam
Sousa began the 2015 season with an early round loss at the Auckland Open. At the 2015 Australian Open, he started his campaign with wins over wild card Jordan Thompson and Martin Kližan. He progressed to a third round match-up with 6th seed Andy Murray, becoming the second Portuguese player to reach that stage. Sousa lost in straight sets to Murray. In the doubles competition, Sousa partnered with Santiago Giraldo to reach the second round, where they lost to 2nd seeds Julien Benneteau and Édouard Roger-Vasselin. In February, Sousa participated at the Open Sud de France. After defeating Philipp Kohlschreiber in the quarterfinals, he lost in the semifinals to Jerzy Janowicz in three sets. After early round losses at the Rotterdam Open and Open 13, Sousa reached the second round of the Dubai Tennis Championships, where he was beaten by Murray. Sousa was then called for the Davis Cup team to face Morocco for the Europe/Africa Zone's Group II first round in early March. He won his singles rubber and partnered with Frederico Ferreira Silva to win the doubles rubber and close the tie in Portugal's favour. After injuring his knee and suffering breathing difficulties, Sousa was eliminated from both Indian Wells Masters and Miami Masters in the first round. He returned to Barcelona for recovery.

Sousa returned in April at the Monte-Carlo Masters, losing in the second round to Milos Raonic. At the Barcelona Open and Estoril Open, he lost in early rounds and then was eliminated from the Madrid Masters in the second round by Stan Wawrinka and from the Rome Masters in the first round by John Isner. At the Geneva Open, Sousa won a first round match over his Brazilian homophone João Souza, which was notable for the umpire needing to refer to each player by their nationality to distinguish between them during the calls. Sousa proceeded to the final, his first of the season, where he lost to Thomaz Bellucci. At the French Open, Sousa beat Canadian Vasek Pospisil in straight sets in the first round, and was defeated by 3rd seed Andy Murray in the second round. In the men's doubles of the tournament, Sousa partnered with Bellucci and was knocked out in the first round by 11th seeds Jamie Murray and John Peers. In June, Sousa did not have a strong grass court season; he was defeated in the early rounds at the Rosmalen Grass Court Championships, the Queen's Club Championships and the Nottingham Open. At Wimbledon, Sousa was again eliminated in straight sets in the first round by French Open champion and 4th seed Stan Wawrinka. His results did not improve in the men's doubles competition, from which he was eliminated in the first round while partnering with Santiago Giraldo.

At the Davis Cup Group II second round against Finland, Sousa rebounded with wins in his two singles rubbers and in the doubles rubber with Gastão Elias. At the Croatia Open, he beat in succession Andreas Seppi, Fabio Fognini and Roberto Bautista Agut to reach his second final in 2015. Sousa lost the final to Dominic Thiem. After a quarterfinal exit at the Swiss Open, He suffered a first-round loss to Bernard Tomic at the Canada Masters and reached the second round at the Cincinnati Masters, where he lost to Marin Čilić. Following a brief appearance at the Winston-Salem Open, Sousa was defeated at the US Open by Ričardas Berankis in five sets in the first round. In the men's doubles competition, Sousa became the second Portuguese player to reach the quarterfinals of a Grand Slam event after Nuno Marques, also in men's doubles at the 2000 Australian Open. Sousa and his partner Argentinian Leonardo Mayer were denied a presence in the semifinals by Americans Sam Querrey and Steve Johnson.

Sousa returned to the Davis Cup in September to help Portugal defeat Belarus and gain promotion to Europe/Africa Zone's Group I in 2016. Despite losing his first singles rubber, he won the doubles rubber with Elias and the deciding singles rubber against Uladzimir Ignatik. At the St. Petersburg Open, Sousa reached his third final of the season. Following wins over Marcel Granollers, Simone Bolelli and Dominic Thiem, Sousa was runner-up to Milos Raonic in three sets. In October, Sousa entered on a 1–4 run with early round losses at the Malaysian Open, the Japan Open, the Shanghai Masters and the Kremlin Cup. At the Valencia Open, Sousa capped the season with his second career ATP title and the first of the season in four final attempts. After beating four higher-ranked players, including Benoît Paire, Sousa defeated 7th seed Roberto Bautista Agut in the final in three sets. He reached a new career-high ranking in the following week at world No. 34. Sousa finished the season at career-high world No. 33 with 38 singles wins. In November, he received the award for Tennis Personality of the Year for the second time from the Portuguese Tennis Federation and the Confederação do Desporto de Portugal.

During 2015, physiotherapist Carlos Costa, known for his work with Tommy Haas, occasionally joined Sousa's entourage in selected tournaments; Sousa wanted to have a part-time member in his team responsible for that area. In 2016, Costa is expected to follow Sousa for at least 10 weeks but will remain focused on Haas' return until Wimbledon.

2016: Top 30 and first Masters 1000 quarterfinals
After training at Rafael Nadal's home ground in the pre-season, Sousa began the 2016 season with a first-round loss to Fabio Fognini at the Auckland Open. Due to Richard Gasquet's absence by injury, he became the first Portuguese ever to be seeded at the Australian Open, entering the singles main draw as the 32nd seed. Following wins over Mikhail Kukushkin and Santiago Giraldo, Sousa lost in the third round to world No. 2 Andy Murray for the second successive year. In the doubles event, Sousa partnered with Leonardo Mayer but the pair were eliminated in the first round.

In April, Sousa reached his first Masters 1000 quarterfinals at the Mutua Madrid Open 2016, after beating Nicolas Mahut, lucky loser Marcel Granollers and Jack Sock. He lost to Rafael Nadal in three sets. His clay season ended with a second-round exit at the French Open, where he lost to Ernests Gulbis in four sets.

In June, Sousa entered Wimbledon as 31st seed. After beating Dmitry Tursunov in five sets and Dennis Novikov in four sets, he lost to Jiri Vesely in the third round, making for his best run ever at Wimbledon.

Sousa entered the 2016 Rogers Cup where he lost in the 1st round 6–3, 6–3 to semi-finalist Gaël Monfils.
At the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, Sousa won his first match but lost in the next round in three sets to eventual silver medalist Juan Martín del Potro. Three weeks later at the 2016 US Open, he inflicted the heaviest defeat of the Men's Singles draw, defeating Víctor Estrella Burgos in the first round conceding only 2 games in 3 sets. He went on to defeat Feliciano Lopez in 4 sets but his run ended losing to a resurgent Grigor Dimitrov.

After dropping the points from the 2015 Valencia Open in late October, Sousa finished the season at 43rd in the ATP Rankings, with just over 1,000 points.

2017: Two ATP finals

João Sousa trained with Rafael Nadal in the offseason for the second year running. He started the 2017 season at the 2017 Auckland Open once again, where he reached the final after beating Albert Ramos-Vinolas, Brydan Klein, Robin Haase and Marcos Baghdatis. He lost in three sets to Jack Sock, but the result allowed him to re-enter the Top 40 in the ATP Singles Rankings. Sousa's January ended with a first-round exit at the Australian Open, having lost in five sets to Jordan Thompson, his worst result at this Grand Slam since 2014.

Sousa started the South American swing at the Argentina Open, having lost in the quarter-finals to eventual finalist Kei Nishikori. At the Rio Open, Sousa crashed out in the first round, losing in two sets to Roberto Carballes Baena, in a match that lasted just under an hour. His last clay tournament in South America was the Brasil Open, where he lost in the semi-finals to Albert Ramos-Vinolas in three sets.

In March, Sousa entered the first two Masters 1000 tournaments of the season. At the BNP Paribas Open, he lost to Mischa Zverev in the second round. At the Miami Open, Sousa entered as 30th seed, receiving a bye for the first round, but lost in the second round to Fabio Fognini.

Sousa's late May ended with second round at the French Open, having lost to three sets to Serbian number 2's Novak Djokovic by 6–1, 6–4, 6–3. But, Sousa already won at first round with Serbia's Janko Tipsarevic, having won by four sets by 4–6, 7–6 (7–3), 6–2, 6–2.

After the clay court season was over, he continued a streak of consecutive losses, losing matches to Philipp Kohlschreiber, Radu Albot and Dustin Brown at the Gerry Weber Open, Antalya Open and Wimbledon respectively.

Sousa's streak remained active in Croatia Open Umag, losing in 3 sets to Aljaz Bedene. However, he would eventually turn it around winning by reaching the quarterfinals in Swiss Open Gstaad and reaching the final in Generali Open Kitzbühel.

He would go on to have more losses in the remainder of the year and not many more wins. One of these includes two crucial defeats in the Davis Cup where Portugal could have qualified for the World Group for the first time in its history, specially considering the absence of the Zverev brothers and Kohlschreiber.

2018–2019: Home title, Grand Slam fourth rounds
In 2018, Sousa made the third round of the Indian Wells Masters and the fourth round of the Miami Masters. At Indian Wells, he defeated 4th seed and world number 5 Alexander Zverev in the second round before losing to 32nd seed Milos Raonic in three sets. At Miami, he defeated 7th seed and world number 9 David Goffin in the second round only losing one game in the process before losing to 19th seed Chung Hyeon in straight sets.

Sousa became the first Portuguese player to win his home title in Estoril, after beating Daniil Medvedev, countryman Pedro Sousa, Kyle Edmund, Stefanos Tsitsipas and Frances Tiafoe.
He reached the fourth round at the US Open, losing to eventual champion Novak Djokovic.

Sousa failed to defend his title at the following 2019 Estoril, losing to David Goffin in the second round. 
He reached the fourth round for a second week at 2019 Wimbledon, losing to Rafael Nadal.

2020–2021: Dip in form and rankings, out of top 100, 200th ATP career win
Throughout 2020 and 2021, Sousa showed a severe dip in form. Since the beginning of 2020, Sousa posted a win-loss record of 1–20 on the ATP tour and his ranking plummeted from No. 58 at the beginning of 2020 to No. 147 as of July 26, 2021. It was the first time since 2013 that Sousa had fallen outside the top 100 in singles rankings.

At the 2020 Davis Cup. Sousa defeated Romanian Filip Cristian Jianu to record his 200th career win.

2022: First ATP title since 2018, back to top 100

At the 2022 Australian Open, Sousa participated in the qualifications to enter the men's singles main draw as a qualifier. He fell short of doing so, as he lost to Radu Albot in the final round of qualifying. Sousa would still end up entering the main draw as a lucky loser, facing Jannik Sinner. He lost to Sinner in straight sets.

After being in a serious slump for more than 2 years, Sousa finally earned one of his best results in recent years, winning his 4th career singles title in Pune. He defeated Emil Ruusuvuori in the final to win his first tour-level title since 2018. As a result, he moved 51 positions up, returning into the top 100 to No. 86.

Playing style

Sousa's game is strongly based on his serve and forehand. He is right-handed and plays with a two-handed backhand. Sousa has said the forehand is his favourite shot and that he prefers playing on clay courts. He is known for expressing his emotions on court at times, often focusing on his coach or the umpire. Andy Murray described Sousa as a tough opponent who never backs down from a fight, while Novak Djokovic called him a "tough" and mentally strong player who "takes the best out of the opponent". Jamie Murray said Sousa has a "good forehand" and "likes playing on clay", despite his better results on hard courts. He has been described as having the potential of becoming a top-20 player.

Sousa's game pattern has become more offensive-minded and consistent, and his game has evolved in recent years from playing on clay to becoming more proficient on other surfaces. He won his first Challenger title on hard courts in July 2013 in his hometown Guimarães. Later in September, Sousa went on an 8–1 run to cap his semifinal run at the 2013 St. Petersburg Open and win the title at the 2013 Proton Malaysian Open, both ATP tour hard-court indoor tournaments. He continued his form on faster courts in 2014, with deep runs on grass courts at the 2014 Gerry Weber Open and Topshelf Open, and a final appearance in a hard court indoor tournament at the 2014 Moselle Open. Despite a results slump on clay earlier in the season, he still achieved his first ATP tour-level final on clay at the 2014 Swedish Open, and, eventually triumphing in home turf at the 2018 Estoril Open.

Equipment and endorsements
As of October 2013, Sousa has been represented by Polaris Sports, a subsidiary of Jorge Mendes's Gestifute, which manages the career of other major Portuguese sportspeople, including Cristiano Ronaldo. Sousa uses a Wilson racquet, and is endorsed by Lotto Sport Italia since January 2014, in a two-year partnership which covers the supply of footwear, clothing and accessories. In May 2015, Sousa started a partnership with sports supplements company Gold Nutrition. Sousa's endorsement of sporting attires was switched to Joma in 2020.

Portuguese clothing brand Mike Davis announced an agreement with Sousa to associate him with the brand's casual sportswear during 2014. Portuguese private bank BES was another endorser of Sousa's career before its bailout in August 2014. In February 2015, private bank Millenium BCP announced a sponsorship agreement with Sousa.

Earlier in his career, Sousa said he struggled to find local endorsements and also lamented the financial struggles of the Portuguese Tennis Federation, which prevented support for his growing participation in the ATP Tour. He criticized local government for lack of support of sports other than football. During his junior and early professional career, Sousa's expenses were supported mainly by his parents and through bank loans.

Career statistics

Grand Slam tournament performance timelines

Singles
Current through the 2022 Australian Open.

Doubles

ATP Masters 1000 finals

Doubles: 1 (1 runner-up)

Awards
2013 – CDP Portuguese Tennis Personality of the Year
2014 – CNID Portuguese Athlete of the Year
2015 – CDP Portuguese Tennis Personality of the Year

Notes

References

External links

 Official website

Profiles
 
 
 
 

1989 births
Living people
Portuguese expatriate sportspeople in Spain
Sportspeople from Guimarães
Portuguese male tennis players
Tennis players at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Tennis players at the 2020 Summer Olympics
Olympic tennis players of Portugal, A clinical officer (CO) is a gazetted officer who is qualified and licensed to practice medicine. 

In her books, "Beyond the State: The Colonial Medical Service in British Africa" and "Indian Doctors in Kenya, 1895 - 1940: The Forgotten History", the author Anna Greenwood notes that before 1923 there were twice as many Indian doctors as there were European doctors working in the Colonial Medical Service. The Indian doctors had migrated to British Africa along with the coolies who came to work on the Uganda Railway. The Indian doctors faced discrimination and were not appointed to nor paid at the same rank as medical officers (European doctors). Instead, they were designated as Assistant or Sub-assistant surgeons despite having attended similar 3 - 4 year Indian medical schools that were recognized by the General Medical Council in the UK and performing clinical and administrative duties that were largely identical to those of the European doctors. From the mid-1920s the Indians were removed from the colonial service as they were not deemed to be the proper face of the imperial services in Africa. The Indian Assistant and Sub-Assistant Surgeons were thus replaced with similarly qualified Africans who came to be known as clinical officers when the authorizing legislation was passed in 1988 abolishing the Assistant and Sub-Assistant Surgeon and similar positions.

In Kenya, the origin of the clinical officer can be traced back to around 1888 when Sir William Mackinnon, 1st Baronet founded the Imperial British East Africa Company. The company was granted royal charter by Queen Victoria and was used by the Government of the United Kingdom to establish its influence in the East Africa Protectorate (present day Kenya). As the influence grew a healthcare system developed to meet the medical needs of the colony. In 1901 Kenyatta National Hospital was established as the Native Civil Hospital and later renamed the King George VI Hospital after King George VI of the United Kingdom. In 1958 the European Hospital (present-day Nairobi Hospital) was established in the same area to serve the European settlers. The need for qualified medical staff who would provide preventive, promotive, curative and rehabilitative services in hospitals and communities led to the establishment of the first formal training programme for clinical officers at Kenyatta National Hospital in 1928. The programme initially admitted experienced nurses and took them through a one-year certificate course which prepared them for advanced practice. The nursing track was discontinued and new students had to complete a medical course and sit and pass continuous assessment tests and final qualifying examinations which covered the biomedical sciences, medicine, surgery, paediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology, community health and health service management. The training expanded after Kenya's independence in 1962 through to 1970 when the newly created University of Nairobi started its own medical school and also used Kenyatta National Hospital as its teaching hospital. Legislation to regulate medical practice by clinical officers was passed in 1988 thus creating the Clinical Officers Council in 1989. In 1990 the Kenya Medical Training College was established by the government with campuses in all major towns and in 1996 the Roman Catholic Diocese of Kakamega established St. Mary's School of Clinical Medicine at St. Mary's Hospital in Mumias which become the second and third institutions to offer the training in Kenya. By this time clinical officers had to complete an accredited four-year programme of study, practicals and internship in clinical medicine and surgery and have their names entered in the clinical officers register which was cleaned annually and taken to the government printer to be published in the Kenya Gazette. Private practice by clinical officers who had left government service after working for a minimum of 10 years was now allowed. Undergraduate degrees in clinical medicine were first offered by Egerton University and other universities as from 2006 and in 2012 the Commission for University Education Act No. 42 of 2012 removed the accreditation role from all regulatory bodies such as the Clinical Officers Council (COC) and the Kenya Medical Practitioners and Dentists Council (KMPDC) making the Commission for University Education (CUE) the only authorized accrediting body for all university degrees in Kenya including the degree in clinical medicine. In 2017 the old legislation was repealed and the Clinical Officers Council reconstituted by the Clinical Officers (Training, Registration and Licensing) Act No. 20 of 2017 which requires each clinical officer, clinic or medical centre to be registered by the council and to maintain a current practice license and a current practising certificate in order to operate legally within the scope of medicine, dentistry, orthopedics or health work. A clinical officer may, with respect to patients - examine, diagnose, order laboratory and imaging investigations, prescribe treatment and perform procedures as per their scope of training. Clinical officers are members of the Kenya Clinical Officers Association and the Kenya Union of Clinical Officers. In June 2020 the Public Service Commission approved the Revised Scheme of Service for Clinical Personnel which was issued by the State Department for Public Service to define the clinical officer's career structure, job description, standards for recruitment, training and advancement, and career planning and succession management within the civil service. The scheme is administered by the Ministry of Health through the Cabinet Secretary and the Principal Secretary in conjunction with the Public Service Commission and the County Chief Officer for Health in each of the 47 Counties of Kenya.

Clinical officer is a professional designation established by the government through the Clinical Officers Council (COC) which has jurisdiction and responsibility for the clinical officer's training, registration and licensing and each officer must (1) study clinical medicine and surgery or clinical medicine and community health for three or four years (2) graduate from a government-accredited medical training college (3) sit and pass a government licensing examination (4) complete an internship year at a teaching hospital (5) be registered as a clinical officer (6) have a medical practice licence (7) complete a three-year period of clinical supervision under a senior clinical officer or a senior medical officer (8) have a practising certificate if they have a private practice which allows one to provide general medical services on their own directly to the public (9) undergo one or two additional years of specialized training (optional) and (10) become a trainer. Clinical Officer (CO) is a protected professional title and its use by unregistered persons is prohibited by law and punishable by up to five years in jail with or without a fine. Globally, the title may not have legal restrictions and can refer to a job grade rather than a medical qualification such as junior assistive clinical staff (e.g. in Zambia and Tanzania), licensed medical professionals (e.g. in Kenya and Malawi) or high-level corporate officers, directors, and managers (e.g. Chief Clinical Officers in Europe and the United States).

A clinical officer observes, interviews and examines sick and healthy individuals in all specialties to determine and document their health status and applies relevant pathological, radiological, psychiatric and community health techniques, procedures and findings needed to classify diseases and related health problems and to establish a provisional or final diagnosis upon which to prescribe, initiate, carry out or terminate treatment or therapy based on their specialized knowledge, skills and experience in clinical pharmacology, use of clinical guidelines, best practices and disease patterns as well as individual patient and community characteristics while being actively pharmacovigilant to prevent, identify, minimize and manage drug reactions, drug errors, side effects and poisoning, overdiagnosis, overscreening, overtreatment and futile care. A clinical officer performs general and specialized medical duties such as diagnosis and treatment of disease and injury, ordering and interpreting medical tests, performing routine medical and surgical procedures, referring patients to other practitioners and managing health departments, institutions, projects and systems.

Clinical officers, medical officers and medical practitioners are the only officers who are gazetted and licensed to practice medicine in Kenya. They work under oath and generate credible health data and information within communities and health institutions and cascade the same to the county and national governments, government agencies and third parties through standard recording and reporting tools from the Ministry of Health which are used to capture data on disease outbreaks, physical injuries and deformities, mental illness, drug resistance, disability, nutritional disorders, births and deaths among others.

Overview
To practice medicine and surgery or dentistry as a clinical officer one requires at least four years of full-time medical training, supervised clinical practice and internship at an accredited medical training institution and hospitals and registration with the relevant medical board in their country. After a prescribed number of years in active practice, one may complete a further one or two-year residency programme in order to specialize in any approved branch of clinical medicine and surgery such as anesthesia or pediatrics, or get an advanced medical qualification from the university. There are no pathways (post-basic or post-graduate entry-level conversion programs) for nurses and other health workers hence it takes at least eight years of specialised medical training and experience for a clinical officer to graduate with a post-basic qualification. "Clinical officer" in some countries such as Tanzania and Zambia refers to a different cadre of health workers, comparable to "medical assistants" in Malawi, who have less than three years of training but who may upgrade to a similar level by becoming Assistant Medical Officers (AMOs) or Medical Licentiates (MLs)."medical assistants/Sub Assistant Community Medical Officer" in Bangladesh, a Four Year medical diploma course conducting state medical faculty of Bangladesh under ministry of Health and family welfare.

A clinician can specialize in any other field that is deemed appropriate by them and not just clinical medicine. China also has masters of clinical medicine. In countries like Tanzania, UK, and other countries, clinical medicine is regarded as a medical course and graduates are allowed to apply to masters of medicine specialties.

No significant difference has been demonstrated in studies comparing treatment decisions, patient outcomes, quality of care provided and level of knowledge about diseases between a clinical officer and a medical officer (a non-specialist physician) except in countries where nurses were mistakenly assessed as clinical officers. However, because of the nature of practice, populations served and resources at ones disposal, a clinical officer is less likely to administer expensive treatment, prescribe expensive (but not necessarily better) drugs or engage in futile care.

The success of HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment initiatives in Africa is mostly attributed to use of clinical officers to diagnose the disease and provide comprehensive medical care. Access to emergency obstetric care through greater deployment of the clinical officer is one way of attaining the Millennium Development Goals 4 (reducing child mortality) and 5 (improving maternal health).

Worldwide, patients are seen by many other practitioners other than the traditional doctor such as:
Osteopathic physicians, Podiatrists, Optometrists and Anesthesiologist assistants in the United States
Emergency and Clinical Officer Pakistan
Physician Assistants in the United States, United Kingdom, Netherlands, Liberia and Ghana
Assistant Doctors in China,
Surgical Care and Emergency Care Practitioners in the UK,
Assistant Physicians in Saudi Arabia,
Health Extension Officers in Papua New Guinea
medical assistants/Sub Assistant Community Medical Officer in Bangladesh
Medical Assistants in Fiji
Assistant Medical Officers in Malaysia
Surgical Technologists in Mozambique
Clinical Associates in South Africa.

Scope of practice
A clinical officer takes the Hippocratic oath and, depending on jurisdiction, may be registered by the same statutory board as physicians (in the southern countries such as Zambia and Malawi) or a separate board (in the eastern countries such as Kenya and Uganda). The broad nature of medical training prepares one to work at all levels of the health care system. Most work in primary care health centres and clinics, and casualty departments in hospitals where one will diagnose and treat all common diseases, including serious and life-threatening ones, in all age groups; and stabilise then admit, discharge or refer emergency cases. In smaller hospitals one may work as a hospitalist and one who has specialized in a clinical field provides advanced medical and surgical care and treatment such as administering anesthesia, performing general or specialised surgery, supervising other health workers and other administrative duties.

A clinical officer's scope of practice depends on one's training and experience, jurisdiction and workplace policies. In Malawi, for instance, a clinical officer performs all routine surgical and obstetric operations such as exploratory laparatomy, emergency orthopaedics and Caesarean section. However, in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique one has to undergo further specialized training in order to perform such major operations safely.

In rural and small urban health facilities a clinical officer is usually the highest medical care provider and works with minimal resources, relying on the traditional medical history and physical examination, often with little or no laboratory facilities, to make a diagnosis and provide treatment. In bigger and better equipped facilities a clinical officer generally acquires superior knowledge, experience and skills and provides high quality and a wider range of services in district, provincial and national hospitals, universities and colleges, research institutions and private medical facilities.

A clinical officer is usually the lowest entry-level cadre in the medical hierarchy but with years of experience and/or further training one can rise to the same or a higher grade than a physician. In most countries, however, wages are usually low compared to training and responsibilities and career progression is usually restricted by awarding terminal degrees and diplomas, training students who have not attained the minimum university entry grade and, in some countries, not awarding any degree or recognition for advanced training. In such countries, this usually results in a demotivated and low quality workforce and resulting poor health indicators.

The United States' Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other international health and research institutions make extensive use of COs in their projects in Africa and clinical officers have been the backbone of HIV care and treatment enabling the rollout of ARVS to even the most rural hard to reach areas in Africa.

Research done by the University of Birmingham and published in the British Medical Journal concluded that the effectiveness and safety of caeserian sections carried out by clinical officers did not differ significantly compared with doctors. Better health outcomes including lower maternal mortality rates were observed where COs had completed further specialised training particularly in anaesthesia.

In the multi-country study, poor outcomes were observed in Burkina Faso and Zaire - the only countries where the procedure was performed by trained nurses. Higher rates of wound infection and Wound dehiscence in these countries was thought to be due to the nurses' poor surgical technique and need for enhanced training.
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Kenya
Kenya has a comprehensive framework of parallel laws and regulations that govern the medical practice of medical officers and clinical officers. The supreme health policy and medical authorities in the republic are the cabinet secretary of health and the director of medical services who oversee the registration and licensing of medical institutions and the training, registration and licensing of medical practitioners through the Medical Practitioners and Dentists Board and the Clinical Officers Council.

As a British colony in 1928, Kenya started training a select group of natives to practice medicine and care for the local population who were increasingly accepting and seeking western medicine. After independence from Britain in 1963, medical training in Kenya initially adopted the four-year medical school system used in the US rather than the six-year UK model. This was heavily influenced by the Kennedy Airlift which followed initial funding by the African-American Students Foundation (AASF) in 1959 and led to hundreds of young Kenyan students getting scholarships to study in American institutions: These students came back to Kenya after their studies and joined the civil service in the early post-independence Kenya. It was also around this time that the first DOs were accepted as medical officers by the US civil service and by 1967 the structure and duration of medical training in Kenya was similar to the US MD training. When the University of Nairobi split from the University of East Africa and became the first university in Kenya in 1970, it continued to teach the six-year British degree which led to the creation of two statutory bodies: the Kenya Medical Practitioners and Dentists Board in 1978 which had jurisdiction over medical officers and physicians, and the Clinical Officers Council in 1989 which had jurisdiction over clinical officers. Instead of residency for the clinical officer, the higher diploma in paediatrics, ophthalmology and other specializations was introduced in the late 1970s as a post-basic course for those who had worked for three or more years and, after ten years of service, one became a Senior Clinical Officer and qualified for a licence to practice under his own name as a private medical practitioner. The BSc. Clinical Medicine and Surgery degree was later introduced in 2006.

Clinical officers play a central role in Kenya's medical sector today. There were 8,600 clinical officers on the register in 2010 compared to 7,100 medical officers. They are trained by the universities, the Kenya Medical Training College (KMTC), St. Mary's School of Clinical Medicine and other private institutions. The Ministry of Health, through the Clinical Officers Council (COC) regulates their training and practice, accredits training institutions, and approves the syllabi of the universities and colleges. The Kenya Medical Training College (KMTC), also under the Ministry of Health, has campuses in regional teaching hospitals and trains the majority of clinical officers. St. Mary's School of Clinical Medicine and St. Mary's Mission Hospital in Mumias, owned by the Roman Catholic diocese of Kakamega, was the first private institution to train clinical officers. It admits students who got the minimum university entry grade in high school and have passed a written examination and oral interview. The students sit the same examination as their counterparts at the KMTC and are examined by consultants from the public service.

On 28 October 1981 lawmakers addressed the National Assembly as follows:
Mr. Orengo: On a point of order Mr. Deputy Speaker Sir. Is it really in order for the hon. Member for Butere to impute that this house does not know that clinical officers are not allowed to practice. I think the motion is just after legalizing the position and not saying that they are not allowed to practice.
Mr. Shikuku: Mr. Deputy Speaker, we heard Dr. Chibule saying that he is going to give us a list of 20 clinical officers who are being refused permission to practice and forced to go back to government practice and this is the thing I am trying to reply to. The hon. Member was in the house when Dr. Chibule said this but I do not know why he did not hear him say so, but nevertheless, let me continue. Mr. Deputy speaker, Sir, the clinical officers helped the government during the recent doctors' strike in the country when we virtually depended on them. Now, Sir, part (a) of this motion is not the responsibility of the Ministry of Health because if anybody wants to pursue higher education, even from this house, it is upon him first to make sure he has the prerequisite qualifications to pursue higher studies. So, with that, the ministry is not concerned. Part (b) of the motion is the most important. We are requiring the enactment of a law to cover our present clinical officers to allow them to practice and be covered by the law as the doctors are covered. This is the point and the assistant minister for health has produced a paper which is going to be presented before the cabinet after which it will come to the house. Now, Sir, where do we disagree? There is no place where we disagree. What we are trying to say is that the government is already doing what it is being asked to do, and that is why we are saying that this matter has more or less been overtaken by events. Therefore, we are not going to be asked to do what we are already doing.
Mr. Orengo: On a point of order, Mr. Deputy Speaker, Sir.
Mr. Shikuku: You can have as many points of order as you like!

The dual diploma in clinical medicine and surgery plus an internship year is the standard qualification for clinical officers which is awarded on completion of a four-year training programme which started as various programmes that were used to train medical practitioners in the East Africa Protectorate in the 1920s and which now resembles the North American four-year MD and DO medical school programmes (including being structured in 9 trimesters over 3 years to meet the minimum 130 weeks of instruction recommended by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education) instead of the more recent six-year MBChB programme that was introduced in the 1970s and is more common in European and Commonwealth countries:

Medical Officers training:
 Is a six-year professional degree programme accredited by the Medical Practitioners and Dentists Board involving
 Two years of pre-clinical training in medical sciences followed by
 Four years of training in clinical medicine, surgery and community health including a mandatory one-year internship and
 Registration, licensing and gazettment by the Medical Practitioners and Dentists Board giving
 Unlimited practice rights with
 Specialisation and private practice allowed and eligible for full professional membership of the Kenya Medical Association (KMA)

Clinical Officers training:
 Is a four or five-year professional diploma or degree programme accredited by the Clinical Officers Council involving 
 One year of pre-clinical training in medical sciences followed by
 Three or four years of training in clinical medicine, surgery and community health including a mandatory one-year internship and
 Registration, licensing and gazettment by the Clinical Officers Council giving
Unlimited practice rights with
 Specialisation and private practice allowed and eligible for full professional membership of the Kenya Clinical Officers Association (KCOA)

The current training follows international guidelines and the two qualifications are awarded jointly on successful completion of a comprehensive nine trimester programme of full-time study, practicals and examinations which are covered over three years leading to a fourth mandatory year of internship in a teaching hospital. A fifth and sixth residency specialisation years are undertaken after registration by the Clinical Officers Council and three years of work experience in general medicine which leads to the award of a general degree in clinical medicine or a specialist diploma in pediatrics, orthopedics, psychiatry, anaesthesia, reproductive health and other specialties.

A clinical officer is therefore able to graduate and join the workforce in a minimum of four calendar years and provides medical services within the full scope of family and emergency medicine or within a narrower scope depending on their area of specialisation.

Registration by the Clinical Officers Council (COC) entitles one to render medical services in any public or private medical institution or to practice medicine independently as a private practitioner. Registration also qualifies one to join and participate in the affairs of the Kenya Clinical Officers Association (KCOA), including its annual KCOA Scientific Conference, and the Kenya Union of Clinical Officers (KUCO). As per the government's Revised Scheme of Service for Clinical Personnel (2014) a clinical officer works at any of 8 grades depending on ones seniority.

As gazetted officers all registered clinical officers are legally authorized to prepare, sign, issue and keep safe custody of official state documents such as medical examination reports, sick notes, postmortem examination reports and death certificates and to appear in courts of law as expert witnesses. For this reason, a clinical officer is the officer in-charge of a health center or a district hospital and is part of the medical team in bigger hospitals where one may head a department or work under a senior clinical officer or a physician.

Clinical officers are direct healthcare providers who manage and administer health institutions, medical schemes and projects in primary healthcare (PHC) settings and are frontline stakeholders in Universal Health Coverage in Kenya which is one of the key pillars of the government's 5-year development plan under President Uhuru Kenyatta. The four pillars of the 5-year development plan are 1. Manufacturing 2. Affordable housing 3. Universal Health Coverage and 4. Food security.

Legal status
In Kenya's public health system, a clinical officer is an alternative practitioner who is trained and authorized by law to perform any technical, administrative or legal duties that require a medical doctor. However, due to the shorter training period when compared to medical officers (i.e. 4 years instead of 6 years), a clinical officer joins the public service at a lower grade and gains seniority through experience, additional training or further education.

Like the term medical officer, the term clinical officer is a protected title whose use without the authority of the Clinical Officers Council is prohibited and a punishable offense under Kenyan laws. Court rulings uphold that a registration certificate or a licence issued by the council automatically confers the status of a medical officer or a qualified medical practitioner to a clinician and the titles are used interchangeably in medico-legal documents because a qualified clinical officer has a recognized medical qualification and is eligible for registration as a medical practitioner under Section 11(1) of the Medical Practitioners and Dentists Act in addition to being expressly authorized to practice medicine, surgery or dentistry by Section 7(4) of the Clinical Officers ActCriminal Appeal 198 of 2008 - Kenya LawCriminal Case 6 of 2004 - Kenya LawCAP. 249

From the Anatomy Act, the legal definition of a medical officer is any public officer who is entitled to be registered as a medical practitioner if he applied under any law in the country: Section 14(1) of the Medical Practitioners and Dentists Act and Section 7(4) of the Clinical Officers Act are the only two laws that can authorize one to practice medicine and render medical or dental services in the public sector if they hold a registration certificate or in the private sector if they hold a current licence as well. The Public Health Act further defines a medical officer of health as a public officer who is responsible for health nationally (the Director of Medical Services and the Director clinical services) or regionally (the County or Sub-County Medical Officer of Health and the County or Sub-County Clinical Officer).

Like his counterparts in the public service, a clinical officer in the private sector has the same practice rights and privileges as a medical officer and both are authorized to work independently and specialize in any approved branch of general or specialised medicine. The Competition Act No.12 of 2010 directly prohibits and addresses multi-sectoral abuse of dominance, consumer welfare, exemptions, cartels and unwarranted concentration of economic power among practitioners.

A register of active clinical officers and medical institutions is available online on the Clinical Officers Council and Ministry of Health websites.

The Clinical Officers (Training, Registration and Licensing) Act No. 20 of 2017

The Clinical Officers (Training, Registration and Licensing) Act No.20 of 2017 is the law that governs the medical practice of a clinical Officer. It establishes the Clinical Officers Council whose functions are to:
advise the government on policy matters relating to clinical medicine practice
prescribe the minimum educational entry requirements for persons wishing to be trained as clinical officers
approve institutions other than those established or accredited under the Universities Act, 2012 for the training of clinical officers
establish, approve and accredit programs for continuing professional educational programs
register and license clinical officers for the purposes of this Act
maintain a register and records of all clinical officers registered under this Act
cause to be published in the Kenya Gazette every calendar year the names of all registered clinical officers
promote development and adoption of codes of practice
regulate the professional conduct and ensure the maintenance and improvement of the standards of practice of clinical medicine
collaborate with other medical professional associations, organisations and other relevant bodies, in the furtherance of the functions of the Council and those bodies
consider and deal with any other matter pertaining to clinical officers including prescribing badges, insignias or uniforms to be worn by clinical officers and
carry out other functions related to the implementation of this Act.

Training

Although training programmes existed as early as 1928, the first university to train clinical officers was Egerton University in 1999. Programs also exist at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya Methodist University (KEMU) Mt Kenya University. and Presbyterian university of East Africa (PUEA). The diploma in Clinical Medicine and Surgery is completed in nine 15-week trimesters over three calendar years (or 135 weeks which, notably, exceeds the minimum 130 weeks of instruction required to complete US MD programs). The BSc. Clinical Medicine and Surgery is completed over 4 years.

Students study the biomedical and clinical sciences such as anatomy, physiology and pathology in the first year followed by the clinical subjects (medicine, surgery, pediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology) in the second year. The third and fourth year involves supervised clinical practice and internship in teaching hospitals where they rotate in all the departments, receive beside lectures, attend consultants' ward rounds, clerk patients and present medical histories, perform deliveries and first-assist in major surgery. They also attend clinical meetings and write prescriptions which at this stage must be counter-signed by a supervising clinician.

There is special emphasis on primary care with modules on community health taught throughout the course. Before starting their internship after the third year, clinical officers spend at least one month in a Provincial Rural Health Training Centre where they immunize children, examine pregnant women and offer family planning services in mother and child health clinics. They also treat in-patients and out-patients under the guidance of qualified Clinical officers and organise outreach services where they venture into remote rural villages, seeing patients and immunising children. During this time they complete a project in community diagnosis.

They also learn Health Service Management which prepares them for their management and leadership roles in health centers and other institutions.

Internship and registration

All clinical officers must work as full-time interns for one year without pay or any form of motivation at an approved public or mission hospital before getting a licence to practice medicine, a situation that has resulted to major strikes by clinical officers in the past leading to operation standstills in public hospitals when these strikes occur. On passing the final qualifying examination, they take the hippocratic oath then apply for provisional registration by the Clinical Officers Council, the statutory body that regulates the practice of clinical officers in the country. The internship involves supervised rotations in the major clinical departments namely casualty, medicine, paediatrics, surgery, obstetrics and gynecology. They are supervised by consultants in the respective fields. The consultants ensure that they can practice clinical medicine safely before signing them off for registration. An internship booklet signed by the consultants is required for registration. After registration one is required to apply for a licence from the COC which allows them to practice medicine, surgery and dentistry legally in the country. This licence is renewable every two years. Renewal requires evidence of having attained 60 Continuous Professional Development (CPD) points in the CPD diary by further training, research and publications, attending conferences and Continuing Medical Education (CME) sessions or major ward rounds and outreach activities.

Careers Progression

An experienced clinical officer usually holds a senior clinical, administrative or teaching position within their organisation or establishes and manages his/her own private practice. One who holds the Diploma in Clinical Medicine and Surgery can upgrade his/her qualification to the BSc. Clinical Medicine and Surgery or undertake postgraduate training at the university. One may also enroll for the Higher Diploma programme at the Kenya Medical Training College.

The Higher Diploma in Clinical Medicine and Surgery requires at least three years of working experience and lasts twelve to eighteen months leading to a specialised qualification and re-designation as a specialised clinical officer in one of the medical specialties such as paediatrics, reproductive health, anaesthesia, ENT, ophthalmology and cataract surgery, orthopaedics, psychiatry/clinical psychology, skin and chest diseases, epidemiology, pathology and Community medicine. A specialised clinical officer provides advanced medical and surgical care including invasive procedures in their specialty such as caeserian section, cataract surgery, tonsillectomy, psychotherapy and administration of anaesthesia.

Malawi
Medical care is generally provided by clinical officers who are even capable of providing surgical care. Clinical Officers are trained for 4 years, (3+1 year of clinical internship at designated teaching hospitals). One meta-analysis documented that the provision of caesarean section by clinical officers does not result in a significant increase in maternal or perinatal mortality. In other, words there was no difference whether the operation was done by clinical officers or medical doctor

Sudan
Southern Sudan separated from the Arab North (Sudan) in July 2011 after years of civil war that left much of the southern part in ruins. The healthcare system is almost non-existent. AMREF started training clinical officers by setting up the Maridi National Health Training Institute, name="AMREF"/>

The graduates supplement the efforts of COs trained in neighboring countries, e.g. Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, most of whom work for international humanitarian agencies.
Since 2014,Juba institute of Health Sciences and Ayii University 2021 have now joined in production of competent cadres in the Health in the Republic of South Sudan.

Tanzania
In Tanzania, training is under the Ministry of Health. There are numerous clinical officer training schools and programs last three years. Internship is not required for registration.

Experienced clinical officers may enrol for an advanced diploma in clinical medicine which takes two years to complete. This qualification is regarded as equivalent to a first degree in medicine by universities and the Ministry of Health in the country. The graduates are known as Assistant Medical Officers which no longer exist since 2017 so a clinical officer can upgrade by studying a bachelor's degree in clinical medicine in any East African country for three years or study it in Tanzania for four years and graduate as a doctor equivalent to an MD graduate even in salary and job opportunities or can study the Medical Doctor(MD) which is a 5-year course plus 1 internship year making 6 years and can add 1 year to be Medical bachelor and Bachelor in Surgery(MBBS) if interested.

 A further two years training from the Clinical Officer level leads to a specialist qualification in anaesthesia, medicine, surgery and radiology etc.

Kampala International University has opened a campus in Dar es Salaam where it is now offering its Bachelor of Clinical Medicine and Community Health.

Uganda
By 1918, Uganda was training clinical officers who were called medical assistants at the time. The training is under the Ministry of Education and takes place in clinical officer training schools. Postsecondary programs last three years, focusing on medicine and hospice care, followed by a two-year internship.

Kampala International University offers a Bachelor of Clinical Medicine and Community Health. High school graduates take four-and-a-half years to complete this degree while practicing clinical officers take three years.

Zambia
In Zambia, clinical officers who complete a three-year diploma of Science in Clinical Medicine course are called CLINICAL OFFICER -GENERAL (COG). Those who complete a three-year diploma in clinical psychiatry are called CLINICAL OFFICER -PSYCHIATRY (COP). Currently the upgrade of this diploma is a Bachelor of Science and holders are called medical licentiates. Medical licentiates have advanced skills in medicine and surgery and may be deployed interchangeably with physicians. Medical licentiates outnumber general physicians (with university degree) across all regions, with the ratio ranging from 3.8 COs per physician in Lusaka to 19.3 in the Northwestern provinces. They perform routine surgical and obstetric operations as well as providing clinical care in hospitals. The College of Surgeons of East, Central and Southern Africa (COSECSA) is involved in their training to increase their surgical skills through the Clinical Officers Surgical Training (COST) programme.

Burkina Faso
In Burkina Faso, as elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa, the use of non-physician clinicians began as a temporary measure while more doctors were trained, but has become a permanent strategy in the face of a crisis in health human resources. Different training alternatives have been used. Two-year advanced training programs in surgery were developed for registered nurses. Clinical officers (known as attachés de santé en chirurgie) were district medical officers trained with an additional six-month curriculum in emergency surgery.

Many studies show that trained COs provide quality medical and surgical care with outcomes similar to physicians' providing similar care in the same setting. However, nurses re-trained to become COs have been associated with more adverse outcomes as shown in a study using 2004-2005 hospital data from six regions of Burkina Faso, which associated them with higher maternal and neonatal mortality when they performed caeserian sections. The observed higher fatality rate pointed to a need for refresher courses and closer supervision of the nurses.

Ethiopia
The first medical school in Ethiopia was initially a "health officer" training institution. The training of health officers started at Gonder University in 1954. Health officers training programs across Ethiopia require that students have some of the highest scores in National University Entrance Examination to be admitted. Health officers hold bachelor's degrees and undergo a three-year training program plus one-year internship. Those who complete a 2–3 years master's degree programs provide advanced care (e.g. emergency surgery).

Ghana
In Ghana, Medical Assistants (MAs) have traditionally been experienced nurses who have undergone an 18-month post-basic course to become MAs. High school graduates can now attend a three-year diploma course to become MAs. In Ghana, from 2012, the nomenclature Medical Assistant had been changed to Physician Assistant.. The new name Physician Assistant is not known among most Ghanaians The term Physician Assistant (PA) refers to three distinct groups of health professionals trained on the medical model to practise medicine and dentistry. They are the PA-Medical, PA-Dental and also known as Community Oral Health Officers and PA-Anaesthesia (also known as Nurse Anesthetists). These groups of mid-level health providers were trained exclusively in the past by Health Training Institutions (HTIs) under the Ministry of Health with the aim of extending care to the populace where physician numbers were scanty or not present. Currently, there are eight universities in Ghana offering a 4-year Bachelor of Science degree in Physician Assistantship. The objective of the Bachelor of Physician Assistantship programme is to train graduates who will possess the ability to evaluate the health status of an individual, diagnose and treat acute illness as well as life saving interventions, manage chronic diseases, deliver preventive care and counsel individuals on psychosocial problems in independently or in collaboration with a physician.

In 2016, the PA-Anaesthesia group broke away and became certified registered anaesthetist (CRA) according to the Health Professions Regulatory Acts 857 which addressed them as certified registered anaesthetist. PAs are qualified by graduation from the PA educational programme and certification by the Ghana Medical and Dental Council. Newly qualified PAs who are successful in their licentiate examinations by the MDC are issued with provisional registrations to enable them undertake one-year internship in an accredited institution, a prerequisite for permanent registration which would also serve as national service but without pay for the twelve months.

PA students in all PA training schools belong to the Physician Assistant Association of Ghana (PASAG). In order to foster unity, camaraderie and bond among members of the association, and to promote excellence in the discharge of their professional mandate, quiz competitions are held every year. The maiden edition was won by the Presbyterian University College, Ghana. After permanent certification, among other things, PAs diagnose and treat illnesses, conduct physical examinations, counsel individuals on preventative health issues, and order and interpret laboratory tests. In addition, PAs are first or second assistants in major surgery, and provide pre- and post-operative care, and for that matter are trained and well versed in surgical skills. Thus, PAs play roles in preventive Medicine, as well as in educational, research, and administrative activities. The physician assistant is part of the medical team and is placed above the nurse but below the medical officer They perform tasks originally performed by doctors. Some call PAs as "village doctors" or "chiefs." To the patient, a PA is a doctor, since the PA practises medicine just as a doctor

The Ghana Physician Assistant Association-Medical at their last annual delegate congress, voted for a name change from the current name Physician Assistant to Clinical Officer. The members of the association believes that the Assistant attached to their name is limitation to what the PA actually does. The PA is not an assistant but an independent medical professional trained and licensed to practise medicine and dentistry. The association has therefore presented a new job description and the new name clinical officer to the Ministry of Health. The meeting which was chaired by the chief director of the ministry of health Dr. Afisah Zakariah who promised to address the grievances of the PAs soon to be known as Clinical Officers

Liberia
In Liberia, the Tubman National Institute of Medical Arts (TNIMA) was established in 1945. In 1965, the physician assistant (PA) programme was established as a joint venture between the Liberian government, WHO and UNICEF. Initially it was a one-year course, but currently it is a three-year diploma course accredited by the Liberia National Physician Assistant Association (LINPAA) and the Liberia Medical and Dental Association Board. In order to legally practice medicine as a PA one must sit and pass a state exam administered by the medical board.

Mozambique

In Mozambique, tecnicos de cirurgia, or surgical technologists, are experienced Clinical Officers who undergo further residential training in surgery under the supervision of senior surgeons lasting two years at Maputo Central Hospital, and a one-year internship at a provincial hospital. They are trained to carry out emergency surgery, obstetrics and traumatology and are deployed to the district hospitals where they are usually the sole surgical care providers.

South Africa

South Africa trains clinical associates for three years and awards them the Bachelor of Clinical Medical Practice degree. The first program was launched by the late Health Minister Tshabalala Msimang on 18 August 2008 at the Walter Sisulu University in Mthatha. The first class graduated in December 2010. Programs also exist at the University of Pretoria and the University of the Witwatersrand.

International
The specialised nature of medical training in the developed world has created a shortage of general practitioners and runaway expenditure on healthcare by governments. primary care is increasingly being provided by non-physician providers such as physician assistants.

United States

Physician assistants in the United States train for at least two years at the postsecondary level and can hold an associate, bachelors or master's degree. Most PAs have earned a master's degree. Some institutions offer a Doctor of Science degree in the same. The profession is represented by the American Academy of Physician Assistants.

United Kingdom
The United Kingdom has in recent years employed physician assistants from the United States on a trial basis as it plans to introduce this cadre into their health care system. Several UK universities are already offering a post-graduate diploma in Physician Assistant studies. The PAs of the UK are represented by the Association of UK PAs.

Australia

The University of Queensland offers a one-and-a-half-year Master of Physician Assistant Studies to those with a bachelor's degree. Those with a post-secondary healthcare qualification such as registered nurses and paramedics can access the programme via a Graduate Certificate in Physician Assistant Studies; as long as they have at least five years full-time working experience. It has been announced that PAs will be allowed to work in Queensland as fully licensed practitioners in 2014.

China
China has about 880,000 Rural Doctors and 110,000 assistant doctors who provide primary care to rural populations where they are also known as barefoot doctors. They typically have about one year of training; those who sit and pass government examinations qualify to be rural doctors. Those who fail become community health workers. However, there is a government move to have all rural doctors complete three years training.

Fiji
Africa and the rest of the world are perhaps following a well trode path. In 1879, a group of Indians arrived in Fiji by ship having survived cholera and smallpox en route. During a period of crew quarantine, a small group was trained in vaccination. The experience was considered so successful that a few years later, in 1885, a group of young Fijian men started a three-year training program at the Suva Medical School, now known as the Fiji School of Medicine. The title given to the professional practice has had many names over the years, including Native Medical Practitioner, Assistant Medical Practitioner, Assistant Medical Officer, and Primary Care Practitioner (PCP). By 1987, the PCPs were training for three years before going back to their communities to serve one-year internship, followed by another two years of study after which they were awarded a MBBS degree.

India
Under British rule, India trained licentiate doctors for three years. They were then registered with the General Medical Council of Britain. Most of them worked among the rural population providing medical care.

After independence, and on the recommendation of the bhore committee in 1946, the training of licentiate doctors was stopped and their qualifications converted to MBBS degrees. They were then grandfathered into the Medical Council of India.

The plan was to train enough doctors who would serve the whole country. However, the plan has not borne fruit and doctors generally leave their rural posts after their internship for more lucrative and glamorous careers in the big cities.

As of 2009, the Indian government plans to introduce a three-and-a-half-year Bachelor of Rural Medicine and Surgery (BRMS) degree to train doctors who will work in remote Indian villages. On graduation they will undergo a one-year internship period at a regional hospital before being licensed. Those with five years' experience will qualify for post-graduate studies on equal standing with their MBBS counterparts.

In India, the Madras Medical Mission in Chennai, collaborating with Birla Institute of Technology and Frontier Lifeline has since 1992 offered a Bachelor of Science degree in Physician Assistant studies. The program duration is four years, comprising three years classroom and laboratory coursework then one year compulsory internship. Several other universities offer similar courses in partnership with US universities. PAs in India can pursue masters and doctor of science degrees.

Bangladesh

Mid-label Medical Care Health Human Resources of Bangladesh are Medical Assistant product of Medical Assistant Training School(MATS).3 year Medical Assistant Course Started 1976.
Now 4 year Medical Assistant course
3 years academy+1 year internship
See Also Sub assistant community Medical Officer

History
Bangladesh was part of British India until independence, and then spent a quarter of a century as East Pakistan before Bangladesh seceded and became an independent nation.

British India
Modern Bangladesh was mostly part of Bengal in British India.

In 1914 the State medical Faculty of Bengal was established to conduct trained Licentiate of Medical Faculty doctors (LMF Doctor) for four years Mid-Label Diploma Physician. They were then registered with the General Medical Council of Britain. Most of them worked among the rural population providing medical care. At independence East Pakistan had five medical schools:
 Mitford Medical School, Dhaka (1875-1957)
 Lytton Medical School, Mymensingh (1924-1962) 
 Chittagong Medical School (1927-1957)
 Sylhet Medical School (1948-1962) 
 Rajshahi Medical School (1954-1958)

East Pakistan
After independence from Britain, the training of licentiate doctors was continued in East Pakistan and the training goes for three years and they become professional doctors, with the doctor title, whose degree is equivalent to clinical medicine. and on the recommendation of the bhore committee in 1946, started MBBS Degree. They were then grandfathered into the Medical Council of India & Pakistan. In 1962 Health Minister Monem Khan introduced Condensed MBBS Course for LMF Doctor at Sir Salimullah Medical College, Dhaka from 1963 to 1972.

Bangladesh
After independence from Pakistan, the training of licentiate doctors (LMF Doctor) course was stopped. All Medical School Converted Medical College & Course Started MBBS.
The First Five year plan [1973] of the Father of Nations sheik Mujibur Rahman Government planned to create new health cadre namely "Medical Assistant" & institution name "Medical Assistant Training School" (MATS). In 1976 started Medical Assistant training course under State Medical Faculty of Bangladesh & Ministry of health & family welfare. In 1980 1st Batch Medical Assistant student enter government service. In 1983 Medical Assistant get Bangladesh Medical & Dental Council Registration 1st time. In 1996 Medical Assistant Post of DGHS & DGFP Converted Sub-Assistant Community Medical Officer (SACMO) prime minister Sheike Hasina government, DGFP Implement it but DGHS no implement. In 2011 by the court order implement SACMO in DGHS Bangladesh.

From 2009 session Medical Assistant Course developed 4-year course (3 year Institution + 1 year Internship). Nowadays Medical Assistant Course conducted in 8 public institution & 146 private institution.

About 65% rural population receive primary medical treatment from Sub-Assistant medical officer (medical assistant). Medical Assistant no scope of Higher education & promotion. But Bongobondu sheike mujibur rahman government The First Five year plan[1973] page 520 & 521 brief details on Medical Assistant (After passing medical assistant course & 3 year service rural area in national service entering qualification of medical college for MBBS course).

Institution [MATS]

There are now 8 Government Medical Assistant Training Schools
Tangail Medical Assistant Training School (Tangail MATS)
Sirajgonj Medical Assistant Training School (Sirajgonj MATS)
Kushtia Medical Assistant Training School (Kushtia MATS)
Bagerhat Medical Assistant Training School (Bagerhat MATS)
Noakhali Medical Assistant Training School (Noakhali MATS)
Faridpur Medical Assistant Training School (Faridpur MATS)
Jhenaidah Medical Assistant Training School (Jhenaidah MATS)
Comilla Medical Assistant Training School (Comilla MATS)

There are 146 Private Medical Assistant Training Schools.

Malaysia
Malaysia started training Medical Assistant in the early 1900s after independence from Britain. This profession has undergone several transformations over the decades in line with the current healthcare development in the country. The current name of this profession is Assistant Medical Officers (AMO), they are trained for three years in an undergraduate academic program (Diploma in Medical and Health Sciences or formerly known as Diploma in Medical Assistant) recognized by the Malaysian Qualifications Agency. In order to practice, all Assistant Medical Officers are compulsory to register under the regulating body of Malaysia Medical Assistant Board (Medical Assistant Act (registration),1977) and serve a compulsory resident posting for six months in Emergency and Trauma Department (Program Penempatan Wajib) under a clinical supervision by an Emergency Physician. Upon completing the compulsory posting, they will be deployed in public hospitals,parastatal institutions (e.g. military, prisons), rural health centers, health clinics, community clinics, aged care centers, or private specialist hospitals. To date, there are five training institutions introduced by the Ministry of Health, Malaysia in the public sectors to train new Assistant Medical Officers; 

 Training Institute of Ministry of Health, Malaysia, Sultan Azalan Syah, Perak 
 Training Institute of Ministry of Health, Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor 
 Training Institute of Ministry of Health, Malaysia, Kuching Sarawak 
 Training Institute of Ministry of Health, Malaysia, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah 
 Training Institute of Ministry of Health, Malaysia, Seremban 

A registered Assistant Medical Officer can pursue their sub-specialty training (Post Basic certificates and Advanced Diploma) in various fields such as Emergency Medical and Trauma care, Primary Healthcare, Orthopedic, Cardio thoracic, Clinical Neuro-physiology, Sport Medicine, Anesthesiology, Diabetic care, Infection Control, hemodialysis, and many more. Assistant Medical Officer could also join the MBBS /MD after completing the undergraduate study by applying for those programs in either public or private institutions. Those who want to serve and continue as Assistant Medical Officer could further their study in a special programs for Assistant Medical Officers such as Bachelor of Science in Emergency Medicine with honors and Bachelor of Medical and Health Sciences with honors. Unlike Physician Assistant / Associate (PA) and Clinical Officer (CO), Assistant Medical Officer in Malaysia is also involved in Pre-Hospital Care as part of their job scope. Postgraduate programs available for Assistant Medical Officer includes Master in Medical Science (Public Health), Master in Risk Disaster Management, Master in Medical Science (Emergency Medicine), Master in Hospital Management and Health Economics as well as PhD in clinical or medical sciences fields.

See also
Allied health professions
Healthcare in Kenya
Paramedics
Surgical technologists
Clinical associates in South Africa
Feldsher in countries of the former Soviet Union

References

External links
Presbyterian university of East Africa 
Kenya Medical Training College - Clinical Medicine Department
Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College- Tanzania
Egerton University (Kenya) - Diploma in Clinical Medicine and Surgery
Kenya Methodist University - Department of Clinical Medicine
Mt. Kenya University
Malawi College of Health Sciences
Maridi National Health Training Institute- Maridi
Indian Association of Physician Assistants
The Clinical Officers Council

Health care occupations
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Created: 2024-09-26 09:25:12