Model: shreyaspullehf/superconductor-search-v1
Author: shreyaspullehf
Pipeline: sentence-similarity
Library: sentence-transformers
Tags: sentence-transformers, safetensors, mpnet, sentence-similarity, feature-extraction, dense, generated_from_trainer, dataset_size:11515, loss:CosineSimilarityLoss, arxiv:1908.10084, base_model:sentence-transformers/all-mpnet-base-v2, base_model:finetune:sentence-transformers/all-mpnet-base-v2, endpoints_compatible, region:us
Base models (finetune): id: sentence-transformers/all-mpnet-base-v2
Card metadata: tags: sentence-transformers, sentence-similarity, feature-extraction, dense, generated_from_trainer, dataset_size:11515, loss:CosineSimilarityLoss
base_model: sentence-transformers/all-mpnet-base-v2
widget: source_sentence: how sputtering operates
sentences: Brian David Josephson (born 4 January 1940) is a British theoretical physicist and emeritus professor at the University of Cambridge. He shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physics with Leo Esaki and Ivar Giaever for his discovery of the Josephson effect, made in 1962 when he was a Ph.D. student at Cambridge.
Josephson has spent his academic career as a member of the Theory of Condensed Matter Group in Cambridge's Cavendish Laboratory. He has been a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, since 1962, and served as Professor of Physics from 1974 until 2007.
In the early 1970s, Josephson took up Transcendental Meditation and turned his attention to issues outside the boundaries of mainstream science. He set up the Mind–Matter Unification Project at Cavendish to explore the idea of intelligence in nature, the relationship between quantum mechanics and consciousness, and the synthesis of science and Eastern mysticism, broadly known as quantum mysticism. He has expressed support for topics such as parapsychology, water memory and cold fusion, which has made him a focus of criticism from fellow scientists.


== Education ==
Brian David Josephson was born on 4 January 1940 in Cardiff, Wales, to Jewish parents, Abraham Josephson and Mimi Weisbard. He attended Cardiff High School, where he credits some of the school masters for having helped him, particularly the physics master, Emrys Jones, who introduced him to theoretical physics. In 1957, he went up to Cambridge, where he initially read mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge. After completing Maths Part II in two years, and finding it somewhat sterile, he decided to switch to physics.
Josephson was known at Cambridge as a brilliant but shy student. Physicist John Waldram recalled overhearing Nicholas Kurti, an examiner from Oxford, discuss Josephson's exam results with David Shoenberg, Reader in Physics at Cambridge, and asking: "Who is this chap Josephson? He seems to be going through the theory like a knife through butter., arXiv:1008.4418v1 [cond-mat.supr-con] 26 Aug 2010 The Physical Origins of the Meissner Effect and London Penetration Depth X. Q. Huang1,2∗ 1Department of Physics and National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructure, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China 2Department of Telecommunications Engineering ICE, PLAUST, Nanjing 210016, China Based on the recent developed real-space theory of superconductivity (arXiv:0910.5511 and arXiv:1001.5067), we study the physical nature of the Meissner effect and London penetration depth in conventional and non-conventional superconductors. It is argued that they originate from an exactly the same reason of the real-space quasi-one-dimensional periodic dynamic charge stripes in the superconductors. The fundamental relationship between the London penetration depth and the superconducting electron density is qualitatively determined. PACS numbers: 74.20.z, 74.25.Ha Introduction: The Meissner Effect is the most fundamen- tal and the most dazzling property of materials in the super- conducting state [1]. To explain the Meissner effect that no magnetic ﬁeld exists in the interior of a superconductor, the London brothers proposed two equations to describe the mi- croscopic electric ﬁeld E and magnetic ﬁeld B within the su- perconductor [2]. The ﬁrst London equation is in fact the sim- ply Newton’s second law for the superconducting electrons: ∂Js ∂t = nse2 me E, (1) where Js = nsevs is the supercurrent density, ns is the su- perconducting electron density and vs is the superﬂuid veloc- ity. Taking into account Maxwell’s equation of ∇× E = −∂B/∂t, then the second London equation can be written as ∇× Js = −nse2 me B. (2) The London equations (1) and (2) imply a characteristic length scale λL = p me/µ0nse2, the so-called London pen- etration depth, which gives the length scale over which an external applied ﬁeld is exponentially suppressed. For most superconductors, the London penetration depth λL is on the order of 100 nm. In 1950, Ginzbu, Unconventional superconductors are materials that display superconductivity which is not explained by the usual BCS theory or its extension, the Eliashberg theory. The pairing in unconventional superconductors may originate from some other mechanism than the electron–phonon interaction. Alternatively, a superconductor is unconventional if the superconducting order parameter transforms according to a non-trivial irreducible representation of the point group or space group of the system. Per definition, superconductors that break additional symmetries to U (1) symmetry are known as unconventional superconductors.  


== History ==
The superconducting properties of  CeCu2Si2, a type of
heavy fermion material, were reported in 1979 by Frank Steglich. For a long time it was believed that CeCu2Si2 was a singlet d-wave superconductor, but since the mid-2010s, this notion has been strongly contested. In  the early eighties, many more unconventional, heavy fermion superconductors were discovered, including UBe13, UPt3 and URu2Si2. In each of these materials, the anisotropic nature of the pairing was implicated by the power-law dependence of the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxation rate and specific heat capacity on temperature. The presence of nodes in the superconducting gap of UPt3 was confirmed in 1986 from the polarization dependence of the ultrasound attenuation.
The first unconventional triplet superconductor, organic material (TMTSF)2PF6, was discovered by Denis Jerome, Klaus Bechgaard and coworkers in 1980 (TMTSF = Tetramethyltetraselenafulvalenium, see Fulvalene). Experimental works by Paul Chaikin's and Michael Naughton's groups as well as theoretical analysis of their data by Andrei Lebed have firmly confirmed unconventional nature of superconducting pairing in (TMTSF)2X (X=PF6, ClO4, etc.) organic materials.
High-temperature singlet d-wave superconductivity was discovered by J.G. Bednorz and K.A. Müller in 1986, who also discovered that the lanthanum-based, source_sentence: How does Se/S substitution affect the electronic structure of FeSe1-xSx?
sentences: Quantum mechanics explains how the universe works with things that are even smaller than atoms. It is also called quantum physics or quantum theory. Mechanics is the part of physics that explains how things move and quantum is the Latin word for 'how much'. A quantum of energy is the least amount possible (or the least extra amount), and quantum mechanics describes how that energy moves. Atoms were once believed to be the smallest pieces of matter, but modern science has shown that there are even smaller particles called subatomic particles, like protons, neutrons and electrons. Quantum mechanics describes how the particles that make up atoms work. Quantum physics also tells us how electromagnetic waves (like light) work. Wave–particle duality means that particles behave like waves and waves behave like particles. (They are not two kinds of things, they are something like both: this is called duality.) Much of modern physics and chemistry can be described and understood using the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics. The math used to study subatomic particles and electromagnetic waves is very complex because they act in very strange ways. Waves and photons Photons are particles that are point-sized, tinier than atoms. Photons are like "packets" or packages of energy. Light sources such as candles or lasers produce light in bits called photons. The more photons a lamp produces, the brighter the light. Light is a form of energy that behaves like the waves in water or radio waves. The distance between the top of one wave and the top of the next wave is called a 'wavelength'. Each photon carries a certain amount, or 'quantum', of energy depending on its wavelength. A light's color depends on its wavelength. The color violet (the bottom or innermost color of the rainbow) has a wavelength of about 400 nm ("nanometers") which is 0.00004 centimeters or 0.000016 inches. Photons with wavelengths of 10-400 nm are called ultraviolet (or UV) light. Such light cannot be seen b, High-temperature superconductivity (high-Tc or HTS) is superconductivity in materials with a critical temperature (the temperature below which the material behaves as a superconductor) above 77 K (−196.2 °C; −321.1 °F), the boiling point of liquid nitrogen. They are "high-temperature" only relative to previously known superconductors, which function only closer to absolute zero. The first high-temperature superconductor was discovered in 1986 by IBM researchers Georg Bednorz and K. Alex Müller. Although the critical temperature is around 35.1 K (−238.1 °C; −396.5 °F), this material was modified by Ching-Wu Chu to make the first high-temperature superconductor with critical temperature 93 K (−180.2 °C; −292.3 °F). Bednorz and Müller were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1987 "for their important break-through in the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials". Most high-Tc materials are type-II superconductors.
The major advantage of high-temperature superconductors is that they can be cooled using liquid nitrogen, in contrast to previously known superconductors, which require expensive and hard-to-handle coolants, primarily liquid helium. A second advantage of high-Tc materials is they retain their superconductivity in higher magnetic fields than previous materials. This is important when constructing superconducting magnets, a primary application of high-Tc materials.
The majority of high-temperature superconductors are ceramics, rather than the previously known metallic materials. Ceramic superconductors are suitable for some practical uses but encounter manufacturing issues. For example, most ceramics are brittle, which complicates wire fabrication. 
The main class of high-temperature superconductors is copper oxides combined with other metals, especially the rare-earth barium copper oxides (REBCOs) such as yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO). The second class of high-temperature superconductors in the practical classification is the iron-based compo, Introduction
The parent compounds of cuprate superconductors are the Mott insulators with
an antiferromagnetic long-range order, then changing the carrier concentration
by ionic substitution or increasing the oxygen content turns these compounds
into the superconducting state leaving the antiferromagnetic short-range cor-
relation still intact [1, 2]. It has become clear in the past twenty years that
cuprate superconductors are among the most complex systems studied in con-
densed matter physics [2, 3, 4, 5].
The complications arise mainly from (1)
a layered crystal structure with one or more CuO2 planes per unit cell sep-
arated by insulating layers which leads to a quasi-two-dimensional electronic
structure, and (2) extreme sensitivity of the physical properties to the com-
positions (stoichiometry) which control the carrier density in the CuO2 plane.
As a consequence, both experimental investigation [2, 3, 4, 5] and theoretical
understanding [6, 7, 8, 9] are extremely diﬃcult. Moreover, the layered crystal
structure leads to that cuprate superconductors are highly anisotropic mate-
rials, then the electron spectral function A(k, ω) is dependent on the in-plane
momentum [3, 4, 5]. After twenty years extensive studies, it has been shown
that many of the unusual physical properties of cuprate superconductors have
often been attributed to particular characteristics of the low energy excitations
determined by the electronic structure [3, 4, 5].
Experimentally, by virtue of systematic studies using the angle-resolved
photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES), the low energy electronic structure of
cuprate superconductors in both superconducting and normal states has been
well-established by now [3, 4, 5].
In particular, the information revealed by
ARPES experiments has shown that around the nodal and antinodal points
of the Brillouin zone contain the essentials of the whole low energy quasipar-
ticle excitation spectrum of cuprate superconductors [3, 4, 5]. In the normal-
sta, source_sentence: first London equation numerical solution
sentences: Sex determination is a process of development by which the sex of an individual is settled. Sex is a method of reproduction which is widespread among living things. It requires two individuals of the same species. Usually, the sexes are separate. Sex may be determined in one of two ways: Genetically, by genes and chromosomes the organism inherits from its parents. Environmentally, by some outside agent acting as a trigger to development. Where both sexes occur on the same individual, that individual is an hermaphrodite. Hermaphrodite systems can be found in some animals, for example snails, and in most flowering plants. Determination by the environment For many species, sex is determined by environmental factors experienced during development. Many reptiles have temperature-dependent sex determination. The temperature embryos experience during their development determines the sex of the organism. In some turtles, for example, males are produced at lower incubation temperatures than females; this difference in critical temperatures can be as little as 1-2 °C. Many fish change sex over the course of their life. This phenomenon is called sequential hermaphroditism. In clownfish, smaller fish are male, and the dominant and largest fish in a group becomes female. In many wrasse the opposite is true–most fish are female at birth and become male when they reach a certain size. Sequential hermaphrodites may produce both types of gametes over the course of their lifetime, but at any given point they are either female or male. In some ferns the default sex is hermaphrodite, but ferns which grow in soil that has previously supported hermaphrodites are influenced by hormones remaining to develop as male. Genetic determination The most usual way to determine sex is by genes. That way, an organism's sex is determined by the genome it gets. The alleles that influence sexual development may or may not be on the same chromosome. If they are, that chromosome is called a sex chromosom, Nitrogen is a nonmetal chemical element. The atmosphere contains more than 78 percent of nitrogen. It has the chemical symbol N and atomic number 7. Its stable inside typically contains 14 nucleons (7 protons and 7 neutrons). It has 5 electrons in its outer shell. Properties Nitrogen is a colorless odorless gas at normal temperature. It is normally attached to another nitrogen atom, making a nitrogen molecule (N2). This bond is very strong. That is why many explosives contain nitrogen. The bond is broken when the explosive is made. When it explodes the bond reforms, releasing a lot of energy. It turns into a liquid at -195.8°C and turns into a solid at -210°C. If it is compressed, it can be turned into a liquid without making it cold. It usually does not combine with other atoms because its strong bond prevents it from reacting. Lithium is one of the few chemical elements that react with nitrogen without being heated. Magnesium can burn in nitrogen. Nitrogen also makes blue electric sparks. The blue color is caused by the atoms being excited. When they get normal again, they release light. When nitrogen is excited, it reacts with many things that it does not normally react with. Compounds Many chemical compounds that are important for industrial purposes contain nitrogen. These include ammonia, nitric acid, nitrates and cyanides. Nitrogen comes in several oxidation states; -3, -2, -1/3, +1, +3, +4, and +5. Each of those oxidation states has its set of compounds. Compounds in the -3 oxidation state are weak reducing agents. These include ammonia, ammonium, amide and nitrides. Amino acids and proteins contain nitrogen in this oxidation state. Hydrazine, a compound in the -2 oxidation state, is a strong reducing agent. Azides contain nitrogen in the -1/3 oxidation state. They are extremely powerful reducing agents, and most are very toxic. Nitrous oxide contains nitrogen in the +1 oxidation state. It is used as an anesthetic. Compounds containing nitrogen in the +2 oxi, Hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe. It is the simplest element and the first in the periodic table. It has the chemical symbol H and atomic number 1, which means it has just one proton in its nucleus. Hydrogen also has a standard atomic weight of 1.008. Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas at room temperature. It is also highly flammable. When hydrogen burns in oxygen, it creates water and releases a lot of energy. Hydrogen can be found as H₂ molecules. This means two hydrogen atoms join together to make a stable gas. It has a very low boiling and melting point, so it becomes a liquid or solid only at extremely cold temperatures. There are also different forms, or isotopes of hydrogen. The most common is protium, which has just one proton. There is also deuterium, which has one proton and one neutron, and tritium, which has one proton and two neutrons and is radioactive. Hydrogen is very reactive, especially with oxygen and other nonmetals. It often forms compounds like water (H₂O), methane (CH₄), and ammonia (NH₃). Hydrogen is the most common element in the universe. It makes up 75% of all normal matter by mass. Most of the hydrogen is found in stars, including the Sun. It fuels the process of nuclear fusion, giving off light and heat. On Earth, hydrogen is not usually found as a pure gas because it is so light and reactive. Instead, it is most commonly found in compounds. It can be found especially in water (H₂O), which covers about 70% of Earth’s surface. Hydrogen is also found in living things, because it is part of many organic compounds, such as sugars, fats, and proteins. Hydrogen can be found in fossil fuels and in some minerals. It can also be found in volcanic gases and the upper atmosphere, where it slowly escapes into space because of its lightness. Hydrogen is very reactive, especially because it has only one electron. This makes it easy for hydrogen to form bonds with other elements. It usually forms mole, source_sentence: maglev how it functions
sentences: Superconductivity was discovered in 1911 by Kamerlingh Onnes and Holst in
mercury at the temperature of liquid helium (4.2 K). It took almost 50 years
until in 1957 a microscopic theory of superconductivity, the so-called BCS
theory, was developed. Since the discovery a number of superconducting
materials were found with transition temperatures up to 23 K. A breakthrough in
the field happened in 1986 when Bednorz and M\"uller discovered a new class of
superconductors, the so-called cuprate high-temperature superconductors with
transition temperatures as high as 135 K. This surprising discovery initiated
new efforts with respect to fundamental physics, material science, and
technological applications. In this brief review the basic physics of the
conventional low-temperature superconductors as well as of the high-temperature
superconductors are presented with a brief introduction to applications
exemplified from high-power to low-power electronic devices. Finally, a short
outlook and future challenges are presented, finished with possible
imaginations for applications of room-temperature superconductivity., Sex determination is a process of development by which the sex of an individual is settled. Sex is a method of reproduction which is widespread among living things. It requires two individuals of the same species. Usually, the sexes are separate. Sex may be determined in one of two ways: Genetically, by genes and chromosomes the organism inherits from its parents. Environmentally, by some outside agent acting as a trigger to development. Where both sexes occur on the same individual, that individual is an hermaphrodite. Hermaphrodite systems can be found in some animals, for example snails, and in most flowering plants. Determination by the environment For many species, sex is determined by environmental factors experienced during development. Many reptiles have temperature-dependent sex determination. The temperature embryos experience during their development determines the sex of the organism. In some turtles, for example, males are produced at lower incubation temperatures than females; this difference in critical temperatures can be as little as 1-2 °C. Many fish change sex over the course of their life. This phenomenon is called sequential hermaphroditism. In clownfish, smaller fish are male, and the dominant and largest fish in a group becomes female. In many wrasse the opposite is true–most fish are female at birth and become male when they reach a certain size. Sequential hermaphrodites may produce both types of gametes over the course of their lifetime, but at any given point they are either female or male. In some ferns the default sex is hermaphrodite, but ferns which grow in soil that has previously supported hermaphrodites are influenced by hormones remaining to develop as male. Genetic determination The most usual way to determine sex is by genes. That way, an organism's sex is determined by the genome it gets. The alleles that influence sexual development may or may not be on the same chromosome. If they are, that chromosome is called a sex chromosom, Osnabrück is a city in Germany in the state of Lower Saxony. It is around 1,200 years old. The castle dates back to the 19th century. The city was founded by Charlemagne. About 165,000 people live there. It is twinned with Derby, UK, as well as five other cities around Europe. Osnabrück is in the south of the state, on the border with North Rhine-Westphalia. It shares an airport with the neighbouring city of Münster which is in North Rhine-Westphalia. It is the only German city in a national park. It is known as the City of Peace. Notable people Public service & public thinking Benno II of Osnabrück (ca 1020 – 1088), Bishop of Osnabrück from 1068 to 1088. Albert Suho (c. 1380 – c. 1450), clergyman, theologian, historian Friedrich Staphylus (1512–1564), theologian, first a Protestant, a Catholic convert. Johann Wilhelm Petersen (1649–1727), evangelical theologian, mystic, and Millennialist. Ernest Augustus, Duke of York and Albany (1674–1728), brother of George I of Great Britain. Sophia von Kielmansegg, Countess of Darlington (1675–1725), courtier and a half-sister of George I of Great Britain Justus Möser (1720–1794), jurist and social theorist. Ernst zu Münster (1766–1839), politician, statesman in the service of House of Hannover Justus von Gruner (1777-1820), a Prussian official, the first president of the Berlin Police. Bernhard Rudolf Abeken (1780–1866), philologist Karl Fortlage (1806–1881), philosopher. Heinrich Abeken (1809–1872), evangelical theologian. Ludwig Windthorst (1812–1891), politician and leader of the Catholic Centre Party. Friedrich Blass (1843–1907), classical scholar. Georg Thieler (1854–1945), jurist and mayor of Jena from 1885 to 1889. Friedrich Westmeyer (1873–1917), politician and trade unionist Walter Warlimont (1894–1976), General of the Artillery Hans Georg Calmeyer (1903–1972), attorney, Righteous Among the Nations Fritz Buntrock (1909–1948), SS officer and war criminal Rudolf Beckmann (1910–1943), SS-Oberscharführer and war criminal , source_sentence: can magnets float on superconductors
sentences: Brian David Josephson (born 4 January 1940) is a British theoretical physicist and emeritus professor at the University of Cambridge. He shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physics with Leo Esaki and Ivar Giaever for his discovery of the Josephson effect, made in 1962 when he was a Ph.D. student at Cambridge.
Josephson has spent his academic career as a member of the Theory of Condensed Matter Group in Cambridge's Cavendish Laboratory. He has been a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, since 1962, and served as Professor of Physics from 1974 until 2007.
In the early 1970s, Josephson took up Transcendental Meditation and turned his attention to issues outside the boundaries of mainstream science. He set up the Mind–Matter Unification Project at Cavendish to explore the idea of intelligence in nature, the relationship between quantum mechanics and consciousness, and the synthesis of science and Eastern mysticism, broadly known as quantum mysticism. He has expressed support for topics such as parapsychology, water memory and cold fusion, which has made him a focus of criticism from fellow scientists.


== Education ==
Brian David Josephson was born on 4 January 1940 in Cardiff, Wales, to Jewish parents, Abraham Josephson and Mimi Weisbard. He attended Cardiff High School, where he credits some of the school masters for having helped him, particularly the physics master, Emrys Jones, who introduced him to theoretical physics. In 1957, he went up to Cambridge, where he initially read mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge. After completing Maths Part II in two years, and finding it somewhat sterile, he decided to switch to physics.
Josephson was known at Cambridge as a brilliant but shy student. Physicist John Waldram recalled overhearing Nicholas Kurti, an examiner from Oxford, discuss Josephson's exam results with David Shoenberg, Reader in Physics at Cambridge, and asking: "Who is this chap Josephson? He seems to be going through the theory like a knife through butter., A superconductor is a substance that conducts electricity without resistance when it becomes colder than a "critical temperature." At this temperature, electrons can move freely through the material. Superconductors are different from ordinary conductors, such as copper. Ordinary conductors lose their resistance (get more conductive) slowly as they get colder. In contrast, superconductors lose their resistance all at once. This is an example of a phase transition. High magnetic fields destroy superconductivity and restore the normal conducting state. Some examples of superconductors are the metals mercury and lead, ceramics and organic carbon nanotubes. Normally, a magnet moving by a conductor produces currents in the conductor by electromagnetic induction. But a superconductor actually pushes out magnetic fields entirely by inducing surface currents. Instead of letting the magnetic field pass through, the superconductor acts like a magnet pointing the opposite way, which repels the real magnet. This is called the Meissner effect, and it can be demonstrated by levitating a superconductor over magnets or vice versa. Explanation Physicists explain superconductivity by describing what happens when temperatures get cold. The thermal energy in a solid or liquid shakes the atoms so they randomly vibrate, but this gets less as the temperature drops. Electrons carry the same negative electric charge which makes them repel each other. At higher temperatures each electron behaves as if it were a free particle. There is also however a very weak attraction between electrons when they are in a solid or liquid. At rather large distances ( many hundreds of nanometers apart) and low temperatures (near absolute zero), the attractive effect and lack of thermal energy allows pairs of electrons to hang together. This is called a cooper pair and it is a quasiparticle, that is it acts as if it were a new kind of particle in its own right even though it is made up of two fundamental elect, We discuss the spatial structure of the Cooper pair in dilute neutron matter
and neutron-rich nuclei by means of the BCS theory and the
Skyrme-Hartree-Fock-Bogioliubov model, respectively. The neutron pairing in
dilute neutron matter is close to the region of the BCS-BEC crossover in a wide
density range, giving rise to spatially compact Cooper pair whose size is
smaller than the average interaparticle distance. This behavior extends to
moderate low density ($\sim 10^{-1}$ of the saturation density) where the
Cooper pair size becomes smallerst ($\sim 5$ fm). The Cooper pair in finite
nuclei also exhibits the spatial correlation favoring the coupling of neutrons
at small relative distances $r \lesim 3$ fm with large probability.
Neutron-rich nuclei having small neutron separation energy may provide us
opportunity to probe the spatial correlation since the neutron pairing and the
spatial correlation persists also in an area of low-density neutron
distribution extending from the surface to far outside the nucleus.
pipeline_tag: sentence-similarity
library_name: sentence-transformers
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