Model: koreankiwi99/distilroberta-dis-01
Author: koreankiwi99
Pipeline: sentence-similarity
Library: sentence-transformers
Tags: sentence-transformers, safetensors, roberta, sentence-similarity, feature-extraction, generated_from_trainer, dataset_size:21875, loss:TripletLoss, arxiv:1908.10084, arxiv:1703.07737, base_model:distilbert/distilroberta-base, base_model:finetune:distilbert/distilroberta-base, text-embeddings-inference, endpoints_compatible, region:us
Base models (finetune): id: distilbert/distilroberta-base
Card metadata: base_model: distilbert/distilroberta-base
library_name: sentence-transformers
pipeline_tag: sentence-similarity
tags: sentence-transformers, sentence-similarity, feature-extraction, generated_from_trainer, dataset_size:21875, loss:TripletLoss
widget: source_sentence: What is the range of numbers that can be printed on each document using the serial number feature?
sentences: Alle Artikel vom 30. Januar 2018
22-Jähriger bespuckt Polizisten : Dillinger (22) geht in der Wache auf Polizisten los
St. Johann (red) Kurz nach einem Taschendiebstahl in der Bahnhofstraße hat die Festnahme eines Verdächtigen (22) die Polizei in Atem gehalten. Beamte aus der Inspektion Karcherstraße fassten den Mann aus Dillingen gegen 15.15 Uhr und brachten ihn
Ausnahmezustand : Bischmisheimer (30) wirft seine Möbel aus dem Fenster
In einem seelischen Ausnahmezustand hat ein 30 Jahre alter Mann aus Bischmisheim am Dienstag gegen 14 Uhr seine Wohnung verwüstet.
Die Mannschaft der BSG Stahl Vital Dillinger ist saarländischer Betriebssportmeister im Hallenfußball. Im Endspiel besiegte der deutsche Vizemeister in der Ohlenbach-Sporthalle in Wiebelskirchen die Mannschaft von Ford Saarlouis mit 6:5 im Von Heinz Bier
Der TV Ludweiler hat im Rahmen einer Meisterfeier erfolgreiche Leichtathleten geehrt. Abteilungsleiter René Schwarz sagte: „Das Jahr 2017 war ein sehr erfolgreiches und gutes Jahr für die Ludweiler Leichtathletik.“ Der TV habe sich unter 49
Von Mirko Reuther Von Mirko Reuther
Homburg (red) Wer das Kulturamt am kommenden Dienstag aufsuchen möchte, sollte sich auf eine kleine Änderung einstellen. Das Kulturamt der Stadt im Rathaus am Forum ist aufgrund einer Fortbildungsveranstaltung am Dienstag, 6. Februar, in der Zeit Von red
Sechs unterschiedliche Vorhaben werden 2018 in Homburg im Rahmen der Partnerschaft für Demokratie gefördert. vom Theater bis zum gemeinsamen Kochen. Im Sommer kann man sich erneut mit Projekten bewerben. Von Ulrike Stumm
HOmburg (red) Noch haben die Homburger Schlossberghöhlen und das Römermuseum Winterpause. In dieser Woche werden sie wieder geöffnet, allerdings gelten im Februar und März für beide Sehenswürdigkeiten verkürzte Besichtigungszeiten von 10 bis 16 Uhr.
Neujahrsempfang am Universitätsklinikum in Homburg mit viel Prominenz. Von Thorsten Wolf
Regionalverband (red) Am „Fetten Donnerstag“, 8. Februar, ist die Verwaltung des Regionalverbandes Saarbrücken nur bis 12 Uhr geöffnet. Am Freitag, 9. Februar, gilt die übliche Geschäftszeit bis 12 Uhr. Am Rosenmontag, 12. Februar, bleibt die
Im Saarbrücker Repair Café können am Samstag, 3. Februar, von 11 bis 14 Uhr, im welt:raum am St. Johanner Markt kaputte Textilien und Elektrogeräte wieder flottgemacht werden. Ehrenamtliche stehen dabei helfend zur Seite. In einer Gesellschaft, die
Englands Ikone David Beckham erhält den offiziellen Zuschlag der Profiliga MLS. 2020 soll es losgehen.
Eine Sicherheitslücke bedroht das Anti-Doping-System auch in Pyeongchang.
Die Winterspiele starten in neun Tagen. Die Topathleten fiebern den Wettkämpfen entgegen – wer wird besonders glänzen?
Der Saarlouiser unterschreibt beim 1. FC Saarbrücken einen Vertrag bis Saisonende mit Option. Dies könnte sich als cleverer Schachzug entpuppen. Von Patric Cordier
Vor dem Ende der Wechselfrist gehen zahlreiche Transfers über die Bühne. Unter anderem verlässt Marc Bartra den BVB.
Ministerpräsidentin Kramp-Karrenbauer schaltet sich in den Finanzskandal beim Landessportverband für das Saarland LSVS ein. Von Ute Kirch und Tobias Fuchs
Der saarländische Profiboxer unterschreibt bei einem US-Promoter und kämpft als nächstes in Mexiko. Helfen soll der neue Trainer Karl-Heinz Krüger. Von Stefan Regel
saarbrücken (red) Nachwuchsspieler Tomas Polansky rückt beim 1. FC Saarbrücken Tischtennis kommende Saison in die erste Mannschaft auf. Der tschechische Nationalspieler wird nach zwei Jahren in der zweiten Mannschaft des FCS in der 2. Bundesliga
Calgary (dpa) Eishockey-Star Jaromir Jagr wird seine Karriere in Europa fortführen. Wie die Calgary Flames aus der Profiliga NHL mitteilten, wird der 45-Jährige zu seinem Heimatclub HC Kladno in Tschechien wechseln. Für den zweifachen
Saarbrücken (red) Rolf Lacour ist tot. Der frühere Weltklasse-Ringer verstarb in der Nacht zu Sonntag in Köllerbach. Er wurde 80 Jahre alt. Lacour war der erfolgreichste Sportler des Saarländischen Ringer-Verbandes. 1965 wurde er Vize-Weltmeister im
Willingen (sid) Skisprung-Bundestrainer Werner Schuster hat für die Olympia-Generalprobe in Willingen sein stärkstes Aufgebot nominiert. Auf der Mühlenkopfschanze werden die fünf Pyeongchang-Starter Richard Freitag, Andreas Wellinger, Markus
Gemeinderat : Gemeinderat tagt am 2. Februar
(red) Um den Jahresabschluss der Glückauf-Halle für das Wirtschaftsjahr 2015 geht es unter anderem im öffentlichen Teil der nächsten Gemeinderatssitzzung in Spiesen-Elversberg. Die findet statt am Freitag, 2. Februar, 17.30 Uhr, im Sitzungssaal des
(red) Nach seinem gefeierten Programm „Freiheit!“ schlägt der Musikkabarettist Lars Reichow ein neues Kapitel auf. Zum 25-jährigen Bühnenjubiläum geht er mit einer gehörigen Portion „Lust“ auf Tournee: Lust auf Wahrheit. Lust auf Musik. Lust auf
Das Ambulante Hospiz St. Josef Neunkirchen sucht ehrenamtliche Hospizhelfer. „Menschenwürdig leben bis zuletzt“ – unter diesem Tenor steht die Arbeit im ambulanten Hospiz St. Josef Neunkirchen, das ehrenamtliche Mitarbeiter braucht. Am Dienstag, 20.
Seniorenlotsen gesucht : Landkreis sucht weitere Seniorenlotsen
Ehrenamtliche sollen älteren Menschen im Alltag mit Rat und Tat zur Seite stehen.
Kreis sucht Tageseltern : Tagesmütter und Tagesväter werden gesucht
(red) Für die am 20. Februar beginnende Qualifizierung zur Tagesmutter, beziehungsweise zum Tagesvater beim Kreisjugendamt sind noch Plätze frei. Die Qualifizierung umfasst 160 Unterrichtsstunden und ein Praktikum von 40 Stunden in einer
Neunkirchen. Am heutigen Mittwoch wird Hannelore Fuchs 94 Jahre alt. Glück und Gesundheit wünschen Verwandte und Bekannte.
Beim Tag der offenen Tür staunten die Besucher über die Vielfalt in der Erzieherausbildung an der Edith-Stein-Schule in Neunkirchen. Von Jörg Gustav Jacobi-Vogelgesang
Ortsräte Schiffweiler : Das meiste Geld fließt in den Kita-Neubau
An diesem Mittwoch, 17 Uhr, stimmt der Gemeinderat Schiffweiler in seiner Sitzung im Rathaus über den Haushaltssanierungsplan 2011 bis 2021, das Investitionsprogramm 2017 bis 2021 sowie den Haushaltsplan und die Haushaltssatzung für das Jahr 2018 Von Mathias Huckert
Bereits am 20. September, so die Polizeiinspektion Neunkirchen, ereignete sich in einer Neunkircher Spielothek ein Diebstahl. Der Beschuldigte entwendete dem Geschädigten offenbar 70 Euro aus dessen Geldbörse, die kurz unbeaufsichtigt an einem
Mit dem Foto der Überwachungskamera fahndet die Polizei Neunkirchen nach einer Frau, die mit einer gestohlenen EC-Karte Geld am Automaten abgehoben haben soll. Der Vorfall ereignete sich bereits am 26. September. Damals wurde einer Frau beim
Neunkirchen (red) Am Montag haben sich die Beschäftigten der ZF AG, Werk 5 in Neunkirchen, mit großer Mehrheit dafür entschieden, ihren Forderungen mit einem ganztägigen Warnstreik Ausdruck zu verleihen. Das teilt die IG Metall Neunkirchen mit.
(red) Der Allgemeine Deutsche Fahrrad Club (ADFC) Neunkirchen lädt für Donnerstag zum Radlerstammtisch ins Turnerheim nach Wellesweiler in die Pestalozzi-Straße ein. Der Stammtisch beginnt um 18.30 Uhr. Besprochen werden sollen das Tourenprogramm für
E-Mobilität : Mehr E-Autos auf den Straßen im Kreis Neunkirchen
Aber wie umweltverträglich ist der Stromantrieb? Experte erwartet verschiedene Alternativen für die Zukunft. Von Michael Beer
(red) Imitieren Kinder alles? Um das herauszufinden, suchen Entwicklungspsychologen von der Universität des Saarlandes für eine Studie Jungen und Mädchen, die mindestens drei und höchstens vier Jahre alt sind. Die Forscher wollen herausfinden, ob
Fastnacht in Saarbrücken : So geht’s weiter in den Saarbrücker Narrenhochburgen
Großeinsatz : Nächtlicher Stromausfall trifft Püttlinger Klinik
Kurz vor Mitternacht hat am Montag eine Leitung versagt. Feuerwehr und Technisches Hilfswerk eilten zum Krankenhaus, in dem 370 Patienten versorgt werden. Von Matthias Zimmermann
Am Dienstag, 6. Februar, 18 Uhr, beginnt in der Saarbrücker Stadtbibliothek eine Vortragsreihe über Sicherheit im Internet. Hintergrund ist der internationale Aktionstag Safer Internet Day (SID), der unter dem Motto „Ein besseres Internet beginnt
Im Bauausschuss wurde die Möglichkeit einer finanziellen Förderung diskutiert.
Am Montagvormittag, zwischen 9.50 und 11.40 Uhr wurde ein auf dem Marktplatz in St. Ingbert geparkter, roter Renault Scenic mit Kölner Kennzeichen an der vorderen Stoßstange, rechte Seite, beschädigt. Wie die Polizei mitteilt, streifte ein den Von red
Sie wissen, was in Ihrem Ort passiert? Können Ärgerliches, Schönes, Kurioses berichten? Sie haben einen Brand oder Unfall beobachtet oder sogar Fotos gemacht? Dann schicken Sie uns alles als Leser-Reporter. Wir recherchieren Ihre Tipps. Als Von red
Das Albertus-Magnus-Gymnasium bot seinen Schülern eine Berufs- und Studienvorbereitung an.
Am Montag, 5. Februar, ab 9.30 Uhr, ist die Heilpraktikerin Helga Wiesmann mit dem Vortrag „Bauch über Kopf“ beim Kultur- und Lesefrühstück in Brebach zu Gast.
Die Evangelische Familienbildungsstätte der Diakonie Saar lädt mittwochs, 21. und 28. Februar, zu einem Aufbaukurs zum Thema „Mein Smartphone und ich – einfach und sicher“. Der Kurs läuft jeweils von 9.30 bis 11.45 Uhr, in der Mainzer Straße 269.
Unter dem Motto „Sonntagsschicht“ bietet die Völklinger Hütte im Februar wieder eine sonntägliche Familienführung zur Industriekultur der Völklinger Hütte. Ab 4. Februar erzählt der Experte für Industriekultur und Projektleiter am Weltkulturerbe
Regionalverbandsdirektor Peter Gillo und VHS-Direktor Wilfried Schmidt haben im Rahmen des Neujahrsempfangs der VHS Regionalverband Saarbrücken erstmals langjährige Dozenten geehrt. Den Anfang machten die Jubilare aus Saarbrücken. Im kommenden Jahr
Wegweisende Anlage : Moderne Galerie in Saarbrücken ist jetzt hörbar besser
Gemeinderat : Rat in Bous beschäftigt sich mit Wirtschaftsplänen
Nicht wie gewohnt im Petri-Hof, sondern im Sitzungssaal des Bouser Rathauses trifft sich der Rat zur ersten Sitzung 2018 am Donnerstag, 1. Februar, 18 Uhr. Auf der Tagesordnung stehen die Einführung und Verpflichtung eines Gemeinderatsmitgliedes Von az
Montan Wind hat bei Landsweiler das erste von zwei Windrädern fertiggestellt. Von Fred Kiefer
Lebach (kü) Die Aufstellung eines Bebauungsplanes Weiherberg 4 ist Thema im Stadtrat Lebach am Donnerstag, 1. Februar, 18 Uhr, im Rathaus. Außerdem stehen auf der Tagesordnung: der Windpark Lebach-Nord sowie der aktuelle Stand der Umsetzung des
Faasend : Viel Neues am Greesendaach
Saarwellingen feiert am 8. Februar mit Narrenbaum, Schlagerparty und Feuerwerk. Von red
Es war einmal: Shiva Music in Lebach : Eine Ära geht zu Ende
Alles hat seine Zeit. Das weiß auch Günter Staub, der 40 Jahre in Lebach ansässig war. Er kann einige Anekdoten erzählen und hat die musikalische Entwicklung hautnah erlebt. Vieles in seinem Geschäft erinnert an die guten alten Zeiten, die der Rock- Von Astrid Dörr
Nach 40 Jahren hat Günter Staub, Inhaber von Shiva Music, sein Geschäft am Bitscher Platz in Lebach aufgegeben. Von Astrid Dörr
keukenhof : Obstbauer fahren zum Keukenhof
Der Kreisverband der Obst- und Gartenbauvereine Saarlouis fährt zum Keukenhof (Holland) am 29. und 30. April. Abfahrt ist um 6 Uhr in Rehlingen, P&R-Platz (Zufahrt zur Hessmühle) und um 6.30 Uhr in Lebach am Bahnhof. Im Fahrpreis enthalten sind:
Jörg Kneip bei der Feuerwehr Ensdorf wiedergewählt : Ehrenamtliche Arbeit zum Wohl der Bürger
Ensdorfer Wehr wählt bei Hauptversammlung Jörg Kneip erneut zu ihrem stellvertretenden Wehrführer.
energieberatung : Effiziente Tipps für eine saubere Umwelt
Energieberater der Verbraucherzentrale des Saarlandes geben Ratschläge für durchdachte Energiesparmaßnahmen.
Tafeln : Kirchen sammeln wieder Lebensmittel
(hpf) Am Wochenende vom 3.und 4. Februar stehen in den katholischen Kirchen in Wadgassen, Differten und Friedrichweiler wieder Kisten zum Sammeln von haltbaren Lebensmitteln bereit. Die Lebensmittel sind für die Saarlouiser Tafel bestimmt. Der Von hpf
Wanderverein : Wanderer rufen zur Hauptversammlung
(rk) Jahreshauptversammlung hat der Heimat- und Wanderverein Edelweiß am Sonntag, 4. Februar, um 17 Uhr im Vereinslokal Kater Carlo in Elm. Auf der Tagesordnung stehen unter anderem Neuwahlen und die Termine 2018.
Bunter Abend : Bunter Abend beim Elisabethenverein
(rk) Der Elisabethenverein St. Martin Schwalbach lädt für Freitag, 2. Februar, um 19.30 Uhr zum bunten Abend in den Gemeindesaalbau Schwalbach ein. Verzehrbons gibt es bei den Kassiererinnen und an der Abendkasse. Von rk
Börse : Eine Börse für Spielzeug und Kindersachen
Der Baseballverein Saarlouis Hornets veranstaltet am Sonntag, 4. März, von 13 Uhr bis 16 Uhr in der Mehrzweckhalle in Picard eine Kinderkleider- und Spielzeugbörse. Kinderkleider ab der Größe 104 bis ins Teeniealter, Spielzeug, Kaffee, Kuchen und
Regionalverband : Führung durch das Saarbrücker Schloss
Der Regionalverband Saarbrücken bietet am Samstag, 3. Februar, um 15 Uhr die kostenlose Führung „Das böhmsche Schloss“ an. Die Kunsthistorikerin Nicole Baronsky-Ottmann führt die Teilnehmer auf den Spuren des Architekten Gottfried Böhm durch das
Es soll schmecken und gesund sein : Kostenlose Kochkurse für Pädagogen
Die „Initiative für praktische Ernährungsbildung für Kinder im Kita- und Grundschulalter“ bietet für Erzieher, Lehrer und Sozialpädagogen am 21. Februar in Saarbrücken eine kostenlose Schulung an; Titel: „Ich kann kochen!“. Initiatoren sind die
NKV Elversberg : Wenn Alexa zur Kratzbürste wird, dann fliegen die Raketen
Bei der Kappensitzung der NKV Elversberger Narrenzunft ging’s hoch her. „Zurück in die 80er“ war das Motto dieser Session. Von Mathias Huckert
Die Furpacher Eulenspiegel haben sich neu aufgestellt. An diesem Samstag ist die zweite Sitzung. Von Elke Jacobi
Sperrung : Umleitung wegen Fastnachtsumzug
Aus Anlass des Fastnachtsumzuges in Spiesen wird am Dienstag, 13. Februar, die Hauptstraße von der Spieser Höhe bis zur Einmündung der Straße Alte Gasse in der Zeit von 14.45 bis etwa 19 Uhr für den Fahrzeugverkehr voll gesperrt.
Feuerwehr Stennweiler : Feuerwehr spendet an Verein Paulinchen
Stennweiler (red) Bereits zum zweiten Mal nahm der Löschbezirk Stennweiler an der Aktion „Tag des brandverletzten Kindes“ teil und spendete an den Verein Paulinchen, der diesen Tag jährlich veranstaltet, 350 Euro. Das teilt die Gemeinde Schiffweiler
Nach Asien entführten die Daaler bei ihrer Kappensitzung die Besucher mit tollen Tänzen und Büttenreden. Von Andreas Detemple
Landgericht in Saargemünd bangt um Zuständigkeiten : Justizreform bedroht lothringische Standorte
Das Landgericht in Saargemünd bangt um seine Zuständigkeiten. Die Kooperation mit dem Saarland könnte ein Rettungsanker sein. Von Hélène Maillasson
Am Mittwoch, 7. Februar, besucht das „Netzwerk gute Nachbarschaft Unterer Rotenbühl“ die Sonderausstellung „Prominente Menschen aus dem Saarland“ im Historischen Museum Saar. Das kündigt das Netzwerk an.
Wenn der 1. FC Saarbrücken aufsteigt, braucht er schnell ein drittligareifes Stadion. Er hat einen Bauantrag für den Umbau des Hermann-Neuberger-Stadions in Völklingen gestellt. Von Bernhard Geber
Die Gemeinde Marpingen nimmt am Kommunalen Energieeffizienz-Netzwerk im Landkreis St. Wendel teil. Das haben die Mitglieder des Gemeinderates in ihrer jüngsten Sitzung beschlossen. In drei Jahren kostet das die Gemeinde etwa 25 400 Euro. Von Sarah Konrad
() In diesem Jahr (und bis auf Weiteres) wird es in St. Wendel weder eine Rathausstürmung, noch eine Anklage des Bürgermeisters geben. Darauf weist der Präsident des Ochsitoriums, Hans Gerecht, hin.
St. Wendel (red) Am Fetten Donnerstag, 8. Februar, sind die Agenturen für Arbeit in Neunkirchen, Homburg und St. Wendel in der Zeit von 8 bis 16 Uhr geöffnet. Das Berufsinformationszentrum in Neunkirchen hat von 10 bis 16 Uhr geöffnet. Am
(se) Im vergangenen Sommer hat ein Blitzschlag die Hauptschaltuhr der Kirche St. Anna in Furschweiler beschädigt. Diese wurde repariert und eine neue Schaltuhr eingebaut (wir berichteten). Doch jetzt gibt es wieder Probleme. Die Hauptschaltuhr ist
Freisen (him) Zum ersten Mal im neuen Jahr tagt der Freisener Gemeinderat am Donnerstag, 1. Februar, ab 18 Uhr im Rathaus. Unter anderem geht es um den Beginn der vorbereitenden Untersuchungen zur Prüfung der Sanierungsbedürftigkeit in Asweiler,
Neunkircher Tierschutzverein kämpft weiter um ausreichend Geld für seine Arbeit : Tierheim will sicher planen können
Der Linxbachhof steht vor hohen Investitionen. Ein neuer Vertrag mit Kreisen und Kommunen ist in Arbeit. Von Michael Beer
Wettbewerb in der Kyllberghalle : Kinder wollen so stark wie Pippi Langstrumpf sein
152 Turnerinnen aus Deutschland und Luxemburg nehmen am kommenden Samstag in der Kyllberghalle in Köllerbach am Pippi-Langstrumpf-Pokal teil. Ausrichter ist der TV Püttlingen. Die Teilnehmerinnen müssen Übungen zu Kraft und Beweglichkeit
Quartett in Topform : LAZ-Staffel erfüllt Norm für deutsche Meisterschaft
Saarbrücken (hg) Die 4 x 200-Meter-Staffel des LAZ Saar 05 Saarbrücken hat bei den rheinland-pfälzischen Leichtathletik-Hallenmeisterschaften in Ludwigshafen die Norm für die deutschen U 20-Jugendmeisterschaften im kommenden Februar in Halle an der
Tore satt und eine Entscheidung im Sieben-Meter-Schießen – das Finale beim Masters-Qualifikationsturnier des SV Hofeld bot alles, was die Herzen von Fußball-Fans höher schlagen lässt. Landesligist SF Güdesweiler und Verbandsligist FFC Dudweiler Von Semmler
Die Partie beim Tabellenvierten TTC Weinheim entpuppte sich für den abstiegsgefährdeten Tischtennis-Zweitligisten ATSV Saarbrücken am vergangenen Sonntag als zu hohe Hürde. Der Tabellenvorletzte kassierte mit dem 2:6 die zehnte Niederlage im Von David Benedyczuk
Um den Nachwuchs im saarländischen Volleyball ist es nicht gut bestellt. Deshalb möchte der Verband Talentstütz- punkte einrichten. Von Heiko Lehmann
Zum Frühlingskonzert laden die Musiker der Harmonie Hüttersdorf am Samstag, 17. März, 19 Uhr, ins Hüttersdorfer Kulturhaus. „Die Veranstaltung ist mittlerweile ein fester Bestandteil unseres musikalischen Jahres und erfreut sich stets wachsender
Puppentheater Gabi Kussani spielt in Elm das Stück „Kasper auf der Pirateninsel“.
Die Theatergastspiele a.gon München gastieren anlässlich des Theater- und Vortragsringes der Stadt Dillingen mit dem Thriller „Ein brillanter Mord“ von James Cawood am Sonntag, 4. Februar, um 20 Uhr in der Stadthalle Dillingen. Mitwirkende sind
Die Klamotten waren mit Matsch besudelt, alles tropfte. Die 280 Starter beim 12. Kaltenstein-Crosslauf der LTF Theeltal störte das am Samstag irgendwann nicht mehr. Die Erschöpfung stand den 11 bis 76 Jahre alten Haudegen aber in die Von Roland Schmidt
Fußball-Mannschaft gewinnt Finale der saarländischen Betriebssportmeisterschaft gegen Ford Saarlouis.
Von Roland Schmidt Von Roland Schmidt
Borussia Dortmund, Schalke, Mönchengladbach: Viele Ex-Stars aus der Bundesliga zauberten am Samstag beim Legends- Cup in der Saarlandhalle. Und mittendrin: der VfB Tünsdorf. Der zog zwar nicht das Traumlos, ärgerte dafür aber den FCS. Von David Benedyczuk
Kegeln : Wiebelskircher Kegler sichern sich den Zusatzpunkt
Der TuS Wiebelskirchen sendet in der 2. Kegel-Bundesliga wieder ein Lebenszeichen. Am vorletzten Spieltag unterlagen die Kreisstädter im Derby beim KSC Hüttersdorf II zwar knapp mit 5076:5098 konnten sich aber mit dem Gewinn des Zusatzpunktes Von Benno Weiskircher
Die Mannschaft von Stahl Vital Dillinger wurde am Samstag in Wiebelskirchen neuer saarländischer Betriebssportmeister im Hallenfußball. Im Endspiel der 33. Betriebsfußball-Saarlandmeisterschaften besiegte der amtierende deutsche Vizemeister in der Von Heinz Bier
Tischtennis : Bietigheim einfach zu stark für den TTC Illingen
Der Rückrundenauftakt in der Tischtennis-Regionalliga ist dem TTC Kerpen Illingen misslungen. Gegen den TTC Bietigheim-Bissingen konnte der saarländische Klub seinen 9:7-Hinspielerfolg nicht wiederholen und unterlag am Samstag vor 50 Zuschauern mit Von Lucas Jost
Badminton : Badminton: TuS verliert in Schondorf mit 2:5
Badminton-Zweitligist TuS Wiebelskirchen ist vom Auswärtsspiel bei der SG Schorndorf mit einer 2:5-Niederlage zurückgekehrt. Ein Punktgewinn bei den Schwaben war am Sonntag durchaus möglich, obwohl die Saarländer erneut auf ihre beiden Von Heinz Bier
Um den Nachwuchs im saarländischen Volleyball ist es nicht gut bestellt. Deshalb möchte der Verband nun Talentstütz- punkte einrichten. Die Talentschmiede Lebach bleibt aber außen vor. Von Heiko Lehmann
Köllerbach (red) 152 Turnerinnen aus Deutschland und Luxemburg nehmen am kommenden Samstag in der Kyllberghalle in Köllerbach am Pippi-Langstrumpf-Pokal teil. Ausrichter ist der TV Püttlingen. Die Teilnehmerinnen müssen Übungen zu Kraft und
Die Volleyballerinnen des TV Lebach gingen am Samstag im Drittliga-Duell gegen Bad Vilbel leer aus. Schuld an der 1:3-Heimschlappe war die hohe Fehlerquote. Von Roland Schmidt
Koblenz (dpa) Weil eine Frau für ihren gestürzten hochbetagten Vater zu spät den Rettungsdienst gerufen hat, ist sie vom Landgericht Koblenz zu einer Bewährungsstrafe von eineinhalb Jahren verurteilt worden. Die Richter befanden die 62-Jährige des
War beim Verkauf des Nürburgring alles rechtens? Ein US-Unternehmen bezweifelt das und hofft immer noch, die Rennstrecke kaufen zu können.
Mallorca : Referent berichtet über unbekannte Seiten von Mallorca
(se) „Mallorca einmal anders“ ist das Thema der nächsten Vortragsveranstaltung beim Landfrauenverein Wolfersweiler-Nohfelden am Donnerstag, 1. Februar.
(red) Die St. Wendeler Saarlandfrauen haben ihr Programm für die kommenden Monate bekannt gegeben. Das sieht aus, wie folgt: Am Donnerstag, 1. Februar, bereitet Silvia Wack leckere Gerichte aus der asiatischen Küche zu. Über das natürliche
In ein wahres Tollhaus verwandelten die kfd-Frauen aus Alsfassen das Kulturzentrum. Ihre Fastnachtsshows begeisterten die Narren.
Infotag : Schule für Ergotherapie in Birkenfeld stellt ihre Arbeit vor
Einen Informationstag veranstaltet die Schule für Ergotherapie an der Elisabeth-Stiftung des Deutschen Roten Kreuzes in Birkenfeld am Donnerstag, 1. Februar, ab 10 Uhr in ihren Werk- und Schulungsräumen. Schulleiterin Christine Tholey-Martens,
Termine : Vereine in Eisen veröffentlichen ihre Jahrestermine
Überroth-Niederhofen (hgn) Die Polizei hat am frühen Dienstagmorgen einen Mann festgenommen, der in Überroth-Niederhofen Autoreifen zerstochen haben soll. Ein Sprecher der St. Wendeler Polizei bestätigte damit SZ-Informationen, wonach ein Opfer um Von Matthias Zimmermann
(se) Kaffee und Kuchen beim evangelischen Frauenkreis Hirstein gibt es wieder am Mittwoch, 31. Januar. Beginn der Veranstaltung im Gemeindesaal der evangelischen Kirche ist um 15.30 Uhr.
(red) Dank einer neuen technischen Anlage sind zukünftig auch regelmäßig Führungen im Saarländischen Schulmuseum in Ottweiler mit einem besonderen Hörkomfort möglich. Am Donnerstag, 1. Februar, 14 Uhr, leitet die Museumspädagogin Bettina Heisel eine
Polizei sucht nach Hinweisen auf Umweltsünder in Nonnweiler. Von Melanie Mai
Wird die Gemeinde Mettlach ihre fristlose Kündigung des Flüchtlingsheimes „Auf Kappelt“ vor Gericht durchsetzen? Von Margit Stark
Die Merziger Polizei registrierte weitere Delikte in den verganenen Tagen.
hü : Lebensqualität entsteht dort, wo Menschen füreinander da sind
Wort zum Alltag : Lebensqualiät entsteht dort, wo Menschen füreinander da sind
Ehrlicherweise muss ich zugeben: Den Ruhestand habe ich mir etwas anders vorgestellt. Sogar romantische Bilder tauchten in mir auf; gemütlich lesend im Arbeitszimmer und die Füße auf dem Tisch, daneben eine Tasse Tee. Zeit und Muße, um gründlicher
Gemeinde Losheim und Förderverein sehen „ermutigende Fakten“ für die Zukunft der Losheimer St. Josefs-Klinik.
(red) Gemeinsam mit dem Amt für Jugend, Senioren und Soziales lädt der Seniorenbeauftragte der Stadt Homburg, Günter Schmidt, zu einer Bildungsreise nach Hamburg ein. Vom 21. bis 26. Juni wird ein abwechslungsreiches Programm mit verschiedenen Von red
Vielseitige Ausstellung im Homburger Kulturzentrum Saalbau öffnet am 5. März. Von Von
Am Fetten Donnerstag, 8. Februar, geht es im Homburger Saalbau musikalisch wieder rund. Von red
Autorin Kerstin Rech kommt am 20. Februar wieder zur „Homburger Lesezeit“. Von red
Konzert : The Scamps spielen am Fastnachtssonntag
Beckingen (mtn) Die Band The Scamps spielt am Fastnachtssonntag, 11. Februar, um 17 Uhr im Clubhaus Auf den Kiefern (Reitanlage) in Beckingen. Das Konzert schließt damit an den Beckinger Fastnachtsumzugn De Scamps spielen Oldies but Goldies zum Von Martin Trappen
Beim Kinderfasching in Losheim konnten sich die kleinen Narren richtig austoben. Von eil
Bei der Rissenthaler Fösend im Gasthaus Zur Linde sorgten die Sportler für närrische Gaudi. Von eil
Kappensitzung : Die schönsten Rosen blühen zur Fastnacht
Schunkeln, Feiern und Mitsingen war angesagt bei der Kappensitzung des Büschfelder Karnevalvereins „De Nawwel der Welt“. Von eb
„Computerschreiben in vier Stunden“ lautet ein Kurs der Volkshochschule unter Leitung von Martina-Maria Seidel. Durch Lernen mit Assoziationen wird das Schreiben am Computer mit zehn Fingern erlernt. Durch Geschichten und visuelle Hilfestellungen Von red
Ormesheim (red) Die Katholische Erwachsenenbildung Saarpfalz (KEB) lädt für den morgigen Donnerstag, 1. Februar, um 19.30 Uhr zu dem Informations- und Gesprächsabend „Pflegestützpunkt im Saarpfalz-Kreis“ in den Sitzungssaal im Rathaus, Von red
Die Versichertenälteste der Deutschen Rentenversicherung, Rosi Müller-Hau, bietet am Donnerstag, 1. Februar, in der Zeit von 15 bis 18 Uhr im Gersheimer Rathaus Sprechstunden an. Terminvereinbarungen sind unter Telefon (0 68 43) 80 11 06 Von red
In der Nacht zum Sonntag wurde von einem bisher Unbekannten ein in der Blieskasteler Florianstraße in Höhe des Lidl Marktes geparkter Autotransportanhänger schräg auf die Fahrbahn geschoben und dort stehen gelassen. Fahrzeuge, die den Bereich Von red
Zu einem Klangschalenworkshop mit Meditation lädt die Katholische Erwachsenenbildung Saarpfalz (KEB) am Freitag, 2. Februar, von 16 bis 18 Uhr in die Praxis für Entspannungspädagogik nach Lautzkirchen, Schillerstraße 11 ein. Durch Von red
An der Geschwister-Scholl-Schule in Blieskastel wird auch das G9-Abitur angeboten. Zusätzlich gibt es Spiel, Sport und verschiedene Projekte. Von red
(red) Die Volkshochschule Homburg beginnt nach den närrischen Tagen mit neuen Sprachkursen auf dem Niveau A1 in den Sprachen Arabisch und Russisch. Der Arabischkurs für absolute Anfänger beginnt am Dienstag, 20. Februar, 18 Uhr, Saal 201, in der Von red
(red) Die protestantische Kirchengemeinde Erbach lädt für kommenden Sonntag, 4. Februar, zu einem Gottesdienst ein, der vom Posaunenchor der Gemeinde musikalisch gestaltet wird. Beginn ist um 10 Uhr. Im Anschluss ist das Kirchencafé im Von red
Entdeckungstour : Entdeckungstour führt durch die Mainzer Straße
(red) Die Katholische Erwachsenenbildung Saarpfalz (KEB) lädt für Donnerstag, 8. Februar, 17 bis 19 Uhr, zur Entdeckungstour: „Entdecken, erleben, genießen – Streifzug durch das Quartier Mainzer Straße“ ein. Im Herzen Saarbrückens ist das Quartier Von red
Berliner Gitarrist Baby Kreuzberg rockt am kommenden Samstag in Mandy’s Lounge in Homburg. Von red
(red) Die meisten Geheimnisse des Kirkeler Waldes bleiben Besuchern und Spaziergängern in der Regel verborgen. Kaum jemand dürfte beispielsweise die scheuen Wildkatzen zu Gesicht bekommen haben, die inzwischen durch das Unterholz streichen. Wie Von red
Der Seniorennachmittag der Homburger Narrenzunft wurde zum Jungbrunnen für das ältere Narrenvolk. Von Markus Hagen
(np) Wer an einem sonnigen Strand eine Handvoll Sand durch die Finger rinnen lässt, macht sich keine Vorstellungen von der Vielfalt des Lebens, das da zu Boden rieselt. Auf diesen Körnern siedeln zig Milliarden Bakterien, haben Forscher des
(np) Vulkanausbrüche können gewaltigen Einfluss auf das Weltklima haben. Das zeigte der Ausbruch des Tambora in Indonesien im Jahr 1815. Seine Eruption führte zu einer der schlimmsten Hungersnöte des 19. Jahrhunderts, weil es durch die Vulkanasche,
Pestizide lassen die Insekten trotz eines Überangebots an Nahrung verhungern.
Physiker der Goethe-Universität Frankfurt denkt über mögliche Reisen zu den nächsten Sonnensystemen in unserer Milchstraße nach.
Raumfahrt : Aus der Traum vom Weltraum-Taxi
Die Nasa will die neue Mini-Raumfähre „Dream Chaser“ trotz eines erfolgreichen Tests nur als Lastentransporter nutzen. Von Uwe Seidenfaden
Spende : Krippenbauer unterstützen Hospiz und Messdiener
Krippen bauen aus Holz mit Figuren aus Gips – und alles für den guten Zweck: Ein Projekt, das im Sommer mit viel Leidenschaft gestartet ist, fand nun seinen erfreulichen Endpunkt: Gerhard Bohnenberger besuchte mit seiner Ehefrau das St. Barbara
Integratibe Kurse : Kreatives Schaffen soll Gemeinschaft fördern
Die Kreisstadt Saarlouis mit dem Netzwerk „Wir sind einS(aarlouis)“ lädt zu einem kreativen offenen Angebot in das Kinder-, Jugend und Familienhaus, Lisdorfer Straße 16a, ein. Die Treffen finden unter ehrenamtlicher Leitung der Schneiderin Jeanne
Im Seniorenkino wird am Dienstag, 6. Februar, 17 Uhr, der Film „Paris kann warten“ gezeigt.
Bei der HerzGesund-Kampagne findet am Donnerstag, 22. Februar, ab 16 Uhr im Kulturhaus in Hüttersdorf der Cardio-Day statt. Veranstalter ist der TL Hüttersdorf mit Unterstützung der Gemeinde Schmelz.
Kurs : Fortbildung für Erzieher rund ums Thema Lernen
Die KEB bietet einen IHK-zertifizierten Qualifizierungskurs an. Anmeldungen sind bis 1. Februar möglich.
Das Dekanat Saarlouis lädt Paare, die kirchlich heiraten wollen, zu einem Seminar „Unterwegs zur Ehe“. Manchmal überschreiben Brautleute ihre Hochzeitsanzeige in der Zeitung mit dem Satz „Wir trauen uns“. Sie drücken damit aus: Wir wollen unseren
Kappensitzung : Mit dem Surfbrett zu „Fazebuck“
Riesenspaß hatten die Gäste der Hampitania-Kappensitzung in Bous bei Büttenreden, Schunklern und Tänzen. Von Alexandra Broeren
Leserbrief : Blitzer bremsen Autofahrer aus
SPD-Neujahrsempfang : Aufbruchsstimmung beim Neujahrsempfang der SPD
() Aufbruchsstimmung herrschte beim Neujahrsempfang der SPD Merzig-Mitte. Arndt Oehm, erster Vorsitzender des SPD-Ortsvereins, konnte zahlreiche Gäste zum Neujahrsempfang begrüßen. In seiner Eröffnungsrede ließ Oehm das von Land- und Bundestagswahl
Leserbrief : Auf den Straßen spielt sich viel ab
Einen kranken oder hilfebedürftigen Menschen zu Hause zu pflegen, ist eine verantwortungsvolle Aufgabe, die auch nach Ansicht von Pflegeprofis schnell zu einer enormen täglichen Herausforderung werden kann. Deswegen bieten das Deutsche Rote Kreuz Von red
Der Kneipp-Verein St. Ingbert fährt am Sonntag, 17. Juni, zur Show „Immer wieder sonntags“ im Europapark Rust. Abfahrt ist um 7 Uhr am Rendezvousplatz. Die Reiseleitund haben Josefa und Erich Körner.
Dem Orchesterverein Lautzkirchen blieb es einmal mehr vorbehalten, den Veranstaltungsreigen 2018 per Neujahrskonzert zu eröffnen.
Am heutigen Mittwoch wird die Künstlerin Anne Kerber persönlich im Rathaus Mandelbachtal in Ormesheim anwesend sein und zwischen 15 und 17.30 Uhr Besucher durch ihre Ausstellung „HistoPopArt – Kunst mit Haut und Haaren“ führen. Sie beantwortet Von red
Trotz der Verkehrsberuhigung ist laut Ortsvorsteher Schmidt das Sicherheitsgefühl der Fußgänger in der Ottweiler Altstadt noch nicht ausgeprägt. Von Heinz Bier
Der Kurs „Trittsicher durchs Leben“ beginnt am Montag, 5. Februar. Er findet an sechs Terminen immer von 15 Uhr bis 16.30 Uhr im DRK-Sozialzentrum in Saarbrücken-Dudweiler statt. Ziel ist es, die Teilnehmer für Sturzgefahren zu sensibilisieren und
Für alle, die Paris und die Schätze der Stadt noch besser kennenlernen möchten, bietet die Volkshochschule des Regionalverbandes Saarbrücken eine dreiteilige Vortragsreihe an. Der dritte und letzte Vortrag dieser Reihe ist am Mittwoch, 31. Januar,
Deutsch-amerikanisches Freundschaftskomitee wurde am Montag im Rathaus von Baumholder gegründet.
Am Samstag konnte das Volleyball-Oberligateam des TV 66 Rohrbach mit einem 3:1 (18:25 25:18 25:20 25:23) gegen den TV Holz II drei Punkte einfahren – und Platz vier in der Tabelle zurückerobern. Wegen Fasching musste der TV in Blieskastel im
Fußball : Der SV St. Ingbert in alter Frische
Die AH-Fußballer des SVI haben am Samstagabend die Stadtmeisterschaften gewonnen. Rohrbach wird Zweiter. Von Stefan Holzhauser
In der Fußball-Kreisliga A Bliestal wird die Saison am Sonntag, 25. Februar, fortgesetzt. Dann empfängt unter anderem um 14.30 Uhr der aktuelle Tabellen-14. SV Bexbach den auf Rang zwei platzierten SV Kirkel. Hinter den Bexbachern liegt bislang eine Von Stefan Holzhauser
Arbeiterwohlfahrt : Kaffeenachmittag im Alten Wasserwerk
(red) Die Arbeiterwohlfahrt, Ortsverein Hassel, veranstaltet ihren nächsten Kaffeenachmittag am morgigen Donnerstag in ihrer Begegnungsstätte „Altes Wasserwerk“. Beginn ist um 14.30 Uhr. Von red
Die St. Ingberter Pfarrgemeinde St. Konrad lädt für Donnerstag, 1. Februar, zum Kinderfasching ein. Er findet von 15 bis 18 Uhr im Pfarrsaal in der Karl-Custer-Straße statt.
Der Kneipp-Verein Rohrbach bietet am Dienstag, 6. Februar, eine Thermalbadfahrt nach Bad Schönborn an. Abfahrt ist um 13 Uhr an der Rohrbachhalle. Vorher besteht um 12.45 Uhr Zusteigemöglichkeit am Rendezvous-Platz in St. Ingbert. Nichtmitglieder
Die große Bierbacher Fastnachtsshow bot auch im 66. Jahr ihres Bestehens ein Feuerwerk der guten Laune.
Die große Prunksitzung der Blieskasteler Karnevalsgesellschaft (BKG) in der Bliesgau-Festhalle ließ erneut keine Wünsche offen.
Workshops, Veranstaltungen und natürlich der Kunsthandwerkermarkt: Der Förderverein bietet wieder viel im ersten Halbjahr 2018. Von Martin Baus
Falscher Verein : „Smilies and Kids“ im Bild zu sehen
(red) Bei unserem Bericht über die Kappensitzung der Riegelsberger „mir bleiwe so“ ist ein Fehler passiert. Auf dem Foto zu sehen ist nicht die Aktivengarde aus Kutzhof, sondern „Smilies and Kids“ vom TV Hilschbach. Darauf hingewiesen hat uns Yvonne
Kein Konzert : Soirée der Musikschule am Sonntag fällt aus
(red) Die für Sonntag, 4. Februar, angekündigte Soirée der Musikschule Püttlingen fällt aus organisatorischen Gründen aus. Das teilt Musikschulleiter Stefan Weber mit.
Chor hat Neuwahlen : Kirchenchor tagt am Freitag
(red) Die Jahreshauptversammlung des katholischen Kirchenchores St. Josef Holz beginnt am Freitag, 2. Februar, um 19 Uhr. Auf der Tagesordnung stehen auch Neuwahlen des Vorstandes.
Bilanz stimmt : Katholische Frauen blicken zurück
Eiweiler (dg) Auf ein erfolgreiches und arbeitsreiches Jahr blickt die katholische Frauengemeinschaft (KFG) Eiweiler zurück. Die Vorsitzende Anneliese Maier erinnert vor allem an den Jahresausflug nach Kruft und Andernach: „In Kruft haben wir eine Von dg
Töpfern lernen : Keramikkurse bei Volkshochschule Püttlingen
Die Volkshochschule (VHS) Püttlingen bietet Keramikkurse für Anfänger und Fortgeschrittene an. Es geht um individuelles Arbeiten mit Ton, zum Beispiel Skulpturen, Stelen, Reliefs, Gefäße in verschiedenen Techniken. Ums Glasieren der Werkstücke, um
Polonäse im Pfarrheim : So selbstbewusst wie der junge Thomas Gottschalk
Bei der Edelweiß-Kappensitzung in Püttlingen heizen 50 Akteure den 120 Besuchern im Pfarrheim St. Sebastian ein. Von Von
Egal ob zur GPS-Rallye oder zum Kindergeburtstag – die Saarbrücker und ihre Gäste kommen gern in ihren Wildpark. Von Heiko Lehmann
Fastnacht hat Vorfahrt : Rathäuser an Rosenmontag zu
(red) Das Seniorenbüro der Stadt Püttlingen ist am Donnerstag, 8. Februar, und am Mittwoch, 14. Februar, ab 12 Uhr geschlossen. Am Montag und Dienstag, 12. und 13. Februar, ist das Seniorenbüro im Schlösschen ganztägig zu. Die Rathäuser in Püttlingen
Spielplätze : SPD: Kinder sollen mitreden bei Spielplatzkonzept
Mit einer Fragebogenaktion will die SPD Riegelsberg Familien in ein geplantes Spielplatzkonzept einbeziehen. Dazu der SPD-Vorsitzende Frank Schmidt: „Riegelsberg ist eine attraktive Gemeinde. Viele Familien mit Kindern leben in unserer Kommune. Von dg
Das Wandern ist der Hartmanns Lust. Naja, jedenfalls pirsche ich mich ganz allmählich an das Thema heran. Es wird Frühling, und ich buche todesmutig die geführte 14,5 Kilometer-Tour im Ostertal. Natürlich regnet es bisweilen recht nieselig, doch Von Michèle Hartmann
Fürstenhausen (red) Zu einem vermeintlichen Handydiebstahl ist die Polizei am Montagnachmittag nach Fürstenhausen in die Straße Im Wäldchen gerufen worden. Drei Zwölfjährige teilten den Beamten auf dem Bolzplatz mit, dass das Smartphone eines der Von red
Angebot von Ehrenamtlichen : „Man sieht, dass sie mit Herzblut dabei sind“
Zwölf Ehrenamtliche und jede Menge zu tun: Einblicke in die erfolgreiche Arbeit des Völklinger Repair Café. Von Ulrike Paulmann
Steuern und Investitionen : Gemeinderat tagt mit vollem Programm
(red) Der Großrosselner Gemeinderat tagt am Donnerstag, 1. Februar, ab 18 Uhr in der Rosseltalhalle. Auf der Tagesordnung im öffentlichen Teil stehen unter anderem die Themen Hundesteuer, interkommunale Zusammenarbeit, der Jahresabschluss 2016 und
(red) Am Freitag, 8. Februar, gibt’s beim TV Ski eine bunte Fastnachts-Trainingsstunde. Ab 20 Uhr geht‘s los im Gymnastiksaal der Hans-Netzer-Halle an der Gatterstraße in Völklingen. Leichtes Fastnachts(trainings)-Kostüm und gute Laune sind
Vorbereitung fürs Brunnenfest : Förderkreis hat Mitgliederversammlung
(red) Albrecht Wagner, Präsident des Förderkreises des SV Karlsbrunn, lädt alle Mitglieder zur Mitgliederversammlung am Mittwoch, 7. Februar, um 18.30 Uhr ins Sportheim Wiesental in Karlsbrunn ein. Auf der Tagesordnung steht neben Berichten und
(red) Es ist zu einer Tradition geworden: Die Zwölftklässler des Albert-Einstein-Gymnasiums, die sich auf der Zielgeraden zum Abitur befinden, präsentieren die Ergebnisse ihrer Arbeit aus drei Halbjahren im sogenannten Seminarfach. Dieses soll die
Bei einer Hausräumung gefunden : Historische Fahne nun im Stadtarchiv
Das lange verschwundene Wahrzeichen des einstigen „Sankt Barbara Vereins Wehrden“ ist mindestens 100 Jahre alt.
Vor dem Fatsnachtsumzug : Den Startschuss gibt der Zug-Marschall
Fünf Musikkapellen, 70 Gruppen und über 1500 Teilnehmer werden beim Umzug in Ludweiler erwartet. Zug-Marschall Thomas Laval erläutert die Regeln. Von Andreas Lang
(red) Die Wanderfreunde Ludweiler und der Singkreis 60 Plus, zwei befreundete Organisationen, haben in nächster Zeit viel vor, zunächst eine Faasendwanderung. Die Wanderfreunde Ludweiler laden zu dieser Wanderung am Dienstag, 13. Februar, ein. Sie
(red) Das Trainingsangebot „Reha-Sport – Orthopädie“ des Turnvereins Völklingen findet ab sofort auch dienstags statt, und zwar von 17 bis 17.45 Uhr im Gymnastiksaal im ersten Obergeschoss der Hans-Netzer-Halle, Gatterstraße in Völklingen. Das
Wirtschaft brummt : Gewerbegebiet Etzenhofen wieder komplett verplant
Das Jahr 2004 hatte für Püttlingen und 320 Mitarbeiter der Schwedischen Kugellagerfabrik (SKF) kein schönes Ende. Denn die Leitung des deutschen Konzern-Bereichs in Schweinfurt hatte die Fertigung im Gewerbegebiet Etzenhofen – trotz schwarzer Zahlen Von mr
Er leitete 17 Jahre lang das Berufsbildungszentrum in Völklingen.
Kurz vor Mitternacht hat am Montag eine Leitung versagt. Feuerwehr und Technisches Hilfswerk eilten zum Püttlinger Krankenhaus, in dem aktuell 370 Patienten versorgt werden. Von Matthias Zimmermann
Homburg/Ormesheim (red) Die Katholische Erwachsenenbildung Saarpfalz (KEB) lädt für den morgigen Donnerstag, 1. Februar, um 19.30 Uhr zu dem Informations- und Gesprächsabend „Pflegestützpunkt im Saarpfalz-Kreis“ in den Sitzungssaal im Rathaus, Von red
Fastnacht in Höchen : Frauengemeinschaft feiert Fastnacht
(red) Am kommenden Freitag, 2. Februar, findet in der Unterkirche in Höchen die Fastnachtsveranstaltung der katholischen Frauengemeinschaft statt. Neben flotter Live-Musik mit Stefan Walzer gibt es ein buntes Unterhaltungsprogramm mit Büttenreden. Von red
Pfälzerwaldverein lädt ein : Neuer Termin für Jahreshauptversammlung
(red) Die im Wanderplan für kommenden Sonntag angekündigte Jahreshauptversammlung des Pfälzerwald-Vereins Höchen muss auf Sonntag, 25. Februar, verschoben werden. Sie beginnt um 15 Uhr im Vereinsheim des Sportvereins Höchen. Zuvor findet ab 14 Uhr Von red
(red) Der VdK-Ortsverband Kirrberg begrüßt das Frühjahr. Der Empfang für alle Mitglieder und deren Familien findet am Dienstag, 20. Februar, 18 Uhr, im Schützenhaus Kirrberg statt. Serviert werden Sekt, Suppe, Wiener und Baguette. Von red
Wenn Eltern sich trennen, dann ist das für Kinder meistens eine schwierige Situation. Von red
Im Wald bei Lautzkirchen soll Blieskastels erster Waldkindergarten entstehen. Die finanziellen Voraussetzungen sind bereits geschaffen. Von Joachim Schickert
In einigen Jahren verschwinden Nadelbäume gänzlich aus dem Bestand, sagt Revierförster Urban Backes. Von Matthias Zimmermann
„Applaus, Applaus“ für den scheidenden SPD-Fraktionschef im Saarbrücker Rathaus, Peter Bauer. Den gab es mehrfach am vergangenen Freitag im Festsaal des Rathauses, wohin die SPD-Stadtratsfraktion zum Neujahrsempfang eingeladen hatte. Von Jörg Wingertszahn
(thf) Um die Haushaltssatzungen der Zweckverbände Musikschule, Naherholungsgebiet Ruhbachtal und Naherholungsgebiet Brennenden Berg geht es heute (31. Januar) im Stadtrat. Dessen Sitzung im Rathaus beginnt um 17 Uhr.
Bildstock (red) Für Sonntag, 4 Februar, lädt der CDU Ortsverband Bildstock und Maybach, im Namen der gesamten CDU Friedrichsthal, alle Mitglieder, Freunde und Interessierte um 11 Uhr zum traditionellen Neujahrsempfang ins DJK-Sportheim in Bildstock
Die drei Kommunen in unserer Region ziehen eine durchweg positive Bilanz der Einwanderung. Neubürger sollten die deutsche Sprache lernen. Von Patric Cordier
Das Wandern ist der Hartmanns Lust. Naja, jedenfalls pirsche ich mich ganz allmählich an das Thema heran. Es wird Frühling, und ich buche todesmutig die geführte 14,5 Kilometer-Tour im Ostertal. Natürlich regnet es bisweilen recht nieselig, doch
Kurzmeldungen : NKV lädt ein zur Rosenmontagsparty
Auch am diesjährigen Rosenmontag, 12. Februar, veranstaltet die Narrenzunft kath. Vereine Friedrichsthal (NKV) ihre beliebte Rosenmontagsparty im Festsaal des Rathauses. Los geht´s um 15:30 Uhr. Alle Faasebooze – ob alt oder jung – sind willkommen,
Saargold : Die Stimmung wollte gar nicht abebben
Büttenreden und Tänze überzeugen die Gäste bei der ausverkauften Gala-Kappensitzung des Theatervereins Saargold. Von Stefan Bohlander
Wieder fitness-Tag : „Groß und Klein in Bewegung“
Am kommenden Donnerstag, 1. Februar, um 10.30 Uhr (Treffpunkt Bürgerhaus) sind wieder Senioren-Fitness-Tage. Nach einem gemeinsamen Aufwärmen stehen folgende Fitnessangebote zur Auswahl: Boule mit Lederkugeln, Muskelaufbau, Bewegung nach Musik und
An den Tollen Tagen : Faasendgaudi beim Fanfarenzug
Buwe unn Määde stecken ihre Gäste mit unbefangener Fröhlichkeit an. Claudia Griebsch mit dem Hausorden gewürdigt. Von Petra Pabst
Weichenstellung und Zukunftspläne: Der Sport- und Turnverein (STV) Urweiler lädt zu seiner Jahreshauptversammlung für kommenden Sonntag, 4. Februar, ins Gasthaus Rammacher. Ab 17 Uhr präsentiert der STV die Zukunft des Vereins: Bauvorhaben,
Urweiler (hjl) Ein Höhepunkt in der Arbeit der Heimatfreunde Urweiler war die Einsegnung der neu gestalteten Gedenkstätte für Zwangsarbeiter am Judenfriedhof in Urweiler. Bisher erinnerte nur ein Gedenkstein an die Zwangsarbeiter. Die Heimatfreunde
(se) Das närrische Frühstück des Landfrauenvereins Furschweiler und Umgebung am Fetten Donnerstag, 8. Februar, im Hiemeshaus ist ausverkauft. Das teilt der Verein in einer Pressemitteilung mit.
(se) Der Jahrgang 1944 Oberkirchen kommt am Mittwoch, 31. Januar, zusammen. Treffpunkt ist um 17 Uhr an der Alten Schule, heißt es in einer Mitteilung.
In den zwanzig Jahren, in denen die Gemeinschaftsschule Marpingen das Abitur anbietet, ist die Zahl der Absolventen, die diesen Abschluss wählten, kontinuierlich angestiegen. Momentan unterrichten die Marpinger Oberstufenlehrer 200 Schüler in den Von red
Der Landesbetrieb für Straßenbau (LfS) wird auf der Autobahn 1 zwischen den Anschlussstellen Tholey-Hasborn und Tholey Bestandsvermessungen durchführen. Zum Auftakt sind vorbereitende Arbeiten im Bereich der Standspuren geplant, das teilt der LfS
Ursula Aatz, Kaiserstraße 3, feiert am Mittwoch, 31. Januar ihren 75. Geburtstag.
Insgesamt 77 Kurse stehen im neuen VHS-Programm. Das Angebot reicht vom Sprachkurs über Typberatung bis zum Segelschein.
Fastnacht : Clowns und Sträflinge Hand in Hand
Mehrere Stunden dauerte die Gala-Prunksitzung des Oberthaler Carneval-Vereins. Vor allem die Tanzbeiträge sorgten für stehende Ovationen.
(red) Der Ortsrat Limbach trifft sich am kommenden Montag, 5. Februar zu seiner nächsten Sitzung. Im Landhaus am kleinen Sägeweiher geht es ab 18 Uhr unter anderem um die Ausbaupläne der Autobahn A 8 vom Neunkircher Kreuz bis zum Kohlhof. Dazu wird Von red
Ab dem 25. Mai 2018 gilt die Datenschutzgrundverordnung der EU. Rund 300 Interessenten kamen zur Infoveranstaltung. Von red
Der Januar ist fast vorbei. Bei einer (nicht repräsentativen) Online-Umfrage erklärten SZ-Leser, ob sie bisher auch umsetzen, was sie sich vorgenommen haben.
() Wieder viel gelernt haben Oberstufenschüler der Peter-Dewes-Gemeinschaftsschule (PDG) Losheim vor kurzem in einem Azubi-Projekt der Volksbank Untere Saar. Das teilt PDG-Schulleiter Gerd Bermann mit. „Es hat wieder Spaß gemacht und wir haben viel Von Martin Trappen
Bilanz : Kompetenz in Sachen Atemschutz
Thomas Forster löst Alfred Schug als Gerätewart der Atemschutzwerkstatt ab, die beim Löschbezirk Noswendel angesiedelt ist. Von Erich Brücker
Fußball : SG Erbach für ihr Engagement ausgezeichnet
Jugendabteilung des Homburger Vereins kümmert sich rührend um die Hinterbliebenen eines verstorbenen Spielers. Von Stefan Holzhauser
LIMBACH (sho) Die Tischtennis-Spieler des TV Limbach haben am Samstag in der Oberliga durch den 9:7-Heimsieg gegen den Tabellenachten TuS Weitefeld-Langenbach einen großen Schritt in Richtung Klassenverbleib gemacht. Nach den Eröffnungsdoppeln hatten Von Stefan Holzhauser
Die Fußball-Frauen der SF Güdesweiler sind durch Rang zwei beim Qualifikations-Turnier des SV Hofeld auf einen Masters-Platz geklettert. Dabei hatte Güdesweiler noch Pech: Im Finale unterlagen die SF im Siebenmeterschießen. Von Philipp Semmler
Das Ergebnis liest sich klarer, als es tatsächlich war: Die Saarlandliga-Handballerinnen der FSG Oberthal/Hirstein haben am Samstag das Spitzenspiel bei Tabellenführer HG Saarlouis mit 22:26 verloren. Bis zur 50. Minute (20:21) hielt die FSG die
Saarlandmeisterschaft in der Halle : Titelkämpfe ohne die Aushängeschilder
Der Tennis-Nachwuchs hat seine Saarlandmeister gekürt. Die Top-Spieler Milan Welte und Sarah Müller fehlten allerdings. Von Jonas Grethel
Die Autorin und Schauspielerin Isabella Archan liest am Donnerstag, 22. Februar, in der Stadt- und Kreisbibliothek St. Wendel aus ihrem Kriminalroman „Anton zaubert wieder“.
Die Bruche-Jam-Night geht mit dem Duo Vegas/Azzurro am Samstag, 3. Februar, 20.30 Uhr, im Gasthaus Bruche in Berschweiler in die 19. Runde. Vegas/Azzurro, das sind Frank Altpeter und Matthias Koble, bietet alternative Akustik-Gitarrenmusik. Rock-
In Zusammenarbeit mit der Gemeinde Tholey entführt der Fotoclub Tele Freisen seine Besucher wieder in faszinierende fremde Welten. Von red
Eine ungewöhnliche Liebesgeschichte hält der bezaubernde Film „Hampstead Park“ bereit. Die Schauspieler überzeugen auf ganzer Linie. Der Film ist gerade auf DVD erschienen.
Grandiose Gala-Kappensitzung : Hilaritas Holz verspricht eine grandiose Gala-Kappensitzung
Am Samstag, 3. Februar, ist es endlich soweit. Der Karnevalsverein Hilaritas Holz lädt zur großen Gala-Kappensitzung ein. Diese beginnt um 19 Uhr in der Glück-Auf-Halle. Von bo
Die Länder wollen der NPD den Geldhahn aus der staatlichen Parteienfinanzierung zudrehen. Am Freitag wird das Saarland diesen Antrag im Bundesrat einbringen. Von Ute Kirch und dpa
Berlin (dpa) In Unterwäsche, beim Posen am Meer, oder nur das Gesicht mit großen Augen und Schmollmund: Solche Bilder veröffentlichen „Influencer“ regelmäßig von sich selbst. Der Begriff ist gestern von einer Jury um den Sprachwissenschaftler Anatol
Union und SPD haben eine Einigung beim Familiennachzug von Flüchtlingen erzielt. Bis zum 31. Juli soll der Nachzug ausgesetzt bleiben, anschließend soll er auf Drängen der CSU auf 1000 Menschen pro Monat begrenzt werden, ergänzt um eine bereits
Rettungsdienste : Retter verfehlen in Teilen des Saarlands Zwölf-Minuten-Ziel
Die gesetzlich vorgeschriebene Frist, innerhalb derer der Rettungsdienst bei einem Notfall vor Ort sein muss, wird im Saarland nicht überall eingehalten. Obwohl seit 2011 acht neue Rettungswachen gebaut worden waren, könne die Hilfsfrist von zwölf
Hochwasser : Überflutete Straßen rund um Paris
Nur über einen Steg kann diese Frau in Villeneuve-Saint-Georges südlich von Paris ihr Haus erreichen. Die Straßen waren dort auch gestern noch überflutet. Der Pegel der Seine war zuvor dramatisch angestiegen. Im Großraum der französischen Hauptstadt
Der saarländische Profiboxer Jürgen Doberstein wagt den Schritt über den großen Teich und hat einen Vertrag bei einem Promoter aus den USA unterschrieben. Ende Februar wird er einen Kampf in Mexiko bestreiten. > Seite D 2
Am vorletzten Tag der Transferperiode II im Profifußball gab es gestern sowohl national als auch international einige prominente Wechsel. Bei Borussia Dortmund verabschiedeten sich Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang und Marc Bartra. > Seite D 1
Was passiert in den Betten Amerikas? Dieser Frage ist der Biologe und Sexualforscher Alfred Kinsey schon vor 70 Jahren nachgegangen. Sein ausführlicher Bericht darüber sorgt noch heute für kontroverse Diskussionen. > Seite D 6
Saarland : SPD und Linke streiten um Befristungen
Die SPD fordert, sachgrundlose Befristungen abzuschaffen. Da in den SPD-geführten Ministerien im Saarland jedoch zahlreiche Arbeitnehmer auf dieser Basis beschäftigt werden, wirft die Saar-Linke ihr Unredlichkeit vor. > Seite B 2
Saarland/Region : Stromausfall an Püttlinger Klinik
Am Knappschaftsklinikum in Püttlingen ist in der Nacht zu Dienstag der Strom ausgefallen. Weil das Notstrom-Aggregat nicht funktionierte, war das Krankenhaus knapp eine Stunde lang ohne Elektrizität. Patienten kamen dadurch nicht zu Schaden. > Seite
Bis 2020 soll die Luftqualität auch in den am stärksten belasteten Städten deutlich sinken. Dies versprach die Bundesumweltministerin Barbara Hendricks in Brüssel. Die EU-Kommission droht aber weiter mit einer Klage. > Seite A 9
Immer wieder werden Patienten in Psychiatrien fixiert. Vor dem Bundesverfassungsgericht wird nun verhandelt, ob es in solchen Fällen einen generellen Richtervorbehalt geben soll. > Seite A 5
Wirtschaft > Seite A 7
Berlin (dpa) Die Deutschen werden nach Einschätzung der Sparkassen in diesem Jahr wieder mehr Geld zurücklegen. Vom verfügbaren Einkommen werden demnach 9,8 Prozent gespart – also knapp jeder zehnte Euro. Trotz niedriger Zinsen bleibe der „Sparfleiß“
Paris (dpa) Frankreichs Wirtschaft ist im vergangenen Jahr so stark gewachsen wie seit sechs Jahren nicht mehr. Das Bruttoinlandsprodukt legte 2017 um 1,9 Prozent zu, wie das Statistikamt Insee nach einer ersten Schätzung mitteilte. Damit kann die
Das Netzwerk Steuergerechtigkeit nennt die Bundesrepublik eine „Geheimnis-Oase für ausländisches Vermögen“.
Leserbrief Kommunalreform/Ämterhäufung : Finger in die Wunden gelegt
Leserbrief Kommunalreform : Bin auf Reaktionen sehr gespannt
Leserbrief „Bomben auf Kurden in Syrien“ : Wenn alle so agieren, gibt’s Krieg
Bomben auf Kurden in Syrien
Leserbrief „Deutsche Behörden schieben Gefährder ab“ : Die deutschen Grenzen sind offen
Abgas-Tests und SPD : Presseschau
Zu den Abgas-Experimenten deutscher Autobauer mit Menschen und Tieren schreibt die italienische Zeitung „La Repubblica“:
Kaiserslautern streitet über „FCK-Steuer“ : Rund um den Betzenberg regiert die Wut
KAISERSLAUTERN (dpa) Wenn Kaiserslauterns Oberbürgermeister Klaus Weichel (SPD) derzeit seine Face­book-Seite aufruft, hat er keinen Grund zur Freude. Man möge ihn mit der Mistgabel aus der Stadt treiben, kann er dort lesen, oder: „Ab ins Endlager“.
Silvio Berlusconi steht erneut im Zentrum von Italiens Politik. Auch wenn er derzeit keine Ämter übernehmen darf, kann er nach der Wahl am 4. März zum entscheidenden Machtfaktor werden.
Israel befürchtet, Warschau wolle mit seiner geplanten Verordnung belegte Verbrechen seiner Bürger an jüdischen Nachbarn vertuschen.
Flüchtling Zahredin lebt seit 2015 im Saarland. Frau und Kinder darf er nicht zu sich holen. Der gestern erzielte Groko-Konsens ändert daran wenig. Von Pascal Becher
Beinahe wären am morgigen Donnerstag zwei Züge aufeinander zugefahren, die nach dem Willen ihrer Lokomotivführer demnächst gekoppelt werden sollen: Union und SPD. Doch dann erreichten die Verhandlungspartner in letzter Minute einen Kompromiss, den
Designierter Vorsitzender des Haushaltsausschusses : Peter Boehringer kämpft für deutsches Gold und gegen den Euro
Heute konstituiert sich der Haushaltsausschuss des Bundestages. Der designierte Vorsitzende kommt aus den Reihen der AfD.
Berlin (dpa) Bus- und Bahnfahren dürfte nach Angaben der Betreiber auch in diesem Jahr in vielen Gemeinden teurer werden. Die Ticketpreise für den öffentlichen Nahverkehr könnten im Durchschnitt um 1,5 bis 2,0 Prozent steigen, sagte der Präsident des
„Wir brauchen einen Pakt für den Mittelstand.“ Das forderte der Landesvorsitzende der CDU-Sozialausschüsse (CDA), Marc Speicher, anlässlich des Betriebs- und Personalräte-Empfangs der CDA und der CDU-Landtagsfraktion gestern in Saarbrücken. Dazu Von Lothar Warscheid
Der Präsident der Saar-Universität kündigt neue Leuchtturm-Projekte an, darunter den Bau eines Innovationszentrums.
Verbraucher haben im Saarland für Produkte und Dienstleistungen im Januar im Durchschnitt 1,3 Prozent mehr bezahlen müssen als noch ein Jahr zuvor, wie das Statistische Amt in Saarbrücken mitteilte. Im Dezember hatte die Inflationsrate noch 1,4
Die französischen Gewerkschaften bei Alstom haben sich gegen den geplanten Zusammenschluss des Zugherstellers mit Siemens ausgesprochen. „Siemens realisiert eine sehr schöne Operation: die Kontrolle über den Alstom-Konzern übernehmen, ohne Geld
Berlin (dpa) Der langjährige Ford-Deutschlandchef Bernhard Mattes wird am 1. März Präsident des Verbands der Automobilindustrie (VDA). Das habe der Vorstand gestern einstimmig beschlossen, teilte der Verband mit. Der 61-Jährige löst damit Matthias
Im Tarifkonflikt der Metall- und Elektroindustrie erhöht die IG Metall mit ihren neuartigen Tages-Warnstreiks den Druck. Bereits mit Beginn der Nachtschicht am späten Dienstagabend sollten unter anderem in Baden-Württemberg, Nordrhein-Westfalen und
Wolfsburg (dpa) Die Debatte um umstrittene Abgastests an Affen hat erste personelle Folgen bei Volkswagen: Cheflobbyist Thomas Steg wurde beurlaubt. Der Vorstand habe ein entsprechendes Angebot des Generalbevollmächtigten für Konzern-Außenbeziehungen
Für Barbara Hendricks war es die Stunde der Wahrheit. Denn die Bundesumweltministerin musste in Brüssel erfahren, dass der Preis für ständiges Wegducken und Verschlafen hoch sein kann. Die EU-Kommission ist fest entschlossen, die Ignoranz der Von Detlef Drewes
Diesel-Abgase : Hendricks verspricht bis 2020 bessere Luft
Die EU-Kommission bleibt skeptisch und droht Deutschland weiterhin mit einer Klage wegen zu hoher Stickoxid-Belastung. Von Detlef Drewes
Bungee-Springen im Namen der Wissenschaft : Hirnforscher lassen Menschen 30 Mal von Brücke springen
Zwei Bungee-Jumper haben sich im Namen der Hirnforschung insgesamt 30 Mal von der 192 Meter hohen Europabrücke bei Innsbruck gestürzt. Bei dem Experiment gelang es Wissenschaftlern um Surjo Soekadar vom Universitätsklinikum Tübingen erstmals, das
Prozess : Staatsanwalt hält Entführer von Bus für psychisch krank
Wegen der Entführung eines Linienbusses hat sich ein 34-Jähriger vor dem Landgericht Halle verantworten müssen. Der Angeklagte hatte angegeben, Stimmen zu hören. Diese hätten ihm im Juli des vergangenen Jahres dazu aufgefordert, den Bus samt Fahrer
Wetter-Bilanz : Januar in Deutschland war zu warm und düster
Offenbach (dpa) 35 Stunden Sonnenschein hat es im Schnitt im Januar gegeben – neun Stunden zu wenig, um das Mittel von 44 Stunden zu erreichen, wie der Deutsche Wetterdienst gestern mitteilte. Am seltensten ließ sich die Sonne demnach vom Frankenwald
Nicht genehmigter Tanz : Strafe nach Bikini-Show an Bord eines Flugzeugs
Hanoi (dpa) Die vietnamesische Billigfluggesellschaft Viet-Jet muss wegen eines nicht genehmigten Tanzes von Bikini-Models auf einem Flug eine Strafe von umgerechnet 1400 Euro zahlen. Das teilte Vietnams zivile Luftfahrtbehörde mit. Auf dem Rückflug
Seltener Fall : Starkoch Bras darf auf Sterne verzichten
Paris (dpa) Der südfranzösische Starkoch Sébastien Bras darf auf seine drei Sterne im neuen Michelin-Gastronomieführer verzichten. Knapp eine Woche vor Erscheinen der Frankreich-Ausgabe 2018 bestätigte Michelin entsprechende Medienberichte. Ein
Besondere Schwere der Schuld : Lebenslange Haft für Dreifach-Mörderin
Gießen (dpa) Für die Morde an drei Menschen in Hessen und Nordrhein-Westfalen ist eine 36-jährige Frau in Gießen zu einer lebenslangen Freiheitsstrafe verurteilt worden. Das Landgericht sprach sie gestern schuldig, im April 2016 in Gießen einen
70 Jahre Kinsey-Report : Wie „Dr. Sex“ einst Amerika erregte
Vor 70 Jahren sorgte ein Bericht in Amerika für Aufsehen: Der Sexualforscher Alfred Kinsey legte erstmals dar, was im Bett passiert.
Sport- und Landtagspräsident Klaus Meiser (CDU) war bis gestern der mächtigste Strippenzieher im Saarland. Mit Ämterhäufung und der Beschäftigung seiner Lebensgefährtin für beide Aufgaben verfing er sich immer mehr im eigenen Netzwerk. Von Peter Stefan Herbst
Puigdemont bleibt einziger Kandidat : Wahl in Katalonien verschoben
Barcelona (afp) Konfrontation vertagt: Das katalanische Parlament hat seine für gestern geplante Sitzung zur Wahl des künftigen Regionalpräsidenten auf unbestimmte Zeit verschoben, hält aber an der Kandidatur des im Brüsseler Exil lebenden
Wien (dpa) Österreich und Ungarn wollen sich angesichts der illegalen Zuwanderung vieler Migranten gemeinsam für einen starken Schutz der EU-Außengrenzen einsetzen. Das bekräftigten der ungarische Ministerpräsident Viktor Orban und Österreichs
Bundesverfassungsgericht : Dürfen Patienten gefesselt werden?
Das Bundesverfassungsgericht entscheidet darüber, ob und wann ein richterlicher Beschluss notwendig ist.
Selbstoptimierung : Profit im Wartezimmer
Wer für das Wartezimmer zu schwach ist, sollte den Arzt gar nicht erst behelligen. Von Pia Rolfs
Paris (afp) Forscher haben in Ägypten einen bislang unbekannten pflanzenfressenden Dinosaurier entdeckt, der zu der größten bekannten Art, den Sauropoden, gehört. Das Fossil des Mansourasaurus shahinae wurde in der Sahara gefunden, so das
Auf der Fotoplattform Instagram findet man viele arrivierte Künstler. Manche von ihnen fügen ihrem Werk dort einen neuen Aspekt hinzu, andere stellen sich einfach einem jüngeren Publikum vor. Ein virtueller Rundgang.
Saarlouis (SZ) Im Saarlouiser Theater am Ring diskutieren heute um 19.30 Uhr in der Reihe „Kulturstreit“ auf Einladung von SR2-Kulturradio und der Saarländischen Gesellschaft für Kulturpolitik der Saarbrücker Verleger Charly Lehnert und
Saarbrücken (red) Der Filmemacher Philipp Hartmann zeigt heute ab 20 Uhr im Kino Achteinhalb seinen Film „66 Kinos“ – eine Dokumentation über einige der 66 Filmtheater, die er bei einer Kinotour zu einem früheren Film gedreht hat. Nach der Vorführung
(dpa) Die Auswahl des Berliner Theatertreffens steht. Mit gleich zwei Produktionen reisen die Münchner Kammerspiele zu dem renommierten Festival (5. bis 21. Mai) an: Anta Helena Recke zeigt ihre Neuinszenierung von Anna-Sophie Mahlers Roman-Adaption
Frankfurt (epd) Die geschäftsführende Familienministerin Katarina Barley (SPD) fordert Konsequenzen aus den Missbrauchsvorwürfen gegen Regisseur Dieter Wedel. „Bestätigen sich die Anschuldigungen, dann ist das ein Skandal, von dem sehr viele gewusst
Wien (SZ) Der zweifache Cannes-Gewinner Michael Haneke dreht seine erste Fernsehserie. Für die Produktionsfirma UFA Fiction wird der österreichische Filmemacher die zehnteilige englischsprachige Serie „Kelwins Buch" entwickeln. Sie spielt in einer
Berlin (dpa) Marie Sophie Hingst, Autorin des Blogs „Read on my Dear, read on“, ist bei der Verleihung der „Goldenen Blogger“ zur Bloggerin des Jahres gekürt worden. Der Journalist Richard Gutjahr wurde für seinen Kampf gegen Hass im Netz mit einem
Paris (afp) In der französischen Filmbranche wird über einen Hilfsfonds für Opfer sexueller Gewalt nach dem Vorbild der Initiative „Time’s Up“ (Die Zeit ist reif) in den USA nachgedacht. „Alle Frauen sind Belästigung ausgesetzt“, sagte die
Berlin (dpa) Die Filmfrauen in Deutschland schließen sich zusammen, um mehr Gleichberechtigung in der Branche durchzusetzen. Aus dem seit 2014 bestehenden Bündnis „Pro Quote Regie“ werde „Pro Quote Film“, teilten die Organisatorinnen mit. Die
Die aus Luxemburg stammende Schauspielerin über ihre Hollywood-Karriere und ihre Rolle in „Der seidende Faden“. Von Martin Schwickert
Der US-Präsident wird die Russland-Ermittlungen nicht los. Die Republikaner verschärfen jetzt ihre Kampagne gegen die Untersuchungen des FBI – mit einem heiklen Memorandum.
Die saarländische CDU-Bundestagsabgeordnete Nadine Schön wurde im Rahmen der gestrigen Sitzung der CDU/CSU-Bundestagsfraktion mit überwältigender Mehrheit als stellvertretende Vorsitzende bestätigt. Damit bleibt die 34-jährige Saarländerin für die
Ministerpräsidenten-Konferenz : Regierungschefs beraten mit Bund über Flüchtlingskosten
Parallel zu den Koalitionsverhandlungen findet am Donnerstag in Berlin die Ministerpräsidentenkonferenz statt. Themen sollen dabei unter anderem eine mögliche Reform des öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunks, der Glücksspielstaatsvertrag, die Flüchtlingskosten sowie die deutsche Dieselfahrzeugflotte sein. Von Ute Kirch
Sachgrundlose Befristungen : SPD und Linke streiten über Glaubwürdigkeit
Die SPD will sachgrundlose Befristungen abschaffen. Doch in Saar-Behörden gibt es über 200 solcher Jobs. Wie passt das zusammen? Von Daniel Kirch
Todbringender Brand in Saarbrücken : Feuerkatastrophe am Saarufer: Hat Vermieter Brandschutz eingehalten?
Auch knapp zwei Monate nach der Brandkatastrophe in einem Mietshaus in der Saarbrücker Innenstadt sind die Ermittlungen seitens der Staatsanwaltschaft noch nicht abgeschlossen. Wie deren Sprecher Christoph Rebmann jetzt auf SZ-Anfrage sagte, stehen Von Matthias Zimmermann
Geschwindigkeitskontrollen : Achtung, hier blitzt heute im Saarland die Polizei
Saarbrücken (red) Auf diesen Strecken ist heute mit Radarkontrollen zu rechnen: Homburg, L 126 zwischen Quierschied und St. Ingbert, B 10 zwischen Eppelborn und Neububach, A 8 zwischen dem Dreieck Saarlouis und der Ausfahrt Heusweiler, A 62 zwischen
Ausnahmezustand im Knappschaftsklinikum Saar : Notstrom-Aggregat in Klinik versagt nach Stromausfall
Ein Stromausfall in Püttlingen hat für einen Großeinsatz von Feuerwehr und Technischem Hilfswerk (THW) am Knappschafts-Klinikum Saar gesorgt. Denn das Notstrom-Aggregrat, das bei einem Blackout einspringen und die Versorgung lebenswichtiger Geräte Von Matthias Zimmermann
Rettungsdienst : Hilfsfrist wird noch nicht überall eingehalten
Zwölf Minuten bis zum Einsatzort – dieses Ziel schafft der Rettungsdienst nicht überall, trotz acht neuer Rettungswachen. Wie geht es jetzt weiter? Von Daniel Kirch
Rettungsdienst : Das Problem nicht aussitzen
Der Rettungsdienst im Saarland ist im Vergleich zu anderen Flächenländern gut aufgestellt, die im Gesetz vorgeschriebene Hilfsfrist von zwölf Minuten ist ambitioniert. Wenn sie nicht eingehalten wird, gibt es nur zwei Möglichkeiten: Entweder man Von Daniel Kirch
Einbrüche : Täter brechen in Schulen im Kreis Merzig ein
Im Raum Merzig ist in den vergangenen Tagen in zwei Schulen und einen Kindergarten eingebrochen worden. Wie die Polizei mitteilt, traf es in der Nacht zu Montag zunächst die Förderschule in Merzig-Bietzen. Dort hebelten die Täter ein Fenster auf und
Polizei : Zwölf berauschte Fahrer erwischt
Saarbrücken (red) Zwölf Autofahrer hat die saarländische Polizei bei Kontrollen in der vergangenen Woche aus dem Verkehr gezogen. Jetzt, da landesweit Karnevalsveranstaltungen stattfinden, kontrolliert die Polizei nach eigenen Angaben besonders
Wer an Fastnacht auf witzige Kostüme setzt, liegt nicht mehr im Trend – so lautet jedenfalls die Grundtendenz im Verkauf und Kostümverleih im Saarland.
Diskussion über Hallengebühren : Mehr Geld für Vereins-Jugendarbeit?
Der Stadtrat hatte beschlossen, die Gebühren um rund zwölf Prozent zum 1. März zu erhöhen und begründete das mit gestiegenen Personal- und Energiekosten. Die Gebührenerhöhung könnte nun um einen weiteren Monat verschoben werden. Von Markus Saeftel
Die Polizei sucht Zeugen einer Unfallflucht in Habkirchen. Von red
Polizei sucht Fahrer : Polizei sucht einen Unfall-Beteiligten
Die Polizei sucht einen Autofahrer. Am Sonntag gegen 18.50 Uhr kam es in der Kuchenbergstraße zu einem Verkehrsunfall. Ein grauer Audi A 3 kam leicht nach links von seiner Fahrspur ab und kollidierte mit einem entgegenkommenden Auto am Außenspiegel,
Einbruch in Neunkirchen : Einbrecher knacken Spielautomaten
Unbekannte sind in der Zeit zwischen Freitagabend vergangener Woche und Montagmorgen in eine Gaststätte in der Neunkircher Max-Braun-Straße eingebrochen. Die Täter verschafften sich zunächst über die Eingangstür des Ladenlokals gewaltsam Zutritt, so
Die LSVS-Affäre hat nun personelle Konsequenzen: Verbands-Chef und Landtagspräsident Klaus Meiser muss mehrere Aufsichts-Gremien verlassen. Von Daniel Kirch
Beim Streitthema Familiennachzug von Flüchtlingen haben Union und SPD eine Einigung gefunden. Von Stefan Vetter
Unbekannte haben die Wochenend-Einnahmen des Schaumbergbades Tholey gestohlen. Laut Polizei ist der Sachschaden „bedeutend“. Von Christine Kloth
Saar-Ministerpräsidentin Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer (CDU) glaubt an einen Abschluss der Verhandlungen über die Neuauflage einer großen Koalition im Bund in wenigen Tagen.
Das Saarland war im Januar das wärmste und nasseste Bundesland mit den wenigsten Sonnenschein. Die Sonne ließ sich hier weniger als 25 Stunden blicken, wie der Deutsche Wetterdienst (DWD) in Offenbach am Dienstag mitteilte. In Rheinland-Pfalz schien
Zwölf Autofahrer, die durch Alkohol oder sonstige berauschende Mittel in ihrer Fahrtüchtigkeit beeinträchtigt waren, zog die saarländische Polizei bei ihren Kontrollen in der letzten Woche aus dem Verkehr. Das hat die Polizei mitgeteilt.
Bei einem Wohnhausbrand in Püttlingen sind am Montagnachmittag ein Hausbewohner und ein Feuerwehrmann leicht verletzt worden. Von Christine Kloth
Der 49-jährige Lkw-Fahrer, der in der Nacht zum Montag auf der A 8 verunglückt ist, war offenbar alles andere als gesund. Von Jan Althoff
Alkohol und Autofahren passt nicht gut zusammen. Doch das weiß längst noch nicht jeder. In den vergangenen Tagen hatte die Illinger Polizeiinspektion gleich mehrere Fälle, die das belegen. Einen 20-Jährigen aus Merchweiler erwarten gleich mehrere Von Michael Beer
St. Johann (red). Die Freien Demokraten im Saarbrücker Stadtrat fordern ein neues Konzept für den Neujahrsempfangs der Oberbürgermeisterin Charlotte Britz.
Für den Geschäftsführer der Stadtwerke Bliestal, Bernhard Wendel, gehört das Blieskasteler Kombibad zu den wichtigsten „Baustellen“. Von Erich Schwarz
Ob wichtige Personendaten oder Schriftstücke mit hohem emotionalen Wert: Jeder Mensch hat bestimmte Dokumente, die er sicher verwahrt wissen möchte. Doch wie geht man am besten vor, wenn man diese wichtigen Dokumente effizient vor öffentlichem
Ein tödlicher Lastwagen-Unfall auf der A 8 hatte am Montag weitreichende Folgen. Noch unklar war bislang, was die Ursache des Unglücks war. Nun gibt es erste Hinweise darauf, dass der 49-jährige Fahrer des Lkw, der in der Nacht zum Montag auf der A Von red
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Initial development work 
IBM Poughkeepsie studied machine character recognition from 1950 till 1954, developing an experimental machine that used a cathode-ray-tube attached an IBM 701 which performed the character analysis.  They pursued a technique known as lakes and bays which examined different areas of dark and light where the lakes were white areas enclosed by black and the bays were partially enclosed areas. Their machine and mission was moved to IBM Endicott in 1954, where research continued.   From 1955 to 1956 they then worked on the VIDOR (Visual Document Reader) program, but they could not get agreement on acceptable reject rate.  The developers felt 80% recognition was acceptable (meaning 20% of documents would need to be manually processed), while product planners and IBM Marketing felt that compared to punched card reject rates, the reject rate was unacceptably high.  This led to no new products being released.

In 1956 the American Bankers Association chose to use Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) to automate check handling, rejecting a proposed solution generated by an IBM Poughkeepsie banking project that used optical characters formed by vertical bars and digits.   IBM developed a magnetic read head to handle the new standard, releasing the IBM 1210 MICR reader/sorter in 1959.   The development work for this product both with read heads and document handling, helped move optical character recognition forward, with development focusing on reading one or two lines of print from a paper document larger than an IBM punched card.  The first product to be released was the IBM 1418.

IBM 123x Optical Mark Readers 
The IBM 1230, IBM 1231, and IBM 1232 were optical mark readers used to input the contents of data sources such as questionnaires, test results, surveys as well as historical data that could be easily entered as marks on sheets.  Educational institutes used them to score test results and they were effectively a replacement for the IBM 805 Test Scoring Machine that used electrical resistance and a mark sense pencil to score a test, rather than optical mark detection. They were developed and manufactured by IBM Rochester.

They have the following features:

 A pneumatic input hopper that can hold approximately 600 sheets
 Two output stackers: the normal stacker that holds 600 sheets and the select (or reject) stacker which holds 50 sheets.
 Pluggable SMS printed circuit cards
 They can read positional marks made by a lead pencil using an optical read head that consists of photovoltaic(solar) cells and lamps
 The 1230 has 21 photovoltaic cells, 20 for reading the pencil marks and one to read timing marks on the right hand border of the sheet.
 The 1231 and 1232 have 22 photovoltaic cells, 20 to read data, one to read timing marks and one to read a special feature called a master mark.
 Input size is a  sheet called a data sheet that can have up to 1000 marked or printed positions per side.
 Uses electromechanical devices known as sonic delay lines to store results.

IBM 1230 Optical Mark Scoring Reader 
The IBM 1230 is an offline optical mark reader that can read and score 1,200 test answer sheets per hour.

 It uses a wire matrix to printer to print the test results on the right margin of the answer sheet as the sheet is being processed.
 It can optionally send output to an IBM 534 Model 3 Card Punch.  Throughput of 750 sheets an hour is achieved when punching 80 columns of data.
 The operator needs to enter two master sheets, one with the correct answers to the test being scored and the other for the 1230 to record run information.

IBM 1231 Optical Mark Page Reader 
The IBM 1231 is an online optical mark reader that can read and score 2000 test answer sheets per hour, depending on downstream operations.
The correct answers for the test can either be entered using a master sheet (like the 1230) or sent to the 1231 using the optional master-mark special feature.

IBM 1232 Optical Mark Page Reader 
The IBM 1232 is an offline optical mark reader that can read up to 2000 marked sheets per hour.

 Documents can be read at up to 2000 sheets per hour, but this depends on the number of characters that need to be punched from each sheet.
 The IBM 1232 reads the marks and then punches them into cards using a IBM 534 Model 3 Card Punch.  Together they can read up to 64,000 characters per hour or 800 fully punched cards.

Example customers 

 The California Test Bureau (CTB) that provided standardised achievement tests for educational institutes across the USA, began replacing their IBM 805s with IBM 1230s in 1963. They then installed two IBM 1232s in 1964.  Being able to use a full  answer sheet rather than a  mark sense card, eliminated the need to use multiple answer cards per test per student, as well as dramatically increased the marking speed for test answers.
 Credit Bureau Services of Dallas used an IBM 1232 in 1966 as part of their first computerisation project. They marked credit history data onto optical scanning sheets that were fed into their IBM 1232. The attached IBM 534 then punched this data onto punched cards, which were then fed into their IBM System/360 Model 30.
 In 1968 the US Army Corps of Engineers Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC) began using special log books for their coastal surveyors to record coastal survey data, which was then converted to punched cards by an IBM 1232.

IBM 2956 Optical Mark/Hole Reader 

The IBM 2956 Models 2 and 3 are custom build optical mark/hole readers designed to be attached to an IBM 2740 Communications Terminal.

 The IBM 2956-2 can read cards that have either been hand or machine marked or that have been punched.   The cards can be fed by hand or from the 400 card hopper.  It has a 400 card stacker. The 2956-2 could be ordered by request for price quotation (RPQ) 843086.
 The IBM 2956-3 can read cards that have either been hand or machine marked or that have been punched.  It can also read marked sheets up to  in size, although only a   band along the side of the sheet can be read (the width of a punched card).  It does not have a hopper or a stacker, so each card or sheet must be manually fed into the machine. The 2956-3 could be ordered by request for price quotation (RPQ) 843106. The 2956-3 could be attached to an IBM 3276 or IBM 3278 display station with RPQ UB9001.

One use case for the IBM 2956 is to grade school tests. On completion of a learning module a student can use an optical scan-type card to record answers to up to 27 questions, with up to 5 choices per question. They are scanned by the reader and the results are then transmitted to an IBM System/360 in remote job entry mode and can also be printed on the IBM 2740. The reader can also be attached to an IBM 3735 which transmits results to an IBM System/370 and which prints results on an IBM 3286 printer.  They can also be attached to an IBM System/3.

Note that the IBM 2956 Model 5 (2956-5) was a banking reader/sorter.

IBM 1282 Optical Reader Card Punch 
The IBM 1282 is an offline optical reader that is used to read embossed credit card receipts, a mark read field or machine printed characters in three different fonts.  It then outputs this data onto a punched card. It was developed and manufactured by IBM Endicott. It proved popular and within two years of announcement 100 machines were installed or on order.

Example customer 

 The New York Department of Motor Vehicles reported that from 1964 until 1968 they were using an IBM 1282 to read machine printed license renewal slips that had been mailed back as part of the renewal process.  They would scan the slip and then process the resulting punched card.  This worked well until the DMV decided to request renewals include the drivers Social Security Number (SSN), which meant a handwritten number needed to be either manually keyed or a new scanning device procured.   They switched to the IBM 1287 in 1968.

IBM 1285 Optical Reader 
The IBM 1285 is an online optical reader that is used to read printed paper tapes from cash registers or adding machines.  It was developed by IBM Endicott and manufactured by IBM Rochester. The IBM 1285 attaches to an IBM 1401, 1440, 1460 or System/360.  It has a small round screen to display characters being read and it has a keyboard to enter header information and to optionally enter character corrections for rejected characters. It can read a  roll or paper tape in three-and-a half minutes, reading data at speeds of up to 3000 lines per minute.  It can mark the tape with a dot to indicate unreadable characters, so they can be rekeyed later.  It users System/360 SLT circuitry and scans with an electronic beam of light called a "flying spot".

IBM 1287 Optical Reader 
The IBM 1287 is an online reader that can optically scan cut form documents to generate input data for an IBM System/360 or System/370 host, reading machine printed data as well as handprinted numbers and optical marks (based on installed model and features).  IBM claim it is the first commercial scanner that can read hand written numbers written in pencil.  It was developed and manufactured by IBM Rochester and first shipped in January 1968.

An engineering model was famously demonstrated at the IBM Pavilion of the 1964-1965 World Fair in New York.  IBM representatives at the stand invited visitors to write a date on a card (as far back as September 18, 1851) which was then scanned by the machine and a headline from The New York Times newspaper for the matching date was then printed on a souvenir card.  The attached IBM 1460 had nearly 40,000 headlines in storage.  This promotional exercise also gave IBM handwriting samples to test with.

It has the following features:

 An input hopper that holds an  stack of documents.  
Three output stackers that can each hold a  stack of documents.  
 Documents to be scanned can range from  to  in size.  
 Based on document size, throughput ranges from 665 documents per minute for a  document with one field of 20 machine printed characters to less than 100 documents per minute for a  document with 50 fields of handprinted characters.
 Has a CRT to display unrecognised characters (after 10 attempted scans) and a keyboard for the operator to enter a correction.
A serial number feature to print a number from 00000 to 99999 on each document.
Each model has different default recognition capabilities, but additional capabilities can be added as part of the machine order.  For instance numeric handwriting recognition can be plant installed on Models 1-4 by ordering a feature code.
 Model 1: Reads numeric printed data from cut sheet paper or cards.  
 Model 2: Reads numeric printed data from cut sheet paper or cards or a  continuous roll of paper (such as a journal tape). 
 Model 3: Same as Model 1 but also can read OCR A front.   
 Model 4: Same as Model 2 but also can read OCR A front.
 Model 5: Reads numeric handprinted digits and certain alphabetic characters.   Feature code 2987 added a "Multifont Preprocessor".

Example customers 

 The New York Department of Motor Vehicles reported in 1968 they started using an IBM 1287 after the DMV decided to request driver license renewals include the drivers Social Security Number (SSN).  The IBM 1287 could read both the machine printed data on the renewal slip as well as the drivers hand written SSN.  Around two thirds of returned renewals could be scanned with this system.

IBM 1288 Optical Page Reader 
The IBM 1288 is an online reader that can optically scan cut sheet pages to generate input data for an IBM System/360 or System/370 host, reading the OCR-A font, handprinted numbers (with an optional feature) and/or optical marks (with an optional feature). It was developed and manufactured by IBM Rochester and first shipped in July 1969. The use of the word "Page" in the product name reflects the ability of the IBM 1288 to scan full size pages, nearly twice as large as the IBM 1287.

It has the following features:

 An input hopper that can hold a  stack of documents.
 Two output stackers that can each hold either a  stack of short documents or a  stack of long documents.  One output stacker is reserved for documents with unrecognisable characters.
Documents to be scanned can range from  to  in size.  
 A serial number feature to print a number from 00000 to 99999 on each document.
IBM did not publish a maximum throughput value, stating it would vary based on a variety of factors such as document size and the number and type of fields to be read.

It is composed of three frames:

Example customers 
 The City of Baltimore used an IBM 1288 to prepare such things as property tax bills, water meter bills, income tax forms, and to control food stamps. 
 The State of Maryland used an IBM 1288 for scanning hand-marked income tax documents sent in by employers.   They reported an 85% acceptance rate.

IBM 14x8 Optical Readers 
The first optical reader released by IBM was the IBM 1418 which could read numbers and vertical bars and which used the same transport as the IBM 1419 cheque sorter.  The IBM 1428 was physically very similar to the IBM 1418 (except it did not have a CRT mounted on top), but it was able to read both letters as well as numbers.

IBM 1418 Optical Character Reader 

The IBM 1418 is able to read a standard numerical font used by the IBM 407 in one of two sizes. It can also read vertical markings made with a pencil. IBM claimed it is suitable for cash-accounting applications where small payment stubs need to be processed. It was developed and manufactured by IBM Endicott.

It has the following features:

 It uses a device IBM call a "mechanical image dissector" that reads the characters in multiple vertical bands, that are then combined and tested. 
 Is cable connected to either an IBM 1401 or IBM 1410. 
 Reading speed is 480 characters per second, up to 400 documents per minute.
 The IBM 1418 features a CRT on the top of the unit that adds  to the height of the machine.
 The Model 3 is similar to a Model 1 but can handle broader paper size ranges.

Example customers 

 The Pennsylvania Power & Light Company claims to have installed the first commercially available IBM 1418.  It was used to scan bill stubs returned by their customers including power meter information.

IBM 1428 Alphanumeric Reader 
The IBM 1428 can read alphabetic and numeric scan data from printed documents like payment stubs, but is limited to reading a special font. IBM claimed it is suitable to  scan documents such as: "insurance premium notices, charge sales invoices, operations and route slips, payroll and dividend checks and mail orders". It was developed and manufactured by IBM Endicott.

It has the following features:

 It uses a device IBM call a "mechanical image dissector" that reads the characters in multiple vertical bands, that are then combined and tested. 
 Is cable connected to either an IBM 1401 or IBM 1410. 
 Reading speed is 480 characters per second, up to 400 documents per minute.
 The Model 3 is similar to a Model 1 but can handle broader paper size ranges.

IBM 1975 Optical Page Reader 
In October 1961 the US Social Security Administration (SSA) requested proposals for OCR equipment to help them reduce the 57 million lines of information they had to manually enter by keyboard each quarter.  IBM responded to the SSA in February 1962 using the work of an IBM engineer called Evon Greanias who had developed a curve-follower method that used a CRT flying-spot scanner which not dependent on fixed fonts and in fact had the potential to be used to read handwriting.  IBM was requested to provide a more detailed response in May 1963, by which time IBM Research and IBM Rochester (who were now responsible for the project) had developed detailed statistical decision techniques.  The one-of-a-kind IBM 1975 was delivered to the SSA in late 1965.

It was used to read a form known as a #941 that contains on average 22 lines per page (to a maximum of 44 lines).  It was able to read at a 52 to 55% acceptance rate.  It was taken out of service in 1977.

IBM 388x Optical Readers 
Released in 1972 and withdrawn in 1984, the IBM 3881 and IBM 3886 are the last family of optical readers released by IBM.

IBM 3881 Optical Mark Reader 
The IBM 3881 is an optical mark reader, meaning it reads machine or hand printed marks, but not OCR fonts or handprinted numbers. It was developed and manufactured by IBM Rochester. There are three models.

It has the following features:

 Documents to be scanned can range from  to  in size. 
 Throughput is affected by document length.  When reading  documents it can read 4,000 per hour.
 A vacuum cleaner is built into the machine.
 The IBM 3881-2 sends scanned data to a directly attached IBM 3410-1 Magnetic Tape Drive. The  tape-drive that weighed  is not included in the physical statistics shown below.

The last IBM 3881 manufactured by IBM Rochester was shipped to a customer in Puerto Rico in January 1980.

IBM 3886 Optical Character Reader 
The IBM 3886 is an optical page reader, meaning it reads OCR fonts or handprinted numbers. It was developed by IBM Rochester and manufactured by both IBM Rochester and IBM Greenock Scotland. There are two models.

It has the following features:

 Documents to be scanned can range from  to  in size.
 The input hopper holds a  stack of documents
 By default it can read the OCR-A font, but OCR-B and numeric hand printing support can be added.
The IBM 3886-2 sends scanned data to a directly attached IBM 3410-1 Magnetic Tape Drive. The  tape-drive that weighed  is not included in the physical statistics shown below.
On July 17, 1974, IBM announced a feature which became known as "Video collect" which allowed an operator to display and re-key characters that could not be recognised.  It requires an IBM 3277 console to display the characters in question.

Processing speed ranges from:

 4.4 documents per minute for a  sheet with 29 lines per sheet and 78 characters per line (2260 characters)
 94 documents per minute for a  sheet with 1 lines per sheet and 8 characters per line

Example customers 
 In 1974 the City and County of Honolulu, Hawaii reported they were using an IBM 3886 to process motor vehicle and bicycle registration renewals, of which they received 400,000 annually.  The 3886 scans the renewal forms at up to 5,000 forms an hour, storing them on tape, which is later played-back on their mainframe.  They thus avoided the need to manually enter these details onto punched cards.
 In 1975 Union Mutual, a health care provider, reported they were using an IBM 3886 to scan Medicare claims and benefit documents, allowing them to handle a 50% growth in Medicare transactions over two years.   They scanned documents to tape, running them later on their System/370.   Rejected documents (which averaged  20% for Medicare claims) were re-run using the "video collect" capability that allowed them to key in the correct value and avoid the need to manually key in the whole document.  This allowed them to always process documents the same day.
 In 1976 Milgrims Food Stores in Kansas City, Mo, reported they were using an IBM 3886 to scan store delivery forms, resolving a major issue they had tracking vendor deliveries to their stores.

Advanced Optical Character Reader Postal Service 
On October 26, 1970, the U.S. Postal Service awarded IBM a US$6.7 million contract to develop the Advanced Optical Character Reader Postal Service. Development was carried out by both IBM Rochester and the IBM Federal Systems Division in IBM Gaithersburg.  The goal was to sort 1 million letters in a 24-hour operating period.

In June 1972 the Postal Program group shipped its Advanced Optical Character Reader (AOCR) to the New York City General Post Office in Manhattan.  It can scan and sort 24 machine-addressed envelopes per second.

IBM was one of three vendors to deliver a machine in the program.   The total cost of the program was US$28.9 million and none of the machines were considered suitable for full-scale production. The IBM contract had a cost over-run of over US$6million dollars.

IBM OCR reader/sorters 
IBM released several OCR reader/sorter products mainly for the European finance industry.   These are detailed in the IBM document processors article, including the following:

 IBM 1270 
 IBM 1275
 IBM 3890 Models C and D
 IBM 3890 XP1 with OCR feature
IBM also released an inscriber that could optically read handwritten amounts to avoid the need to proof a check:
IBM 3895

References

External links 
 IBM 1287 Brochure
 IBM at the Worlds Fair

Optical mark and character readers
Optical character recognition, The determination of the day of the week for any date may be performed with a variety of algorithms. In addition, perpetual calendars require no calculation by the user, and are essentially lookup tables.
A typical application is to calculate the day of the week on which someone was born or a specific event occurred.

Concepts
In numerical calculation, the days of the week are represented as weekday numbers. If Monday is the first day of the week, the days may be coded 1 to 7, for Monday through Sunday, as is practiced in ISO 8601. The day designated with 7 may also be counted as 0, by applying the arithmetic modulo 7, which calculates the remainder of a number after division by 7. Thus, the number 7 is treated as 0, 8 as 1, 9 as 2, 18 as 4 and so on. If Sunday is counted as day 1, then 7 days later (i.e. day 8) is also a Sunday, and day 18 is the same as day 4, which is a Wednesday since this falls three days after Sunday.

The basic approach of nearly all of the methods to calculate the day of the week begins by starting from an 'anchor date': a known pair (such as 1 January 1800 as a Wednesday), determining the number of days between the known day and the day that you are trying to determine, and using arithmetic modulo 7 to find a new numerical day of the week.

One standard approach is to look up (or calculate, using a known rule) the value of the first day of the week of a given century, look up (or calculate, using a method of congruence) an adjustment for the month, calculate the number of leap years since the start of the century, and then add these together along with the number of years since the start of the century, and the day number of the month. Eventually, one ends up with a day-count to which one applies modulo 7 to determine the day of the week of the date.

Some methods do all the additions first and then cast out sevens, whereas others cast them out at each step, as in Lewis Carroll's method. Either way is quite viable: the former is easier for calculators and computer programs, the latter for mental calculation (it is quite possible to do all the calculations in one's head with a little practice). None of the methods given here perform range checks, so unreasonable dates will produce erroneous results.

Corresponding days
Every seventh day in a month has the same name as the previous:

Corresponding months
"Corresponding months" are those months within the calendar year that start on the same day of the week. For example, September and December correspond, because 1 September falls on the same day as 1 December (as there are precisely thirteen 7-day weeks between the two dates). Months can only correspond if the number of days between their first days is divisible by 7, or in other words, if their first days are a whole number of weeks apart. For example, February of a common year corresponds to March because February has 28 days, a number divisible by 7, 28 days being exactly four weeks.
In a leap year, January and February correspond to different months than in a common year, since adding 29 February means each subsequent month starts a day later.

January corresponds to October in common years and April and July in leap years. February corresponds to March and November in common years and August in leap years. March always corresponds to November, April always corresponds to July, and September always corresponds to December. August does not correspond to any other month in a common year. October doesn't correspond to any other month in a leap year. May and June never correspond to any other month.

In the months table below, corresponding months have the same number, a fact which follows directly from the definition.

Corresponding years 

There are seven possible days that a year can start on, and leap years will alter the day of the week after 29 February. This means that there are 14 configurations that a year can have. All the configurations can be referenced by a dominical letter, but as 29 February has no letter allocated to it, a leap year has two dominical letters, one for January and February and the other (one step back in the alphabetical sequence) for March to December.

2021 is a common year starting on Friday, which means that it corresponds to the 2010 calendar year. The first two months of 2021 correspond to the first two months of 2016. 2022 is a common year starting on Saturday, which means that it corresponds to the 2011 calendar year. The last ten months of 2022 correspond to the last ten months of 2016. 2023 is a common year starting on Sunday, which means that it corresponds to the 2017 calendar year. 2024 is a leap year starting on Monday, which means that it corresponds to the 1996 calendar year. The first two months of 2024 correspond to the first two months of 2018. The last ten months of 2024 correspond to the last ten months of 2019. 

Each leap year repeats once every 28 years, and every common year repeats once every 6 years and twice every 11 years. For instance, the last occurrence of a leap year starting on Wednesday was 2020 and the next occurrence will be 2048. Likewise, the next common years starting on Friday will be 2027, 2038, and then 2049. Both of these statements are true unless a leap year is skipped, but that will not happen until 2100. 

For details see the table below.

Notes:

 Black means all the months of Common Year
 Red means the first 2 months of Leap Year
 Blue means the last 10 months of Leap Year

Corresponding centuries

"Year 000" is, in normal chronology, the year 1 BC (which precedes AD 1). In astronomical year numbering the year 0 comes between 1 BC and AD 1. In the proleptic Julian calendar, (that is, the Julian calendar as it would have been if it had been operated correctly from the start), 1 BC starts on Thursday. In the proleptic Gregorian calendar, (so called because it wasn't devised until 1582), 1 BC starts on Saturday.

Tabular methods to calculate the day of the week

Complete table: Julian and Gregorian calendars
For Julian dates before 1300 and after 1999 the year in the table which differs by an exact multiple of 700 years should be used. For Gregorian dates after 2299, the year in the table which differs by an exact multiple of 400 years should be used. The values "" through "" indicate the remainder when the Hundreds value is divided by 7 and 4 respectively, indicating how the series extend in either direction. Both Julian and Gregorian values are shown 1500-1999 for convenience. Bold figures (e.g., 04) denote leap year. If a year ends in 00 and its hundreds are in bold it is a leap year. Thus 19 indicates that 1900 is not a Gregorian leap year, (but 19 in the Julian column indicates that it is a Julian leap year, as are all Julian x00 years). 20 indicates that 2000 is a leap year. Use Jan and Feb only in leap years.

For determination of the day of the week (1 January 2000, Saturday)
the day of the month: 1 ~ 31 (1)
the month: (6)
the year: (0)
the century mod 4 for the Gregorian calendar and mod 7 for the Julian calendar (0).
adding 1+6+0+0=7. Dividing by 7 leaves a remainder of 0, so the day of the week is Saturday.

The formula is w = (d + m + y + c) mod 7.

Revised Julian calendar
Note that the date (and hence the day of the week) in the Revised Julian and Gregorian calendars is the same from 14 October 1923 to 28 February AD 2800 inclusive and that for large years it may be possible to subtract 6300 or a multiple thereof before starting so as to reach a year which is within or closer to the table.

To look up the weekday of any date for any year using the table, subtract 100 from the year, divide the difference by 100, multiply the resulting quotient (omitting fractions) by seven and divide the product by nine. Note the quotient (omitting fractions). Enter the table with the Julian year, and just before the final division add 50 and subtract the quotient noted above.

Example: What is the day of the week of 27 January 8315?

8315−6300=2015, 2015−100=1915, 1915/100=19 remainder 15, 19×7=133, 133/9=14 remainder 7. 2015 is 700 years ahead of 1315, so 1315 is used. From table: for hundreds (13): 6. For remaining digits (15): 4. For month (January): 0. For date (27): 27. . 73/7=10 remainder 3. Day of week = Tuesday.

Dominical Letter
To find the Dominical Letter, calculate the day of the week for either 1 January or 1 October. If it is Sunday, the Dominical Letter is A, if Saturday B, and similarly backwards through the week and forwards through the alphabet to Monday, which is G.

Leap years have two Sunday Letters, so for January and February calculate the day of the week for 1 January and for March to December calculate the day of the week for 1 October.

Leap years are all years which divide exactly by four with the following exceptions:

In the Gregorian calendar - all years which divide exactly by 100 (other than those which divide exactly by 400).

In the Revised Julian calendar - all years which divide exactly by 100 (other than those which give remainder 200 or 600 when divided by 900).

The "doomsday" 

This is an artefact of recreational mathematics. See doomsday rule for an explanation.

Check the result 
Use this table for finding the day of the week without any calculations.

Examples:
For common method
26 December 1893 (GD)
December is in row F and 26 is in column E, so the letter for the date is C located in row F and column E. 93 (year mod 100) is in row D (year row) and the letter C in the year row is located in column G. 18 ([year/100] in the Gregorian century column) is in row C (century row) and the letter in the century row and column G is B, so the day of the week is Tuesday.
13 October 1307 (JD)
October 13 is a F day. The letter F in the year row (07) is located in column G. The letter in the century row (13) and column G is E, so the day of the week is Friday.
1 January 2000 (GD)
January 1 corresponds to G, G in the year row (00) corresponds to F in the century row (20), and F corresponds to Saturday.

A pithy formula for the method: "Date letter (G), letter (G) is in year row (00) for the letter (F) in century row (20), and for the day, the letter (F) become weekday (Saturday)".

The Sunday Letter method

Each day of the year (other than 29 February) has a letter allocated to it in the recurring sequence ABCDEFG. The series begins with A on 1 January and continues to A again on 31 December. The Sunday letter is the one which stands against all the Sundays in the year. Since 29 February has no letter, this means that the Sunday Letter for March to December is one step back in the sequence compared to that for January and February. The letter for any date will be found where the row containing the month (in black) at the left of the "Latin square" meets the column containing the date above the "Latin square". The Sunday letter will be found where the column containing the century (below the "Latin square") meets the row containing the year's last two digits to the right of the "Latin square". For a leap year, the Sunday letter thus found is the one which applies to March to December.

So, for example, to find the weekday of 16 June 2020:

Column "20" meets row "20" at "D". Row "June" meets column "16" at "F". As F is two letters on from D, so the weekday is two days on from Sunday, i.e. Tuesday.

Mathematical algorithms

Rata Die
The trivial Rata Die method works by adding up the number of days  that has passed since a date of known day of the week . The day of-the-week is then given by , conforming to whatever convention was used to encode .

This method is more expensive than needed, and is not practical for human calculation. IBM has used a Rata Die method in its REXX programming language, using the known base date of 1 January, AD 1, a Monday.

For example, the date of 13 August 2009 is 733632 days from January AD 1. Dividing the number by 7 yields 4, hence a Thursday.

Gauss's algorithm
Carl Friedrich Gauss described a method for calculating the day of the week for 1 January in any given year in a handwritten note in a collection of astronomical tables. He never published it. It was finally included in his collected works in 1927. Compared to Rata Die, the result helps simplify the counting of years.

Gauss' method was applicable to the Gregorian calendar. He numbered the weekdays from 0 to 6 starting with Sunday. He defined the following operation.

 Inputs
 Year number , month number , day number .
 Output
 Day of year.
 Procedure
 First determine the day-of-week  of 1 January.
 For a Gregorian calendar, the weekday is . Alternatively, set , , and the value is .
 For a Julian calendar, the weekday is  or .
 Now determine the month-related offset  by using the lookup table with .
 Return .

The above procedure can be condensed into a single expression for the Gregorian case:

Worked example 
For year number 2000, ,  and , the weekday of 1 January is

The weekdays for 30 April 1777 and 23 February 1855 are

and

Explanation and notes 
The algorithm for the day-of-week of 1 Jan can be proven using modulo arithmetic. The main point is that because , each year adds 1 day to the progression. The rest is adjustment for leap year. The century-based versions have .

The table of month offsets show a divergence in February due to the leap year. A common technique (later used by Zeller) is to shift the month to start with March, so that the leap day is at the tail of the counting. In addition, as later shown by Zeller, the table can be replaced with an arithmetic expression.

This formula was also converted into graphical and tabular methods for calculating any day of the week by Kraitchik and Schwerdtfeger.

Disparate variation 

The following formula is an example of a version without a lookup table and with a transposed month. The formula is

 
where
  is the year minus 1 for January or February, and the year for any other month
  is the last 2 digits of Y
  is the first 2 digits of Y
  is the day of the month (1 to 31)
  is the shifted month (March=1,…,February=12)
  is the day of week (0=Sunday,…,6=Saturday). If w is negative you have to add 7 to it.

Zeller's algorithm 

In Zeller's algorithm, the months are numbered from 3 for March to 14 for February. The year is assumed to begin in March; this means, for example, that January 1995 is to be treated as month 13 of 1994. 
The formula for the Gregorian calendar is 

where
  is the year minus 1 for January or February, and the year for any other month
  is the last 2 digits of 
  is the first 2 digits of 
  is the day of the month (1 to 31)
  is the shifted month (March=3,...January = 13, February=14)
  is the day of week (1=Sunday,..0=Saturday)
The only difference is one between Zeller's algorithm () and the Disparate Gaussian algorithm (), that is .

 
  (March = 3 in  but March = 1 in )

Wang's algorithm 
Wang's algorithm for human calculation of the Gregorian calendar is (the formula should be subtracted by 1 if m is 1 or 2 if the year is a leap year)

where
  is the last digit of the year
  is the last second digit of the year
  is the first 2 digits of the year
  is the day of the month (1 to 31)
  is the month (January=1,…,December=12)
  is the day of the week (0=Sunday,…,6=Saturday)
  is the null-days function (month offset) with values listed in the following table

An algorithm for the Julian calendar can be derived from the algorithm above

where  is a doomsday.

Other algorithms

Schwerdtfeger's method 
In a partly tabular method by Schwerdtfeger, the year is split into the century and the two digit year within the century. The approach depends on the month. For ,

so  is between 0 and 99. For ,

The formula for the day of the week is

where the positive modulus is chosen.

The value of  is obtained from the following table:

The value of  is obtained from the following table, which depends on the calendar. For the Gregorian calendar,

For the Julian calendar,

Lewis Carroll's method

Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (Lewis Carroll) devised a method resembling a puzzle, yet partly tabular in using the same index numbers for the months as in the "Complete table: Julian and Gregorian calendars" above. He lists the same three adjustments for the first three months of non-leap years, one 7 higher for the last, and gives cryptic instructions for finding the rest; his adjustments for centuries are to be determined using formulas similar to those for the centuries table. Although explicit in asserting that his method also works for Old Style dates, his example reproduced below to determine that "1676, February 23" is a Wednesday only works on a Julian calendar which starts the year on January 1, instead of March 25 as on the "Old Style" Julian calendar.

Algorithm:
Take the given date in 4 portions, viz. the number of centuries, the number of years over, the month, the day of the month.

Compute the following 4 items, adding each, when found, to the total of the previous items. When an item or total exceeds 7, divide by 7, and keep the remainder only.

Century-item: For 'Old Style' (which ended 2 September 1752) subtract from 18. For 'New Style' (which began 14 September 1752) divide by 4, take overplus from 3, multiply remainder by 2.

Year-item: Add together the number of dozens, the overplus, and the number of 4s in the overplus.

Month-item: If it begins or ends with a vowel, subtract the number, denoting its place in the year, from 10. This, plus its number of days, gives the item for the following month. The item for January is "0"; for February or March, "3"; for December, "12".

Day-item: The total, thus reached, must be corrected, by deducting "1" (first adding 7, if the total be "0"), if the date be January or February in a leap year, remembering that every year, divisible by 4, is a Leap Year, excepting only the century-years, in `New Style', when the number of centuries is not so divisible (e.g. 1800).

The final result gives the day of the week, "0" meaning Sunday, "1" Monday, and so on.

Examples:

1783, September 18
17, divided by 4, leaves "1" over; 1 from 3 gives "2"; twice 2 is "4".
83 is 6 dozen and 11, giving 17; plus 2 gives 19, i.e. (dividing by 7) "5". Total 9, i.e. "2"
The item for August is "8 from 10", i.e. "2"; so, for September, it is "2 plus 31", i.e. "5" Total 7, i.e. "0", which goes out.
18 gives "4". Answer, "Thursday".

1676, February 23
16 from 18 gives "2"
76 is 6 dozen and 4, giving 10; plus 1 gives 11, i.e. "4".
Total "6"
The item for February is "3". Total 9, i.e. "2"
23 gives "2". Total "4"
Correction for Leap Year gives "3". Answer, "Wednesday".

Since 23 February 1676 (counting February as the second month) is, for Carroll, the same day as Gregorian 4 March 1676, he fails to arrive at the correct answer, namely "Friday," for an Old Style date that on the Gregorian calendar is the same day as 5 March 1677. Had he correctly assumed the year to begin on the 25th of March, his method would have accounted for differing year numbers - just like George Washington's birthday differs - between the two calendars.

It is noteworthy that those who have republished Carroll's method have failed to point out his error, most notably Martin Gardner.

In 1752, the British Empire abandoned its use of the Old Style Julian calendar upon adopting the Gregorian calendar, which has become today's standard in most countries of the world. For more background, see Old Style and New Style dates.

Methods in computer code

Keith 
In the C language expressions below, y, m and d are, respectively, integer variables representing the year (e.g., 1988), month (1-12) and day of the month (1-31).  
(d+=m<3?y--:y-2,23*m/9+d+4+y/4-y/100+y/400)%7  
In 1990, Michael Keith and Tom Craver published the foregoing expression that seeks to minimize the number of keystrokes needed to enter a self-contained function for converting a Gregorian date into a numerical day of the week. It returns 0 = Sunday, 1 = Monday, etc. This expression uses a less cumbersome month component than does Zeller's algorithm.

Shortly afterwards, Hans Lachman streamlined their algorithm for ease of use on low-end devices. As designed originally for four-function calculators, his method needs fewer keypad entries by limiting its range either to A.D. 1905–2099, or to historical Julian dates. It was later modified to convert any Gregorian date, even on an abacus. On Motorola 68000-based devices, there is similarly less need of either processor registers or opcodes, depending on the intended design objective.

Sakamoto's methods
The tabular forerunner to Tøndering's algorithm is embodied in the following K&R C function. With minor changes, it was adapted for other high level programming languages such as APL2. Posted by Tomohiko Sakamoto on the comp.lang.c Usenet newsgroup in 1992, it is accurate for any Gregorian date.
dayofweek(y, m, d)	/* 1 <= m <= 12,  y > 1752 (in the U.K.) */
{
    static int t[] = {0, 3, 2, 5, 0, 3, 5, 1, 4, 6, 2, 4};
    if ( m < 3 )
    {
        y -= 1;
    }
    return (y + y/4 - y/100 + y/400 + t[m-1] + d) % 7;
}
It returns 0 = Sunday, 1 = Monday, etc.

Sakamoto also simultaneously posted a more obfuscated version:
dow(m,d,y) { y-=m<3; return(y+y/4-y/100+y/400+"-bed=pen+mad."[m]+d)%7; }

This version encodes the month offsets in the string and as a result requires a computer that uses standard ASCII to run the algorithm correctly, reducing its portability. In addition, both algorithms omit  type declarations, which is allowed in the original K&R C but not allowed in ANSI C.

(Tøndering's algorithm is, again, similar in structure to Zeller's congruence and Keith's short code, except that the month-related component is . Sakamoto's is somewhere between the Disparate Gaussian and the Schwerdtfeger's algorithm, apparently unaware of the expression form.)

See also

 Doomsday rule
 Julian day
 Mental Calculation World Cup (Has a calendar calculation contest)
 Perpetual calendar
 Buddhist calendar

References

External links
 Tøndering's algorithm for both Gregorian and Julian calendars
 "Key Day" method used so as to reduce computation & memorization
 Compact tabular method for memorisation, also for the Julian calendar
 When countries changed from the Julian calendar
 World records for mentally calculating the day of the week in the Gregorian Calendar 
 National records for finding Calendar Dates
 World Ranking of Memoriad Mental Calendar Dates (all competitions combined)
 Identify the year by given month, day, day of week.

determination
Gregorian calendar
Julian calendar
Calendar algorithms
Articles with example C code, source_sentence: When was the album "Have a Nice Day" released? 
sentences: Stranger Comes to Town is the fifth studio album from English songwriter and musician Steve Harley, which was released by Absolute in 2010. The album was produced by Harley.

Background
Harley has described Stranger Comes to Town as "a sort-of protest album" and "a state-of-the-nation report". He told The York Press in 2010, "I'm not a grumpy old man but what's happening to this country? I don't like the dumbing-down from the moment our Prime Minister said 'Call me Tony'. I've been angry ever since. Kids are growing up in a world where there's no deference. What was wrong with 'sir' or 'madam'? The album is a new-fashioned protest album. It's not Blowin' in the Wind or 'Masters of War', but deep down, what are we coming to?" He added to The Bolton News, "I'm sick of the greedy people running the country and the fact that everything is being dumbed down."

Speaking to Classic Rock in 2010, Harley also commented on the album's theme, "The essence of the stories on this album is the 'Stranger' bit. That's the mystery. It's a metaphor, an allegory for modern life and invasions of privacy and all the things that have entered into the Western world and ruined it."

Describing the album as a "true labour of love", as well as being "hard work", Harley described the album's development and style to Acoustic, "I've reverted to the type where you've got rather simple acoustic tunes, but with poetical lyrics and mysterious stories mixed in with the more bizarre production kind of things. I've come back to the young man that set out in the early '70s with a lot of ambition and no inhibitions. In the studio I got into my own mindset. I was just having fun in the studio." He added to The York Press, "I've had five years of ripping my own ears off. It really doesn't get any easier. It's not the tune that's difficult, it's the words that are a struggle – and like John Lennon said, 'it's not about filler words'. You never rest as a songwriter. You're always looking for the muse to come and sit on your shoulder, and I can't take the stress. Well, every five years, I can... though this might be the last one. I've so much to say on this album."

Speaking of the album's title, Harley stated it referred to "a man who feels estranged from what is going on around him". He added to The York Press: "I borrowed it. When I was up in Norfolk we went to a village pub to get the stress off with a pint of Guinness, and we heard these two people say 'Stranger Comes to Town'. They asked, 'What are you doing here, Steve?', so I gave them a line from Eccles in The Goons: 'Everyone has to be somewhere'."

Recording
Harley and his band Cockney Rebel spent a month recording Stranger Comes to Town at Leeders Farm Residential Studios, Norfolk, in September and October 2009. Harley booked the studio months beforehand, back in March 2009, and revealed in a diary entry at the time, "The notes are there, in notebooks and on scraps of mini-disc. Tunes and couplets, simple rhymes and deeper thoughts all jumbled, randomly acquired and noted over the past few years. There is only one way I will collate it all into coherent songs, and that is by booking a recording studio."

Harley would typically spend 12 or more hours a day working on the album at Leeders Farm. The band spent most mornings rehearsing around the studio's kitchen table. Due to other professional commitments, guitarist Robbie Gladwell was absent for much of the recording, leaving Barry Wickens to cover the electric guitar parts on half of the album.

Speaking of the sessions in a 5 October diary entry, Harley revealed, 

By the end of October, nine songs were nearing completion and the remainder of the year saw Harley spend more time in the studio to finish the album, including recording vocals and mixing the tracks. In a November diary entry, he revealed, "Got 10 new songs. Three of them are co-written with various guys. Tunes only. Not words. Only wish any one of them had a literary bent, too. The lyrics have been the toughest part, as usual."

By the end of the 2009, Stranger Comes to Town was almost complete, except for the remixing of a couple of songs, as well as the choosing of the album's running order. Harley described some tracks on the album as "acoustic, almost entirely live" and others as "bigger productions". With the finishing touches completed in January 2010, the album was mastered in February by Denis Blackham at Skye Mastering.

Song information
"Take the Men & the Horses Away" is an anti-war song which speaks of the UK's involvement in the Afghanistan and Iraq Wars. Harley wrote the chorus several years before the rest of the song was completed. During sessions for Stranger Comes to Town, Harley played the chorus to the band and the song was then developed into a full track, with four members of Cockney Rebel receiving co-writing credits. Before the album's release, "This Old Man" was previewed to fans in November 2009 when Harley uploaded a short piece of footage to his website which showed the band rehearsing the song in the studio.

"True Love Will Find You in the End" is a cover of a 1984 song by American singer-songwriter Daniel Johnston which appeared on his Retired Boxer album. Harley recorded the song after using his website forum in 2009 to invite fans to forward their ideas of a song which could be covered for the new album. Graeme Blake suggested Johnston's "Story of an Artist" and Harley commented in a diary entry in November 2009, "The pointer towards Daniel Johnston by Graeme is indeed welcome. Had all but forgotten the self-proclaimed 'rejected unknown'. Maybe too many have covered the beautiful, poignant 'Story of an Artist' – irresistible, as it is – for me to attack it so late in its life. Maybe. But 'True Love Will Find You In The End' is less exposed. Maybe that one." The song was the last to be recorded for the album in December 2009. On 9 March 2010, Harley performed the song with Jools Holland and his band for Holland's show on BBC Radio 2, which was broadcast the following month.

"No Bleeding Hearts" features Harley's son, Kerr Nice, on the piano. The idea of Nice performing on the track was suggested by the band's keyboardist James Lascelles after Nice arrived for an overnight stay at the studio. In 2009, Harley said about the song, "The song may seem mysterious on first listen, but I'm quietly hoping that those who have now heard it twice, some even three times on this tour, will have started to form some interpretation." In 2010, Harley told Acoustic that he felt that the song sounded like the early Cockney Rebel and "could be very much my modern day 'Sebastian'".

"Blinded with Tears" was written around 2000 with ex-Cockney Rebel guitarist Jim Cregan. It was originally described by Harley as a "slow, backbeat drama" in a September 2000 diary entry. In October 2004, Harley published part of the song's lyrics in a diary entry, with the working title "Alone in the End". "2,000 Years from Now" features six 10–11 year old children from Spooner Row Primary School in Wymondham providing backing vocals. The addition to the track was a last-minute decision, with Harley revealing to BBC News in 2010, "It's fantastic. We had a really good time – they worked very hard and picked it up so quickly. I'd almost finished this track and I said to my engineer, 'There's a primary school down the road isn't there, I'd like some school kids on this track because the lyric is about the future of the planet'. Three hours later they were all here and two hours later we'd done it."

Release
"Stranger Comes to Town" was released on CD on 3 May 2010 by Absolute (via Universal) in the UK and by Repertoire Records in Europe under license by Harley's own Comeuppance Ltd. The album reached number 187 in the UK Albums Chart and number 20 in the UK Independent Albums Chart. The album's lead single, "Faith & Virtue", was released on 2 May 2010, and a second single, "For Sale. Baby Shoes. Never Worn", was released on 27 June 2010.

Harley originally intended to follow-up the 2005 release of the Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel album The Quality of Mercy with a new studio album in 2008. After The Quality of Mercy, Harley continued writing new material and recording demos, and in January 2007 he and his band entered the recording studio, at which time plans were announced for a possible new album release in spring 2008. The album's was given the working title Wide Screen, with an alternative being The Road Home. Although Harley continued writing, the proposed album did not come to fruition due to contractual issues that were left unresolved until early 2009. In a diary entry from March 2009, Harley revealed, "Finally wrapped up a contract wrangle which has kept me sometimes awake and regularly disturbed for almost three years. Cost me a great deal in all sorts of energies and resources to end this loathsome arrangement, but I knew in my heart I had to sort it."

Tour
To promote the album, Steve Harley and Cockney Rebel embarked on a UK-based tour in late May, which included performances at the Isle of Wight and Glastonbury Festivals. The tour continued into June and also included a few concerts in Norway and one in Denmark. Later in October, the band toured Europe.

Critical reception

On its release, Terry Staunton of Record Collector felt Stranger Comes to Town had "little of the arch art rock of Cockney Rebel" but added "the lyrical adventure of old survives". He added, "It's sturdy, timeless singer-songwriter fare, Harley's acoustic guitar front and centre, caressing his still mannered vocal, embellished by piano and violin." Simon Gage of the Daily Express concluded, "The music is simple, raw and thoughtful but the likeability is still there and the songs interesting. It won't do what 'Make Me Smile' did for him but it's an album he must be proud of." Andrew Thomas of the Lancashire Telegraph described the album as "a striking set with three or four standout tracks" and "a welcome album from an innovative writer and performer". Martin Hutchinson of The Bolton News felt the album was "Harley at his very best" and praised it for being "lyrically insightful" and "musically magnificent". He added, "Harley's anger and emotion comes across in the lyrics of the new songs."

Track listing

Personnel
Musicians
 Steve Harley – vocals (all tracks), acoustic guitar (tracks 1, 3, 6-9)
 Barry Wickens – violin (tracks 1, 3–7, 10), viola (tracks 1, 3–4, 10), electric guitar (tracks 1–2, 7-9), acoustic guitar (tracks 6, 10), backing vocals (tracks 1–2, 6, 8, 10)
 Robbie Gladwell – arpeggio guitar parts (track 7), electric guitar (tracks 8, 10), 12 string acoustic guitar (track 10), backing vocals (tracks 1–2, 8, 10)
 James Lascelles – keyboards (track 1), percussion (tracks 1, 3, 6), Hammond organ (tracks 2, 8-10), Mini-Moog synthesizer (tracks 2, 7, 9), Hammered dulcimer (track 3), piano (tracks 3–6, 9), melodica (tracks 4, 6), synthesizer (track 4), strings synthesizer (track 10)
 Lincoln Anderson – bass (tracks 1–3, 6-10), double bass (tracks 4-5)
 Stuart Elliott – drums (tracks 1–3, 7-10), hand drums (tracks 4-5), percussion (tracks 4, 7, 10)
 Katie Brine – backing vocals (tracks 1–3, 8, 10)
 Kerr Nice – piano (track 7)
 Grace Nickalls, Joe Dobson, Marcus Greenwood, Masie Colquhoun, Maya Hodgson, Sam Hewitson – choir on chorus (track 10)

Production
 Steve Harley – producer
 Nick Brine – engineer
 Dougal Watt, Owen Morgan, Alex Edmunds, Nelson Milburn – studio assistants
 Tom Povall - post production
 Denis Blackham – mastering

Design
 Mike Callow – photography
 With thanks to – "The Stranger on the Beach"
 Mark Scarfe at Aarlsen – sleeve design

Charts

Singles
Two digital singles, "Faith & Virtue" and "For Sale. Baby Shoes. Never Worn", were released from Stranger Comes to Town. Both releases used the same artwork as the album.

Faith & Virtue

The album's lead single, "Faith & Virtue", was written by Harley and Barry Wickens. It was released on 2 May 2010 as a digital-only single, with some promotional CD copies issued to radio stations.

Harley first announced the release of "Faith & Virtue" as a single in a diary entry of 3 March 2010, "All the team is now set up for the big push. We have radio/TV plugger Jackie Gill, who will do everything she can to get the single play-listed on Radio 2, and all the good TV she can muster." The song received its first play on BBC Radio 2 on 19 April on the Jools Holland show, when Harley appeared as the show's guest. The song was also given away as a free MP3 for anyone signing up for email updates on Harley's official website.

"Faith & Virtue" dated back ten years before it was recorded for Stranger Comes to Town. Speaking to The Bolton News in 2010, Harley commented, "The single was being played on the radio and my wife said 'I've always loved that song'. I explained that I'd only just finished the song when I realised that I'd actually been playing it on my piano for the last ten years and hadn't got round to recording it."

Track listing
"Faith & Virtue" - 4:48

For Sale. Baby Shoes. Never Worn

The album's second single, "For Sale. Baby Shoes. Never Worn", was written by Harley. A 'radio edit' of the track, which cut the song's duration by a minute, was released as a digital-only single on 27 June 2010.

The release of the single was first announced in Harley's diary entry of 31 May, "Over lunch, will make notes re edit of 'For Sale. Baby Shoes. Never Worn.' which we have agreed to release as a download single. Radio 2 airplay? Not much chance, to be honest. It's tough to get on their playlist if you're not represented by Universal or Sony. But Stranger Comes to Town is a major project, so we'll suck it and see." The song received its first play on BBC Radio 2 on 23 May 2010 on Johnnie Walker's Sounds of the 70s show, when Harley appeared as the show's guest.

"For Sale. Baby Shoes. Never Worn" had its origins dating back a decade, with Harley first mentioning the song in an online diary entry in September 2000. Speaking of new additions to the live set, Harley revealed, "And a new lullaby, a longing, yearning lullaby where a terrified young man is saying, 'No. It cannot be what it appears to be; nothing living lies that still.....' beside his helpless wife's bed." Harley began working on a new studio album in 2000 and revealed in a 1 December 2001 diary entry that he was going into the studio that week to record "For Sale. Baby Shoes. Never Worn" and "The Last Feast". While no album materialised, Harley later recorded the song again with Cockney Rebel in February 2005 during sessions for The Quality of Mercy. The song did not make the album's final track listing.

Track listing
"For Sale. Baby Shoes. Never Worn (Radio Edit)" - 3:59

References

2010 albums
Steve Harley albums, Have a Nice Day is the ninth studio album by American rock band Bon Jovi, released on September 20, 2005. Produced by John Shanks, the album was recorded at Sanctuary Sound II in New Jersey, and Ocean Way Recording in Hollywood, California.

Have a Nice Day was originally recorded in the summer of 2004 and planned for release in early 2005. However, due to misunderstandings between the band and its record company, the album was delayed. The band wanted to write and record more songs, remove others from the original track list, and in the process, altered existing album tracks.

Have a Nice Day peaked at number two in both the US and UK. In the US, it sold over 202,000 copies in the first week, making it Bon Jovi's best first-week sales in the band's history at that time. The album was eventually certified platinum by the RIAA.

The album produced the hit singles "Have a Nice Day" and "Who Says You Can't Go Home". Have a Nice Day has received mixed reviews by music critics. It was commonly commented that Jon Bon Jovi was "stretching" his lyrical abilities.

Background

Jon Bon Jovi and Richie Sambora headed into the studio with producer and songwriter John Shanks in summer of 2004 to begin working on a band's ninth studio album. They started to write songs and songs came very quick. After Jon and Richie co-wrote all the songs with Shanks, they recorded them immediately using a drum machine. Sambora and Shanks played all the guitar parts, Jon recorded all the vocals and there were no bass player or drummer in the studio. Later in the recording sessions, David Bryan, Tico Torres and Hugh McDonald recorded their parts. In the meantime, the band was doing finishing touches on their boxset 100,000,000 Bon Jovi Fans Can't Be Wrong (2004). Jon planned to turn the album over to record company right before Christmas of 2004., but he changed his mind. In December 2004, he went to Sanctuary Sound Studio to write more songs. When the band regrouped in 2005, they recorded four more songs and also worked on the revised versions of the original songs.

Lyrical themes
The lyrical themes center around political changes that happened in United States in that period and the state of music business, but also reflect personal and introspective views on issues that Jon Bon Jovi had while growing up, which he had never discussed before. He said: "I've always kept this 'chin up, glass is half-full' kind of optimism, and [now] I showed some chinks in the armor." "The song "Last Man Standing" depicts the band leader's unhappiness with the music industry. He says it reflects his "disgust of the music business in general, and its lack of true vision when it comes to supporting the artistry of developing a song, the songwriter and the bands on the road."" He explained: "Instead of creating what Andy Warhol once called '15 minutes of fame,' I think it's down to just three minutes and 30 seconds." "I don't know how this industry is ever going to have another Bob Dylan when it's all about the single, [not] the album and the vision and that inspiration. [It's] all for the sake of a 99-cent download so they can sell bulk and make their bonuses. It's heartbreaking."

Release and promotion
The album's track list, release dates for United States and Canada, and radio release date for the first single were announced on July 14, 2005. The first single, the title track "Have a Nice Day", premiered on radio stations worldwide on July 18, 2005. On September 2, 2005, it was announced that a full-length version of the song "Last Man Standing" was available for listening in the discography section on the band's official website.

Critical and commercial reception

Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave Have a Nice Day 2.5 stars out of 5, saying that the album "picks up where 2002's Bounce left off, showcasing a harder, heavier band than either 2000's Crush or Jon Bon Jovi's 1997 solo effort, Destination Anywhere. Not only that, but this 2005 album finds Jon Bon Jovi picking up on the serious undercurrent of Bounce, writing a series of angry, somber neo-protest songs that form the heart of this record." Blogcritics gave the album 8 stars out of 10 stating that "while their glory days are behind them, there's still a lot left in the tank for Bon Jovi when they want to be a band. The chemistry between Jon and Richie is as strong as ever, and the songwriting prowess they have is a well that never seems to run dry for these guys. While not their best work, this is their best in a long time." Robert Christgau gave the album a grade of C+, stating that it is "A depressing argument for the existence of that intellectual fairy tale, the passive mass audience." Christian Hoard from Rolling Stone gave the album 3 stars out of 5 saying that it is "reliable as it is contained: Acoustic ballads such as 'Bells of Freedom' are vaguely icky, but powerhouse anthems like 'I Want to Be Loved' pack almost as much singalong potential as 'Livin' on a Prayer' did back in the day."

Track listing

Personnel 

Bon Jovi
Jon Bon Jovi – lead vocals, background vocals
Richie Sambora – guitars, background vocals
Tico Torres – drums, percussion
David Bryan – keyboards

Additional musicians
Hugh McDonald – bass guitar
Paul Buckmaster – string arranger 
David Campbell – string arranger 
Dan Dugmore – steel guitar 
Dann Huff – mandolin and bouzouki 
Jennifer Nettles – duet vocals 
B.C. Smith – programming 
Jonathan Yudkin – fiddle and mandolin 

Recording personnel
 Jeremy Wheatley – mixing 
 Chris Lord Alge – mixing 
 Tom Lord Alge – mixing 
 Justin Niebank – mixing

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications

References 

Bon Jovi albums
2005 albums
Albums produced by Dann Huff
Albums produced by John Shanks
Albums produced by Richie Sambora
Albums produced by Rick Parashar, Free speech fights are struggles over free speech, and especially those struggles which involved the Industrial Workers of the World and their attempts to gain awareness for labor issues by organizing workers and urging them to use their collective voice. During the World War I period in the United States, the IWW members (referred to as Wobblies), engaged in free speech fights over labor issues which were closely connected to the developing industrial world as well as the Socialist Party. The Wobblies, along with other radical groups, were often met with opposition (violent and otherwise) from local governments and especially business leaders, in their free speech fights.

The IWW organized transient workers (especially in cities in the American West) who worked in highly seasonal jobs—they met on the streets, discussed contemporary issues, and listened to speakers; at the time, it was a very popular method of organization. The events often ended with the police arresting them for participating in street meetings. The most notorious of all of the free speech fights was the San Diego free speech fight, which won a significant amount of public awareness for the IWW as it involved tremendous violence against the labor groups organized by the IWW. which brought the IWW to the greater notice of the American public and was notable for the intensity of violence by anti-labor vigilantes directed at the IWW; this violence included the kidnapping and tarring and feathering of Ben Reitman, who was a physician, and was Emma Goldman's lover.

More generally, a free speech fight is any incident in which a group is involved in a conflict over its speech. For instance, the Free Speech Movement, which began with a conflict on the Berkeley Campus in California in the 1960s, was a "free speech fight".

"Free speech fights" and the IWW

The IWW engaged in free speech fights during the period from approximately 1907 to 1916. The Wobblies, as the IWW members were called, relied upon free speech, which in the United States is guaranteed by the First Amendment, to enable them to communicate the concept of One Big Union to other workers. In communities where the authorities saw their interests in avoiding the development of unions, the practice of soapboxing was frequently restricted by ordinance or by police harassment. The IWW employed a variety of creative tactics, including the tactic of flooding the area of a free speech fight with footloose rebels who would challenge the authorities by flouting the ordinance, intentionally getting arrested in great numbers. With the jails full and a seemingly endless stream of union activists arriving by boxcar and highway, the local communities frequently rescinded their prohibitions on free speech, or came to some other accommodation.

The Free Speech League, a progressive group which functioned at the same time as (and occasionally together with) the IWW, worked in conjunction with the IWW prior to World War I in many of their free speech fights, which generated a good deal of controversy. The free speech fights of the IWW were highly publicized, as they were designed to garner attention: they frequently started when local communities interjected to attempt to prevent the IWW from occupying street corners from which they would use provocative language to detail their radical beliefs.  The free speech fights began occurring in 1906 and drew to a close by 1917—over that period of time, at least 26 communities played host to the IWW's free speech fights, and the years of 1909 to 1913 were particularly active, with at least 21 free speech fights happening.

The IWW members who engaged in the free speech fights typically cited the First Amendment and the rights guaranteed therein as proof positive of the validity of their cause, thereby highlighting the legal importance of the issues they fought for. That being the case, their struggles did not go unanswered or ignored: local, state, and even the federal government were prompted to respond, while, perhaps more importantly, the American public, due to the national publicity garnered by the free speech fights, were invariably tasked with confronting free speech issues. Practically all realms of American life were impacted by the free speech fights, as members of the press, church officials, school teachers, politicians, anyone involved in the business and labor world, and members of any organization (especially those of the Socialist Party) had a stake in the fights and thus attempted to comment on the issues in contention.

An overview of the free speech fights
From its inception, the IWW was deeply committed to free speech issues, and especially those affiliated with labor groups. The IWW formed in 1905 in response to dissatisfaction with the trade unions promoted by the American Federation of Labor (the AFL).  Whereas the AFL promoted the ideals of capitalism by fighting for the rights of workers within the ideological framework of the free market system, the IWW functioned on anarchistic principles. Rather than urging workers to join unions based on craft and skill that were determined to form binding trade agreements with employers, the IWW advocated for the development of broad unions for low-skill workers that would be driven by the workers themselves (and their collective actions) rather than by top-down politics and binding capitalist decisions.

The primary vehicles of change for the free speech fights of the IWW were spontaneous workplace strikes as well as on-site labor slowdowns in addition to picketing, parades, and demonstrations. Importantly, the IWW engaged in street corner public displays and speaking to raise the public awareness regarding free speech fights. The desire for direct action by laborers was attributed to having grown disaffected with the beliefs of the AFL. They stressed their truly American origins and likened their actions to those of earlier American revolutionaries and activists.

The free speech fights of the IWW were often quite similar in nature: Wobblies (many of whom travelled across the country to spread their message) would visit a city's downtown and attempt to speak on soapboxes on street corners. Their message and their tactics were particularly provocative, and they were frequently arrested—though, if they were not arrested on one street corner, they would simply pack up and head to another one.  
Among the offences which they were arrested for were blocking traffic, vagrancy, unlawful assembly, or violating local ordinances such as ones against speaking on the streets.

Though the IWW was successful in many of their free speech fights, they did not always achieve their desired goals. In San Diego, for instance, they were unable to cause the repeal of a restrictive street ordinance while, in Paterson, they failed to gain protection for street picketing and meetings.

The IWW ideology of free speech
The ideology of the Wobblies who fought for free speech rights across America was deeply indebted to their core beliefs regarding the provenance of the First Amendment rights of the Constitution. In their estimation, they were fighting with the Constitution on their side while those who opposed them, such as city officials, were disregarding the fundamental laws of the country. The Wobblies frequently used phrases such as "Have you ever read the Constitution?" and "What is this, Czarist Russia, or Free America?"

The Wobblies held that the free speech rights granted by the First Amendment had been abridged over time, and they felt that it nowhere more evident than it was in the case of the laborers for whom they worked tirelessly—capitalism had conspired with the judicial system in the United States to deny agency and the Constitutionally-granted freedom of speech to American laborers. Not all Wobblies subscribed to such idealistic ideology, though, since some argued the more pessimistic belief that the Constitution had been written by the elites and that free speech was merely an illusion that worked to uphold the power of those same elites.
By adopting aggressive tactics which flaunted local ordinances against free speech, the Wobblies courted arrest, which they used as a demonstration of how far the abridgement of free speech had come. The official attempts to silence the IWW in the free speech fights, they argued, were totally opposed to the spirit of the First Amendment.

According to the Wobblies, the fact that they even had to fight for free speech rights was evidence of the corrupting effect of capitalism in America and of its legal system. They argued that the Constitution was not being applied to American laborers, just as it had not been applied to slaves in the century prior. Rather than take their fights to the courts, which they felt were substantially corrupted by capitalist influence, they took their fight to the streets and urged other Americans to do the same.

The publications of the IWW urged people to "Educate, Agitate, Organize!!!" which led their opponents to see the fights for free speech as precursors to more insidious desires such as those for unionization and, especially, for the abolition of capitalism.

Popular reactions
The free speech fights of the IWW were an inherently populist in nature. They were met with a variety of different public response and reactions: some supported their efforts and sought to collaborate with them while others engaged in vigilante violence against them (as was especially the case in San Diego). The free speech fights gained mass support from political groups such as labor unions, Socialists, and also the Free Speech League. Notably, few of the groups stood fast with the IWW when it came to their calls for revolution or for the overthrowing of capitalism more generally, and instead focused on the importance of the free speech rights for their own inherent worth to Americans. The AFL, though, opposed the IWW's efforts in the free speech realm from the get go. Other groups and members of the public, too, began to oppose the free speech fights over time because of the aggressive tactics and language among other things.

The Socialists were the most closely connected allies of the IWW in the free speech fights, as they had suffered through many years of free speech repression already and thus helped to fundraise for the cause and occasional even took part in the fights.

Labor unions also offered significant support to the free speech fight cause since they had a stake in the fights. Important support, still, came from the American public at large.

Official reactions and regulation of street speaking
The most notable proponent of the free speech fights in the official arena was New York City Police Commissioner Arthur Woods, who argued that all American groups should be granted the right of free speech and assembly. Rather than repress their constitutional rights, Woods felt that it was the duty of the police to protect the demonstrators. His personal philosophy dictated that free speech could be regulated only in ways that protected it through the creation of channels of expression which would not impede the rights of others.

The reasonable regulation of street speaking was an important issue that arose because of the free speech fights of the IWW. Their soapboxing on downtown street corners proved especially divisive. Whereas IWW supporters held that freedom of expression was especially important in the areas where that expression could actually reach the people (such as laborers) who would benefit the most from their message, opponents argued that their right to free speech did not belong in such public places where their incendiary tactics could be harmful to the public. Public streets were the best means of reaching the workers to whom their free speech fights were addressed, and the Wobblies did not always possess the necessary funds to rent out public assembly halls, for instance, from which they could exercise their right to free speech. 
The IWW conceded, nonetheless, that reasonable restrictions should be placed on public speaking.

The struggle over free speech on downtown street corners was regarded as absurd by many people, since there were myriad other areas in the public sphere that allowed outdoor speaking to take place—downtown street corners, though, were outlawed. The fight over the street corners, therefore, became a symbol of the divisive ideology of the IWW—their opponents scornfully argued that the street corners were important to the Wobblies only because they could not reach an audience elsewhere since nobody would willingly attend any of their speeches.

Many of the opponents of free speech fights, thus, were in favor of the establishment of centrally located areas that permitted oration but did not interfere with the city. Others, though, were totally opposed to the right to speak in public.

The IWW occasionally saw its fight over the regulation of street speaking extend to the judicial realm. More often than not, judges upheld the street ordinances that prevented public speaking. Notably, a judge in San Diego upheld the city's ordinance, and used the language of a similar decision in Los Angeles to explain that "This ordinance does not attempt to suppress freedom of speech, or seek to interfere with the citizen in the right to express his views upon any subject, political, religious, or otherwise, as is suggested by the petitioner. It simply specifies a certain district within the city wherein no one may do the things prohibited."

Analysis of free speech themes
One of the key themes of the free speech fights came from the regulation of speaking on the streets and involved discussions over the importance of access to public property and how reasonable limitations could be applied to it. People who debated the free speech fights frequently focused on the distinction between legal speech and illegal action while also detailing the various types of unprotected speech. They also debated what types of criticisms of the government should be protected by free speech.

One of the primary issues with the debates surrounding the free speech fights was that commentators understood that certain types of speech should be regarded as illegal and were not covered as free speech—sedition, libel, inciting speech, and obscenity fell into this category of speech, yet what some regarded as obscenity or libel, others regarded simply as government criticism that should be protected by the Constitution.

Major IWW's free speech fights

Spokane free speech fight

In A History of American Labor, Joseph G. Rayback has written,

[The Industrial Workers of the World] made its first impression upon the nation through its involvement in the "free speech" fight begun in Spokane, Washington, employment center for the casual labor elements of the Pacific Northwest. The fight developed late in 1908 when the I.W.W. launched an extensive speaking campaign with the slogan "Don't Buy Jobs" in the streets around the Spokane employment agencies which had become skilled in the art of swindling men who applied for jobs.

The "job sharks" were so closely tied to the crew boss on many job sites that there would be "one gang coming, one gang working and one gang going." The faster the turnover, the greater the fees that could be generated. From time to time the men would ignore the IWW and seek revenge after an employment shark took someone's last dollar for a job that didn't exist. The Spokesman-Review of February 17, 1909 reported,

Hurling rocks and chunks of ice through the windows of the Red Cross Employment Agency, 224 Stevens St., several members of a noisy mob of between 2,000 and 3,000 idle men were about to attempt to wreck the place about 6 o'clock last evening, when James H. Walsh, organizer of the IWW, mounted a chair and pacified the multitude. In the opinion of the police had it not been for the intervention of Walsh, a riot would surely have followed, as the rabble was worked up to such a pitch that its members would have readily attempted violence. Walsh discouraged violence and summoned all members of the IWW to their hall at the rear of 312 Front Ave. The police dispersed the rest... At the hall Walsh warned the crowd against an outbreak. "There were a lot of hired Pinkertons in that crowd," he said. "All they wanted you fellows to do was to start something and then they would have an excuse for shooting you down or smashing your heads in... You can gain nothing by resorting to mob rule."

For the rest of the summer, IWW street meetings brought more and more working stiffs into the IWW.

The agencies promptly countered by pressuring the city council to pass an ordinance forbidding street speaking. The I.W.W. obeyed the regulation for nearly a year, until Spokane religious groups, which habitually used the streets, secured a new regulation exempting them from the street-speaking ordinance. Angered by the discrimination on behalf of "the Christers," the Spokane I.W.W. renewed its campaign.

The newspaper of the IWW, the Industrial Worker, published the following on October 28: "Wanted—Men to Fill the Jails of Spokane." Then the IWW sent out a notice to all locations, "Nov. 2, FREE SPEECH DAY—IWW locals will be notified by wire how many men to send if any... Meetings will be orderly and no irregularities of any kind will be tolerated."

In one day 150 men were arrested and crowded into jails that could hardly accommodate them. Reinforcements promptly arrived from the surrounding territory.

The Spokane City Council arranged for rock-pile work for the prisoners.

At the end of twenty days four hundred men had been jailed.

Overflowing prisoners were lodged in the Franklin School [then located along Front Street (now Trent)], and the War Department made Fort Wright available for more. Eight editors in succession got out a copy of the Industrial Worker, and then took their turn soapboxing, and went to jail. The IWW's "rebel girl," Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, who was fresh out of high school, delayed her arrest by chaining herself to a lamppost. She later charged that the police were using the women's section of the jail as a brothel, with police soliciting customers. When that story was printed in the Industrial Worker on December 10, the police attempted to destroy all copies. Public sympathy began to favor the strikers. When the prison guards would march the overflowing prisoners through the streets to bathing facilities, crowds would shower the men with apples, oranges, and Cigarettes. Around 10:30 AM on December 20th, 1909, the I.W.W. Hall of Spokane was raided by police, driving 200 men out onto the street.

The effort brought results: the W.F.M. declared a boycott of all goods coming from Spokane, and taxpayers began to protest against the cost of feeding, housing, and policing the prisoners. When Vincent St. John publicly appealed to all Wobblies to come to Spokane to renew the struggle, city officials capitulated.

The victory for the free speech fight came on March 4, when the city of Spokane agreed to allow the I.W.W. to speak on the street. Subsequently that day, all arrested I.W.W. members were released. The licenses of 19 of the employment agencies were revoked.

The I.W.W. was granted freedom of assembly, freedom of the press, and the right to distribute its literature.

In Labor's Untold Story, Boyer and Morais observed,

The courts became so clogged they could handle little else but free speech cases. The fight for free speech became largely a question of endurance between the lungs and heads of the Wobblies and the stamina of the police. In Missoula and Spokane as in most of the other towns where free speech fights were waged, any citizen could address any assemblage on any street on any subject at any time by the end of 1912.

Missoula free speech fight

The IWW members won a free speech fight in Missoula when, on October 8, 1909, the city council decided to let the union members speak anywhere in the community, so long as they did not impede traffic.

Elizabeth Gurley Flynn was "a striking auburn-haired 19-year-old" when she arrived in Missoula with her husband, Jack Jones in September 1909. At Higgins Avenue and West Front Street, the Wobblies set up a soapbox. On September 22, Frank Little arrived to assist. Little and Jones were arrested on September 29. A young logger and a civil engineer then spoke, and were likewise arrested. Flynn put out the word, declaring, "we need volunteers to go to jail." Wobblies poured in from the surrounding territory, flooding the jail. They sang IWW songs, and shouted Wobbly slogans.

According to Flynn, who also was arrested October 3rd, 1909, the jail was "a filthy, dirty hole under the firehouse stable, where all the filthy excrement of the place pours down upon the prisoners." Yet enough Wobblies submitted themselves to arrest—frequently just before dinner time—that the city was feeling the impact of the Wobbly tactic. After a night in jail, Wobblies were often offered their freedom before breakfast, but many refused to be released, instead demanding a jury trial.

The Western Montana Apple Show was set to open, and Missoula officials decided to "wave a white flag." The IWW had won the Missoula free speech fight, and all charges were dropped.

On February 7, 2011, the National Park Service officially recognized Free Speech Corner at Higgens Avenue and West Front Street, adding it to the National Register of Historic Places to commemorate the Missoula free speech fight.

San Diego free speech fight

The free speech fight in San Diego from 1912 to 1913 was among the most prominent free speech fights of the IWW. An ordinance had been passed by the San Diego Common Council which made it much more difficult for the Wobblies to engage in their soapbox orations without being swiftly arrested. The San Diego jails were soon teeming with Wobblies and others who used civil disobedience in the fight for free speech, and, even more alarmingly, contingents of vigilantes arose to fight against those in favor of free speech. The Free Speech League worked in concert with the IWW in San Diego, but, when the fight became judicial, the ordinance was upheld.

Sioux City, Iowa

Sioux City was considered a very strategic town for workers to stage free speech fights in because it was "a gateway for laborers entering and leaving summer employment in agriculture and construction in the Dakotas."  Since those employment opportunities for the workers were seasonal, many of them returned to spend the winter in Sioux City, where the Wobblies attempted to provide them incentives to join their Free Speech Fight such as by educating them and helping feed them over the tough winter. 

Over a thousand men were unemployed in Sioux City at the time during the winter of 1915. There had been a real push to get workers to come to Sioux City by business leaders there, but workers who arrived found that there were barely enough jobs for the local laborers. 
On the 15th of January, after facing even harsher conditions and struggling with unemployment, roughly 150 of the IWW-associated unemployed stormed the Commercial Club where many business leaders listened to them demand work and watched them take food. 

In response to the direct action of the IWW, Sioux City increased enforcement of vagrancy laws and began arresting more of the IWW members engaged in the Free Speech Fights. Their goal in doing so was to attempt to drive the IWW out of town, but, unsurprisingly, they achieved the opposite. The IWW demanded free speech rights to be granted in the city. They Wobblies were filling the city's jails and forced the hand of the city officials to attempt to strike a deal with them. Ultimately, they won the fight and free speech rights were granted to workers in Sioux City.

Other free speech fights of the IWW

The IWW followed with other free speech fights in Kansas City, Missouri; in Aberdeen and Wenatchee, Washington; and in Fresno, California.  Tar and feathers, beatings, clubbings, and forcible deportations were used in addition to incarceration. The San Diego free speech fight was unique in that the IWW did not have a specific organizing campaign at stake. The IWW won all of these free speech fights.

In early 1913, IWW members in Denver, Colorado fought a lengthy free speech fight. Denver authorities had refused to allow the Wobblies to speak on street corners, so union members filled the jails for months. The union won the right to speak to workers, and within a year had formed two Denver branches.

Other locations of free speech fights by the IWW included Duluth, Minnesota; Portland, Oregon; New Castle, Pennsylvania, and New Bedford, Massachusetts.

The IWW's provocative free speech message

The IWW message was particularly unpopular with the business community. IWW members believed that the capitalist system was corrupt, could not be reformed, and could only be resisted until a better society could be built for all working people. James Walsh's streetcorner speeches were therefore frequently disrupted, particularly by the local Volunteers of America and Salvation Army Bands.

Walsh recruited volunteers to put together a small band, equipped with "a big booming bass drum," in order to get the IWW's message to listeners. The group practiced patriotic and religious tunes of the period, but the Wobblies wrote new words to the songs.

"To grab the crowd's attention," the IWW band often "hid in a doorway while one member dressed in a bowler hat and carrying a briefcase and umbrella, yelled to the crowd, 'Help! I've been robbed!' The crowd rushed over only to hear, 'I've been robbed by the capitalist system! Fellow workers ...' He then launched into a short speech, and the makeshift band stepped out of the doorway and played their songs."

The soapbox tradition
Prior to television, radio, and film becoming parts of American mass culture, public speaking was a primary medium for entertainment and information. Politicians, religious zealots, and newsboys all pitched their trade on the soapbox. Though not all street speakers were political, soapbox oration was fundamentally a political act. 

With the march of time of the 20th century, police forces and city ordinances began to take away the rights of soapbox orators. As television and radio became more prominent, the very act of street speaking began to seem antiquated and, at the very least, irrelevant. Street speaking represented a threat to upper- and middle-class white Americans who feared that "inter-ethnoracial, working-class political coalitions" would achieve influence through the soap box. 

This was especially true in Los Angeles, where class politics was reaching a fever pitch in the early 20th century. A multitude of political groups, such as the IWW, the Socialists, the Communist Party, and the Partido Liberal Mexicano all spoke out for Angelinos to fight for the rights of the underprivileged.

Socialist free speech fights: 1900–1911
In the early 20th century, it was the Socialist Party that led the charge in soapbox oration. They were the first group to make effective use of the tactics of public speaking. Over the first ten years of the city, they grew enough to gain significant political clout. In Los Angeles, the party drew in skilled and semi-skilled white workers who worried about their job security. Additionally, they attempted to recruit central Angelinos from more diverse ethnic backgrounds. In this way, Free Speech Fights in Los Angeles served as the battleground between central Los Angeles workers and the rest of the city.

The World War I crackdown
In the 1910s and 1920s, street speaking in Los Angeles suffered from increasing escalation of tactics by the LAPD and city ordinances. The Wobblies became the more dominant social group after the Socialists lost power, but the IWW was unable to draw nearly as many people to their soapbox speeches.

The IWW had a major conflict with the police over public speaking in San Pedro, a harbor community. They organized with striking dockworkers, but were met with extreme repression by the police who even used violent tactics to prevent their protests from being successful.  Because of the failures in San Pedro, the IWW lost power in Southern California.

See also

 Anti-union violence

Footnotes

References
 Peter Blecha, "Fanning the Flames: Northwest Labor Song Traditions", February 5, 2006, Retrieved May 14, 2007.
 Richard O. Boyer and Herbert M. Morais, Labor's Untold Story (1974).
 Paul F. Brisseden, The I.W.W.: A Study of American Syndicalism (New York, 1919)
 David Brundage, The Making of Western Labor Radicalism: Denver's Organized Workers, 1878-1905 (1994).
 Melvyn Dubofsky, We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World (1969)
 Joseph G. Rayback, A History of American Labor (1966).
 Fred W. Thompson and Patrick Murfin, The I.W.W.: Its First Seventy Years, 1905-1975 (1976).
 Woodrow C. Whitten, Criminal Syndicalism and the Law in California, 1919-1927 (Philadelphia, 1969).

Further reading
 John Duda (editor), "Wanted! Men to Fill the Jails of Spokane: Fighting for Free Speech with the Hobo Agitators of the I.W.W. "  (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr, 2009) 
 Philip S. Foner (editor), "Fellow Workers and Friends: I.W.W. Free-Speech Fights as Told by Participants" (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1981)
Matthew S. May, "Soapbox Rebellion: The Hobo Orator Union and the Free Speech Fights of the Industrial Workers of the World" (Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 2013)

Freedom of expression
History of the Industrial Workers of the World
Political repression in the United States
Freedom of speech, source_sentence: ¿Cómo reacciona Jesús ante la ejecución pública de Gregory y cómo afecta esto su relación con Maggie y su postura sobre el comercio mutuo entre las comunidades?
sentences: Paul "Jesús" Monroe

Personalidad

Paul comparte similitudes físicas con el personaje bíblico Jesús en su naturaleza perdonadora y abierta, así como su largo cabello y barba. También se muestra que es extremadamente táctico, aunque a veces deja que su furia y sus emociones lo superen. Además de estos, se ha demostrado que es un combatiente muy hábil, que puede derrotar a su oponente mientras está completamente desarmado (en cambio usa sus manos y pies como arma principal). También tiene habilidades como un artista de escape y ha demostrado ser un rastreador competente.

Historia

Paul es introducido al espionaje en la comunidad de la zona segura de Alexandría, poco después de la purga de la invasión de las hordas zombis. Paul es atacado más tarde por Michonne y Abraham Ford donde fácilmente los inmoviliza. Después de insistir en encontrarse con Rick Grimes, él es sometido y atado. Después de los interrogatorios, Rick finalmente decide irse con Paul a la colonia Hilltop. En el camino, Paul revela que pudo haber escapado en cualquier momento, pero permaneció allí para ver si se podía confiar en Rick. Durante el camino Paul ayuda a Rick a eliminar a algunos zombis y lo salva de morir y siguen su camino. Después de llegar a Hilltop, Paul defiende a Rick luego de que mata a un ciudadano enviado por Negan para entregar un mensaje. Luego, Paul le revela a Rick y su grupo, que él y el resto de su gente, han estado durante meses bajo el asedio de los Salvadores. Intenta rastrearlos de vuelta a su base, pero es capturado y perseguido a la colonia.​​
A raíz de la muerte de Glenn Rhee a manos de Negan, decide unirse a Rick en su lucha contra los Salvadores y se convierte en un miembro clave del comité de toma de decisiones de Rick. Después de que Rick decide dejar a un Dwight cautivo, Rick le dice a Paul que lo siga y vea a qué se enfrentan, pero que no le diga a ninguno de sus planes. Después de prepararse, Paul comienza a seguir a Dwight, con la esperanza de descubrir la base de operaciones de los Salvadores. Más tarde es emboscado por tres Salvadores. Mientras trata de luchar contra el trío salvador, uno de los miembros lo somete. Después de ser derribado al piso, Paul es casi asesinado por los salvadores, sin embargo, es salvado por Dwight y otro salvador, quienes le dicen a los atacantes de Paul que se retiren, ya que tienen algunas preguntas "importantes" para Paul. Dwight y el otro salvador atan a Paul y lo cargan en un jeep. Se dirigen al Santuario, lo que le permite a Paul observar bien el área y él abandona el jeep en el último segundo, evitando por poco la captura y se lo informa a Rick. Presenta a Rick al Rey Ezekiel, el líder del Reino, con la esperanza de formar a las tres comunidades para oponerse a los Salvadores. Mientras se escabulle a Hilltop para contarle a Maggie el plan de Rick, se entera de que Kal lo traicionó y salió corriendo para informar a los Salvadores de su plan en el que Jesús lo alcanza y lo convence para que cambie de opinión. Sigue reclutando miembros de Hilltop, para gran consternación de Gregory.​​
Más tarde, cuando Negan toma como rehenes a Rick, Nicholas, Heath y Holly por intentar matarlo, Jesús llega a la Zona de Seguridad, escondido lejos de Negan y sus hombres. Jesús aparece en el momento oportuno (momento de la ejecución) y toma por sorpresa a uno de los bandidos, ocasionando una distracción y dándole tiempo a Rick y a los otros de escapar. Jesús acaba con algunos salvadores y luego se enfrenta mano a mano con Negan, logrando tomarlo como rehén y amenazando con matarlo si se atrevían a dispararle. Un asustado Negan le ordena a sus hombres no hacer nada y entonces Jesús le propone dejarlo marcharse a cambio de que deje ingresar en la zona a sus camaradas que estaban en camino. Negan tiene sus dudas pero justo en ese momento Shiva aparece y ataca a uno de los salvadores, y detrás de ella aparecen Ezekiel y su ejército. Negan aprovecha la ocasión para liberarse de Jesús y escapa junto con sus hombres. Durante la guerra las fuerzas combinadas logran abatir a los salvadores se finaliza la guerra cuando Rick decide tomarlo prisionero a Negan en lugar de matarlo.​​
Dos años después de finalizar la guerra, Jesús actúa como la segunda al mando de Maggie en Hilltop, mientras realiza visitas recurrentes a Alexandría, también está en una relación con Aaron. ​

Adaptación de TV

Robert Kirkman ha confirmado que Jesús estaría en las futuras temporadas de la serie.​ En septiembre de 2015, el actor estadounidense Tom Payne fue elegido para interpretar a Paul Rovia.​

Temporada 6

Jesús hace su debut en el episodio "The Next World," visto por primera vez chocando con Rick que está en una carrera de suministros con Daryl. Jesús les habla con delicadeza, le quita las llaves a Rick y le da la idea de acercarse a los caminantes en su mente para que reaccionen de manera predecible cuando arrancan los petardos, lo que le permite conducir con su camioneta de suministros. Cuando fue atacado por Rick y Daryl más tarde, Jesús es capaz de defenderse físicamente, mostrando impresionantes habilidades de combate, aunque se rinde cuando lo amenazan a punta de pistola. Jesús está atado a sus muñecas y tobillos y se deja a un lado de la carretera, pero en segundos puede liberarse y subirse al camión sin ser observado. Más tarde, cuando se dan cuenta de que está en el camión y pisan los frenos, Jesús toma una considerable caída a la velocidad, pero es capaz de levantarse y correr de inmediato, superando a Daryl, quien lo persigue. Jesús se mete en el camión donde Daryl lo combate y agarra el arma de Daryl para matar a un caminante que de otra manera habría atacado a Daryl por detrás. Daryl saca a Jesús del camión, que accidentalmente se libera de sus frenos y Jesús queda inconsciente en el proceso del camión rodando hacia atrás en un lago. Jesús es llevado de regreso a Alexandría y a pesar de estar encerrado en una habitación cerrada con llave en una casa vigilada, Jesús puede liberarse y escapar del confinamiento sin dar la alarma e identificar e infiltrarse en la casa de Rick, donde pide hablar con Rick.​ 
En el siguiente episodio, "Knots Untie", Jesús es práctico acerca de su impresionante escape, y dice que "los nudos se desatan, los candados se escogen, la anarquía viene del orden", lo que sugiere una filosofía que busca la armonía en lugar del control. Mientras estaba libre, Jesús localizó, se infiltró y tomó un recuento de la armería y los suministros de alimentos de Alexandría y una estimación de su población. Notando que tienen pocas provisiones, él sugiere que negocien con su comunidad y los lleve a su comunidad Hilltop. Cuando Gregory, el líder de la colonia Hilltop, trata de obtener la ventaja sobre los alexandrinos que podrían enfrentar el hambre sin su alimento, Jesús trabaja su influencia para convencer a su comunidad Hilltop de que sean caritativos con los alexandrinos en su momento de necesidad y de construir una relación de confianza y prosperidad. El respeto pagará mucho más en el futuro que este intercambio único. Jesús también intercede cuando Rick y su grupo detienen un intento de asesinato de Gregory instigado por Negan, evitando un mayor derramamiento de sangre. Jesús les revela al grupo de Rick, que la colonia Hilltop ha sufrido considerablemente las extorsiones de Los Salvadores y aunque no tenían suficientes combatientes o municiones para atacar a Negan y su pandilla, Jesús se ofrece voluntariamente para unirse cuando Daryl y el grupo cuando se ofrecen a negociar para eliminar a Negan y rescatar a Craig, un rehén de su comunidad.​
En el episodio "Not Tomorrow Yet", Se muestra que Jesús se unió al ataque de Rick en el recinto del Salvador. Más tarde reconforta a Tara, que se siente culpable por mentirle a Denise y sus experiencias cuando estuvo involucrada por última vez en un ataque en una comunidad de sobrevivientes.​ Jesús le dice a Tara que es su amor por Denise lo que le da una razón para pelear. Cuando se producen los disparos, Jesús y Tara instan a Andy y Craig a que se vayan, para asegurarse de que The Hilltop no esté conectado al ataque de los Salvadores, aunque Jesús se pone su máscara y se apresura a confiar en que los Salvadores nunca lo verán. Más tarde se lo ve salvando a Glenn y Heath de un Salvador moribundo disparándole antes de decir "Así que este es el próximo mundo".​

Temporada 7

Jesús aparece por primera vez en el quinto episodio de la temporada, "Go Getters", donde intenta consolar a Maggie y Sasha (que se esconden en la colonia Hilltop de los salvadores) sobre sus seres queridos perdidos. Gregory decide que los dos deben irse y cuando Jesús no está de acuerdo, Gregory declara que es libre de ir con ellos. Más tarde, Sasha le dice a Jesús que debería estar a cargo de la comunidad, aunque insiste en que solo intenta ayudar, Sasha le dice que podría tener que hacer más. Cuando Hilltop es atacado por caminantes dejados entrar por los Salvadores, Jesús ayuda a Sasha a defenderse (una vez más demostrando sus impresionantes habilidades en el combate cuerpo a cuerpo) mientras Maggie destruye el sistema de autos al atraparlos. Al día siguiente, Jesús continúa. para discutir con Gregory ya que se niega a rechazar a Maggie (que está embarazada), así como a Sasha, ya que las dos ayudaron a salvarlos. Cuando Simon, uno de los salvadores principales, llega a la colonia Hilltop, Gregory intenta delatar a las dos, pero es frustrado porque Jesús las escondió en otro lugar. Cuando se enfrenta a eso, Jesús le dice que todos se están quedando y aunque él no quiere estar a cargo, Gregory tampoco lo estará. El episodio termina cuando Jesús se mete a hurtadillas en uno de los camiones de los salvadores para encontrar a Negan donde descubre que Carl Grimes ya está allí, empeñado en matar a Negan.​ Jesús aparece brevemente en el siguiente episodio "Sing Me a Song", mientras él y Carl continúan hacia el Santuario. Jesús  deja un rastro de jarabe en el camino como sendero y una vez cerca de su parada final, Jesús sugirió saltar del camión y continuar a pie; pero fue engañado por el muchacho quien lo hizo bajarse primero mientras que él prefirió quedarse y seguir por su cuenta, luego sale de la camioneta solo para ver que Carl no lo siguió, Una vez infiltrado dentro del Santuario, Jesús intento buscar la forma de llegar hacia un prisionero Daryl y rescatarlo. Más tarde se le ve encima de un camión cuando Carl abandona el Santuario.​ Luego se lo ve en el final de mitad de temporada "Hearts Still Beating" donde encuentra a Daryl dentro del Santuario y lo ayuda a escapar, más tarde se ve a Jesús viendo a Daryl y Maggie reunirse con sus amigos y caminar a su lado mientras planean su guerra contra los salvadores.​
En el estreno de mitad de temporada "Rock in the Road", se muestra a Rick y Jesús que no lograron convencer a Gregory para que se una a la guerra contra los Salvadores. Encuentran a varios miembros de la comunidad que se ofrecen para ofrecer su ayuda voluntaria. Mientras el grupo discute las estrategias para vencer a los salvadores, Rick dice que necesitan más ayuda, Jesús les dice que conoce a un grupo que puede ayudar, con este fin, los trae al Reino, una comunidad floreciente que también se ve obligada a servir a los salvadores, Se muestra que Jesús es bien conocido allí y está en buenos términos con su líder, el Rey Ezekiel. Cuando Ezekiel se niega a unirse a su lucha, Jesús se va con los demás y luego regresa a Hilltop con Sasha.​ En el episodio "The Other Side" muestra a Jesús vinculándose con Maggie y revelándole más de su pasado a ella (incluido que creció en un hogar grupal y que es gay) y afirma que ella y Sasha lo ayudan a sentirse más como en casa. Le proporciona a Sasha un diseño del Santuario para ayudarla con sus planes de matar a Negan (aunque no está de acuerdo con su decisión). Jesús es confrontado más tarde por Gregory, quien afirma que ha estado eludiendo sus tareas de búsqueda / exploración y tiene demasiadas personas en su remolque. Cuando Gregory menciona que debería mostrar más respeto o algo puede suceder con los Salvadores que vienen constantemente, Jesús ve rápidamente que Gregory lo está amenazando. Gregory lo niega, pero también afirma que cuida de sus amigos y que las dos no son amigas.​ En "Something They Need", Jesus es parte del grupo que Rick lleva a una comunidad llamada Oceanside con la intención de robar sus armas. Su plan tiene éxito, pero Jesús parece estar en conflicto con sus acciones.​ En el final de temporada "The First Day of the Rest of Your Life" Jesús está con el grupo interrogando a Dwight en la celda de la prisión, Rosita anuncia que los salvadores tienen a Sasha. Ella dice que no confía en Dwight, pero Jesús cree que puede ser su única oportunidad para recuperar a Sasha. Jesús revisa el plan de Rick con Maggie y Enid mientras vigilan a Judith. Jesús llega con Maggie liderando un convoy de la gente de Hilltop justo a tiempo para unirse a la lucha contra los Salvadores junto con el Reino, derribando a los Salvadores que estaban a punto de matar a Rick. Maggie y Jesús rastrean a una zombificada Sasha en el bosque y los ojos de Maggie se llenan de lágrimas cuando Jesús la elimina de su miseria. Jesús está presente cuando Rick, Maggie y Ezekiel se suben a una plataforma y se dirigen a la multitud como los líderes de sus respectivas comunidades: Alexandría, Hilltop y El Reino, unidos y listos para una guerra total.​​​​

Temporada 8

Jesús aparece en el estreno de la temporada "Mercy", donde se une al ejército de sobrevivientes reunidos, liderado por Rick, Maggie y Ezekiel en un ataque al Santuario. Cuando Negan intenta dividirlos haciendo que Gregory ordene a que los residentes de Hilltop regresen a casa, Jesús no se sorprende por la traición y afirma con confianza que Hilltop está con Maggie. Más tarde se separa con un grupo para comenzar a atacar los compuestos más pequeños de los salvadores.​​ En "The Damned", Jesús lidera a un grupo para tomar el control de un puesto de avanzada de los salvadores. A diferencia de Morgan o Tara, que abogan por matar a todos los salvadores, Jesús insiste en darle a los salvadores la oportunidad de rendirse, incluso cuando uno de ellos se aprovecha de esto y trata de matarlo. Esto hace que tomen varios prisioneros a pesar de las objeciones de Tara, lo que indica que Rick estará de acuerdo con ella.​ En "Monsters", se muestra a Jesús y su grupo llevando a los prisioneros de regreso a Hilltop. Esto causa conflicto con Morgan que cree que deberían ser asesinados, cuando los prisioneros intentan escapar, el desacuerdo culmina en una pelea acalorada, que finalmente termina en un empate y Morgan deja al grupo frustrado. Una vez que llegan a Hilltop, Jesús convence a Maggie para que ponga a los prisioneros en un par de remolques bajo guardia armada.​ En el episodio "The King, the Widow and Rick", se ve a Jesús repartiendo comida a los salvadores, Maggie irrumpe y le ordena que deje de regalar la comida de Hilltop, el está sorprendido de que ella consideraría matar a estos hombres, a continuación Jesús y Maggie discuten sobre el porqué de la guerra. En la noche, Jesús observa en la colonia Hilltop desde afuera de las paredes con los salvadores,  Alden le pregunta a Jesús de lo que están construyendo en su interior. Él responde por sí mismo y explica por qué fue parte de los salvadores. Todo comenzó con poner una valla. Jesús lo calla, Al día siguiente, Jesús sigue vigilando a los salvadores capturados. Enid emerge and le dice a Jesús que Maggie ha ordenado que ingresó los Salvadores. Han construido en un área de espera para mantenerlos. Jesús, Enid y Aarón miran, como Maggie encierra a Gregory. Jesús ingresa a la oficina de Gregory y agradece a Maggie por hacer lo correcto, pero Maggie lo calla diciendo que solo los mantiene con vida porque cree que están negociando fichas y que busca intercambiarlos por las personas que tienen como Carson, y ella dice que si No funciona, los matarán. Jesús está decepcionado por esto.​ En el final de mitad de temporada "How It's Gotta Be" Jesús y Maggie conducen, llevando una caravana de gente de Hilltop, se detienen cuando ven un árbol en el camino y Maggie sabe que los salvadores colocaron el árbol allí, cuando se detienen, una línea de vehículos de los salvadores aparece detrás de su caravana. En frente del auto de Maggie, y aparecen los salvadores abriendo la parte trasera de un camión y sacan a Jerry, con un arma en la cabeza, apuntado por Gary (Mike Seal) un teniente salvador. Simon sale de la camioneta y se dirige a Maggie. Simon mata a uno de los miembros de Hilltop para someter a Maggie dejando a Jesús horrorizado. Jesús y Maggie regresan a Hilltop y Maggie le dice a Eduardo que deje salir a Dean de la jaula. Ella le dispara frente a todos los demás, por devolverle los problemas a Jesús en el puesto de avanzada del satélite y demostrar que ella tiene el control y también la recompensa por la muerte de Neil. Jesús está conmocionado por esto e intenta hablar con ella, pero ella le dice a Jesús que se encargue del muro y se prepare para la última posición.​
Durante el episodio "Do Not Send Us Astray" Jesús está entre los residentes y refugiados de Hilltop que están preparados para defender el Hilltop ante un inminente ataque de los salvadores, El y los otros logran sobrevivir al ataque mientras los Salvadores restantes huyen, al día siguiente, Jesús vigila a los prisioneros y encierra a los prisioneros en la celda. Durante la noche, los gritos resuenan en la Casa Barrington, en el interior, Maggie ve que las personas son devoradas por los caminantes. Daryl se apresura a ayudar a la gente. Jesús ayuda a eliminar a los caminantes. A la mañana siguiente, Jesús ayuda a Jerry a cavar tumbas para las personas que murieron, ya que descubrieron que esas personas heridas fueron heridas por los salvadores con armas contaminadas con sangre de caminante.​ En el final de temporada "Wrath" Jesús acompaña a Rick y al resto de la milicia para luchar contra los salvadores en la batalla final, durante el camino al campo de batalla, Jesús sugiere que Morgan se abstenga de matar gente reservando el extremo afilado de su bastón para caminantes y el lado contundente para los vivos, la manada masiva se alza en la distancia, después de que la mayoría de los salvadores son eliminados a causa de las balas defectuosas que Eugene provocó que las armas estallaran en ellos, Jesús y los demás luchan contra los salvadores sobrevivientes hasta que se rinden. Sin embargo, Negan es derrotado y capturado mientras Rick se dirige a la multitud, declarando la paz entre todas las comunidades, después, Jesús regresa a su comunidad. En la oficina de Maggie en Hilltop, ella habla en privado con Jesús. Ella le dice que tenía razón al traer a los salvadores a la colonia Hilltop. Está enojada con Rick y Michonne, creyendo que ambos estaban equivocados por mantener vivo a Negan. Cuando Jesús sugiere qué hacer al respecto, Maggie alude a corregir más adelante este error una vez que Hilltop tenga tiempo de reagruparse y fortalecerse y mostrarle a Rick que está equivocado. Daryl también está de acuerdo con esto cuando sale de la sombra.​​

Temporada 9

En el estreno de la temporada "A New Beginning", han trascurrido 18 meses después de finalizar la guerra contra Negan y los salvadores, los supervivientes se pusieron en marcha para reconstruir la civilización, se ve a Jesús derribando a varios caminantes utilizando sus artes marciales para que así Aaron pueda eliminarlos sin problemas; proponiéndole a su compañero aprender técnicas defensa personal en Hilltop. Tras ser informado sobre una búsqueda de materiales que necesitaba el Santuario para producir, en la ciudad de Washington, D.C. el hombre decidió acompañarlos pero permaneció vigilando el perímetro a medida que el resto de su grupo se adentraba al museo del lugar en donde se encontraban los materiales, con la muerte de Ken durante la expedición, Jesús asistió a su funeral en la noche y después de escuchar unas conmovedoras palabras de Gregory en honor hacia el muchacho, lo felicitó por haber cambiado su forma de ser a alguien más amistoso y agradecido. Sin embargo, la forma en la que veía a Gregory se derrumbo al descubrir sus perversos planes para matar a Maggie y retomar el liderazgo de Hilltop que la mujer se lo había ganado, Jesús asistió a la ejecución pública que se llevaría y completamente decepcionado de Maggie al presenciar como Gregory era acogoteado frente a la mirada de los residentes de Hilltop.​​ En el episodio "The Bridge" Michonne habla con Maggie sobre el comercio mutuo que ambas comunidades tienen y Jesús se mantiene en silencio, más tarde Maggie y Jesús debaten sobre la decisión de otorgar los suministros a los salvadores pero afirma que deben de ganarselo a través de la construcción del puente. Poco después, Tammy le ruega a Jesús que vea a Earl, pero él dice que no es el momento, recordándole que trató de matar a Maggie. Jesús le dice a Maggie, mientras juega con Hershel, que deberían considerar implementar reglas oficiales para manejar situaciones como Earl, Negan y Gregory. Ella finalmente está de acuerdo.​ En "The Obliged" Jesús observa cómo Maggie agarra una mochila y mete una palanca en ella, planeando ir a Alexandría para matar a Negan. Menciona que Georgie ha enviado otra carta y trata de convencerla de que no vaya, pero lo ignora y se le indica que cuide de Hilltop mientras Maggie se va.​ En "What Comes After" Jesús aparece en las alucinaciones de Rick, en donde el camina por un piso lleno de los cadáveres de sus amigos y seres queridos, entre ellos Jesús, En el puente, cuando Rick se aleja antes de desplomarse, alucina mientras Jesús y los demás se apresuran a pasar junto a él para matar a los caminantes. En la realidad, Maggie y Michonne traman un plan para desviar a los caminantes, pero Rick no lo permite. Se da cuenta de la dinamita en el puente, apunta y se dice a sí mismo  "Los encontré", antes de disparar y encender la dinamita. El puente se enciende y explota cuando Jesús y el resto solo pueden mirar con horror, suponiendo que Rick esta muerto.​ En el episodio "Stradivarius", Seis años después, En algún momento, durante los seis años posteriores a la supuesta muerte de Rick, Maggie, junto con Hershel, abandonaron Hilltop para unirse al grupo de Georgie, Jesús fue elegido como el nuevo líder. Tara, sabiendo que no le gustan las responsabilidades, se muda a Hilltop para ayudarlo. En el camino, Aarón salta a Jesús a caballo y los dos pelean juguetonamente en un campo hasta que están agotados y van a sentarse para alcanzarlos. Jesús pregunta si Michonne ha reconsiderado unirse a la próxima feria, pero Aaron dijo que ni siquiera lo evaluará. De repente, se dispara una bengala en el aire cerca y se apresuran a investigar. Encuentran a Rosita herida por un árbol, quien les dice que dejó a Eugene en un granero. Antes de que algunos caminantes se acerquen, la agarran y prometen buscar a Eugene mañana, por la noche, Tara actualiza a Jesús sobre la condición de Rosita y le pregunta qué estaba haciendo allí. Jesús confiesa que estaba entrenando a Aarón mientras intentaba que Alexandría se uniera a la Feria. Ella lo regaña y le dice que las personas notan su constante ausencia de Hilltop. Ella revela que se va mañana a buscar a Eugene y que él necesita quedarse, por la mañana, Daryl, Carol y Henry llegan y abrazan a Tara. Carol le dice a Jesús que Henry quiere aprender a ser herrero. Aaron saluda a Daryl y le dice que podrían usar su ayuda para localizar a Eugene, el grupo de rescate se prepara cuando Jesús le dice a Tara que irá en lugar de a ella y la próxima vez le promete quedarse, a lo que ella acepta sonriendo. Con el perro a la cabeza, Daryl, Aarón y Jesús salen a buscar a Eugene.​​ En el final de mitad de temporada "Evolution", Daryl, Jesús y Aaron siguen las huellas de Eugene, pero descubren que cruzan un campo lleno de caminantes persistentes, observan que este es un patrón extraño y deciden caminar alrededor de él, cuando se van, un caminante se gira para verlos partir, Aaron, Daryl y Jesús logran encontrar a Eugene, Daryl se ofrece voluntariamente a llevar lejos a la horda caminante, Jesús, Aarón y Eugene se quedan atrapados en un cementerio amurallado, comienzan a escuchar los susurros de los caminantes y cuando salen de la línea del frente, Michonne llega con otros de Hilltop para ayudarlos a rescatarlos. Jesús se queda atrás para cubrir a los demás y mientras regresa a la puerta, elimina a los caminantes, el último agacha su espada, lo agarra y lo apuñala, advirtiéndole que no le pertenecen. El resto se apresura para atacar al caminante y eliminar al resto. Mientras Aarón se lamenta por el cuerpo de Jesús, Daryl examina al caminante que lo mató, y descubrió que era un humano vivo con una máscara hecha de la piel de un caminante. El grupo se encuentra rodeado de más caminantes, varios que hablan y les advierten que pronto morirán.​​

Temporada 4

En un flashback, Morgan cuelga la ropa en su escondite en la comunidad de la chatarra. Jesús lo visita y lo invita a unirse a su comunidad.​

Consolas de Video Juegos

Jesús aparece en el videojuego por Telltale Games The Walking Dead: A New Frontier, que se desarrolla en el universo de los cómics. Se lleva a cabo algún tiempo durante el salto de tiempo después de All Out War.​

Recepción

The Weekly Crisis incluyó a Jesús como el número 10 en su lista de Los diez mejores personajes de The Walking Dead, diciendo: "Ser apodado por el hijo de Dios parece ser un infierno de una exageración, pero Jesús tiene muestra una y otra vez que él es un hombre bueno y confiado que solo quiere lo mejor para todos. El nombre encaja. Aunque recientemente nos lo han presentado, Jesús se está mostrando rápidamente como uno de los personajes más importantes del libro."​, 

삼견

3견(三見)은 9결(九結) 중 견결(見結)을 이루는 3가지 번뇌인 유신견(有身見)변집견(邊執見)사견(邪見)을 말한다.

삼계

3계(三界)는 불교의 우주론 또는 세계관을 구성하는 존재계인 욕계(欲界)색계(色界)무색계(無色界)의 3가지 계(界)를 통칭하는 낱말이다. 3유(三有)라고도 하는데, 3유(三有)는 욕유(欲有)색유(色有)무색유(無色有)를 말한다.

불교의 우주론 또는 세계관에서 3계 또는 3유는 28천(二十八天)으로 나뉘지만, 수행론과 번뇌론에서는 흔히 9지(九地)로 나뉜다. 이를 통칭하여 3계9지(三界九地)라고 한다.

3계9지(三界九地)
<li>욕계(欲界) 또는 욕유(欲有)
<li>오취잡거지(五趣雜居地)
<li>색계(色界) 또는 색유(色有)
<li>이생희락지(離生喜樂地)
<li>정생희락지(定生喜樂地)
<li>이희묘락지(離喜妙樂地)
<li>사념청정지(捨念淸淨地)
<li>무색계(無色界) 또는 무색유(無色有)
<li>공무변처지(空無邊處地)
<li>식무변처지(識無邊處地)
<li>무소유처지(無所有處地)
<li>비상비비상처지(非想非非想處地)

삼계무지

1. 3계무지(三界無知)는 3계의 무지(無知)를 말한다. 즉 욕계의 무지(無知)색계의 무지(無知)무색계의 무지(無知)를 통칭한다. 이것들은 다른 말로는 욕계계(欲界繫)의 무지(無知)색계계(色界繫)의 무지(無知)무색계계(無色界繫)의 무지(無知)라고도 한다. 즉 3계의 무지(無知)는 욕계에 속한 무지(無知)색계에 속한 무지(無知)무색계에 속한 무지(無知)를 통칭한다.

주의할 점은, 3계의 무지(無知)는 3계에 대한 무지(無知)가 아니다. 즉 욕계색계무색계에 대한 무지(無知)가 아니며, 각각의 계에서의 어떤 진리 또는 법에 대한 무지(無知)를 말하며, 이 무지(無知) 가운데는 3계에 대한 무지(無知)도 포함된다.

《대승아비달마집론》에 따르면, 3계무지(三界無知) 즉 3계의 무지(無知)는 무명(無明) 즉 치(癡)의 마음작용의 본질적 성질이다.

2. 3계무지(三界無智)는 3계의 무지(無智)를 말한다. 즉 욕계의 무지(無智)색계의 무지(無智)무색계의 무지(無智)를 통칭한다. 이것들은 다른 말로는 욕계계(欲界繫)의 무지(無智)색계계(色界繫)의 무지(無智)무색계계(無色界繫)의 무지(無智)라고도 한다. 즉 3계의 무지는 욕계에 속한 무지(無智)색계에 속한 무지(無智)무색계에 속한 무지(無智)를 통칭한다.

주의할 점은, 3계의 무지(無智)는 3계에 대한 무지(無智)가 아니다. 즉 욕계색계무색계에 대한 무지(無智)가 아니며, 각각의 계에서의 어떤 진리 또는 법에 대한 무지(無智)를 말하며, 이 무지(無智) 가운데는 3계에 대한 무지(無智)도 포함된다.

《아비달마품류족론》《대승아비달마잡집론》《대승오온론》《대승광오온론》에 따르면, 3계무지(三界無智) 즉 3계의 무지(無智)는 무명(無明) 즉 치(癡)의 마음작용의 본질적 성질이다.

삼고

3고(三苦)는 고고(苦苦)괴고(壞苦)행고(行苦)의 3가지 고통을 말한다.

삼과

삼과(三科)는 초기불교 이래로 불교에서 널리 사용되어오고 있는 일체법의 3가지 분류체계인 5온(五蘊)12처(十二處)18계(十八界)를 말한다.

 5온은 색온(色蘊)수온(受蘊)상온(想蘊)행온(行蘊)식온(識蘊)을 말한다.
 12처는 안처(眼處)이처(耳處)비처(鼻處)설처(舌處)신처(身處)의처(意處)색처(色處)성처(聲處)향처(香處)미처(味處)촉처(觸處)법처(法處)를 말한다.
 18계는 안계(眼界)이계(耳界)비계(鼻界)설계(舌界)신계(身界)의계(意界)색계(色界)성계(聲界)향계(香界)미계(味界)촉계(觸界)법계(法界)안식계(眼識界)이식계(耳識界)비식계(鼻識界)설식계(舌識界)신식계(身識界)의식계(意識界)를 말한다.

삼구

1. 3구(三垢)는 불선근(不善根) 즉 욕계의 탐(貪)진(瞋)치(癡)의 3가지 번뇌 즉 번뇌성의 마음작용(심소법)을 말한다.

2. 3구(三求)는 욕구(欲求)유구(有求)범행구(梵行求)를 말한다.

《집이문족론(集異門足論)》 제4권에 따르면, 욕구(欲求)는 욕유(欲有)에 머무르는 이가 욕계의 법에 대해서 아직 얻지 못한 것을 얻기 위하여 행하는 모든 구함[求], 따라 구함[隨求], 평등하게 따라 구함[平等隨求], 두려워하여 구함[怖求], 기꺼이 구함[欣求], 생각하여 구함[思求], 부지런히 구함[勤求]을 말한다.

유구(有求)는 색유(色有)와 무색유(無色有)에 머무르는 이가 색계와 무색계의 법에 대해서 아직 얻지 못한 것을 얻기 위하여 행하는 모든 구함[求], 따라 구함[隨求], 평등하게 따라 구함[平等隨求], 두려워하여 구함[怖求], 기꺼이 구함[欣求], 생각하여 구함[思求], 부지런히 구함[勤求]을 말한다.

범행구(梵行求)를 설명하기 전에 먼저 범행(梵行)의 뜻을 설명하자면,
2교회(二交會: 남녀의 교회 즉 성행위)를 떠나는 것[離二交會]을 범행(梵行)이라고도 하며 또한 8지성도(八支聖道) 즉 8정도(八正道)를 범행(梵行)이라고도 하는데 범행구(梵行求)라고 할 때의 범행은 8지성도를 말한다.

범행구(梵行求)는 8지성도에 대해서 아직 얻지 못한 것을 얻기 위하여 행하는 모든 구함[求], 따라 구함[隨求], 평등하게 따라 구함[平等隨求], 두려워하여 구함[怖求], 기꺼이 구함[欣求], 생각하여 구함[思求], 부지런히 구함[勤求]을 말한다.

한편, 《집론》 제4권과 《잡집론》 제6권에 따르면,
사범행구(邪梵行求)는 범행구의 반대로 '8사행에 대한 구함'을 뜻하는데, 사범행구를 아직 떠나지 못한 유정의 경우, 그 이유는 7수면(七隨眠) 가운데 만수면(慢隨眠)무명수면(無明隨眠)견수면(見隨眠)의수면(疑隨眠)이 수증(隨增)하였기 때문이다. 즉, 범행구를 발동근거로 하여 선이 증장한 것이 아니라 이들 네 가지 수면들 중 어느 하나 혹은 다수가 증장하였기 때문이다. 즉, 실천 또는 수행한 바가 실제로는 범행구가 아니라 사범행구였기 때문에, 즉, 그릇된 실천 또는 수행에 의해 오히려 만수면무명수면견수면의수면이 증장하였기 때문에 '8사행에 대한 구함'을 떠나지 못한 것이다.

삼루

3루(三漏, , )는 욕루(欲漏)유루(有漏)무명루(無明漏)를 말한다. 누(漏, )는 번뇌의 다른 말이며, 생사의 바다 중에 '머물게 한다[令住]'는 뜻이다. 3루는 이러한 누(漏)의 뜻에서 모든 번뇌를 아래와 같이 3유형 또는 3그룹으로 구분한 것이다.

욕루(欲漏, )는 무명(無明)을 제외한 욕계의 모든 번뇌를 하나의 그룹으로 설정한 것이다.

유루(有漏, )는 무명(無明)을 제외한 색계무색계의 상2계의 모든 번뇌를 하나의 그룹으로 설정한 것이다. 한편, 여기서의 유루(有漏, )는 무루(無漏, )의 상대어로서의 유루(有漏, )와는 다른 것이다.

무명루(無明漏, )는 3계의 무명(無明)을 따로 떼어 하나의 그룹으로 설정한 것이다. 이렇게 한 이유는 무명은 능히 모든 유(有) 즉 존재의 근본이 되기 때문이다. 즉, 무명은 그 자체만으로 능히 생사윤회의 근본이 되는데 이와 같이 무명의 과환(過患)이 특히 뛰어나다는 사실을 나타내기 위해서 별도의 그룹으로 설정한 것이다.

삼마지

삼마지(三摩地,
,
,
,
,
,
one-pointedness,
unification,
unification of mind)는
설일체유부의 5위 75법에서 심소법(心所法: 46가지) 중
대지법(大地法: 10가지) 가운데 하나이며,
유식유가행파와 법상종의 5위 100법에서 심소법(心所法: 51가지) 중
별경심소(別境心所: 5가지) 가운데 하나이다.
삼마지(三摩地)는 심일경성(心一境性)의 마음작용이다. 즉 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)을 평등(平等)하게 유지하여 즉 혼침(惛沈)과 도거(掉舉)를 멀리 떠난 상태에서 그것이 하나의 대상에 전념(專念, 專住)하게 하는 마음작용이다. 달리 말하면, 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)을 한 곳에 모아 산란하지 않게 하는 마음작용이다. 마치 뱀이 죽통(竹筒)에 들어가면 바로 펴지듯이 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)이 삼마지에 들면 산란되지 않고 한결같게 된다. 문자 그대로 번역하여 삼매(三昧)삼마제(三摩提)삼마제(三摩帝)라 하기도 하며, 의역하여 선정(禪定)정(定)등지(等持)정정(正定)정의(定意)조직정(調直定)정심행처(正心行處)라 하기도 한다. (참고: 삼매(三昧))

삼명

1. 3명(三明,
,
,
,
three awarenesses)은 부처나 아라한이 가지는 숙명명(宿明明)천안명(天眼明)누진명(漏盡明)을 말한다. 각각 전생을 보고, 내생을 보고, 현생에서 번뇌를 모두 끊을 수 있는 지혜 또는 능력이다. 이들 각각은 숙명지증명(宿命智證明)생사지증명(生死智證明)누진지증명(漏盡智證明)이라고도 하며, 숙명통(宿命通)천안통(天眼通)누진통(漏盡通)이라고도 한다. 3명(三明)은 3달(三達) 또는 3증법(三證法)이라고도 한다.

2. 3명(三明)은 《리그베다》《사마베다》《야주르베다》의 3가지 베다를 말한다.

3. 3명(三明)은 보살명(菩薩明)제불명(諸佛明)무명명(無明明)을 말한다. 각각 반야바라밀(般若波羅蜜)불안(佛眼)필경공(畢竟空)에 대한 다른 말이다.  《대승의장》 제20권에 따르면 무명명 즉 필경공은 11공(十一空)을 말한다.

4. 3명(三明)은 여래10호 가운데 하나인 명행족(明行足) 또는 명행구족(明行具足)의 명(明)을 뜻한다. 용수의 《대지도론》 제2권에 따르면 여기의 명(明)은 숙명명(宿明明)천안명(天眼明)누진명(漏盡明)의 3명을 말한다. 《북본열반경》 제18권에 따르면 여기의 명(明)은 보살명(菩薩明)제불명(諸佛明)무명명(無明明)의 3명을 말한다.

삼무위

3무위(三無爲)는 설일체유부의 교의에서 설하는 허공(虛空ākāśa)택멸(擇滅)비택멸(非擇滅)의 3가지 무위법(無爲法)이다.

삼법전전인과동시

삼법전전인과동시(三法展轉因果同時)는 유식유가행파의 연기론인 아뢰야식연기론에서 종자와 현행과의 인과관계를 나타내는 진술이다. 종자가 현재의 결과를 낳는다는 의미의 종자생현행(種子生現行)과 현재의 결과가 종자를 새로이 만들거나 있는 종자를 강화한다는 의미의 현행훈종자(現行蕙種子)가 한 찰나에 동시에 일어난다는 것을 뜻한다. 삼법전전인과동시(三法展轉因果同時)에서 3법(三法)이란 행이 생겨나게 하는 종자, 생겨난 현행, 그 현행으로부터 훈습하여 생겨나는 또는 강화되는 종자를 가리킨다. 전전(展轉)은 예를 들면 심지(因)가 불꽃(果)을 낼 때 또한 불꽃(因)이 심지(果)를 태우는 것과 같으며, 갈대단이 서로서로 의지하여 갈대단 A가 다른 갈대단 B를 세우고 또한 동시에 갈대단 B가 갈대단 A를 세우는 것과 같다.

삼사

1. 3사(三事)는 근(根)경(境)식(識)을 말한다. 주로 촉(觸)의 마음작용과 관련하여 언급되며, 《현양성교론》 등에 따르면 촉의 본질적 성질은 근경식의 3사가 화합하고 분별하는 것으로 이들을 각각 3사화합(三事和合)3사분별(三事分別)이라 한다. 3사를 3법(三法) 즉 세 가지 법이라고도 한다.

2. 3사(三思)는 사(思)의 마음작용을 3가지로 나눈 것으로, 선사(善思)불선사(不善思)무기사(無記思)를 말한다.

선사(善思)는 선의 사(思) 즉 선의 의업(意業)을 짓고 만드는[造作] 것을,
불선사(不善思)는 불선의 사(思) 즉 불선의 의업(意業)을 짓고 만드는[造作] 것을,
무기사(無記思)는 무기의 사(思) 즉 선도 불선도 아닌 의업(意業)을 짓고 만드는[造作] 것을 말한다.
달리 말하면, 선사(善思)는 공덕(功德)을 짓는 정신적 행위[意業]를, 불선사(不善思)는 과실(過失)을 짓는 정신적 행위를, 무기사(無記思)는 공덕도 과실도 아닌 것을 짓는 정신적 행위를 말한다.

삼사화합

3사화합(三事和合)은 근(根)경(境)식(識)의 3가지[三事]가 화합하는 것을 말한다. 3화(三和) 또는 3화합성(三和合性)이라고도 한다. 촉(觸)의 마음작용과 깊은 관련이 있는데, 3사화합이 곧 촉이라는 3화성촉설(三和成觸說)과 3사화합에서 촉이 생긴다는 3화생촉설(三和生觸說)의 견해가 있다. 전자는 경량부의 견해이고 후자는 설일체유부와 유식유가행파의 견해이다.

삼상

1. 3상(三想)은 부파불교의 설일체유부의 논서 《아비달마품류족론》에서 상(想)의 마음작용을 3가지로 나눈 것으로, 소상(小想)대상(大想)무량상(無量想)을 말한다.

대승불교의 유식유가행파의 논서 《대승아비달마집론》에 따르면 소상(小想)은 욕계를 요별할 수 있는 상(想)이고, 대상(大想)은 색계를 요별할 수 있는 상(想)이고, 무량상(無量想)은 무색계의 공무변처와 식무변처를 요별할 수 있는 상(想)이다.

2. 3상(三相)은 아뢰야식의 3종의 상(相)인 자상(自相)과상(果相)인상(因相)을 말한다. 아뢰야식의 3상(阿賴耶識의 三相) 또는 뢰야3상(賴耶三相)이라고 하며, 아뢰야식의 체용(體用: 본질적 성질과 본질적 작용)을 3가지 관점에서 구분한 것이다. 즉 아뢰야식의 체용에 대해 자세히 파악하거나 설명하기 위해 3가지 측면으로 구분한 것이기 때문에 3상은 서로 불가분의 관계에 있다. 말하자면, 자상(自相) 밖에 인상(因相)과상(果相)이 따로 있는 것이 아니며, 또한 이 2상을 떠나서 따로 자상이 있는 것도 아니다.

자상(自相)은 아뢰야식의 성능(性能) 즉 아뢰야식이 가진 본질적인 성질과 기능을 뜻하며, 능장(能藏)소장(所藏)집장(執藏)으로 구분된다.

삼선근

3선근(三善根)은 온갖 선(善) 또는 선법(善法)을 내고 행하게 하는 3가지 근본(기초 또는 기본)이라는 뜻으로 무탐(無貪, purity)무진(無瞋, good will)무치(無癡, wisdom)를 말하며, 간단히 선근(善根)이라고도 한다.

근(根)이라는 것은 이들 3가지가 선(善)을 일으킴에 있어 뛰어나다는 것과 3가지 불선근(不善根)을 가까이 대치한다[近對治]는 것을 말한다.  즉, 이들 3가지가 4성제 중 무위 무루의 멸제(滅諦, 열반)에 이르는 길인 유위 무루의 도제(道諦: 8정도, 6바라밀 등의 수행)를 닦을 수 있게 하는 기초(기본 또는 근본)가 된다는 것을 말한다.

삼성

1. 삼성(三性)은 선(善)과 불선(不善)의 기준에 따라 일체법을 분류했을 때의 세 갈래인 선(善, kuśala)불선(不善, akuśala)무기(無記, avyākrta)를 가리킨다. 불선(不善)은 악(惡)이라고도 하며, 무기(無記)는 선도 악도 아닌 것이다.

2. 삼성(三性)은 대승불교의 유식유가행파와 법상종에서 일체 존재, 즉 우주 전체의 세 가지 상태 또는 모습이라고 주장하는 변계소집성(遍計所執性)의타기성(依他起性)원성실성(圓成實性)의 3가지 성품이다. 흔히, "밤에 뱀인줄 알고 놀랐는데 자세히 살펴보니 노끈임을 알게 되었다"는 예를 들어 이 3가지 성품을 설명한다. 즉, 뱀인줄 알고 놀라는 것은 변계소집성의 상태이고, 노끈을 뱀으로 오인하게 된 것은 그 모습에 유사성이 있기 때문인데 이러한 중간 상태의 모습 또는 인연화합의 모습과 실제로 뱀인지 확인하기 위해 자세히 살펴보는 것은 의타기성이고, 뱀이 아니라 노끈임을 알게 된 것은 원성실성이다. 불교에서 기세계(器世界) 또는 기세간(器世間)은 공업(共業)에 의해 이루어진 3계를 뜻하고 세계(世界) 또는 세간(世間)은 각자가 가진 "경험 세계"를 뜻한다. 즉 각 개인의 세계는 기세간이 아니라 자신의 "경험된 세계"인 것으로 본다. 이러한 개념을 바탕으로 할 때, 변계소집성은 유위 유루의 상태에 있는 미혹한 범부가 가진 세계 또는 세계관이고, 의타기성은 유위 무루의 상태에 있는 수행자들이 가진 세계 또는 세계관이고, 원성실성은 무위 무루의 상태에 있는 부처가 가진 세계 또는 세계관이다. 원성실성의 세계 또는 세계관은 완전한 깨달음을 증득(證得)했을 때만 비로소 가질 수 있다.

삼세

3세(三世, , )는 과거(過去)현재(現在)미래(未來)를 말한다. 과거현재미래를 전통적인 불교 용어로는 전세(前世)현세(現世)내세(來世) 또는 전제(前際)중제(中際)후제(後際)라고도 한다.

설일체유부유식유가행파법상종을 비롯한 불교 전반에서 공통되이, 일체 유위법의 생멸변화의 상속상(相續相)에 근거하여 과거현재미래의 3세(三世)의 시간을 가설(假設)한 것이라고 본다. 즉, 시간이란 실체가 없는 것으로 단순히 편의상 설정된 개념에 지나지 않는다고 본다.

과거(過去)는 어떤 법(法)이 이미 멸(滅, nirodha)했거나 또는 그 작용을 그친 것이다.

현재(現在)는 어떤 법(法)이 이미 생겨났지만 아직 낙사(落謝: 작용을 그치고 과거로 사라짐)하지 않은 것이다.

미래(未來)는 어떤 법(法)이 아직 생겨나지 않은 것이다.

삼수

1. 3수(三受, , )는 고수(苦受, 괴로운 느낌)낙수(樂受, 즐거운 느낌)사수(捨受, 괴롭지도 즐겁지도 않은 느낌)를 말한다. 사수를 불고불락수(不苦不樂受)라고도 한다. 불교 경전을 비롯하여 부파불교의 설일체유부의 교학과 대승불교의 유식유가행파와 법상종의 교학에 따르면, 근(根)과 경(境)을 연(緣)하여 식(識)이 생길 때, 이 셋의 화합으로부터 촉(觸)이 생겨나는데 식(識)은 그 촉(觸)과 동시에 해당 경(境)에 대해 고수낙수사수의 3가지 수(受, 느낌) 가운데 어느 하나를 느낀다.

2. 3수(三受)는 평등수(平等受: 평등한 느낌)불평등수(不平等受: 평등하지 않은 느낌)비평등비불평등수(非平等非不平等受: 평등하지도 평등하지 않지도 않은 느낌)를 말한다. 부파불교의 설일체유부의 논서 《아비달마품류족론》 제3권에 따르면, 낙수(樂受)고수(苦受)희수(喜受)우수(憂受)사수(捨受)의 5수(五受) 가운데 낙수와 희수는 평등수에 해당하고, 고수와 우수는 불평등수에 해당하고, 사수는 비평등비불평등수에 해당한다.

삼승혜

3승혜(三勝慧)은 3가지 뛰어난 세간의 지혜, 즉 3가지 뛰어난 유루혜(有漏慧)라는 뜻으로, 3혜(三慧)의 다른 말이다.

삼십칠도품

37도품(三十七道品)은 '깨달음(도, 보리)에 이르는 37가지의 법'을 말하는데, 초기불교의 《아함경》에서 고타마 붓다가 언급하거나 설명하고 있는 37가지의 도품(道品) 즉 수행법(修行法)을 가리키는 낱말로, 사실상 초기불교의 수행법을 통칭하는 낱말이다.

도품(道品, , )의 팔리어 또는 산스크리트어 문자 그대로의 뜻은 '깨달음(bodhi, 보리)에 속하는 법(dhammā, 法)', '깨달음의 일부를 이루는 법' 또는 '깨달음에 관계된 법'이다. 이런 문자 그대로의 뜻을 따르면서 'bodhi'를 '보리'라고 음역하여, 37도품(三十七道品)이라는 낱말 대신에 37보리분법(菩提分法)이라고도 하는데, 보리분법(菩提分法)의 한자어 문자 그대로의 뜻은 '보리의 일부를 이루는 법'이다. 한편, 한자어 도품(道品)도 문자 그대로의 뜻이 '도(道: 진리, 깨달음)의 1품', 즉 '도의 한 부분'으로 팔리어 원어의 뜻을 충실히 반영하고 있다.

37도품 또는 37보리분법을 37각지(三十七道分), 37도분(三十七道分), 37조도법(三十七助道法), 또는 37품도법(三十七品道法)이라고도 한다.

《아함경》에서 고타마 붓다는 여러 가지 도품(道品)을 언급하고 있는데, 37도품이라 하면 그 중에서도 4념주(四念住)4정단(四正斷)4신족(四神足)5근(五根)5력(五力)7각지(七覺支)8정도(八正道)의 37가지 도품(道品) 또는 선법(善法) 또는 수행법(修行法)을 말한다. 《잡아함경》 등에서 고타마 붓다는 이들 도품외에도 4도(四道)4법구(四法句)정관수습(正觀修習) 등의 도품도 언급하거나 설명하고 있다.

삼업

3업(三業, )은 신업(身業)구업(口業)의업(意業)를 말한다.
구업은 어업(語業)이라고도 한다. 3업을 3행(三行)이라고도 한다.

신업은 몸[身]으로 짓는 온갖 동작 또는 행동을, 구업은 말[口, 語]로 짓는 온갖 언어적 행위, 의업은 뜻[意]으로 짓는 온갖 정신적 행위를 말한다.

삼유

3유(三有)는 욕유(欲有)색유(色有)무색유(無色有)를 말하며, 3유는 욕계(欲界)색계(色界)무색계(無色界)의 3계(三界)와 동의어이다.

불교의 우주론 또는 세계관에서 3유 또는 3계는 28천(二十八天)으로 나뉘지만, 수행론과 번뇌론에서는 흔히 9지(九地)로 나뉜다. 이를 통칭하여 3계9지(三界九地)라고 한다.

3계9지(三界九地)
<li>욕계(欲界) 또는 욕유(欲有)
<li>오취잡거지(五趣雜居地)
<li>색계(色界) 또는 색유(色有)
<li>이생희락지(離生喜樂地)
<li>정생희락지(定生喜樂地)
<li>이희묘락지(離喜妙樂地)
<li>사념청정지(捨念淸淨地)
<li>무색계(無色界) 또는 무색유(無色有)
<li>공무변처지(空無邊處地)
<li>식무변처지(識無邊處地)
<li>무소유처지(無所有處地)
<li>비상비비상처지(非想非非想處地)

삼유위

3유위(三有爲) 또는 3유위법(三有爲法)은 일체의 유위법을 크게 3종으로 나눈 것으로, 색법(色法)심법(心法)비색비심법(非色非心法)을 말한다. 여기서 색법은 물질(物質)을 말하고, 심법은 마음[心]을 말하는데 마음작용(심소법)을 포함한다. 비색비심법은 불상응법(不相應法) 즉 심불상응행법(心不相應行法)을 말한다.

삼작의

3작의(三作意)은 부파불교의 설일체유부의 논서 《아비달마품류족론》에서 작의(作意)의 마음작용을 3가지로 나눈 것으로, 학작의(學作意)무학작의(無學作意)비학비무학작의(非學非無學作意)를 말한다.

학작의(學作意)은 유학(有學) 즉 유학위(有學位: 배울 것이 있는 계위)의 성자인 수다원사다함아나함의 작의를 말하고,  무학작의(無學作意)는 무학(無學) 즉 무학위(無學位: 배울 것이 없는 계위)의 성자인 아라한의 작의를 말하고, 비학비무학작의(非學非無學作意)는 유학 또는 무학의 성자가 아닌 범부의 작의를 말한다.

삼제

1. 3제(三際)는 전제(前際)중제(中際)후제(後際)를 말한다. 각각 과거현재미래에 해당한다. 3세(三世)와 동의어이다.

2. 3제(三諦)는 천태종의 주요 교학 가운데 하나인 삼제원융(三諦圓融)에서의 3제를 가리키는 낱말로, 공제(空諦)가제(假諦)중제(中諦)를 통칭하는 낱말이다. 공제(空諦)는 일체법은 실체로서의 존재가 아니라 공(空)으로서의 존재라는 것을 뜻한다. 가제(假諦)는 일체법은 연(緣)에 의해 가(假)로 존재하는 가적(假的)인 존재라는 것을 뜻한다. 중제(中諦)는 일체법은 공(空)이나 가(假)의 어느 일면으로서는 파악할 수 없는, 사려분별(思慮分別)을 초월한 절대존재로서의 중(中)이라는 것을 뜻한다.

삼촉

3촉(三觸)은 부파불교의 설일체유부의 논서 《아비달마품류족론》에서 촉(觸)의 마음작용을 3가지로 나눈 것으로, 순락수촉(順樂受觸)순고수촉(順苦受觸)순불고불락수촉(順不苦不樂受觸)을 말한다.

순락수촉(順樂受觸)은 이 촉(觸)에 바탕하여 3수(三受) 가운데 낙수(樂受) 즉 즐거운 느낌이 따라 일어나는 촉(觸)을 말한다.

순고수촉(順苦受觸)은 이 촉(觸)에 바탕하여 3수(三受) 가운데 고수(苦受) 즉 괴로운 느낌이 따라 일어나는 촉(觸)을 말한다.

순불고불락수촉(順不苦不樂受觸)은 이 촉(觸)에 바탕하여 3수(三受) 가운데 불고불락수(不苦不樂受) 즉 괴롭지도 즐겁지도 않은 느낌이 따라 일어나는 촉(觸)을 말한다.

삼해탈문

3해탈문(三解脫門)은 해탈하여 열반을 득하는 방편[門]인 공해탈문(空解脫門)무상해탈문(無相解脫門)무원해탈문(無願解脫門)의 3가지 선정을 말한다. 3해탈(三解脫)3탈문(三脫門) 또는 3문(三門)이라고도 한다. 공해탈문은 일체법이 공하다는 것 즉 실체[自性]가 없다는 것을 관조하는 선정이고, 무상해탈문은 일체법에 차별[相]이 없다는 것을 관조하는 선정이고, 무원해탈문은 공용(功用, 願)이 필요하지 않다는 것을 관조하는 선정 즉 무공용(無功用, 無願)을 성취하는 선정이다.

삼행

3행(三行)은 신행(身行)구행(口行)의행(意行)을 말하며,  신업(身業)구업(口業)의업(意業)의 3업(三業)의 다른 말이다. 구행은 어행(語行)이라고도 하고, 의행은 심행(心行)이라고도 한다. 《잡아함경》 제12권  제298경 〈법설의설경(法說義說經)〉, 《연기경(緣起經)》 그리고 용수의 《중론》 제26품 〈관십이인연품(觀十二因緣品)〉등에 3행(三行)이 나오는데, 이들은 모두 3업(三業)과 같은 뜻이다.

삼혜

3혜(三慧, )는 문혜(聞慧)사혜(思慧)수혜(修慧)의 3가지 뛰어난 유루혜(有漏慧), 즉 세간의 지혜를 말한다. 이들 3가지 지혜는 또한 문소성혜(聞所成慧)사소성혜(思所成慧)수소성혜(修所成慧)라고도 불린다. 3혜는 모두 무루성혜(無漏聖慧) 즉 무루지(無漏智)가 생겨나게 하는 역할을 한다. 3가지 뛰어난 지혜라는 뜻에서 3승혜(三勝慧)라고도 불린다.

문혜(聞慧) 또는 문소성혜(聞所成慧)는 스승이나 친구로부터 교법을 들음에 따라 생겨나는 뛰어난 지혜[勝慧]를 말하고, 사혜(思慧) 또는 사소성혜(思所成慧)는 스승이나 친구로부터 들은 교법의 바른 이치를 스스로 생각하고 고찰함에 따라 생겨나는 뛰어난 지혜[勝慧]를 말하며, 수혜(修慧) 또는 수소성혜(修所成慧)는 스승이나 친구로부터 들은 교법을 바탕으로 반복적으로 선정(禪定, 等持)을 수행함으로써 생겨나는 뛰어난 지혜[勝慧]를 말한다.

《구사론》에서는 견도(見道, 見諦道)의 단계로 나아가기 위한 방편, 즉 범부(凡夫)의 상태에서 4향4과(四向四果)의 성자(聖者)의 단계로 들어가기 위한 수단은 바로 계(戒, 尸羅)에 머물면서 이들 3가지 지혜를 부지런히 닦는 것이라고 말하고 있다. 그리고 문혜(聞慧)사혜(思慧)수혜(修慧)의 순서가 바로 이들 3가지 방편을 수행하는 순서라고 말하고 있다.

삼화

3화(三和)는 3사화합(三事和合)의 다른 말이다.

삼화분별변이

3화분별변이(三和分別變異)은 '3사화합과 유사한 어떤 변이물'이라는 뜻으로 촉(觸)의 마음작용을 가리키는 낱말이다. 즉, 촉(觸)의 동의어이다.

《성유식론》 제3권에 따르면,
'3화분별변이(三和分別變異)'에서 3화(三和)는 근(根)경(境)식(識)의 3가지가 서로 수순(隨順)하는 것을 말한다. 즉, 감각기관[所依根]식[能緣識]인식대상[所緣境]의 3가지가 화합하는 것을 말한다.

'3화분별변이(三和分別變異)'에서 변이(變異)는 근경식의 3사(三事)가 화합하고 있는 상태에서는 이들 3사의 각각이 모두 마음작용을 생겨나게 하는 공능(功能: 작용)을 가지는데, 이들이 가진 이러한 공능 즉 작용에 의거하여 3사화합의 상태로부터 어떤 마음작용이 생겨나는 것을 변이(變異)라고 한다.

'3화분별변이(三和分別變異)'에서 분별(分別)은 일반적인 '사유분별'에서의 분별과는 다른 의미로 상사(相似: 유사함)의 의미인데, 3사화합(三事和合)의 상태와 유사한 모습의 어떤 마음작용을 가리키거나 또는 그러한 마음작용이 일어나는 것을 가리킨다. 한편, 3사화합(三事和合)의 상태와 유사한 모습을 가진 마음작용이란 여러 마음작용들 가운데 촉(觸)이 유일하다.

따라서 '3화분별변이(三和分別變異)'는 3사화합의 상태와 '유사한 모습[分別]'의 마음작용으로서 3사의 마음작용을 일으키는 공능에 의해 생겨나는[變異] 어떤 마음작용을 말한다. 즉, 촉(觸)을 말한다. 그리고 이러한 뜻에서, 아주 엄밀히 그 뜻을 규명하는 경우가 아닌한 일반적인 용법에서는 촉(觸)과 3사화합(三事和合) 즉 3화(三和)를 사실상 동의어로 취급한다.

삼화합성

3화합성(三和合性)은 3사화합(三事和合)의 다른 말이다. 3화합성의 문자 그대로의 뜻은 '3가지가 화합된 성질' 즉 '3가지가 화합된 실체'로, 3가지는 근(根)경(境) 식(識)을 말한다.

참고 문헌

각주, Valdense

El movimiento valdense surge,  a partir del movimiento de los Pobres de Lyon, en el siglo XII, a partir de la predicación de Pedro Valdo, es actualmente considerada como una iglesia protestante, movimiento al que se unió en el siglo XVI.

Precursores

Los historiadores no concuerdan en cuanto a los orígenes de los valdenses. De acuerdo con los archivos de la Inquisición, en Carcassonne, Francia, el movimiento de los "Pobres de Lyon" comenzó hacia 1170, bajo la dirección de un francés de Lyon llamado Vaudes, Valdés, Waldo o Pedro Valdo.​​​​
En cambio, algunos protestantes​​ afirman que los valdenses constituyen un eslabón en la cadena continua de disidentes que surgieron entre la época del emperador Constantino (siglo IV) y los reformadores protestantes del siglo XVI. Algunos historiadores protestantes opinan que el nombre de valdense, aplicado también a los procedentes del país de Vaud, se deriva de la palabra latina vallis, que significa 'valle', y se refiere al hecho de que aquellos disidentes a quienes se perseguía con persistencia como herejes se vieron obligados a refugiarse en los valles alpinos de Francia e Italia.​ De acuerdo con este punto de vista Pedro y sus seguidores llegaron a ser el punto de reunión para grupos similares de perseguidos por la Iglesia católica, algunos de los cuales habían estado en las sombras por largo tiempo en los valles del Delfinado.​ 
Se conoce poco sobre la doctrina y los preceptos que guiaban a estos grupos, si bien estos grupos publicaron escritos tempranos, poemas en versos rítmicos, tratados de controversia y confesiones de fe, en los que se exponen sus principios religiosos y su moral; Pero estos escritos atrajeron la atención de los eruditos sólo en el momento de la Reforma.​
Estos curiosos documentos muy probablemente anteriores a la Reforma comenzada en Suiza, fueron escritos en un dialecto que aún hoy en día (1854) la gente todavía analfabeta de las ciudades más un cercanas a la cadena central de los Alpes, donde los modismos de los dos versante han sido menos afectados, todavía lo hablan. "Nosotros mismos hemos experimentado esto mediante la lectura de algunos pastores valdenses a la La Nobla Leyczon, el documento más importante de esta literatura".​​
En este sentido, aunque los valdenses primitivos (previos a la Reforma protestante) se consideraban a sí mismos como un remanente fiel de la verdadera Iglesia cristiana tras la época del papa Silvestre (314-335 d. C.), los valdenses mismos consideran que su movimiento fue fundado por Pedro Valdo y los Pobres de Lyon.​​

Biografía de Pedro Valdo. Inicios del movimiento valdense

Se dice que Pedro Valdo era un comerciante adinerado de Lyon que estaba casado y tenía dos hijas. Siendo hombre devoto y católico practicante, en 1177 tras la muerte repentina de un conocido pidió a un amigo teólogo que le diera consejo de las Escrituras en cuanto a lo que debía hacer para agradar a Dios. En respuesta, su amigo citó el evangelio de Mateo 19:21, donde Jesús dijo al joven rico: "Si quieres ser perfecto, ve, vende tus bienes y da a los pobres y tendrás tesoro en el cielo y, ven, sé mi seguidor".
La leyenda continúa diciendo que Valdo tomó a pecho este consejo. Así, después de proveer para el sustento de su esposa y colocar a sus dos hijas en un convento, comisionó a dos sacerdotes, Etienne d'Anse y Bernard Ydros, para que tradujeran los Evangelios y otros libros de la Biblia al idioma vernáculo —el occitano— que se hablaba en las regiones de la Provenza y el Delfinado (actualmente, el sudeste de Francia). Entonces distribuyó el resto de sus posesiones entre los pobres y se puso a estudiar las escrituras. Además, predicó en las calles de Lyon, invitando a los habitantes a que despertaran espiritualmente y regresaran al cristianismo según él lo entendía en las Escrituras. Se dice que ponía énfasis en la declaración de Jesús: "No podéis servir a dos amos, a Dios y al Dinero" (Mateo 6:24, Lucas 16:13).
Él consiguió que los Evangelios y otros libros de la Biblia fueran traducidos al habla común y se atrevió a predicar en las calles, donde hizo muchos discípulos, tanto hombres como mujeres.​
Puesto que Valdo había sido bien conocido como próspero hombre de negocios, muchas personas le escucharon y pronto tuvo un grupo de seguidores. Les alegró oír el mensaje consolador de la Biblia en su propio idioma, pues hasta entonces la traducción y producción de cada ejemplar de la Biblia tenía un alto costo: copiar a mano cada Biblia demandaba a un monje un mínimo de 3 años. Muchas personas convinieron en renunciar a sus bienes y dedicarse a enseñar la Biblia en el idioma de la gente común. Se les llegó a conocer como los "Pobres de Lyon". Para ellos, cualquier cristiano, fuera hombre o mujer, podía predicar siempre y cuando tuviese suficiente conocimiento de las Escrituras.
En el movimiento valdense debe verse la fusión de varios movimientos religiosos separados de la Iglesia oficial, como los pobres de 
Lombardía,​ continuadores de los humiliati o arnaldistas, seguidores de Arnaldo de Brescia,​ y posiblemente petrobrusianos, seguidores de Pedro de Bruys y enricianos, de Enrique de Lausana.
Aquella predicación laica hizo que en 1179 el papa Alejandro III, al que el propio Valdo había apelado, prohibiese a Valdo y sus seguidores predicar sin el permiso del obispo local. El obispo Bellesmains de Lyon rehusó dar su consentimiento por considerar que se estaba predicando un evangelio diferente. Los registros históricos indican que, ante esta proscripción, Valdo respondió a la jerarquía usando las palabras de los Hechos de los Apóstoles: "Tenemos que obedecer a Dios como gobernante más bien que a los hombres."
Valdo y sus asociados continuaron predicando pese a la amenaza de excomunión y persecución. Así, el papa Lucio III los excomulgó en 1184 y el obispo de Lyon los expulsó de la diócesis.
El edicto de excomunión, que se extendió contra ellos en el año 1181, les obligó a salir de Lyon, lo que fue beneficioso para su causa. Pedro Valdo llegó hasta Polonia en la misma frontera de Rusia, donde murió en 1217 después de cincuenta y siete años de predicación de las doctrinas valdenses.
Recién el 17 de febrero de 1848, con cartas patentes, el rey de Saboya Carlos Alberto, reconocía los derechos civiles a los valdenses acontecimiento fundamental para la historia religiosa de Italia y por supuesto para el  pueblo valdense.

Articulación con la Reforma

El maestro valdense alemán Federico Reiser abandonó en 1426 el pacifismo valdense y se unió al ejército taborita que avanzaba hacia Viena y en 1431 fue ordenado como ministro husita de la Palabra. Él y su esposa Ana Weiler fueron ejecutados en Estrasburgo en 1458, pero su influencia se extendió a muchos valdenses italianos y franceses de los Alpes, que llegaron a sentirse identificados con el husismo taborita, y en 1483 se levantaron contra el duque Carlos I de Saboya. En cambio, algunos valdenses de la época, como el hermano Lucas de Praga, se unieron a los husitas moderados.
En 1526 se celebró en Laus un sínodo, en el cual se discutieron las ideas de la Reforma protestante. Una opinión sostenía mantener los vínculos con los husitas; otra, acercarse a la Reforma suiza y otra a Lutero. El barba Martín Gonin difundió los escritos de Lutero y encabezó al sector partidario de unirse al protestantismo y distanciarse de los husitas. 
El sínodo de Merindol (Provenza) en 1530 se orientó hacia los reformadores suizos. Luego en el sínodo de Chanforan en 1532 y a propuesta de Jorge Morel, adoptó una nueva confesión de fe acorde con la Reforma suiza. Se apartó de esta decisión una minoría dirigida por Daniel de Valencia y Juan de Molines; congregaciones del valle del Po, Calabria y Apulia tampoco aceptaron la decisión del sínodo y en algunos casos se sumaron al movimiento anabaptista. Sin embargo, la mayoría de los valdenses se unieron después al protestantismo, al considerar que en lo fundamental compartían la misma fe.

Relaciones con la Iglesia católica

En época reciente, el papa san Juan Pablo II pidió perdón a los valdenses en una reunión que tuvo con ellos en Asís. También el papa Francisco ha pedido perdón, al visitar una iglesia valdense en Turín el pasado 22 de junio de 2015: «Por parte de la Iglesia católica, os pido perdón por las actitudes y comportamientos no cristianos, incluso inhumanos, que en nuestra historia hemos tenido contra vosotros. En nombre de Cristo Jesús, perdonadnos». 
En 22 de junio de 2015 el papa Francisco visitó por primera vez en la historia un templo valdense, en Turín, volviendo a pedir perdón por el trato dado en el pasado a los Valdenses.​ A la histórica visita estuvieron presentes tanto el moderador de la sección italiana (pastor E. Bernardini)​ como el moderador de la sección latinoamericana (sr. O. Oudri)​ de la Iglesia Valdense.

Doctrinas de los Valdenses

Tradicionalmente se ha atribuido a este movimiento una notable influencia dualista. Los valdenses primitivos rechazaban la veneración de imágenes, la transubstanciación, la existencia del Purgatorio, la veneración a María, las oraciones a los santos, la veneración de la cruz y de las reliquias, el arrepentimiento de última hora, la necesidad de que la confesión se haga ante sacerdotes (ellos practicaban un tipo de confesión ante Dios guiados por sus “barbas” o predicadores itinerantes), las misas por los muertos y las indulgencias papales. Además, rechazaban el bautismo de infantes (aunque no todas las congregaciones valdenses, lo que plugo mucho a Lutero que sí estaba por el bautismo infantil), la pena de muerte (aunque en esto hay muchas dudas, ya que plantearon estas cuestiones a los Reformadores del siglo XVI) sobre si era o no lícita la pena de muerte y si les era lícito lit. "matar a los infiltrados que les denunciaban y entregaban al "Anticristo" —para ellos la Iglesia católica—", el uso de armamentos, la participación en guerras y guardaban el verdadero día de reposo en sábado conforme al cuarto mandamiento (Éxodo 20:8-11).
Sin embargo, en lo referente al celibato del clero, algunos valdenses anteriores a la Reforma protestante estimaban que para ser parte del cuerpo de predicadores itinerantes (o “barbas”) había que vivir una vida célibe, por lo que se abstenían de relaciones sexuales y del matrimonio. Tenían también -como ellos mismos documentan- un grupo de mujeres vírgenes dedicadas al Señor. Tras el concilio que se planteó para abrazar o no la Reforma en el siglo XVI, del que se da cuenta arriba, rechazaron el celibato obligatorio como "doctrina diabólica".
Los predicadores itinerantes o “barbas” eran escogidos de entre los fieles valdenses (principalmente gente de muy humilde extracción y campesina), a los que se les apartaba durante los meses de invierno para enseñarles a leer y escribir, y tenían que aprender de memoria el Evangelio de Mateo y el de Juan, así como las epístolas universales y las paulinas pastorales (a Tito, Timoteo, etc.), para lo cual tardaban alrededor de dos años. Posteriormente, según alguna fuente, se apartaban durante dos años en un lugar secreto del norte de Italia donde hacían voto de castidad, tras lo cual pasaban a formar parte del cuerpo de los “barbas”.
Si bien antes de abrazar la reforma practicaban de una manera muy sencilla los siete sacramentos de Roma, pues practicaban una especie de confesión con los “barbas”, la imposición de manos, oraciones a ciertas horas y otros, posteriormente por influencia de los reformadores del siglo XVI aceptaron sólo dos: el bautismo, "abierta confesión de nuestra fe y del cambio de nuestra vida", y la comunión o Cena, en que con fe, amor y autoexamen, recibimos el pan y el vino, ya que nosotros también llegamos a ser parte del cuerpo y sangre de Cristo". Consideraban el matrimonio como "bueno, santo e instituido por Dios, de manera que a nadie se debe prohibir casarse" (en alusión a la prohibición católica del matrimonio de los sacerdotes y al rechazo de los cátaros a la sexualidad y la procreación), aunque estimaban la castidad como un don que, como hemos comentado, solo practicaron, antes de la Reforma, algunos de los predicadores valdenses.
Los valdenses rechazaron el ejercicio por parte de la Iglesia de poder estatal, de jurisdicción temporal, la imposición de la fe a la fuerza o la dominación por las armas. También rechazaron el uso de imponentes y elegantes edificios religiosos. Hacían un alegato particular a la renuncia de los bienes materiales en favor de los menos privilegiados, como lo hizo su fundador.
En su obra de predicar, los valdenses primitivos enseñaban la Biblia y daban mucha importancia al Sermón de la montaña y al Padre nuestro, en los cuales se muestra que el reino de Dios es lo que se debe buscar principalmente y lo que se debe pedir en oración (Mateo 6:10,33). Sostenían que cualquier cristiano, fuera hombre o mujer, que poseyera suficiente conocimiento de la Biblia estaba autorizado para predicar la "buena nueva" (el Evangelio). Además, consideraban a Jesús como el único mediador entre Dios y el hombre. Puesto que Jesús había muerto una vez para siempre, sostenían que un sacerdote no podía repetir este sacrificio celebrando una misa. Los valdenses primitivos conmemoraban la muerte de Cristo, tal como lo hacen hoy en día, utilizando pan y vino como símbolos.
Los valdenses primitivos sostenían que no era necesario ir a una iglesia para adorar a Dios. Celebraban reuniones clandestinas en establos, hogares particulares y dondequiera que pudieran hacerlo. Durante estas reuniones estudiaban la Biblia y preparaban nuevos predicadores, los cuales acompañaban a los más experimentados. Viajaban por parejas de granja en granja y, cuando estaban en los pueblos y aldeas, iban de casa en casa. El libro de consulta intitulado Dictionnaire de Théologie Catholique en un artículo que, por lo demás, no favorece a los valdenses, declara:
"Desde la más tierna edad, sus hijos empezaban a aprender los Evangelios y las Epístolas. La predicación de sus diáconos, sacerdotes y obispos consistía principalmente en citas de la Biblia".
Tomo 15, columna 2591.

Organización

Los valdenses actuales, ya muy distanciados de las prácticas de sus predecesores anteriores a la Reforma del siglo XVI, están organizados en congregaciones que funcionan de modo asambleario, son coordinadas por un pastor y eligen un consistorio. También eligen delegados a sínodos. En el ámbito internacional, el sínodo anual elige una junta, la Mesa Valdense, que tiene un moderador. Hace algunas décadas se ha dividido, por cuestiones administrativas en dos secciones: la sección italiana, y la sección sudamericana.

Consistorio

La organización de las iglesias valdenses se basa en la Asamblea de los miembros de la iglesia inscriptos y en el Concejo de la Iglesia o Consistorio, elegido por la Asamblea. El Consistorio se compone de los pastores, ancianos y diáconos en proporción a la fuerza numérica de la iglesia. Dirige las actividades de la iglesia, ejerce el ministerio pastoral y la disciplina, cumple las funciones administrativas.
Por ello, el consistorio es una organización sin fines de lucro con personalidad jurídica, que tiene fines de culto, la educación y la caridad. Estos tres objetivos, que constituyen la naturaleza eclesial de la institución, en el pasado respondieron a las necesidades de la educación y la atención de la población Valdense, que hasta 1848 fue privado de sus derechos civiles y políticos y no podían asistir a las instituciones educativas y de caridad del estado o católicos.​

Sínodo

El Sínodo es la asamblea general que expresa la unidad de las iglesias valdenses. Compuesta en partes iguales por los diputados laicos elegidos por los miembros de las iglesias individuales y miembros del ministerio, normalmente se reúne una vez al año y delibera sobre aspectos doctrinales, legislativos, judiciales y de gobierno de la Iglesia Valdense, eligen a los miembros de la Mesa Valdense que es presidida por el Moderador, estos últimos constituyen el órgano ejecutivo por el período, hasta el sínodo siguiente. Todo lo actuado por la Mesa es controlado y verificado por una comisión independiente.​

La Mesa Valdense

La Mesa Valdese es el órgano representativo y administrativo de la Iglesia Valdense, elegido por los miembros laicos y pastores reunidos en el Sínodo Valdense. Compuesto por un Moderador, un vice Moderador y un número de miembros fijados por los reglamentos de la iglesia, ya sea pastores o laicos, se mantiene en el cargo desde un Sínodo a otros, actuando bajo su directiva contra la toma de sus acciones a la sesión siguiente Sínodo. 
Se desarrollan anualmente dos sínodos, uno para la sección italiana de la iglesia y el otro para la sección sudamericana, consecuentemente existen dos Mesas Valdenses, y dos moderadores.

Moderador

El Moderador, elegido pro tempore del Sínodo Valdense preside las actividades de Mesa Valdense y legalmente representa a la Iglesia Valdense desde una sesión del Sínodo y el siguiente. El moderador puede ser elegido de entre los delegados de las diversas iglesias: puede ser un pastor o un laico, no habiendo discriminación por sexo.

Expansión de los valdenses en Europa

Como consecuencia de las persecuciones, estos disidentes del siglo XII se refugiaron en los Alpes y por toda la Occitania. 
Los registros históricos muestran que, a principios del siglo XIII, podían hallarse valdenses no sólo en el sur de Francia, principalmente en la zona del macizo de Luberon, y el norte de Italia, sino también en el este y norte de Francia, Flandes, Alemania, Austria y hasta en Bohemia, donde se dice que Valdo murió en 1217.
Desde el año 1200 hubo en Alsacia y Lorena tres grandes centros de actividad misionera. En Metz, el barba (pastor) Crespin y sus numerosos hermanos confundían al obispo Beltrán, quien en vano se esforzaba por suprimirlos. En Estrasburgo, los inquisidores mantenían siempre el fuego de la intolerancia contra la propaganda activa que hacía el barba Juan y más de 500 valdenses que componían la iglesia perseguida de aquella ciudad.
En Bohemia, donde Pedro Valdo terminó sus días, los resultados de la obra misionera valdense fueron fecundos y es muy probable que las prédicas valdenses influyeran sobre el sacerdote católico checo Jan Hus y dieran así origen a la iglesia de los husitas.
A mediados del siglo XIII, el inquisidor de Passau —Baviera— nombraba 42 poblaciones donde los valdenses habían echado raíces; y en Austria, el inquisidor Krens hacía quemar a principios del siglo XIV 130 valdenses. Se cree que el número de ellos en Austria no bajaba de 80 000.
En Italia, los valdenses estaban diseminados y bien establecidos en todas partes de la península. Tenían sedes en las grandes ciudades y un ministerio itinerante perfectamente organizado. En Lombardía, los discípulos de Arnaldo de Brescia, gran opositor del papa a pesar de que nunca llegó a separarse de la Iglesia católica, y que fue quemado vivo en 1155, se unían fácilmente a los valdenses cuando éstos les predicaban el Evangelio. En Milán poseían una escuela que era centro de una gran actividad misionera.
En Calabria se establecieron muchos valdenses del Piamonte en 1300 en Fuscaldo y Montecarlo. Habían conseguido cierta tolerancia y les permitían celebrar secretamente sus cultos con tal de que pagaran los diezmos al clero.
En tres de los valles del Piamonte, Lucerna, Perusa y San Martín, los valdenses formaron pueblos enteros en las primeras décadas del siglo XIII. Perduran comunidades valdenses en los valles orientales de los Alpes Cotios, en especial en la cuenca alta del río Dora Riparia, teniendo sus principales centros en las ciudades de Oulx y Susa. Por ese motivo, estos pequeños valles del Piamonte son conocidos como Valvaldenses o Valles Valdenses, hablándose allí aún el occitano e incluso el arpitano.
Estos datos históricos que poseemos de la abundante literatura producida por los valdenses prueban que el protestantismo —aún sin ese nombre— tuvo un origen anterior a Lutero: más de 340 años antes de que se produjese el movimiento espiritual de la Reforma, existían ya muchos cristianos que no comulgaban con los dogmas de la Iglesia católica. 
Reinerius, inquisidor de Passau en el siglo XIII, dijo de los valdenses: 
"Entre todas las sectas que existen o que han existido, no hay ninguna más perniciosa para la iglesia que la secta de los Lyoneses; y esto por tres razones: La primera por su gran antigüedad, pues algunos dicen que los valdenses se remontan al tiempo de Silvestre y hasta hay quien asegura que al tiempo de los apóstoles. La segunda porque es la más extendida y apenas si hay un país donde no exista esta secta. La tercera razón es que, mientras todas las demás sectas despiertan horror y la repulsa de sus oyentes por sus blasfemias en contra de Dios, ésta demuestra una gran semblanza de piedad; tanto que sus adherentes viven justamente delante de todos los hombres y creen en todos los artículos del Credo, respetando en todo a Dios: Solamente blasfeman de la Iglesia y del clero romanos; por esto tan grandes multitudes de laicos les prestan atención".
 
y en otra ocasión: 
"Los herejes valdenses se distinguen por su comportamiento y el habla. Son impasibles y sensatos. No se esfuerzan en llamar la atención con vestidos extravagantes o indecorosos. No son comerciantes con el fin de evitar mentir, jurar o engañar. Viven únicamente del trabajo artesano de sus manos. También sus maestros son tejedores y zapateros. No acumulan riquezas, sino que se contentan con lo necesario para vivir. Comen y beben con moderación, no frecuentan posadas ni van a bailes u otros lugares de mala reputación. Son lentos para la ira. Son trabajadores, se dedican a aprender y a enseñar. Les reconocerán por su manera de hablar: con cordura y veracidad. No difaman, no hablan con palabras vulgares o vacías. Evitan toda expresión que pueda ser mentirosa o de juramento. No dirán 'sinceramente' o 'de verdad', sino que se limitarán a decir 'sí' o 'no'. Según ellos hacen así porque Jesús lo ordenó en Mateo 5:37".
Passauer Anonymus

Los valdenses de Bohemia

Bohemia fue una de las regiones más propicias para la propaganda valdense. Visitada por Pedro Valdo mismo, quien según la tradición murió allí en 1217, ya, hacia mediados del siglo, contaba más de 40 localidades ocupadas por Valdenses y citadas por un inquisidor de Passau en su relación; no tardaron en asolar las persecuciones, de las que la principal fue la del inquisidor Gallo, en 1335. Pero en Bohemia el movimiento valdense no debía tardar en ser absorbido por el despertar religioso que toma nombre de otro gran precursor de la Reforma: Juan Huss. Este no recibió ninguna influencia directa de Pedro Valdo, pero puede suponerse que indirectamente su protesta se eslabona a la suya, por cuanto Huss fue en Bohemia el secuaz del reformador inglés Juan Wicleff, quien a su vez habría estado en relación con los discípulos de Valdo, que habían pasado a Inglaterra.​

Hacia 1430 los Valdenses se unieron a los Husitas y principalmente al partido de los Taboritas; entre los hombres más eminentes que tuvieron en aquella época y que se esforzaron por la unión, es de recordarse Federico Reiser, muerto mártir, en 1458, en Estrasburgo, donde había ido a visitar a los hermanos valdenses. Los valdenses bohemios constituyeron en 1467 Los Hermanos Unidos (de los que derivó la Iglesia Morava), cuyo primer obispo fue consagrado por Esteban, venerado obispo taborita que debía subir a la hoguera en Viena, en aquel mismo año.

Los valdenses en Alemania y Austria

Austria y todavía más Alemania fueron durante siglos recorridas en todos sentidos por los propagandistas valdenses, tanto que ya en el siglo XIII «no había comarca en la que esta secta no tuviese adherentes» ("Fere nulla est terra in qua haec secta non ait". Bibl. Max. Patr. XXV, 264) Pero la Inquisición se puso a la obra: llenó las prisiones, confiscó los bienes, levantó centenares de hogueras, hasta sofocar a los disidentes. ¿Mas quién se atreverá a decir que estos hayan desaparecido sin haber antes ejercido en Alemania una providencial influencia de preparación para la Reforma Luterana? De cualquier modo, esparcieron antes que Lutero el conocimiento y el amor a la Biblia.​

Los valdenses en España

Los valdenses recorrieron con ánimo misionero el sur de Alemania, Suiza, Francia y llegaron a España, donde formaron grupos de cristianos disidentes de Roma en las provincias del norte y sobre todo en Cataluña. El hecho de que dos concilios y tres reyes se hayan ocupado de expulsarlos de España demuestra que su número tenía que ser considerable.
El clero, impotente para detener el avance y, alarmado, pidió al papa Celestino III que tomase medidas contra este movimiento. El papa mandó un delegado en 1194, que convocó la asamblea de prelados y nobles en Mérida, asistiendo personalmente el mismo rey Alfonso II de Aragón, quien dictó el siguiente decreto:
"Ordenamos a todo valdense que, en vista de que están excomulgados de la Santa Iglesia, son enemigos declarados de este reino y tienen que abandonarlo, e igualmente todos los estados de nuestros dominios. En virtud de esta orden, cualquiera que desde hoy se permita recibir en su casa a los susodichos valdenses, asistir a sus perniciosos discursos o proporcionarles alimentos, atraerá por esto la indignación de Dios Todopoderoso y la nuestra; sus bienes serán confiscados sin apelación y será castigado como culpable del delito de lesa majestad; además cualquier noble o plebeyo que encuentre dentro de nuestros estados a uno de estos miserables sepa que si los ultraja, los maltrata o los persigue, no hará con esto nada que no nos sea agradable".
Desde entonces, la persecución se hizo sentir con violencia, y en una sola ejecución 114 valdenses fueron quemados vivos y sus cenizas echadas al río Ter en Gerona. Sin embargo, muchos lograron esconderse y seguir secretamente su predicación en el reino de León, Vizcaya y Cataluña, pues al contrario de lo que decretaba la orden real, los veían con costumbres austeras y anunciando de manera sencilla y llana el Evangelio, y hasta se menciona al obispo de Huesca, uno de los más notables prelados de Aragón, como protector decidido de los perseguidos valdenses. Pero las persecuciones contra ellos no cesaron, llegando a su apogeo por el año 1237, cuando 45 fueron arrestados en Castellón y 15 de ellos quemados vivos en la hoguera.
La principal rama de la Iglesia Cristiana sucesora de la Iglesia Cristiana Valdense en España es: Iglesia Evangélica Española (Alianza Evangélica Española (AEE)), hay otras todas ellas articuladas en torno a la Federación de Entidades Religiosas Evangélicas de España.

Los valdenses en el Río de la Plata

El centro administrativo de la Iglesia Evangélica Valdense del Río de la Plata se encuentra en la localidad de Colonia Valdense, en el departamento de Colonia, República Oriental del Uruguay, ubicada a 121 km de Montevideo y a 57 de Colonia del Sacramento.
Las primeras familias valdenses llegaron al Uruguay en 1856, donde establecieron una colonia agrícola en la zona denominada del Rosario Oriental. Enseguida se expandieron por el litoral uruguayo y por la República Argentina, en la región sur de la provincia de La Pampa en la localidad de Jacinto Arauz, lugar al que llegaron alrededor de 1901, y al centro de la provincia de Santa Fe y norte de la provincia de Entre Ríos. Fue característico en los lugares donde se asentaron, la preocupación por la construcción de un espacio de culto y de un espacio para la formación escolar, además de la marcada vocación agrícola.​
Entre los años 40 y 60, surgen comunidades valdenses urbanas, en ciudades grandes como Buenos Aires y Montevideo, así como en capitales departamentales como Paysandú o Reconquista, al norte de la provincia de Santa Fe. En 1969, la Iglesia de esta última ciudad, estableció en el Barrio Nuevo un lugar de reunión y lectura de la Biblia, que por las necesidades se transformó en un comedor comunitario para sábados y domingos, para 500 familias pobres. La actividad misionera ha llevado a la incorporación de nuevas personas a la vida de fe de la Iglesia.
Actualmente la Iglesia Evangélica Valdense del Río de la Plata está compuesta por unas quince congregaciones en Uruguay y diez en Argentina, con unos 3000 miembros activos.

Los valdenses en Estados Unidos

Los primeros valdenses comenzaron a llegar a los Estados Unidos en 1875, se establecieron en Monett, posteriormente, junio de 1893 fundaron la localidad  que actualmente tiene el nombre de Valdese, en Carolina del Norte., source_sentence: ¿Cuál es el origen y significado del término "caruggi" en el idioma ligur?
sentences: Reino del Congo

Historia

Las tradiciones verbales sobre la historia primitiva del país se establecieron por escrito por primera vez a fines del siglo XVI, y las más completas se registraron a mediados del siglo XVII, incluidas las escritas por el misionero capuchino italiano Giovanni Cavazzi da Montecuccolo. Una investigación más detallada en las tradiciones orales modernas, inicialmente realizada a principios del siglo XX por misioneros redentoristas como Jean Cuvelier y Joseph de Munck, no parecen relacionarse con el período muy temprano.
Según la tradición de Congo, el origen del reino se encuentra en el país muy grande y no muy rico de Mpemba Kasi, ubicado justo al sur del actual Matadi en la República Democrática del Congo.​ Una dinastía de gobernantes de este pequeño gobierno construyó su dominio a lo largo del valle de Kwilu, y sus miembros están enterrados en Nsi Kwilu, su capital. Las tradiciones del siglo XVII aluden a este cementerio sagrado. Según el misionero Girolamo da Montesarchio, un capuchino italiano que visitó la zona desde 1650 hasta 1652, el sitio era tan sagrado que mirarlo era mortal. Los súbditos del siglo XVII de Mpemba Kasi llamaban a su país "Madre del Rey del Congo" con respecto a la antigüedad del territorio. En algún momento alrededor de 1375, Nimi a Nzima, gobernante de Mpemba Kasi, hizo una alianza con Nsaku Lau, el gobernante del vecino reino de Mbata. Esta alianza garantizaba que cada uno de los dos aliados ayudaría a asegurar la sucesión del linaje de su aliado en el territorio del otro.

Fundación del reino imperial

El primer rey del Reino del Congo fue Lukeni lua Nimi (1380-1420). El nombre Nimi a Lukeni apareció en tradiciones orales posteriores y algunos historiadores modernos, notablemente Jean Cuvelier, lo popularizaron. Lukeni lua Nimi, o Nimi a Lukeni, se convirtió en el fundador del Congo cuando conquistó el reino de Mwene Kabunga (o Mwene Mpangala), que yacía en una montaña al sur. Él transfirió su poder a esta montaña, el Mongo dia Kongo o "montaña del Congo", e hizo de Mbanza Kongo, la ciudad de allí, su capital. Dos siglos después, los descendientes de Mwene Kabunga aún desafiaban simbólicamente la conquista en una celebración anual. Los gobernantes que siguieron a Lukeni todos reclamaron alguna forma de relación con su kanda, o linaje, y fueron conocidos como los Kilukeni. El Kilukeni kanda o "casa", como fue registrado en documentos portugueses, gobernó Congo sin oposición hasta 1567.
Después de la muerte de Nimi a Lukeni, su hermano, Mbokani Mavinga, tomó el trono y gobernó hasta aproximadamente 1467. Tenía dos esposas y nueve hijos. Su reinado vio una extensión del Reino del Congo para incluir al estado vecino el Reino de Loango y otras áreas ahora abarcadas por la actual República del Congo.
Los Mwene Congos solían otorgar las gobernaciones a los miembros de su familia o sus clientes. A medida que esta centralización aumentó, las provincias aliadas perdieron gradualmente la influencia hasta que sus poderes fueron solo simbólicos, manifestados en Mbata, una vez un co-reino, pero en 1620 simplemente conocido por el título "Abuelo del Rey del Congo" (Nkaka'ndi a Mwene Kongo).​​
La alta concentración de población alrededor del Mbanza Kongo y sus alrededores jugó un papel crítico en la centralización del Congo. La capital era una zona densamente poblada en una región escasamente poblada donde las densidades de la población rural probablemente no superaban las 5 personas por km². Los primeros viajeros portugueses describieron a Mbanza Kongo como una ciudad grande, del tamaño de la ciudad portuguesa de Évora, como lo era en 1491. Hacia el final del siglo XVI, la población del Congo era probablemente cerca de medio millón de personas en una región central de aproximadamente 130,000 kilómetros cuadrados. A principios del siglo XVII, la ciudad y su interior tenían una población de alrededor de 100.000 habitantes, o uno por cada cinco habitantes en el Reino (según las estadísticas bautismales compiladas por los sacerdotes jesuitas). Esta concentración permitió que los recursos, soldados y excedentes de alimentos estuvieran fácilmente disponibles a pedido del rey. Esto hizo que el rey fuera abrumadoramente poderoso e hizo que el reino se centralizara mucho.
En el momento del primer contacto registrado con los europeos, el Reino del Congo era un estado altamente desarrollado en el centro de una extensa red comercial. Además de los recursos naturales y el marfil, el país fabricaba y comercializaba artículos de cobre, metales ferrosos, tela de rafia y cerámica. La gente del Congo hablaba en el idioma Kikongo. Las regiones orientales, especialmente aquella parte conocida como los Siete Reinos de Kongo dia Nlaza (o en Kikongo Mumbwadi o "los Siete"), fueron particularmente famosas por la producción de telas.

Los portugueses y el cristianismo

En 1483, el explorador portugués Diogo Cão navegó por el inexplorado río Congo, encontrando pueblos del Congo y convirtiéndose en el primer europeo en encontrar el reino del congo.​ Cão dejó hombres en el Congo y llevó a los nobles del Congo a Portugal. Regresó con los nobles del Congo en 1485. En ese momento, el rey gobernante, Nzinga a Nkuwu, se convirtió al cristianismo.​ Cão regresó al reino con sacerdotes y soldados católicos en 1491, bautizando a Nzinga a Nkuwu, así como a sus principales nobles, comenzando con el gobernante de Soyo, la provincia costera. Al mismo tiempo, un ciudadano congoleño instruido que regresaba de Portugal abrió la primera escuela. Nzinga a Nkuwu tomó el nombre cristiano de Juan I en honor del rey de Portugal en ese momento, Juan II.​
Juan I gobernó hasta su muerte alrededor de 1506 y fue sucedido por su hijo Afonso Mvemba a Nzinga. Se enfrentó a un desafío serio de un medio hermano, Mpanzu a Kitima. El rey venció a su hermano en una batalla librada en Mbanza Kongo. Según el relato de Afonso, enviado a Portugal en 1506, pudo ganar la batalla gracias a la intervención de una visión celestial de Santiago y la Virgen María. Inspirado por estos eventos, posteriormente diseñó un escudo para el Congo que fue utilizado por todos los reyes siguientes en documentos oficiales, parafernalia real y similares hasta 1860.​ Mientras el rey Juan I volvió a sus creencias tradicionales, Afonso I estableció el cristianismo como la religión del estado de su reino.​
El Rey Afonso trabajo para crear una versión viable de la Iglesia católica en el Congo, proveyendo sus ingresos de los bienes reales y los impuestos que proporcionaban salarios para sus trabajadores. Con asesores de Portugal como Rui d'Aguiar, el capellán real portugués enviado para ayudar al desarrollo religioso del Congo, Afonso creó una versión sincrética del cristianismo que seguiría siendo parte de su cultura para el resto de la existencia independiente del reino. El propio rey Afonso estudió mucho en esta tarea. Rui d'Aguir dijo una vez que Afonso sabía más de los principios de la iglesia que él.
A la iglesia del Congo siempre le faltaron clérigos ordenados y se compensó con el empleo de un laicado fuerte. Los maestros de escuela congoleños o mestres fueron el ancla de este sistema. Reclutados de la nobleza y entrenados en las escuelas del reino, proporcionaron instrucción religiosa y servicios a otros basándose en la creciente población cristiana del congo. Al mismo tiempo, permitieron el crecimiento de formas sincréticas de cristianismo que incorporaron las ideas religiosas más antiguas del congo con las del cristianismo. Ejemplos de esto son la introducción de palabras de KiKongo para traducir conceptos cristianos. Las palabras de KiKongo ukisi (una palabra abstracta que significa encanto, pero que solía significar "santo") y nkanda (libro de significado) se fusionaron para que se creara la palabra Biblia cristiana y fuera conocida por los locales como: "nkanda ukisi". La iglesia se hizo conocida como el nzo a ukisi. Mientras que algunos clérigos europeos a menudo denunciaban estas tradiciones mixtas, nunca fueron capaces de erradicarlas.
Parte del establecimiento de esta iglesia fue la creación de un sacerdocio fuerte y para este fin el hijo de Afonso, Enrique, fue enviado a Europa para ser educado. Enrique se convirtió en sacerdote ordenado y en 1518 fue nombrado obispo de Útica (una diócesis del norte de África recientemente reclamada a los musulmanes). Regresó al Congo a principios de la década de 1520 para dirigir la nueva iglesia del Congo. Murió en 1531 cuando estaba a punto de ir a Europa para el Concilio de Trento.
Hoy en día, el catolicismo es la religión más grande de Angola, la sección de habla portuguesa del antiguo reino del congo.

Esclavitud y rivalidades reales

En las siguientes décadas, el Reino del Congo se convirtió en una importante fuente de esclavos para los comerciantes portugueses y otras potencias europeas. El Cantino Atlas de 1502 menciona al Congo como una fuente de esclavos para la isla de Santo Tomé. La esclavitud había existido en el Congo mucho antes de la llegada de los portugueses, y las primeras cartas de Alfonso I del Congo muestran la evidencia de la existencia de los mercados de esclavos. También muestran la compra y venta de esclavos dentro del país y sus cuentas sobre la captura de esclavos en la guerra que fueron entregados y vendidos a comerciantes portugueses. Es probable que la mayoría de los esclavos exportados a los portugueses fueran cautivos de guerra de las campañas de expansión del Congo. Además, las guerras de esclavos ayudaron a Alfonso a consolidar su poder en las regiones fronterizas del sur y del este.​
A pesar de su largo establecimiento dentro de su reino, Alfonso I del Congo creía que la trata de esclavos debería estar sujeta a la ley del Congo. Cuando sospechó que los portugueses estaban recibiendo esclavos ilegales para vender, escribió al rey Juan III de Portugal en 1526 implorándole que detuviera la práctica. Finalmente, Alfonso decidió establecer un comité especial para determinar la legalidad de la esclavización de los que estaban siendo vendidos.
Una característica común de la vida política en el reino del congo era una feroz competencia por la sucesión al trono. La propia llegada de Alfonso al trono fue intenso, aunque se sabe poco al respecto. Sin embargo, se sabe mucho sobre cómo tuvieron lugar estas luchas a partir de la contienda que siguió a la muerte de Alfonso a finales de 1542 o principios de 1543. Esto se debe en gran parte a la investigación detallada llevada a cabo por funcionarios reales en 1550, que sobrevive en los archivos portugueses. En esta investigación se puede ver que las facciones se formaron detrás de hombres prominentes, como el hijo de Alfonso I, Pedro Nkanga a Mvemba y Diogo Nkumbi a Mpudi, su nieto que finalmente derrocó a Pedro en 1545. Aunque las facciones se colocaron en el idioma del parentesco (usando el término portugués geração o linaje, probablemente kanda en Kikongo) no se formaron estrictamente a lo largo de líneas de herencia ya que los parientes cercanos a menudo estaban en facciones separadas. Los beligerantes incluían a nobles con títulos de nombramiento para las gobernaciones provinciales, miembros del consejo real y también funcionarios en la jerarquía de la Iglesia ahora bien desarrollada.
El Rey Diogo I hábilmente reemplazó o superó a sus competidores atrincherados después de que fue coronado en 1545. Se enfrentó a una importante conspiración liderada por Pedro I, que se había refugiado en una iglesia, y a quien Diogo respecto de la regla de asilo de la Iglesia le permitió permanecer en ella. Sin embargo, Diogo llevó a cabo una investigación sobre la trama, cuyo texto fue enviado a Portugal en 1552 y nos da una excelente idea de la forma en que los conspiradores esperaban derrocar al rey al atraer a sus seguidores para que lo abandonaran.
También surgieron problemas entre Diogo y los colonos portugueses en Santo Tomé conocidos como Tomistas. Según un tratado entre el Congo y Portugal, los primeros eran solo para comerciar dentro del reino con esclavos de este último. Eso significaba que los portugueses estaban restringidos a los esclavos ofrecidos por el Rey Diogo o aquellos a quienes autorizaba a vender esclavos. Cada año los Tomistas llegaban con 12 a 15 barcos para transportar entre 400 y 700 esclavos (entre 5,000 y 10,000 esclavos por año). Esto no fue suficiente para aprovechar el suministro cada vez mayor de esclavos del Congo gracias a las guerras en su frontera oriental. Los capitanes tratarían de sobrecargar sus cargas, lo que provocaría revueltas. Sin embargo, el factor que realmente rompió el trato fue el hábito de los Tomistas de navegar río arriba al Malebo Pool para comprar esclavos de los comerciantes de BaTeke que fueron cada vez más tomados con productos europeos sobre las conchas de nzimbu que les ofreció el manikongo. Enfurecido por esta ruptura del contrato, el rey Diogo rompió relaciones en 1555 y expulsó a aproximadamente 70 portugueses que vivían en su reino (muchos de los cuales habían vivido allí durante mucho tiempo y tenían esposas africanas y niños de raza mixta).
El intento del rey de pacificar el inquieto reino de Ndongo en 1556 resultó contraproducente, dando como resultado la independencia de este último. A pesar de este revés, disfrutó de un largo reinado que terminó con su muerte en 1561.
El sucesor del rey Diogo, cuyo nombre se perdió en la historia, fue asesinado por los portugueses, y reemplazado por un hijo bastardo, que era más flexible con los intereses de los Tomistas, Alfonso II. La gente común del Congo se enfureció por su entronización y respondieron con disturbios en todo el reino. Muchos portugueses fueron asesinados, y el puerto real de Mpinda fue cerrado a los portugueses, lo que puso fin a la trata de esclavos entre el Congo y Portugal. A menos de un año de este caos, el rey Alfonso II fue asesinado mientras asistía a misa. Fue sucedido por su hermano, Bernardo I. El rey Bernardo permitió que continuara el boicot al comercio portugués, mientras restablecía en silencio las relaciones con Lisboa. El rey Bernardo I fue asesinado en guerra contra Yaka, en 1567. El siguiente manikongo, Enrique I fue arrastrado a una guerra en la parte oriental del país, donde fue asesinado, dejando el gobierno en manos de su hijastro Álvaro Nimi a Lukeni lua Mvemba. Fue coronado como Álvaro I, "de común acuerdo", entre congoleños y portugueses según algunos testigos.

Congo bajo la Casa de Kwilu

Álvaro I subió al trono durante otra contienda por el trono en 1568. Siendo del valle del río Kwilu y no un familiar de sangre de ninguno de los reyes anteriores, su reinado marcó el comienzo de la Casa de Kwilu. Ciertamente hubo facciones que se oponían a él, aunque no se sabe específicamente quiénes eran. Inmediatamente, Álvaro tuvo que luchar contra los invasores del este (que algunos historiadores creen que eran en realidad rebeldes dentro del país, ya fueran campesinos o nobles descontentos de facciones rivales) llamados los Jagas. Para hacer esto, decidió solicitar la ayuda de los portugueses con base en Santo Tomé, quienes enviaron una expedición bajo el mando de Francisco de Gouveia Sottomaior para ayudar. Como parte del mismo proceso, Álvaro aceptó permitir a los portugueses establecer una colonia en su provincia de Luanda, al sur de su reino. Además de permitir que los portugueses se establecieran en Luanda, el Congo brindó apoyo a los portugueses en su guerra contra el Reino de Ndongo en 1579. El reino de Ndongo estaba ubicado tierra adentro al este de Luanda y aunque ya había sido reclamado en los títulos reales del Congo desde 1535, probablemente nunca estuvo bajo una administración firme del Congo.
Álvaro también trabajó duro para occidentalizar al Congo, introduciendo gradualmente títulos de estilo europeo para sus nobles, de modo que el Mwene Nsundi se convirtió en el Duque de Nsundi; el Mwene Mbamba se convirtió en el Duque de Mbamba. El Mwene Mpemba se convirtió en Marqués de Mpemba, y el Mwene Soyo se convirtió en el Conde de Soyo. Él y su hijo Álvaro II Nimi a Nkanga (coronado en 1587) otorgaron órdenes de caballería llamadas la Orden de Cristo. La capital también fue renombrada São Salvador o "Santo Salvador" en portugués durante este período. En 1596, los emisarios de Álvaro en Roma persuadieron al Papa de reconocer a São Salvador como la catedral de una nueva diócesis que incluiría al Congo y el territorio portugués en Angola. Sin embargo, el rey de Portugal ganó el derecho de nominar a los obispos a esta sede, que se convirtió en una fuente de tensión entre los dos países.
Los obispos portugueses en el reino a menudo eran favorables a los intereses europeos en un momento en que las relaciones entre el Congo y Angola eran tensas. Se negaron a nombrar sacerdotes, lo que obligó al Congo a depender cada vez más de los laicos. Documentos de la época muestran que los maestros legos (llamados mestres en documentos en portugués) eran remunerados y nombrados por la corona, y en ocasiones los reyes del Congo retenían ingresos y servicios a los obispos y sus seguidores (una táctica llamada "excomunión del país") . Controlar los ingresos era vital para los reyes del Congo, ya que incluso a los misioneros jesuitas se les pagaban los sueldos del tesoro real.
Al mismo tiempo que se desarrolló este problema eclesiástico, los gobernadores de Angola comenzaron a extender sus campañas en áreas que el Congo consideraba firmemente bajo su soberanía. Esto incluyó la región alrededor de Nambu a Ngongo, que el gobernador João Furtado atacó a mediados de la década de 1590. Otras campañas en las cercanías llevaron a denuncias de los gobernantes del Congo contra estas violaciones de su soberanía.

Faccionalismo

Álvaro I y su sucesor, Álvaro II, también enfrentaron problemas con los rivales faccionales de familias que habían sido desplazadas de la sucesión. Para aumentar el apoyo contra algunos enemigos, tuvieron que hacer concesiones a otros. Una de las concesiones más importantes fue permitirle a Manuel, el Conde de Soyo, ocupar el cargo durante muchos años, comenzando antes de 1591. Durante este mismo período, Álvaro II hizo una concesión similar a António da Silva, el Duque de Mbamba. António da Silva fue lo suficientemente fuerte como para decidir la sucesión del reino, seleccionando a Bernardo II en 1614, pero poniéndolo a un lado en favor de Álvaro III en 1615. Fue solo con dificultad que Álvaro III pudo poner su propia elección en como Duque de Mbamba cuando António da Silva murió en 1620 en lugar de que la provincia cayera en manos del hijo del duque. Al mismo tiempo, sin embargo, Álvaro III creó a otro noble poderoso y semi independiente, quien sostuvo a Nsundi para él.

Congo bajo la Casa de Nsundi

Las tensiones entre Portugal y el Congo aumentaron aún más cuando los gobernadores de la Angola portuguesa se volvieron más agresivos. Luis Mendes de Vasconcelos, que llegó como gobernador en 1617, usó grupos mercenarios africanos llamados Imbangala para hacer una guerra devastadora en Ndongo, y luego atacar y saquear algunas provincias del sur del Congo. Estaba particularmente interesado en la provincia de Kasanze, una región pantanosa que se encuentra justo al norte de Luanda. Muchos esclavos deportados a través de Luanda huyeron a esta región y a menudo se les concedió refugio, y por esta razón, Mendes de Vasconcelos decidió que se necesitaba una acción decidida para detenerlos. El siguiente gobernador de Angola, João Correia de Sousa, utilizó el Imbangala para lanzar una invasión a gran escala del sur del Congo en 1622, tras la muerte de Álvaro III. Correia de Sousa afirmó que tenía el derecho de elegir al rey del Congo. También estaba molesto porque los electores congoleños eligieron a Pedro II, un antiguo duque de Mbamba. Pedro II era originario del ducado de Nsundi, de ahí el nombre de la casa real que creó, la Casa de Nsundi. Correia de Sousa también sostuvo que Pedro II había protegido a esclavos fugitivos de Angola durante su última gobernación de Mbamba.

Primera guerra portuguesa-congoleña

La primera guerra portuguesa-congoleña comenzó inicialmente debido a una campaña portuguesa contra el Reino de Kasanze, que se llevó a cabo sin piedad. A partir de ahí, el ejército se trasladó a Nambu un Ngongo, cuyo gobernante, Pedro Afonso, también estaba protegido por esclavos fugitivos. Aunque Pedro Afonso, se enfrento a un abrumador ejército de más de 20,000 personas, acordó devolver algunos fugitivos, el ejército atacó a su país y lo mató.
Tras su éxito en Nambu a Ngongo, el ejército portugués avanzó hacia Mbamba en noviembre. Las fuerzas portuguesas obtuvieron una victoria en la Batalla de Mbumbi. Allí se enfrentaron a una fuerza local rápidamente reunida liderada por el nuevo duque de Mbamba y reforzada por fuerzas de Mpemba lideradas por su marqués. Tanto el duque de Mbamba como el marqués de Mpemba fueron asesinados en la batalla. Según las cuentas de Esikongo, fueron comidos por los aliados Imbangala de los portugueses. Sin embargo, Pedro II, el recién coronado rey del congo, llevó al ejército principal, incluidas las tropas de Soyo, a Mbamba y derrotó decisivamente a los portugueses, expulsándolos del país en una batalla librada cerca de Mbanda Kasi en enero de 1623. Residentes portugueses del Congo, asustados por las consecuencias de sus negocios con los portugueses después de la invasión, escribieron una carta hostil a Correia de Sousa, denunciando su invasión.
Tras la derrota de los portugueses en Mbandi Kasi, Pedro II declaró a Angola un enemigo oficial. El rey entonces escribió cartas denunciando a Correia de Sousa al Rey de España y al Papa. Mientras tanto, los disturbios antipaludados estallaron en todo el reino y amenazaron a su comunidad comercial de larga data. Los portugueses de todo el país fueron desarmados humillantemente e incluso obligados a abandonar sus ropas. Pedro, ansioso por no alienar a la comunidad mercantil portuguesa y consciente de que generalmente se habían mantenido leales durante la guerra, hizo todo lo que pudo para preservar sus vidas y propiedades, lo que llevó a algunos de sus detractores a llamarlo "rey de los portugueses".
Como resultado de la victoria del Congo, la comunidad comercial portuguesa de Luanda se rebeló contra el gobernador, esperando preservar sus lazos con el rey. Respaldados por los jesuitas, que también habían reanudado su misión allí, obligaron a João Correia de Sousa a renunciar y huir del país. El gobierno interino que siguió a la partida fue encabezado por el obispo de Angola. Fueron muy conciliadores con el Congo y acordaron devolver más de un millar de esclavos capturados por Correia de Sousa, especialmente los nobles menores capturados en la Batalla de Mbumbi.​
Independientemente de las aperturas del nuevo gobierno en Angola, Pedro II no había olvidado la invasión y planeaba eliminar a los portugueses del reino por completo. El rey envió una carta a los Estados Generales neerlandeses proponiendo un ataque militar conjunto contra Angola con un ejército del Congo y una flota holandesa. Pagaría a los holandeses con oro, plata y marfil por sus esfuerzos. Según lo planeado, una flota holandesa bajo el mando del célebre almirante Piet Hein llegó a Luanda para llevar a cabo un ataque en 1624. El plan no pudo llevarse a cabo ya que Pedro había muerto y su hijo, García Mvemba, Nkanga había sido elegido rey. El rey García I era más indulgente con los portugueses y había sido persuadido con éxito por sus diversos gestos de conciliación. Él no estaba dispuesto a presionar el ataque contra Angola en ese momento, alegando que como católico, no podía aliarse con los no católicos para atacar la ciudad.

Faccionalismo y retorno de la Casa de Kwilu

El final del primer cuarto del siglo 17 vio un nuevo estallido en la lucha política del Congo. En el corazón del conflicto se encontraban dos casas nobles luchando por la realeza. En un lado del conflicto estaba la Casa de Kwilu, que contaba con la mayoría de los reyes llamados Álvaro. Fueron expulsados ​​por la Casa opuesta de Nsundi, cuando Pedro II fue colocado en el trono por poderosas fuerzas locales en São Salvador, probablemente como un compromiso cuando Álvaro III murió sin un heredero lo suficientemente mayor como para gobernar.
Como el poder reinante, la Casa de Nsundi trabajó fervientemente para colocar a los partidarios en posiciones de toma de reinado en todo el imperio. O Pedro II o García logré asegurar Soyo en manos del Conde Paulo, que lo sostuvo y apoyó la Casa de Nsundi desde aproximadamente 1625 hasta 1641. Mientras tanto, Manuel Jordão, un partidario de la Casa de Kwilu, logró forzar a García I a huir y colocó a Ambrósio I de la Casa de Kwilu en el trono.
El rey Ambrósio no pudo o no eliminó a Paulo de Soyo, aunque finalmente eliminó a Jordão. Después de un reinado marcado por los rumores de movilizaciones de guerra y otras interrupciones, un gran disturbio en la capital resultó en la muerte del rey por parte de una turba. Ambrosio fue reemplazado por Álvaro IV por el duque de Mbamba, Daniel da Silva. El rey Alvaro IV tenía solo once años y era fácil de manipular. En 1632, Daniel da Silva marchó sobre la capital para "rescatar a su sobrino de sus enemigos". En ese momento, estaba bajo la protección del Conde de Soyo, Paulo, Alvaro Nimi a Lukeni a Nzenze a Ntumba y su hermano García II Nkanga a Lukeni. Después de una batalla dramática en Soyo, el joven rey fue restaurado con éxito solo para ser envenenado más tarde por Alvaro V, un Kimpanzu.

El Congo bajo la Casa de Kinlaza

Después de librar una segunda guerra contra sus primos, Nimi a Lukeni y Nkanga a Lukeni, Álvaro V fue asesinado y sustituido por Alvaro VI en 1636, iniciando el gobierno de la Casa de Kinlaza sobre el Congo. Después de su muerte en 1641, el hermano de Álvaro VI se hizo cargo, y fue coronado García II. La antigua Casa de Nsundi se consolidó con sus rivales de la Casa de Kwilu como el linaje de Kimpanzu de los muertos Alvaro V.
García II tomó el trono en vísperas de varias crisis. Uno de sus rivales, Daniel da Silva (que probablemente recibió el patrocinio del Daniel da Silva que fue asesinado por García II mientras defendía a Alvaro IV), logró asegurar el condado de Soyo y lo usó como base contra García II para el conjunto de su reinado. Como resultado, a García II se le impidió consolidar por completo su autoridad. Otro problema que enfrentaba el rey García II fue una rebelión en la región de Dembos, que también amenazó su autoridad. Por último, estaba el acuerdo hecho por Pedro II en 1622, que prometía el apoyo del Congo a los holandeses en una ofensiva para expulsar a Portugal de Luanda.

Reyes del Congo

El sistema de la corte del Congo se trataba de una monarquía electiva, no hereditaria, basada en kandas o linajes familiares relacionados.

Cultura

Como producto del primer contacto en 1483 entre Diogo Cão y el reino del Congo,​ una embajada del reino africano viajó hasta Portugal, permaneciendo en ese país durante un breve tiempo.​ A su regreso en 1491, fueron acompañados por misioneros católicos y por artesanos y carpinteros portugueses que introdujeron la tecnología y las técnicas occidentales en el país; tras la adopción oficial del catolicismo bajo el reinado del manicongo João I, la cultura portuguesa se convirtió en una importante influencia en la sociedad, desarrollándose además relaciones diplomáticas entre la monarquía del manicongo y las monarquías europeas. Al año de la llegada de la religión católica se construyó en la capital del país una de las primeras iglesias​ que fue elevada al estatus de catedral en 1596, ya bajo el rey Álvaro II del Congo, convirtiéndose la antigua Catedral de San Salvador del Congo en una de las primeras catedrales católicas en el Africa subsahariana. Como ejemplo de comunicación diplomática, este mismo monarca intentó en 1613, a través del papa Paulo V, que el rey de Portugal se hiciera cargo del costo del mantenimiento de los obispos y los canónigos de la catedral.​
En 1518 se llevó a cabo la consagración en Roma, por parte de León X, de Don Enrique, hijo de Alfonso I, como obispo titular de Útica, siendo el primer obispo autóctono del África negra.​ Una misión de los carmelitas descalzos trabajó en el Congo desde 1584–88, estableciéndose también una misión de los dominicos entre 1610 y 1612. Una escuela de los jesuitas con una biblioteca fue fundada en la capital en 1621, bajo el reinado de Álvaro III, permaneciendo en funcionamiento hasta 1678,​ tras el inicio unos años antes de la guerra civil del Reino del Congo. Como consecuencia de la divulgación de la religión católica en el país, surgieron también desde finales del siglo XVII e inicios del siglo XVIII herejías e iluminados locales, como en los casos del profeta Appolonia Mafuta o la líder del antonianismo, Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita.
Debido al temprano contacto con los europeos, el kikongo fue la primera lengua bantú en ser escrita en alfabeto latino y en tener un diccionario. Un catecismo fue producido en 1557 bajo la autoridad de Diogo Gomes, un jesuita nacido en el Reino del Congo de padres portugueses. En 1624, Mateus Cardoso, otro jesuita portugués editó y publicó una traducción kikongo del catecismo portugués de Marcos Jorge.​ El diccionario fue publicado ca. 1648 por Manuel Robredo, un obispo secular. Por su parte, un capuchino italiano, Bonaventura da Sardegna, fue el primero en escribir una gramática para el kikongo hacia 1645., Caruggi de Génova

Caroggi o caruggi (pronunciado [ka'ru?i], en singular caroggio o caruggio, a veces denominados erróneamente carroggi, carrugi o carugi)​ es el término con el que se designan en idioma ligur los característicos y estrechos callejones sombríos de muchas ciudades y pueblos de la riviera ligur.

Origen y características

El término deriva de quadrivium, quizá con la contribución de "carro". Según algunos tiene el mismo origen que la palabra italiana carriaggi, la francesa charriage o la española carruaje (en latín càrrus+àticum, o carràticum o carriàticum, carro+aggio).
En la toponimia oficial el vocablo caruggio es traducido usualmente como vicolo (callejón). Había también un Carrubeus rectus, Vico Dritto o Via Retta, que conducía a la antigua Piazza Ponticello (Pontixello), eliminada tras las actuaciones del plano regulador de 1934, antes de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, como parte de la remodelación del antiguo barrio de Borgo Lanaiuoli y la zona de Ravecca, al lado del Piano di Sant'Andrea.
Son numerosas las calles estrechas de Génova que reciben el nombre de vico, o menos frecuentemente, vicolo, pero también, pese a ser caruggi a todos efectos, algunas llevan el nombre de via o piazza, aunque se trate de plazas de estrechas dimensiones.
Buena parte de los caruggi que se despliegan desde Sottoripa (actualmente en estado de fuerte degradación a pesar de los continuos intentos de restauración) tienen el nombre de un específico sector laboral, en su mayoría artesanal, debido a que en el pasado las distintas actividades se concentraban en determinados callejones de los distintos sestiere (las partes en las que todavía se divide el centro histórico).
Así, existe una Via Orefici (es decir, orfebres), donde encontramos el bellísimo bajorrelieve que representa la Adoración de los Magos y el templete pintada de color gris por Pellegrino Piola, Vico Indoratori, Piazza di Pellicceria (donde desde el siglo XIII han tenido sede las peleterías más apreciadas de Génova), Salita Pollaiuoli, Macelli di Soziglia...
Naturalmente, con el paso del tiempo este rasgo ha perdido mucho de su valor original, aunque los callejones de Génova continúan atrayendo turistas por su amplia y diversa oferta artesanal, garantizada por la presencia de numerosas tiendas de restauradores de madera, antiguas mercerías y talleres de arte.
Algunos callejones tienen nombres sugerentes y de referencia popular, como Vico dell'Amor Perfetto o Vico Carabaghe.
Hasta 1958, antes de que entrara en vigor la Ley Merlin, en los caruggi de Génova se situaban los burdeles más populares y frecuentados de la ciudad, que a menudo tenían el mismo nombre del lugar en el que se ubicaban.

Caroggi y creuze

Distinta del caroggio, pero similar por sus angostas proporciones, es la creuza (a menudo crosa en italiano), camino, escalinata o pequeña cuesta que desciende rápidamente de las colinas al valle. Si se sitúa cerca del mar, a menudo en proximidad de trivi (cruces de tres calles), la creuza se convierte en una Creuza de mâ, es decir, una crêuza de mar, como cantó Fabrizio De André en el tema titulado, precisamente, Creuza de mâ. Además, este popular cantautor había tenido ocasión de dedicar una canción suya a uno de los caruggi más importantes de Génova: la Via del Campo, que une la Piazza Fossatello a la Via di Pré y al barrio homónimo.
En la etimología completa, el término se puede referir, en un sentido amplio, al equipaje que va detrás de los grupos de trabajadores y de los ejércitos, constituido en este caso por carros y animales de carga, o a un gran carro dedicado al transporte de bienes traídos de lejos.
En este sentido, los callejones de la Génova antigua eran (en ausencia de grandes vías de comunicación) la calle natural, el paso obligado para entregar hombres y mercancías.

En la literatura

El escritor (turinés de nacimiento pero genovés de adopción) Gaspare Invrea (más conocido con el pseudónimo de Remigio Zena) ha ambientado en los caruggi de Génova (aunque prefirió inventar una Piazzetta della Pece Greca como fulcro de la historia) las aventuras de la Bricicca, extraordinaria figura femenina protagonista de su novela más conocida: La bocca del lupo.

Via di Prè

Via di Prè es el caruggio más conocido de Génova. También da nombre al sestiere de Prè.
Más que caruggio, calle, que desde la posguerra empezó a albergar un rico mercado de frutas y verduras muy frecuentado por las amas de casa por su conveniencia, con la inmigración del sur de Italia, la calle empezó a estar cubierta por numerosas tiendas de ropa, de productos caseros, de artículos llamados "imposibles de encontrar" y numerosas tiendas con todas las novedades electrónicas del momento.
No se debe olvidar el famoso mercadillo "Shanghai", situado en el lado del puerto, el cual ofrecía a precios muy convenientes todos los productos de primera necesidad. En la parte final de la Via Prè adyacente a la Porta di Vacca se podía encontrar el único vendedor negro que ofrecía auténticos productos africanos., 프란츠 카프카(, 1883년 7월 3일 ~ 1924년 6월 3일)는 오스트리아-헝가리 제국의 유대계 소설가이다. 현재 체코의 수도인 프라하(당시 오스트리아-헝가리 제국의 영토)에서 유대인 부모의 장남으로 태어나 독일어를 쓰는 프라하 유대인 사회 속에서 성장했다. 1906년 법학으로 박사학위를 취득, 1907년 프라하의 보험회사에 취업했다. 그러나 그의 일생의 유일한 의미와 목표는 문학창작에 있었다. 1917년 결핵 진단을 받고 1922년 보험회사에서 퇴직, 1924년 오스트리아 빈 근교의 결핵요양소 키얼링(Kierling)에서 사망하였다. 카프카는 사후 그의 모든 서류를 소각하기를 유언으로 남겼으나, 그의 친구 막스 브로트(Max Brod)가 카프카의 유작, 일기, 편지 등을 출판하여 현대 문학사에 카프카의 이름을 남겼다.

카프카의 삶

가족 

카프카는 오스트리아-헝가리 제국 프라하의 독일어를 쓰는 꽤 부유층의 유대인 가정에서 태어났다.

아버지의 정신적 폭력 
콘골드(1972)에 따르면, 아버지 헤르만 카프카는 '거대하고 이기적이고 거만한 사업가'로 그리고, 카프카 자신에 따르면, '강하고 건강하고 먹성 좋으며 목소리가 크고 자기 만족감에 충만한, 우세하고 끈기있고 인간 본성과 지식을 갖춘 진짜 카프카'로 그린다. 헤르만 카프카는 야콥 카프카의 넷째 아들로 남부의 피세크(Pisek) 가까운 곳의 유대인 마을인 오섹(Osek)에서 프라하로 이주해, 외판원으로 몇 년간 일한 후, 액세서리를 파는 소매점을 열었다. 사업상 상표는 jackdaw(카프카의 체코어)로, 소매점은 곧 15명의 직원을 둘 정도로 성장한다. 그곳에서 헤르만 카프카는 포데브라디(Poděbrady)의 양조업자 야콥 뢰비(Jakob Löwy)의 딸 율리(1856-1943)와 결혼하였다.

현실적이고 빈틈없는 아버지 헤르만에게 아들 카프카는 헛소리나 해대는 몽상가에 불과했고, 어린 카프카의 눈에 아버지는 지독한 일벌레에 가족은 안중에도 없이 사업의 성공에만 미친 사람으로 보였다. 더구나 어머니 율리도 남편의 사업을 도와 하루 12시간씩 일하느라 평일에는 부모 모두 집에 없었고, 카프카와 그의 형제들은 보모와 하인들이 돌아가며 키웠다.

자수성가한 상인으로 억세고 독선적이었던 헤르만은 틈만 나면 아들 카프카에게 "나는 그 어려운 환경에서도 이만큼 해냈는데, 부족한 게 없는 너는 왜 그렇게밖에 못하냐?"며 몰아 붙였고, 카프카는 수모감에 사로잡혔다. 실제 교육학자 전용오 방송통신대학교 교육학과 교수는 인간과 교육 강의에서 자녀에게 열등감을 심는 말인, 자녀에게 비교하는 말을 하지 말라고 말한 바 있으니, 카프카가 부친의 말 때문에 느꼈을 감정은 열등감과 수모감이었을 것임은 어렵지 않게 짐작할 수 있다.

동생들 
카프카의 나이 두 살 때, 그리고 네 살 때 동생인 게오르크와 하인리히가 태어났지만 곧 죽고 만다. 여섯 살 때인 1889년에는 여동생 가브리엘레(엘리,1889-1941)가, 또 1년 뒤에는 발레리(발리,1890-1942)가, 그리고 그 2년 뒤에는 오틀리(오틀라, 1892-1943)가 태어났지만, 세 여동생은 폴란드 우치의 게토나 나치 강제 수용소로 흩어져 그곳에서 죽었다. 그 중 오틀라는 테레지엔슈타트 강제 수용소로 보내진 뒤 다시 죽음의 수용소로 알려진 아우슈비츠 강제 수용소에서 죽은 것으로 추정된다.

교육 
그의 아버지는 카프카에게 상인의 기질이 보이지 않자 독일계 인문 중고등학교에 입학시킨다. 이곳에서 카프카는 루돌프 일로비, 시오니스트 휴고 베르크만, 에발트 펠릭스 프리브람, 오스카 폴락 등 평생을 두고 교유하게 될 몇 사람의 친구들을 만나게 된다. 1901년 프라하의 카를 대학교(카렐 대학교)에 진학한 카프카는 주로 문학과 예술사 강의에 흥미를 보였으나, 아버지의 요구대로 법학을 택한다.

카프카는 독일어를 제1언어로 배웠으나 체코어도 유창했다. 나중에 카프카는 프랑스어와 그 문화도 조금 알게 되었다. 그가 좋아하는 작가 중 하나는 플로베르였다. 1889년에서 1893년 그는 정육시장에 있는 도이체 크나벤슐레(Deutsche Knabenschule)라는 남자 초등학교를 다녔다. 이곳은 지금 프라하의 Masná 거리이다. 유대인의 전통을 배우는 시간은 13세 때의 Bar Mitzvah 축제와 아버지와 1년에 4번 유대교 회당(시나고그, 신약성서 루가복음서와 사도행전에 나오는 회당이 유대인 등의 종교적 공동체인 시나고그임.)가서 예배를 하는 종교 교육이 전부였다. 초등학교를 마친 후 엄격한 고전 지향적인 주립 김나지움(Altstädter Deutsches Gymnasium)에 입학한다. 이곳은 구시가지 광장(Stare Mesto)의 킨스키(Kinský) 궁전에 있다. 1901년 졸업시험(Matura exam)을 끝냈다.

직업 
1907년 11월 1일 그는 제네랄리(Assicurazioni Generali)라는 공격적인 이탈리아계 보험회사에 들어가서 거의 9개월 정도 일했다. 이 시기 그의 편지에 따르면 그는 그 일을 별로 좋아하지 않았다. 아침 8시~오후 6시까지의 근무시간 때문에 글쓰는 데 집중할 수 없었다. 1908년 7월 15일 관두고 2주 후 보다 마음에 드는 보헤미안 왕국의 노동자 사고 보험회사에 들어갔다. 그는 종종 보험 담당관으로서의 자신의 일을 밥벌이(Brotberuf, 브로트베루프)라고 불렀다. 1908년 보헤미아 왕국 노동자 상해 보험 회사로 자리를 옮긴 후로는 죽기 2년 전인 1922년까지 그곳에서 법률고문으로 근무하는 한편, 오후 2시에 퇴근하여 밤늦도록 글을 썼다.

그러나 그는 일에 무관심 하지 않았다. 직장 생활 동안 몇 번의 승진이 그가 열심히 일했음을 말해준다. 이 시기 그의 삶은 많이 알려지지 않았는데, 피터 드러커에 따르면 카프카는 안전헬멧을 발명했다. 1912년 이 일로 메달을 받았다. 보헤미아 왕국의 강철 밀 기계(steel mill) 사망률을 1000명당 25명까지 낮췄기 때문이다. 그는 연례 보고서를 직접 편집, 작성하는 일도 맡았으며, 그 사본을 친구들에게 보낼 만큼 자부심이 있었다.

병행하여 카프카는 문학작업도 해나갔다. 가까운 친구인 막스 브로드, 펠릭스 웰치 등이 속한 그룹을 '친밀한 프라하 동아리(Der enge Prager Kreis)'로 부르기도 했다.

1911년 여동생 엘리의 배우자인 카를 헤르만이 카프카에게 석면공장(프라하 석면 헤르만 회사)을 같이 하자고 제안했다. 카프카는 처음에는 많은 자유시간을 그 일에 할애하며 긍정적인 태도를 보였다. 그 시기 그는 이디시 극장(Yiddish theatre)의 공연에 관심을 갖게 되었다. 막스 브로트는 이디시 극장에 대해 카프카를 염려했다. 그는 그 밖의 카프카의 모든 일에 지지를 보냈었다. 이 공연은 카프카가 유다이즘과 관계를 키워 가게 된 시작점이었다.

이 무렵 유럽의 노동 환경은 무척 열악했다. 카프카는 공무 출장과 노동자들과의 접촉 등 이곳에서의 업무를 통해 관료기구의 무자비성, 노동자들에 대한 가혹한 대우와 이들의 비참한 생활상을 직접 체험하고 자본주의 사회의 내면을 속속들이 꿰뚫어 볼 수 있었을 것이다. 카프카가 자신의 작품에서 개인의 소외와 무력감에 대해 보여주는 깊은 통찰은 여기에서 나온 것이라고도 할 수 있다.

말년 

1912년 그의 평생지기 막스 브로트의 집에서 카프카는 펠리체 바우어를 만났다. 펠리체는 베를린에 있는 속기용 구술 녹음기 회사를 다니며 일하고 있었다. 그 후 5년간 많은 편지를 주고 받았고 종종 만났다. 두 번이나 약혼하기도 했지만 1917년 결국 그들은 헤어졌다.

1917년부터 카프카는 결핵을 앓기 시작했다. 회복을 위해 쉬는 게 필요했고 가족들, 특히 그의 셋째 누이 오틀라가 그를 돌보았다. 그 자신은 자신이 육체적으로 또 정신적으로 남들에게 혐오스럽게 인식될까 봐 걱정했다. 그러나 그는 소년 같고 깔끔하고 꾸미지 않은 외모, 조용하고 멋진 태도, 꽤 지적이고 천연덕스러운 유머로 다른 사람들에게 인상을 남겼다.

1920년대 초반 그는 체코의 저널리스트이자 작가인 밀레나 예젠스카(Milena Jesenská)와 깊은 관계를 맺었다. 1923년 그는 가족들의 영향권에서 벗어나 글쓰기에 집중하기 위해 베를린으로 잠깐 가 있었다. 베를린에서는 도라 디아만트와 함께 살았다. 그녀는 정통 유태교 집안 출신으로 유치원 교사였다. 그녀는 게토에서 벗어날 만큼 충분히 독립적이었다. 도라는 그의 연인이 되었고 카프카가 탈무드에 관심을 갖게 하는 데 영향을 줬다.

카프카가 임상적인 우울증과 사회불안증을 앓았음은 정설로 이해된다. 또 편두통, 불면증, 변비, 부스럼과 불안정증도 있었는데 보통 과도한 스트레스를 받으면 증세들이 나타났다. 그는 채식이나 멸균되지 않은 우유(이 우유는 아마 결핵의 원인이 되었을 것)의 대량 음용 등 자연요법 처방을 통해 여러 병에 대처하려 했다. 그러나 결핵은 악화되었다. 그는 프라하로 돌아왔다. 그 다음 비엔나에서 가까운 결핵요양소에 갔고 그곳에서 1924년 6월 3일 사망했다. 굶주림이 원인인 것으로 보인다. 카프카의 목은 음식을 먹으면 너무 아픈 상태였다. 정맥영양은 아직 개발되지 않은 때라 영양공급을 할 방법이 없었다. (변신의 그레고르나 단식광대의 주인공과 닮은 운명이다.) 그의 유해는 프라하로 보내졌고 1924년 6월 11일 지즈코프(Žižkov) 구역에 있는 유대인 묘지에 매장되었다.

개인적인 면 
카프카는 평생 불행하게 지냈다. 프라하의 상층부를 장악하고 있던 독일인에게는 유대인이라는 이유로, 같은 유대인들로부터는 시온주의에 반대한다는 이유로 배척받았다. 생전에 카프카는 출판업자들의 요청으로 마지못해 발표하기 전까지는 자신의 작품을 세상에 내놓기를 꺼렸으며, 발표된 작품들도 대중의 몰이해 속에 거의 팔리지도 않았다. 그는 죽음을 앞두고 친구에게 보낸 유서에서 자신의 모든 글을 불태워줄 것을 부탁했을 만큼 쓰는 것 외의 다른 것을 바라지 않았지만, 세계의 불확실성과 인간의 불안한 내면을 독창적인 상상력으로 그려낸 그의 작품은 타계후 전 세계에 알려졌다.

카프카는 공식적인 종교에 대해 전생애에 걸쳐 무관심했다. 그의 글에서 유대인으로서의 특성을 결코 나타낸 적이 없음에도 불구하고 그의 유대인 뿌리를 당황스럽게 여기지는 않았다. 지적으로 하시디즘(유대교 신비주의의 하나)이 그의 맘을 강하게 끌었다. 특히 초월적이고 신비주의적 경험 같은 면 때문에 그랬다. 생애 마지막 10년간에는 팔레스타인으로 이주할 생각도 있다고 말했다. '판결', '화부', '단식광대', '시골 의사' 등에 나타난 윤리적 절차적 진퇴양난의 상황은 법과 정의 같은 것에 관련된 유대교의 가르침에 대한 카프카의 관심을 담고 있다. '가수 요제핀'에서의 논쟁적 해설자의 웃길 만큼 세심한 스타일은 랍비들의 수사적 관습을 은근히 나타낸다.

카프카의 문학 세계 

카프카는 생전에 몇 편의 단편만을 발표하였으며, 발표된 작품은 그가 작성한 작품 중 일부분에 불과하다. 그의 대부분 작품은 미완성으로 마감되었으며(예외는 《변신》 뿐인 것으로 간주된다.) 그가 죽을 때까지 거의 주목받지 못했다. 죽기전 그의 친구이자 문학적 유산 관리 집행인인 막스 브로트에게 원고를 모두 파기시켜달라고 부탁하였으나, 그는 카프카의 유언을 어기고 보유하고 있던 많은 작품을 출간하게 감독하였다. 출간된 작품은 곧 주목받기 시작했고 평론가들의 호평을 받았다. 연인 도라 디아만트 또한 카프카의 유언대로 부분적으로 원고를 파기하였으나, 비밀리에 20편의 노트와 35편의 편지를 숨겨 가지고 있다가 1933년에 게슈타포에 의해서 압수당했다. 이 유실된 원고에 대한 국제적인 조사가 아직도 진행 중이다.

1912년에 『실종자』(후에 『아메리카』로 개제), 『변신』을 쓰기 시작했고, 1914년에는 『유형지에서』와 『심판』 집필에 들어갔다. 1916년에는 단편집 『시골 의사』를 탈고했다. 1917년에 폐결핵이 발병하여 여러 곳으로 정양을 다니게 되고, 1922년에 『성』을 집필하기 시작했다. 결국 폐결핵으로 1924년에 빈 교외의 키어링 요양원에서 사망했다. 『변신』 외에 대표작으로 『심판』 『성(城)』 『실종자』 『유형지에서』 『시골의사』 『시골에서의 결혼 준비』 등이 있다.

카프카의 모든 출판된 작품은, 밀레나 예젠스카에게 체코어로 쓴 몇편의 편지를 제외하고, 대부분 독일어로 쓰였다.

문체 

프라하에서 태어난 카프카는 체코어에 유창했다. 그러나 그는 프라하 독일어로 저술했는데, 보헤미아의 수도인 그곳의 유태인과 비주류인 기독교인들이 쓰는 언어였다. 그는 프라하 독일어가 고지 독일어 (High German) 보다 진실성이 있다고 생각했다. 프라하 독일어를 잘 사용함으로써 그는 그의 작품을 완전히 그 자신만의 것으로 만들 수 있었다.

독일어로 글을 쓰면서 아주 긴 문장을 쓸 수도 있었다. 카프카는 마침표 바로 앞에서 기대하지 않았던 문장의 박력을 종종 주기도 했다. 그런 박력은 의미와 강조점을 마무리하는 것이었다.

번역자가 직면하는 또 다른 거의 극복할 수 없는 문제는 그가 여러 의미로 해석될 수 있는 단어를 집중적으로 썼다는 것이다. 예를 들면 그가 ''를 "판결" 마지막 문장에 쓴 경우를 들 수 있다. 이 문장은 "그 순간 끝없는 교통행렬이 다리를 건너고 있었다." 와 같이 번역될 수 있다. 이런 명백히 이중 의미를 지닌 'Verkehr'란 단어를 쓴 이유는 카프카의 고백에 따르면 이렇다. 그의 친구이자 전기작가인 막스 브로트에게 한 고백에 따르면 그는 "격렬한 사정'을 생각하며 썼다는 것이다. 물론 영어 번역에서는 '교통'이란 번역밖에 다른게 뭐가 있겠는가?

한 작가의 삶이 물론 그의 문학 창작에 경우에 따라서는 큰 역할을 하지 않을 수도 있지만, 카프카의 길지 않은 삶의 여정은 그의 문학 세계의 섬세한 면을 이해하는 데 적지 않은 도움을 준다. 그의 문학 창작에 결정적인 역할을 한 사건을 대충 간추려 본다면 가족관계, 특히 아버지상, 그의 약혼녀 펠리스 바우어, 유대인의 주체의식 등을 들 수 있겠다. 문학비평의 측면에서는 자주 거론된 "삶의 의미 추구"에 관한 문제를 여기서 짧게 손꼽을 수 있겠다.

카프카는 1904년 문학 친구였던 오스카 폴라크에게 보낸 한 편지에서 문학에 대해 이렇게 강력한 견해를 밝힌 바 있다.

그는 친구에게 독서가 우리에게 강한 충격을 가하지 않는다면 무엇 때문에 책을 읽느냐고 반문한다, 우리에게 필요한 책은 “큰 고통을 주는 불행처럼, 우리가 정말 사랑하는 사람의 죽음처럼, 우리가 모든 사람에게서 떠나 숲 속으로 추방당한 것처럼, 자살처럼” 충격을 주는 것이어야 한다고 말한다.

비평가의 해석

카프카와 펠리체 바우어 (Felice Bauer) 

카프카는 펠리체 바우어와의 첫대면 (1912년 8월 13일)을 그의 일기장에 다음과 같이 기록하였다:

펠리체 바우어가 이 짧은 기록에서 마치 카프카 소설의 한 인물처럼 묘사된 것에서 우리는 그녀의 존재가 카프카의 삶에 어떠한 변화를 가져오게 되었는지 아마 미루어 짐작하기 힘들 것이다. 그러나 이 첫대면 후 카프카는 그야말로 억제할 수 없는 창작열에 사로잡히게 된다. 약 한달 후 그는 하루밤 사이에 (9월 23일) 유명한 단편 "판결"을 써서 펠리체 바우어에게 바치게 된다. 그리고 그가 그녀에게 수도 없이 써 보낸 편지는 훌륭한 서한문학으로 평가됨과 동시에, 오늘날 카프카의 섬세한 문학세계를 이해하는 데 좋은 실마리를 제공하고 있다.

펠리체 바우어는 카프카와 마찬가지로 유대인으로서 카프카를 알게 된 당시 독일의 베를린에 거주하는 사무여직원이었다.

출판 이력

저작

장편 
 아메리카 (Amerika) 혹은 실종자 (Der Verschollene)
 심판 (Der Prozess)
 성 (Das Schloß)

중편

단편 
 선고 (Das Urteil)
 지방에서의 결혼예식 (Hochzeitvorbereitungen auf dem Lande)
 관찰 (Betrachtung)
 변신 (Die Verwandlung) http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/5200
 유형지에서 (In der Strafkolonie)
 단식 예술가 (Der Hungerkünstler)
 시골 의사 (Ein Landarzt)
 학술원에 보내는 보고서(Ein Bericht für eine Akademie)

일기와 공책

편지

번역

사소한 정보

각주

외부 링크 
 
 Franz Kafka 아버지에게 드리는 편지

 
1883년 출생
1924년 사망
체코의 소설가
오스트리아의 소설가
체코의 무신론자
오스트리아의 무신론자
유대계 오스트리아인
유대계 체코인
한국어 전집이 출간된 저자
프라하 출신
프라하 카렐 대학교 동문
결핵으로 죽은 사람
실존주의자
19세기 오스트리아 사람
오스트리아의 사회주의자
오스트리아의 아나키스트
괴기물 작가
오스트리아의 공무원
명언가, source_sentence: What was the outcome of the War of the Sixth Coalition?
sentences: The 2nd Armoured Division was a division of the British Army that was active during the early stages of the Second World War. The division's creation had been discussed since the beginning of 1939, with the intent to form it by splitting the 1st Armoured Division. A lack of tanks delayed this until December 1939. For a short period after its creation, the division had no assigned units until the 1st Light Armoured Brigade was assigned to it from the 1st Armoured Division, and the 22nd Heavy Armoured Brigade from Southern Command.

In early 1940, 1st Armoured Division was given priority for equipment, leaving the 2nd Armoured Division understrength and equipped largely with light tanks. After the Battle of France, with the threat of a German invasion of the United Kingdom, priority for equipment shifted to the 2nd Armoured Division, which was brought up to strength. The plan was to use the division to counter-attack the flanks of a feared German invasion force. In August 1940, an armoured regiment from the division was transported to Egypt and transferred to the 7th Armoured Division, but it was replaced by another. In October, it was decided to transfer the rest of the division to Egypt, as reinforcements for Middle East Command.

Before leaving for Egypt, the division exchanged brigades with the 1st Armoured Division. Since the brigade received in exchange consisted of only one armoured regiment, division strength was reduced to three armoured regiments. Upon arriving in Egypt in December 1940, the division was further reduced in order to provide support for Operation Lustre, an expeditionary force to Greece. The detached units included two-thirds of the division's tanks, a battalion of infantry, and artillery support. The remnants of the division then moved to the province of Cyrenaica in Italian Libya, which had been conquered during Operation Compass. The division's remaining tanks were worn-out; they were supplemented by captured Italian models that were equally decrepit. In March, a German-Italian counter-attack led to the destruction of the division, and the ejection of the British from Cyrenaica, except for Tobruk. The consensus of historians is that there was little the division could have done to prevent this, given the circumstances of its being under equipped, poorly supplied, lacking proper training, and having inadequate communications and an unclear chain of command.

Background
During the interwar period, the British Army examined the lessons learnt from the First World War; and a need was seen for experimentation with and development of theories of manoeuvre and armoured warfare, as well as the creation of the short-lived Experimental Mechanized Force. The long-term impact was for the army to start to move towards mechanisation, to enhance battlefield mobility. By the 1930s, the army had established three types of divisions: the infantry division, the mobile division (later called an armoured division), and the motor division (a motorised infantry division). The primary role of the infantry division was to penetrate the enemy's defensive line, with the support of infantry tanks. Any gap created would then be exploited by mobile divisions, and the territory thus captured would be secured by the fast-moving motor divisions. These tactics would transform the attack into a break-through, while maintaining mobility.

The Mobile Division was created in October 1937; it included six light tank regiments, three medium tank regiments, two motorized infantry battalions, and two artillery regiments. The light-tank units were intended for reconnaissance only. General John Burnett-Stuart, who was responsible for training the Mobile Division, stated that the infantry were not "to be put on to a position by tanks and told to hold it, and they are not meant to fight side by side with your tanks in the forefront"; the infantry's role was simply to protect the tanks when they were stationary. Burnett-Stuart's tactics did not conform with British doctrine, which promoted combined-arms co-operation to win battles, as did German armoured warfare doctrine, which held that tanks by themselves would not be a decisive weapon. However, Burnett-Stuart's thinking predominated within the British armoured forces until the doctrine was reformed in 1942.

In the 1930s, tensions increased between Germany and the United Kingdom. During 1937 and 1938, German demands for the annexation of the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia led to an international crisis. This was resolved in September 1938 by the Munich Agreement, which allowed for German annexation. Tensions did not subside, and the British government debated how best to prepare the army for war. In January 1939, the Secretary of State for War Leslie Hore-Belisha proposed splitting the Mobile Division into two smaller formations but found no support for this move. The issue was broached again a month later, and was accepted in principle by the cabinet. Shortly after, the French were informed of a preliminary timetable for the arrival of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in the event of war: "One Regular Armoured Division will become available about the middle of 1940, the second would not be available 'till a later date. The formation of a second division during this period was complicated by the slow pace of British tank production.

Formation and home service

The 2nd Armoured Division was activated on 15 December 1939, with Major-General Frederick Hotblack as the first general officer commanding (GOC). Hotblack had joined the Royal Tank Corps in 1916, and by 1918 he had become the army's expert on German tanks. During the 1930s, he had been posted to Germany, where he witnessed and reported on the development of German armoured forces. Following the outbreak of the Second World War, in September 1939, he was the BEF's senior advisor on armoured vehicles. 

The division had no assigned fighting sub-units until the following month, when the 1st Light Armoured Brigade was transferred from the 1st Armoured Division (previously the Mobile Division), and the 22nd Heavy Armoured Brigade was transferred from Southern Command. On assignment to the division, the 1st Light Armoured Brigade comprised three armoured regiments: the 1st King's Dragoon Guards (KDG), the 3rd The King's Own Hussars (3H), and the 4th Queen's Own Hussars (4H). The 22nd Heavy Brigade consisted of the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars, and the 3rd and the 4th County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters).

The 2nd Support Group, which would comprise the division's supporting arms, was formed in February. It did not have sub-units allocated until March; it was then composed of the 3rd Field Squadron, Royal Engineers; the 12th Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (12 RHA); the 102nd (Northumberland Hussars) Light-Anti-aircraft/Anti-tank Regiment; and two motorised infantry units – the 1st Battalion, The Rangers, King's Royal Rifle Corps, and the 1st Battalion, Tower Hamlets Rifles, Rifle Brigade (The Prince Consort's Own).

The war establishment – the nominal full wartime strength – for a light armoured brigade was 108 light tanks and 66 cruiser tanks. A heavy armoured brigade's war establishment was 157 cruiser tanks. British doctrine defined light tanks as reconnaissance vehicles armed only with machine guns. Cruiser tanks were swift moving, more heavily armoured, and equipped with both a machine gun and an anti-tank gun. The primary role of the cruiser tank was to engage and destroy opposing armoured forces. Its main weapon, a 2-pounder anti-tank gun, was only supplied with armour-piecing rounds. This meant that cruiser tanks were ineffective against entrenched infantry, or in suppressing hostile artillery. Despite its war establishment, the division comprised a total of only 77 Vickers light tanks in January 1940.

In early 1940, to bring it up to full strength, the 1st Armoured Division was given priority for equipment, to ensure it would be operationally effective when deployed to France. However, the 2nd Armoured Division strength only increased slowly; and it was not immediately issued with cruiser tanks. On 14 April, the 1st Light Armoured Brigade became the 1st Armoured Brigade, and the 22nd Heavy Armoured Brigade was renamed the 22nd Armoured Brigade. The renaming followed a change in the war establishment of an armoured regiment. The armament of regiments and brigades was to be homogeneous, with each brigade having 166 cruiser tanks. In total, including tanks assigned to headquarter units, an armoured division now had an establishment of 340 tanks, sixteen 25-pounder field gun-howitzers, and twenty-four 2-pounder anti-tank guns. By May, the division had 31 light tanks in the 1st Armoured Brigade. The 22nd Armoured Brigade had no serviceable tanks, and made do with lorries in lieu of tanks. The division had two 25-pounders, supplemented by four First World War–vintage 18-pounder field guns, four QF  howitzers of similar vintage, and two anti-tank guns.

On 10 May, Major-General Justice Tilly took command after Hotblack was removed following an apparent stroke. Tilly had been an armoured warfare instructor and commander of the 1st Tank Brigade prior to the outbreak of the war.

During this period, the division was held in reserve in the Lincolnshire area. In June, the number of serviceable tanks fluctuated between 178 and 197. After the Battle of France, the division was moved to a position between Northampton, Northamptonshire, and Newmarket, Suffolk. The division's role was to strike into the flanks or the rear of any potential German landing in East Anglia or north of The Wash. During July, the division was given equipment priority and received new 25-pounders. By 4 August, the division had 17 new cruiser tanks, and the number of light tanks had increased to 226. During August, despite the threat of invasion, the War Office decided to reinforce Middle East Command. The 3H was transferred to Egypt to reinforce the 7th Armoured Division; it was replaced by the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment (3RTR). The division had a steady increase in tank strength, and at the end of September it had 256 light tanks and 54 cruisers.

By October, the threat of a German invasion had receded. The British could now spare additional forces for the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre, including the 2nd Armoured Division. Prior to being dispatched, the 22nd Armoured Brigade was exchanged for the 3rd Armoured Brigade of the 1st Armoured Division. The 3rd Armoured Brigade consisted of only one regiment, the 5th Royal Tank Regiment (5RTR). The division departed Liverpool in late October, on Convoy W.S. 4a.

Overseas service

Arrival in the Middle East
The convoy sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and arrived at Suez at the end of December. The division arrived in Egypt with just three armoured regiments: the 4H, the 3RTR, and the 5RTR. The KDG, which had previously been equipped with light tanks, had been made the division's armoured-car regiment. This had been intended as a stop-gap measure while the 1st The Royal Dragoons, based in Palestine, was mechanised to take on the role. In January 1941, after the division's arrival in Egypt, the KDG were outfitted with Marmon-Herrington Armoured Cars. On arrival, Tilly reported to General Archibald Wavell (in command of Middle East Command and all British land forces in the Middle East) that "the mechanical state of his two Cruiser regiments" was in question, with "the tracks ... practically worn out" and "engines [that] had already done a considerable mileage" without overhaul before being transported. The intention had been to replace the tracks once the tanks arrived in Egypt, but the available spare parts were found to be useless.

On 5 January, Tilly died following an air crash. He was replaced by Major-General Michael Gambier-Parry on 12 February 1941. Gambier-Parry had served in the infantry during the First World War, transferred to the Royal Tank Corps in the 1920s, and commanded an infantry brigade in the 1930s. Prior to his appointment as GOC, he was part of a diplomatic mission to Greece.

While the division was en route to Egypt, Operation Compass had been launched. This was a counter-attack against the Italian invasion of Egypt. The initial objective was limited: to destroy forward Italian forces and advance as far as Sollum, near the Libyan border, if the situation allowed. By the time the division had arrived, Compass was on the verge of defeating the Italian 10th Army. By February, the offensive had captured the Italian Libyan province of Cyrenaica. Further prosecution of the offensive was discussed, but it was believed that the province of Tripolitania would be too hard to defend or supply if captured and that the occupation of Cyrenaica would provide sufficient security for Egypt. The British believed that there would not be an Axis threat to their gains until at least May, by which time additional Allied forces would be available to reinforce the Cyrenaica garrison.

British strategy shifted to supporting Greece, and to maintaining the status-quo in the Balkans, to prevent additional countries from being occupied by Germany or Italy. After discussions with the Greek government, it was decided to dispatch a substantial expeditionary force. This was partly made up by reducing the garrison in Cyrenaica. The transportation of this force was codenamed Operation Lustre. On 27 February, as a result, the 1st Armoured Brigade was detached from the division and assigned to the expeditionary force. On 18 March, it arrived in Greece with two armoured regiments, which included 52 cruisers and 52 light tanks. The division also lost the 1st Battalion, The Rangers, the 12RHA, and the 102nd (Northumberland Hussars) Regiment to the expeditionary force. These units subsequently fought in the Battle of Greece.

Move to Libya

In March, the remnants of the 2nd Armoured Division departed Egypt and travelled to Libya, suffering many breakdowns en route. The 5RTR began the journey with 58 cruisers, but arrived with 23. Once in Libya, the division consisted of the KDG, the 3H, the 5RTR, the 1st Tower Hamlets Rifles, and the 104th RHA. The 6th Royal Tank Regiment (6RTR), based in Cyrenaica, was assigned to the division. The 6RTR had been involved in Operation Compass, and towards the end of the operation had been stripped of its remaining serviceable tanks to reinforce other British units. It was then re-equipped with captured Italian Fiat M13/40 tanks. Although equipped with a good 47mm anti-tank gun, the M13 was slow, uncomfortable, and mechanically unreliable. The British tanks were also unreliable, having exceeded their engine lives. Other division deficiencies included a lack of transport, understaffed workshops, a lack of spare parts, and radios that lacked the required equipment to remain functional. By the end of March, the division had 102 tanks: 3H had 26 MK VI light tanks and 12 M13s; 5RTR, 25 Cruiser Mk IVs; 6RTR, 36 M13s; 3rd Armoured Brigade HQ, 3 MK VI light tanks.

Benghazi was the port closest to the frontline. However, Axis bombing had rendered it unusable for landing supplies. The 2nd Armoured Division therefore had to rely on overland routes from Tobruk, which was about  away via the coastal road, or  via desert tracks. A lack of transport meant the British Army created a series of static stockpiles to supply their forward area. This made it impossible to supply a garrison west of El Agheila, which was the most favourable defensive position. It also restricted the mobility of the 2nd Armoured Division, which could not move beyond the range of their supply dumps.

The terrain between El Agheila and Benghazi was optimal for armoured warfare, and no easily defensible infantry position existed. Lieutenant-General Philip Neame, GOC Cyrenaica Command, believed his position was untenable without a fully equipped armoured division supported by two complete infantry divisions and adequate air support. The only other major formation available to Neame was the 9th Australian Division. It was under-equipped, under-trained, and lacked direct communication with the 2nd Armoured Division. One of the 9th Australian Division's brigades remained at Tobruk. The other two were positioned north of Benghazi to hold the high ground of the Jebel Akhdar. The 3rd Armoured Brigade was based southeast of Mersa Brega, where the 2nd Support Group was located. Neame was ordered to give ground if attacked, as the conservation of his force was important. The 2nd Armoured Division had the conflicting objectives of avoiding tank losses while having to be ready to operate offensively against the flanks of any attacking Axis armoured force. Neame also predicted that once operations got underway, the 2nd Armoured Division's tank numbers would rapidly dwindle due to breakdowns.

Axis offensive

March

After the destruction of the 10th Army, Italy dispatched reinforcements to its frontline. This included four infantry divisions, the 102 Motorised Division "Trento" and the 132nd Armoured Division "Ariete". Germany supplemented this effort with the two-division strong  ( Erwin Rommel). At the end of March, the German 5th Light Division (147 tanks) and the "Ariete" Division (46 M13/40s) were on the border of Cyrenaica. The British underestimated the size of the Axis effort, believing that only four divisions would be available to them until the end of May, of which only two could be used in offensive operations due to supply constraints. Royal Air Force (RAF) aerial reconnaissance observed Axis troop movements towards Cyrenaica, and on 25 February spotted German armoured cars that were superior in speed and armament to those used by the 2nd Armoured Division. The reconnaissance elements of the latter avoided contact with their German counterparts to minimise losses.

The British forward area was patrolled by one platoon from the 1st Tower Hamlets Rifles, supported by an anti-tank gun from the 9th Australian Division, and elements of the KDG. On 23 March, the division had its first action when a German reconnaissance patrol was engaged and forced to withdraw, near El Agheila, the Australians claiming three German vehicles knocked out. Axis forces took up position in an abandoned colonial fort near El Agheila and ambushed a patrol from the 1st Tower Hamlets Rifles the following day. German armoured cars also attacked and one was knocked out by the Australian gun crew, which also suffered casualties. The British screening force then withdrew to Mersa Brega, ceding El Agheila to the Axis. German tanks followed, and one or two were lost to anti-tank mines (possibly left over Italian mines, which had not been cleared).

On 31 March, the Axis resumed their advance, and engaged just after dawn. Sources describe either one engagement from both the British and German perspectives or two clashes. The German 5th Light Division reported engaging up to five British tanks, in two inconclusive engagements with no losses on either side. While observing the Axis advance, the 5RTR reported a patrol of four enemy tanks, which they engaged, claiming three Italian tanks possibly destroyed, with one British tank damaged in return. By 09:00, the 3rd Armoured Brigade started a planned withdrawal. After 10:00, German forces attacked the 2nd Support Group. Fighting lasted through the day, with the British fending off several assaults, including attacks by German Junkers Ju 87  dive bombers. The 2nd Armoured Division claimed two aircraft destroyed and the Germans recorded their own tanks being subjected to friendly fire. A request for the 3rd Armoured Brigade to be deployed to reinforce the 2nd Support Group was denied. Gambier-Parry reported that there was "insufficient time to get them into action from their present position before dark". After dark, the 2nd Support Group withdrew  to Agedabia. The Germans captured Mersa Brega the next morning, without further incident. The fighting cost the division 59 men, one tank, eight universal carriers and numerous other vehicles.

April

The Germans followed, and attacked the 2nd Support Group on 2 April. The latter withdrew a further , and lost men in rearguard actions or to being surrounded. On the desert flank, the 3rd Armoured Brigade continued to withdraw, although only at  in order to match the slowest vehicles, which were towing artillery. For most of the day, their movements were shadowed by armoured vehicles they were unable to identify. During the afternoon, the withdrawal was further slowed by breakdowns, conflicting orders, and the need to rest and refuel. This allowed the shadowing armoured vehicles to gain ground. Nine tanks from the 5RTR were ordered to conduct a rearguard action and took up hull-down positions. The 5RTR believed the shadowing tanks were Italian, although they were actually German. The German tanks advanced in an arrowhead formation towards the 5RTR. When the range was between , both sides opened fire. The 5RTR suffered five tank losses and 24 casualties. The 5RTR's after action report claimed at least eight enemy tanks in return, although German records indicate that only three German tanks were destroyed, "along with an unrecorded number damaged". The remaining British tanks withdrew to friendly positions, and the regiment regrouped  further back. The brigade then resumed its retreat, with no German vehicles following. During the day, Gambier-Parry, Neame, and Wavell all issued contradictory orders and queries to the division. These concerned the feasibility of withdrawal, the division's capacity to block the coastal road, and whether the division should remain concentrated or split up. The discussions were hampered by ignorance of events, and notably included Neame informing Gambier-Parry that the 3rd Armoured Brigade was not to be committed en masse without his permission.

Early on 3 April, the 3rd Armoured Brigade reached Antelat (~ northeast of Agedabia, and half way to Msus), and had been located by German aerial reconnaissance. Unknown to the division, the bulk of the German 5th Light Division had halted near Bir el Ageradt and was focused on resupplying, although German and Italian detachments were ordered to probe the southern flank of the 2nd Armoured Division and reconnoitre towards Msus. In the afternoon, the movements of the 3H and the 6RTR caused alarm and confusion within the 5RTR, which at first believed them to be German. The RAF then reported Axis forces approaching Msus, the site of the main divisional supply dump. The 3rd Armoured Brigade, along with some elements of the Support Group, were ordered to move to Msus to deal with the hostile force. However, the division was crippled by a breakdown in communication, resulting in conflicting, late, and missed orders. None of the division arrived at Msus during the day. It was established late in the afternoon that the RAF had mistakenly identified friendly vehicles in the area as the enemy. By the end of the day, the 3rd Armoured Brigade had been reduced to 18 light tanks, 26 M13s, and 12 cruisers.

On 4 April, Axis forces entered Benghazi, which had been abandoned by the Allies. During the day, divisional artillery fire halted German reconnaissance forces near Charruba. At midday, Lieutenant-General Richard O'Connor (GOC British Troops in Egypt) arrived at the front and held a meeting with the senior commanders in Cyrenaica, including Gambier-Parry, who opined that the Axis forces would not attempt a further advance now that Benghazi had been taken. However, the decision was made to withdraw from the Jebel Achdar, and for the 2nd Armoured Division to concentrate at Mechili to protect the withdrawal of the Australian infantry. Brigadier Edward Vaughan's recently arrived 3rd Indian Motor Brigade was ordered to secure Mechili, an old Italian stone-and-mud colonial fort ringed by trenches, to ensure it was in Allied hands when the division arrived. Communication failures impeded the division's withdrawal during the day, and further tanks were lost from breakdowns. A supply convoy dispatched for the division was attacked by 18 Axis aircraft, and destroyed with the loss of  of fuel. By the end of the day, the 5RTR had nine cruiser tanks, and the 6RTR had nine M13s. The following day, alarmist reports suggested Axis armoured forces had passed Msus; but the KDG, and other Allied units, verified that this was not the case. The tank sightings turned out to be the 2nd Armoured Division. In reality, the nearest Axis unit was  from Msus.

General withdrawal

On 6 April, Axis forces moved towards Mechili, with the intention of advancing toward the coast, and thereby encircling the retreating Allied forces. This move was reported by the KDG and the RAF. The division started the day with 8 cruiser tanks, 14 light tanks, and 2 M13s. During the day, the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade was attached to the division. Mechili was subjected to Axis artillery fire, and Indian patrols took numerous Axis prisoners around the perminter throughout the day. Neame, unaware of these events, set off into the desert to locate Gambier-Parry to deliver new instructions. At the same time, the attack on the fort prompted O'Connor to order a general withdrawal of all Allied forces towards Gazala, via Derna.

Conflicting and confusing orders to withdraw were issued, which fragmented the division, the withdrawal orders failing entirely to reach the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade. At first, the division moved east towards Mechili. Following its instructions, the 2nd Support Group turned north towards the coastal road. The divisional headquarters, including Gambier-Parry and a battery of artillery, continued towards Mechili. The 3rd Armoured Brigade, which had run low on fuel, moved north to Maraura, but found little petrol there. The brigade then moved towards Derna, via Giovanni Berta. At the same time, the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade escorted a fuel convoy from Mechili towards where they expected the division to be. In the afternoon, a patrol of the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade, based at El Adem, intercepted advanced Italian troops at Acroma, near Tobruk, and took 18 prisoners. A buildup of Axis forces took place near Mechili. Towards dusk, a German officer demanded the garrison's surrender and was refused. Near Derna, German troops briefly managed to block some desert tracks, before moving to a position near the coastal road east of the town. German patrols intercepted and disrupted some Allied convoys, and captured Neame and O'Connor, but the route east remained open until the following day.

Early on 7 April, Brigadier Reginald Rimington, GOC 3rd Armoured Brigade, was mortally wounded and captured after an ambush on a desert track en route to Derna. By dawn, the 2nd Support Group and the 3rd Armoured Brigade were stretched out, stuck in traffic west of Derna; Gambier-Parry and the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade had been surrounded at Mechili; and other elements of the division were positioned near Derna to control the road and desert tracks, fighting with Axis forces intermittently throughout the day. At Timimi, near Gazala, Axis armoured cars ambushed retreating Australian forces, but were repulsed by a lone cruiser tank from the 5RTR, whose remaining tanks arrived at Derna in the afternoon. By 14:30, the majority of the division had moved through Derna. To the south of Derna, German forces had captured the town's airfield and established a blocking position. The division's rearguard, now separated from the rest of the division, fought an afternoon-long battle with this German force. Several German attacks were fended off, with eight German armoured cars claimed as destroyed. Around 17:15, the 5RTR attacked the German position and lost their remaining tanks but successfully covered the withdrawal of the remainder of the rearguard. Barton Maughan, author of the Australian official history for this period of the fighting, wrote "by coincidence ... the 5th Royal Tanks ... [were] where they were most needed and could be most effectively employed that day". The British official history recorded "the action cleared the road also for any troops that remained in Derna" as well as allowing the rearguard to get away.

Demise
At Mechili, on 7 April, the Germans continued to build up their forces surrounding the British position. The garrison was subjected to intermittent artillery fire, and skirmishing took place around the perimeter. Two separate German envoys demanded the garrison surrender, and both demands were refused by Gambier-Parry. Around 22:00, Gambier-Parry re-established communication with Cyrenaica Command. He was informed that neither the rest of his division nor any other force would be joining him, and was ordered to break out at first light, with El Adem his destination.

The planned break-out was to be led by a single cruiser tank, with infantry support from the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade. The intent was to use a small force to punch a hole through the Axis defensive positions prior to dawn, to negate the Axis anti-tank gun advantage; that would then be followed by the rest of the force east into the desert. Maughan wrote, "If the original plan had been adhered to, if it had been boldly executed, a great measure of success might have been achieved. But the operation miscarried badly". On 8 April, the tank was delayed and the cover of dark lost. Despite this, the 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry (18th Cavalry) achieved surprise when they attacked and scattered the personnel of an Italian battery. Instead of exploiting this success, the rest of the escape column waited for the cruiser tank to advance. A second attack was launched by the 11th Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (Frontier Force), which likewise broke through the Axis defenses. However, the cruiser tank was destroyed when it advanced towards the battery silenced by the 18th Cavalry; the Italians had returned to their guns.

Following this Allied failure, the Axis forces attacked the garrison. Gambier-Parry decided to surrender, to spare further casualties, and fighting ceased by 08:00. Roughly 3,000 Allied troops were captured at Mechili, including Gambier-Parry and Vaughan. A force of at least 150 men, from the 3rd RHA and the 2nd Lancers (Gardner's Horse), refused to capitulate. They charged, unmolested, through Axis positions in non-armoured vehicles. The majority of this small force made it to Tobruk, taking prisoners en route. Elements of the 6RTR, which had failed to reach Derna prior to the Axis arrival, moved south into the desert to avoid contact. They continued east, before meeting British reconnaissance forces near El Adem on 10 April, and reached Tobruk just prior to midnight. On 10 May 1941, the 2nd Armoured Division was disbanded. The units that constituted the division continued the war with other formations. In October 1941, XXX Corps was formed with officers largely from the remnants of the 2nd Armoured Division HQ staff.

Assessment
"This division [has not] had an opportunity for adequate training...  It was a collection of units, three of which had only [just] joined... rather than a trained formation. The breakdown in control and administration was largely due to this fact". – From a contemporary after action report, by 2nd Armoured Division senior officers.

An unnamed officer from the division later blamed the division's fate on Gambier-Parry, whom he called "a conventional and slow minded soldier who couldn't cope with the unexpected". The historian David French wrote that some critics, such as Major-General David Belchem, blamed the poor performance of British armoured formations in the desert on officers who had cavalry backgrounds and knew little of armoured warfare. French wrote "such strictures are exaggerated", highlighted that Gambier-Parry started his career in the infantry before he transferred to the Royal Tank Corps, and stated that singling him out for blame is harsh.

Several factors have been identified as key reasons for the division's rapid decline in tank strength and ineffectiveness in the face of Axis forces: tanks that were not serviceable, an inadequate logistical support system, a lack of training, a burdensome chain of command, and ineffective communications. The 5RTR lost 38 tanks in Libya, but only nine were lost to enemy action. With the exception of one that was destroyed when it hit a thermos bomb, the rest had broken down. The lack of a forward port or railhead meant that supplies had to be moved at least , but there was insufficient transport to build up a sufficient stockpile of supplies for the division. The division's staff were undertrained for the task they were asked to perform. While brave, the tank crews were inflexible and failed to follow their tactical training. British tactical doctrine encouraged ambush counter-attacks, but the formation failed to undertake any. At the squadron and regimental level, the chain of command impeded mobility, as permission was needed to move a single tank from an assigned position. This resulted in rapid tank losses once combat was underway. At the higher level, the division received instructions from Gambier-Parry, Neame, Wavell, and O'Connor. This overlapping chain of command resulted in delayed, misunderstood, mixed, and changed orders that severely impeded the division's capability.

Due to these factors, the general and historian David Fraser wrote, once "the Germans chose to drive across the chord of the Cyrenaican arc there was little to stop them". At no point during the Axis advance, did the division offer a threat or hindrance. However, when they did engage, both sides lacked flexibility and acted against their own doctrines. Furthermore, the German lack of understanding of what the 2nd Armoured Division was doing resulted in their 5th Light Division having to send 83 tanks to workshops for repairs after they had chased the 2nd Armoured Division through the desert.

General officer commanding

Orders of battle

December 1939 – October 1940

1st Light Armoured Brigade (assigned 19 January 1940, and renamed the 1st Armoured Brigade on 14 April)
 3rd (The King's Own) Hussars (until 14 August 1940)
 4th Queen's Own Hussars
 1st King's Dragoon Guards
 3rd Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment (from 11 August 1940)

22nd Heavy Armoured Brigade (assigned 15 January 1940, and renamed the 22nd Armoured Brigade on 14 April)
 2nd Royal Gloucestershire Hussars
 3rd County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters)
 4th County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters)

3rd Armoured Brigade (assigned 5 October 1940)
 5th Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment

2nd Support Group (assigned 5 February 1940)
 1st Battalion The Rangers, The King's Royal Rifle Corps
 1st Battalion, Tower Hamlets Rifles, Rifle Brigade (The Prince Consort's Own)
 102nd (Northumberland Hussars) Light Anti-Aircraft/Anti-Tank Regiment
 12th Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (until 7 August 1940)
 2nd Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (from 11 July 1940)
 3rd Field Squadron, Royal Engineers (until 9 June 1940)
 142nd Field Park Troop (from 30 March 1940 until 9 June)

Divisional troops
 2nd Armoured Divisional Signals, Royal Corps of Signals
 Royal Engineers
 3rd Field Squadron (assigned 10 June 1940)
 142nd Field Park Troop (assigned 10 June 1940)

Libya, 1941

3rd Armoured Brigade
 3rd (The King's Own) Hussars
 5th Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment
 6th Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment

3rd Indian Motor Brigade (6–8 April 1941)
 2nd Lancers (Gardner's Horse)
 11th Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (Frontier Force)
 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry

2nd Support Group
 1st Battalion, Tower Hamlets Rifles, Rifle Brigade (The Prince Consort's Own) (also known as the 9th Battalion, the Rifle Brigade (Tower Hamlets Rifles)
 1st Company, Free French 1st Motor Marine Infantry Battalion (attached)
 102nd (Northumberland Hussars) Anti-Tank Regiment
 104th (Essex Yeomanry) Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery

Divisional troops
 1st King's Dragoon Guards (Armoured Car, divisional reconnaissance regiment until 22 March 1941)
 2nd Armoured Divisional Signals

See also

 British Army during the Second World War
 British Armoured formations of World War II
 List of British divisions in World War II

Notes
 Footnotes

 Citations

References

Further reading

External links

 

Armoured divisions of the British Army in World War II
British armoured divisions
Military units and formations established in 1939
Military units and formations disestablished in 1941
Military units and formations of the British Empire in World War II, La dynastie Liang , 502 — 557) est la troisième dynastie du Sud en Chine, précédée par la dynastie Qi du Sud et suivie par la dynastie Chen. Cette dynastie correspond essentiellement au règne de l'empereur Wudi (Xiao Yan), qui débute en 502, date à laquelle il monte sur le trône en renversant le dernier empereur des Qi du Sud, et s'achève en 549 alors qu'il a perdu l'essentiel de son pouvoir au profit du général Hou Jing. Ses successeurs ne conservèrent le pouvoir que quelques années, en raison de la persistance des troubles internes et des déstabilisations venues depuis les dynasties du Nord.

La période de la dynastie Liang, dominée par la personnalité de Wudi, marqua l'apogée de la prospérité de la civilisation de Chine méridionale durant la période de division. Sa capitale Jiankang était alors sans doute la plus vaste agglomération du monde, l'agriculture et le commerce en plein développement, après avoir connu une longue phase d'essor et de stabilité depuis le  sous l'égide des dynasties du Sud qui avaient précédé les Liang. Wudi fut un fervent bouddhiste, favorisant la suprématie de cette religion, et l'érection de nombreux lieux de culte. La vie littéraire fut également florissante dans les cercles de la cour, plusieurs des poètes de l'époque Liang devenant des références durant les dynasties postérieures.

La dynastie de Liang du Sud (Nan Liang, 南梁) ou Liang postérieur, fondée en 555 et contrôlant un territoire réduit dans la région du Moyen Yangzi, affirma être le vrai successeur de la dynastie Liang puis fut éliminée par la dynastie Sui en 587.

Histoire politique et militaire

La prise de pouvoir de Xiao Yan/Wudi 
thumb|upright=1.8|Les principales villes et ensembles géographiques de la période des Dynasties du Nord et du Sud (noms modernes entre parenthèses).
La dynastie Liang succéda en 502 à la dynastie des Qi du Sud en 501. Il ne s'agit pas à proprement parler d'un changement dynastique, puisque le fondateur de la nouvelle dynastie, Xiao Yan, était un prince appartenant au lignage impérial des Qi du Sud, les Xiao. La dynastie Qi fut marquée par des coups d’État et des assassinats qui avaient ravagé le clan impérial. Xiao Yan, placé comme d'autres membres de son clan à la tête d'une province, celle de Yong qui était dirigée depuis l'importante garnison de Xiangyang située sur la rivière Han, défendant la frontière nord de l'empire (sud du Shaanxi et du Hubei actuels). La cour impériale était passée en 498 sous la coupe de Xiao Baojuan, le « marquis de Donghun », personnage de sinistre réputation qui poursuivit l'épuration du clan impériale et de l'élite politique de l'empire, suscitant la révolte de son frère Xiao Baorong, à qui Xiao Yan apporta un appui décisif avec ses troupes. Victorieux sur le plan militaire, ils pénétrèrent dans la capitale Jiankang en 501, et l'empereur fut assassiné par des membres de la cour qui leur ouvrirent la voie. Xiao Baorong devint empereur, mais Xiao Yan qui détenait la réalité du pouvoir organisa sa destitution un an plus tard, fondant une nouvelle dynastie, sous le nom de Liang.

La période de prospérité 

Xiao Yan, plus connu sous son nom posthume d'empereur Wu (Wudi, 502-549), régna pendant 48 années, longévité remarquable, ces années occupant la grande majorité de la durée de sa dynastie. La première partie de son règne fut une ère de paix et de prospérité, dans la continuité des longues périodes de paix intérieure qu'avaient connu les dynasties méridionales précédentes, certes secouées par des luttes pour le pouvoir mais qui laissèrent en général ses provinces épargnées par les longs conflits et les destructions. Cette période est donc couramment considérée comme l'apogée de la prospérité des dynasties du Sud. 

Le rival septentrional, l'empire des Wei du Nord dont les assauts avaient considérablement mis à mal les dynasties précédentes et contre lesquels les Liang durent lutter à plusieurs reprises dans des conflits frontaliers, s'enfonça dans les années 520 dans une crise interne qui déboucha sur une guerre civile en 528, dont les prolongements décimèrent la capitale et la famille impériale. Wudi profita de cette opportunité en accueillant à sa cour des réfugiés du Nord, en premier lieu le prince Yuan Hao, à qui il offrit son appui. Il confia à ses généraux, qui avaient déjà conduit des campagnes victorieuses contre les Wei durant les années précédentes, la tâche de conduire des troupes au Nord pour établir son nouveau protégé sur le trône. Ils parvinrent à reprendre la capitale des Wei, Luoyang, et à installer Yuan Hao sur le trône. Mais aussitôt cela fait ce dernier rejeta l'allégeance promise aux Liang et les troupes méridionales furent forcées de battre en retraite après avoir pillé plusieurs villes des Wei.

La révolte de Hou Jing et ses conséquences 
thumb|La situation politique de la Chine vers 546, après la division du Nord entre les Wei de l'Est et les Wei de l'Ouest.

Yuan Hao ne profita pas de sa position longtemps, puisqu'il fut renversé et tué en 530, et l'empire des Wei divisé en deux branches rivales contrôlées par des généraux, les Wei de l'Est et les Wei de l'Ouest, avec lesquels les Liang furent en conflit, mais qui concentrèrent d'abord l'essentiel de leur force à lutter l'un contre l'autre. Wudi accueillit à sa cour en 547 le général Hou Jing, qui avait précédemment servi les Wei de l'Est puis fait défection chez les Wei de l'Ouest avant de fuir au Sud. L'alliance entre les Liang et le général du Nord se solda par une lourde défaite contre les Wei de l'Est et un armistice. Hou Jing craignant d'être victime d'une alliance entre Wudi et les Wei de l'Est, il se rebella en 548 et assiégea Jiankang qui tomba l'année suivante. Cette guerre dévastatrice marqua la fin de la prospérité de Jiankang et la région du Bas Yangzi, qui subirent de nombreuses destructions, et constitua un tournant dans l'histoire des dynasties méridionales, puisqu'elles virent également la disparition ou la fuite d'une grande partie de ses élites ainsi qu'un basculement du rapport de force militaire en faveur des puissances du Nord. Wudi fut capturé par son ennemi en 549 et mourut peu après en prison. Hou Jing, maître de l'empire des Liang, intronisa successivement deux princes du lignage impérial, Xiao Gang et Xiao Dong avant d'essayer de fonder sa propre dynastie, les Han. Durant ces mêmes années, les Wei du Nord firent main basse sur la partie orientale du bassin de la rivière Han. Les autres princes du lignage Xiao, tenant plusieurs provinces importantes, n'avaient pas vraiment fourni un appui à Wudi et à ses successeurs contre le rebelle. Le plus puissant d'entre eux, Xiao Yi (nom posthume Yuandi, 551-554), fils de Wudi, s'allia aux Wei de l'Ouest, qui ne voyaient pas d'un bon œil l'implantation de leur ancien général dans le Sud, et Hou Jing fut défait en 552. Ne pouvant s'établir à Jiankang, qui avait subi trop de destructions, le nouvel empereur (nom posthume Yuan) s'installa dans la ville de Jiangling (actuelle Jingzhou) sur le Moyen Yangzi. Son frère Xiao Ji s'était au même moment proclamé empereur des Liang depuis sa base, dans le Sichuan, puis lança en 553 une attaque contre Jiangling. Cela profita aux Wei de l'Ouest, qui envahirent le Sichuan, tandis que Xiao Yi sortait victorieux du conflit fratricide. Il ne put cependant remettre la main sur le Sichuan.

La chute de la dynastie 

En 554, les Wei de l'Ouest poursuivirent leur progression et s'emparèrent de Jiangling et de la région du Moyen Yangzi, capturant et tuant Xiao Yi. Le prince Xiao Cha, petit-fils de Wudi et réfugié au Nord depuis plusieurs années, y fut installé et y fonda la dynastie des Liang postérieurs, les Wei de l'Ouest emmenant à l'issue du conflit  captifs vers le Nord. Le clan Xiao avait perdu tout pouvoir sur la dynastie Liang, ce qu'il restait de l'empire étant dominé par ses principaux généraux, Wang Sengbian, un autre général originaire du Nord, et Chen Baxian, issu d'un clan méridional de second rang. Ils appuyèrent la montée sur le trône de Xiao Fangzhi, fils de Xiao Yi. Wang Sengbian conclut un accord avec les Qi du Nord (la dynastie ayant supplanté les Wei de l'Est) pour remplacer l'empereur par Xiao Yuanming, un neveu de Wudi qui s'était réfugié à leur cour, en échange de la cessation du conflit entre les deux. Ce changement de souverain plaçait de fait la dynastie Liang sous la coupe des Qi du Nord, ce qui suscita en 555 un coup d’État contre le nouveau monarque et son protecteur, qui fut conduit par Chen Baxian. Wang Sengbian fut tué, et Xiao Fangzhi rétabli sur le trône. Les troupes de Chen Baxian repoussèrent l'année suivante la réplique de Qi du Nord, qui menaçaient Jiankang. En 557, le général destitua l'empereur et monta lui-même sur le trône, fondant la dynastie Chen. La dynastie des Liang postérieurs subsista autour de Jiangling durant trois décennies, étant vassale successivement des Wei de l'Ouest, puis des Zhou du Nord et des Sui, qui l'annexèrent en 587.

Gouvernement et société

Élites et pouvoir 

Les empires des dynasties du Sud étaient dominés par des élites, que l'on désigne souvent par le terme d'« aristocratie ». Les textes de l'époque distinguent plutôt entre « gentilshommes » (shi) et gens du commun (shu). L'appartenance au premier groupe était enregistrée dans les « Registres jaunes » (en raison de leur couleur), et ouvrait droit à des exemptions de taxes et de corvées. Ce groupe fournissait l'essentiel des cadres de la fonction publique. Ces familles étaient organisées en lignages, élément-clef de leur identification. Ces élites étaient pour la plupart des descendants des familles ayant migré dans le Sud durant les premières décennies du , lors de l'effondrement de l'empire des Jin occidentaux et la fondation de celui des Jin orientaux, et qui n'avaient depuis cessé d'occuper les hautes positions dans la hiérarchie sociale, après avoir écarté les lignages originaires du Sud. Le lignage de la famille impériale (celui des Xiao de Lanling sous les Qi et les Liang), systématiquement d'origine nordique, mais jamais issu des plus grandes familles, occupait la position la plus importante. Venaient ensuite un groupe de familles éminentes (gaomen) dont le prestige était le plus élevé, les plus fameuses étant les Wang de Langye, les Wang de Taiyuan, les Yu de Yingchuan et les Xie de Chen (dont l'ascension est plus récente), qui sont attestées durant toute la période des dynasties du Sud, ce qui constitue des cas exceptionnels car ce milieu était marquée par une rotation régulière, en raison de phénomènes d'ascension et de descension sociales. Ainsi les Yu de Yinchuan déclinent sous les Liang. D'autres lignages originaires du Nord gagnent à l'inverse en importance sous les Qi et les Liang même si on ne leur reconnaît pas la même honorabilité que les lignages les plus illustres : les Chu de Yangdi dont plusieurs des membres sont ministres depuis que le chef de leur clan avait appuyé la prise de pouvoir des Xiao sous les Qi ; les Ren de Bochang, une vieille famille qui avait connu un déclin, eut un regain de prestige, en grande partie grâce au lettré Ren Fang. Venaient ensuite le groupe des familles de notables locaux (hanmen), dont le prestige était moindre mais dont le concours était essentiel pour l'administration et l'armée, de même que celui des lignages autochtones du sud (appelés Wu, nom antique de la région du Bas-Yangzi) qui avaient en général une moindre honorabilité même si certains avaient localement des pouvoirs importants. C'était notamment le cas des Shen de Wuxing, ayant un ancrage dans la région du Bas-Yangzi, et connaissant dans la seconde moitié du  une ascension dans l'armée, avant de faire une brillante reconversion dans les lettres et la haute administration avec Shen Yue, qui fut un des principaux conseillers de Wudi, après avoir servi les Qi, en plus d'être reconnu comme l'un des plus remarquables poètes de l'époque.

Depuis la chute des Jin orientaux et l'établissement des Song du Sud dans la première moitié du , les lignages éminents avaient été dépossédés des postes à haute responsabilité, alors qu'ils les avaient détenu systématiquement au . Afin d'éloigner la menace qu'ils faisaient peser sur le pouvoir, c'étaient les membres de la famille impériale qui détenaient les fonctions les plus importantes, à savoir les gouvernements provinciaux et militaires. Ces lignages valorisaient avant tout l'éducation lettrée, les activités intellectuelles et la morale traditionnelle confucéenne, bien qu'ils soient souvent acquis au bouddhisme. Leur généalogie prestigieuse était mise en avant, dans des textes comme les Enseignements familiaux du clan des Yan de Yan Zhitui (531-590), un lettré formé sous les Liang puis emmené captif dans le Nord après l'effondrement de cette dynastie, qui y fait une histoire morale de sa famille devant servir de modèle pour l'éducation de ses jeunes membres. Le prestige des lignages bénéficiait ainsi de la carrière d'un ministre d'un renom ou d'un lettré talentueux, facteurs qui jouèrent aussi dans l'ascension de familles moins prestigieuses (comme avec Shen Yue et Ren Fang sous les Qi et les Liang). Les lignages éminents privilégiaient les unions matrimoniales avec d'autres grandes familles ou bien celle de l'empereur, refusant les alliances avec des lignages moins prestigieux. Les membres des clans importants détenaient des charges à la cour, mais celles-ci étaient généralement honorifiques (les postes dits « purs »), et n'offraient pas un pouvoir réel sur l'administration de l'empire. Ils continuaient cependant d'accaparer les dignités en profitant du système de sélection des fonctionnaires, celui des Neuf-rangs et des Juges impartiaux, dans lequel un jury sélectionné parmi ces mêmes familles était censé distinguer les personnages les plus méritants en leur confiant les postes en question, alors que dans les faits ils choisissaient le plus souvent en fonction de l'origine du candidat, privilégiant les membres des clans importants. Ils disposaient par ailleurs de richesses importantes grâce à leurs grands domaines et donc d'un pouvoir au niveau local sur leurs dépendants. Cette haute aristocratie méridionale ne semble pas avoir survécu aux troubles de la fin des Liang, nombre de ses membres étant tués ou bien déportés au Nord à l'issue des prises de Jiankang et de Jiangling. 

Les empereurs, s'appuyant sur l'institution du Secrétariat impérial (zhongshu sheng), et les membres du clan impérial qui disposaient de leur propre cour dans la province qui leur était confiée (généralement un « pays » ou « royaume », guo), préféraient s'entourer de personnages venant des familles moins honorables de notables provinciaux, afin de contrecarrer le pouvoir des grands lignages, et c'étaient donc ces personnages-là qui disposaient des fonctions effectives d'administration de l'empire. À cette fin, Wudi réinstaura le système des examens impériaux, reposant notamment sur la connaissance des classiques, qui était tombé en désuétude depuis la fin des Han et à cette fin il élargit aux lettrés d'origine humble les admissions d'étudiants à l'Académie impériale. Cela devait permettre un recrutement plus méritocratique que précédemment et contrecarrer l'emprise des lignages éminents sur le système de recrutement officiel. De même, les aristocrates méridionaux dédaignant les fonctions militaires, celles-ci revenaient à des membres des clans moins importants. Ce système de patronage entre le clan impérial et les clans moins honorables semble avoir joué un rôle structurant dans la vie politique des dynasties méridionales, plutôt que la domination honorifique des grands lignages aristocratiques. Cela assurait ainsi un lien entre le gouvernement impérial établi dans la capitale et les communautés locales de l'empire, souvent d'origine provinciale. Ces promotions se faisaient notamment parmi les « cliques » des garnisons frontalières de Xiangyang et de Jiangling, dans la région stratégique du Moyen Yangzi, sur lesquelles s'appuyèrent de façon privilégiée Xiao Yan/Wudi et son fils Xiao Yi/Yuandi. Les membres des lignages autochtones du Sud jouèrent alors un rôle plus important : c'est le cas du lignage des Shen de Wuxin ; mais cela concernait aussi des personnes d'extraction plus modeste, comme Chang Yizhi qui fut un des généraux de Wudi. Leur rôle devait s'affirmer sous les Chen. Cela ne fut cependant pas suffisant pour sécuriser la position des empereurs, puisque même si les aristocrates furent écartés des luttes pour le pouvoir, celles-ci reposèrent surtout sur les membres du clan impérial, qui disposaient de l'essentiel des forces militaires, et sur les généraux de basse extraction les plus talentueux qui pouvaient revendiquer l'exercice effectif du pouvoir ou même renverser le clan impérial. Ce fut le cas de Chen Baxian, qui débuta sa carrière dans l'administration locale pour parvenir grâce à l'exercice de commandements militaires importants jusqu'au sommet de l’État, en désignant le dernier empereur des Liang puis en fondant la dynastie Chen (trajectoire connue avant lui par les autres généraux fondateurs des dynasties méridionales, Liu Yu et Xiao Daocheng, également issus de la petite notabilité locale).

Jiankang 
thumb|Plan schématique de Jiankang (Nankin) sous les dynasties du Sud, d'après les textes de l'époque.

Jiankang, l'actuelle Nankin, était la capitale des dynasties méridionales depuis l'époque du royaume de Wu, au . Son développement avait surtout été initié sous les Jin orientaux, dans la première moitié du . Elle fut reconstruite après une rébellion destructrice dans les années 330-332, sur un plan qui devait subsister par la suite. Elle profita de la prospérité du Sud pour croître considérablement et devenir une des plus grandes cités au Monde, puisqu'il a été estimé que sa population aurait pu atteindre le million d'habitants dans la première moitié du , sous les Liang, avant le siège et les destructions de 548-549 qui sonnèrent le glas de sa prospérité. 

L'aspect de Jiankang sous les Liang n'est connu que par les textes. Ils indiquent qu'il s'agissait d'une vaste cité d'une forme rectangulaire, établie à distance de la rivière Qinhuai, un affluent du Yangzi, situé au sud, rejoint par d'autres voies secondaires traversant la ville, et au nord-ouest du lac de la Tortue Noire (Xuanwu). Son plan reprenait le modèle des plus anciennes cités impériales, à commencer par Luoyang. Depuis les Qi du Sud, son enceinte était en terre damée, avec sans doute un revêtement en briques, percée par plusieurs portes monumentales. La cité palatiale, elle-même protégée par une enceinte double puis triplée par Wudi des Liang, occupait un vaste espace dans sa partie centre-nord. Elle avait été détruite par un incendie en 500-501, et reconstruite dans les dernières années des Qi du Sud, et disposait de somptueux palais et parcs, dont certains furent restaurés et agrandis par Wudi : les portes et tours furent élevées d'un niveau, le pavillon du Faîte Suprême (Taiji) doté d'une travée supplémentaire (ce qui porta leur nombre à 13). L'espace résidentiel s'étendait à l'origine vers le Sud. L'axe principal de la cité était la voie impériale reliant la cité-palais à la rivière Qinghuai, où elle rejoignait le temples des Ancêtres dynastiques, qui fut doté d'une nouvelle terrasse sous le règne de Wudi, celui dédié au Sol et au Grain, l'Académie impériale, puis la porte et le pont de l'Oiseau écarlate, long d'environ 125 mètres et large de 25, permettant de franchir la rivière et d'accéder plus au Sud aux espaces sacrificiels destinés au Ciel. Les berges autour du pont, aménagées de digues par Wudi afin de protéger des crues, étaient un espace de transit majeur. Les voies de la cité murée étaient sans doute en damier, tandis que celles des faubourgs, qui s'étaient considérablement étendus dans toutes les directions, devaient avoir un tracé irrégulier. Les alentours de la rivière étaient donc essentiellement peuplés par les couches basses et moyennes de la population, tandis que l'élite résidait dans la partie nord de la ville, protégée par une enceinte, autour de la cité impériale, et dans des manoirs situés dans la région du Bas-Yangzi à proximité de la capitale. Plusieurs marchés situés le long des berges de la Qinghuai ou desservis par des chenaux concentraient l'intense activité commerciale de la ville. L'essor du bouddhisme se voyait également dans le paysage urbain, marqué par la présence de temples (500 suivant les textes postérieurs), les plus importants disposant de pagodes. Enfin, de nombreux parcs, les plus importants étant les parcs impériaux, avait été construits dans l'agglomération.

L'essor économique du Sud 

Jiankang était une cité devant son développement à la présence de l'administration impériale, mais aussi et de plus en plus à son activité économique, surtout commerciale et artisanale, les espaces agricoles étant peu nombreux dans la ville et relégués plus loin dans sa province. La prospérité de Jiankang dépendait aussi de celui de sa province, Yangzhou, le Bas-Yangzi, dont l'agriculture et l'artisanat s'étaient développés, notamment dans le zones de San-Wu et de Guiji (aujourd'hui Shaoxing), au sud-est, où les élites disposaient de domaines, commençant à développer des cultures commerciales, et un artisanat également destiné à la commercialisation (céramique, laque, étoffes, papier, forges). Certains personnages devinrent d'importants hommes d'affaires, se livrant au commerce ou à l'usure, à l'image de Xiao Hong (473-526), frère de Wudi, qui s'enrichit en se livrant au prêt immobilier sur gages dans la capitale, suscitant des critiques au sein même de son clan, marquées par la publication d'un pamphlet dénonçant l'avarice. Le nombre de marchés existant dans la ville semble avoir été considérable, car il ne fut apparemment pas limité par le pouvoir impérial comme cela était pourtant d'usage dans les capitales chinoises antiques et médiévales. Ce commerce profitait de la prospérité de la région de Jiankang, mais aussi de celle des provinces plus lointaines de l'empire et du commerce international, essentiellement celui avec les pays situés plus au Sud, en Asie du Sud-Est et en direction de l'Océan indien, développement qui profita également à des cités portuaires situées au sud de l'empire, en premier lieu Canton, où le commerce générait des revenus fiscaux considérables pour l’État. Certaines villes de l'intérieur ont également connu un essor et généré d'importants revenus fiscaux, comme Chengdu, capitale du Sichuan, qui prospérait grâce au commerce avec les autres provinces méridionales et le Nord.

Si les troubles de la fin des Liang marquèrent un coup d'arrêt pour la prospérité de Jiangkang et sa région, qui subirent d'importantes dévastations et ne connurent pas réellement de reprise sous la brève dynastie Chen, les dynasties du Sud posèrent les bases de l'expansion démographique et économique des régions méridionales qui devait être un phénomène majeur de la période de la dynastie Tang.

Aspects culturels

Religion : courants, écrits, arts 
thumb|L'entrée de l'empereur Wu des Liang dans la communauté bouddhique. Peinture murale de la période Ming (). Musée Guimet.

La période de dynastie Liang est un âge d'or du bouddhisme chinois, marqué par la personnalité de l'empereur Wudi, qui fut un fervent bouddhiste. Certes ses prédécesseurs des dynasties du Nord (notamment le prince de Jingling sous les Qi du Sud) avaient déjà témoigné de leurs faveurs envers cette religion, mais il alla bien plus loin, faisant du bouddhisme une religion d’État. Il organisa un vaste programme de collecte de textes sacrés (sutras), qu'il envoyait parfois chercher dans des pays étrangers, puis la rédaction de catalogues et d'anthologies de textes, d'encyclopédies bouddhistes, rédigea lui-même des commentaires, et réunit à plusieurs organisa des discussions religieuses. Si l'on en juge par ses écrits et ceux de son cercle, l'empereur était favorable au courant de l'« école du nirvana », dont le texte de base est le Sutra du Nirvana, qui fut promue en Chine par le moine Daosheng (360-434), qui avait une approche universaliste du salut bouddhiste, chaque homme ayant dans son esprit un embryon de ce qui pouvait faire de lui un Bouddha, qui ne demandait qu'à atteindre l'illumination de façon subite, et non graduelle comme le voulaient les autres tendances. Son soutien à l'essor du bouddhisme fut marqué par plusieurs réformes rituelles, comme celle de 517 quand il supprima du culte ancestral les sacrifices sanglants traditionnels, remplacés par des offrandes « pures » non sanglantes, et fit fermer les monastères taoïstes, leur clergé rendu à la vie civile. Il chercha à se donner un statut au sein de la communauté bouddhiste en se faisant proclamer bodhisattva en 519, puis recteur de la communauté bouddhiste, en se présentant comme le successeur (et la réincarnation) de l'illustre empereur indien Ashoka, grand promoteur du bouddhisme, faisant restaurer un monastère qui lui était dédié, et fit plusieurs fois « don de sa personne » à la communauté bouddhiste, devenant moine au monastère Tongtai de Jiankang en 547 et 549 selon les textes médiévaux. Cette politique ne fut pas sans susciter des réactions négatives jusque dans le clergé bouddhiste, qui n'appréciait pas forcément de voir l'empereur être doté d'un tel prestige religieux alors qu'il restait laïc. Wudi organisa plusieurs grandes assemblées réunissant des milliers de croyants laïcs, pour mettre en place des réformes religieuses, promouvoir le culte de reliques, et ce fut l'occasion de consécration de monastères, de stupas, de statues, et de nombreux dons dont les produits furent recueillis par des Trésoreries qu'il avait créées. 

Le bouddhisme connut de ce fait un essor sans précédent à cette période. Jiankang disposait selon les textes médiévaux de 500 temples, le plus important étant le temple Tongtai, disposant d'une pagode de neuf étages, et il y en avait plusieurs centaines dans le reste de l'empire. Cette architecture en bois a complètement disparu, de même que les formes d'art religieux de cette période, avant tout les statues et les peintures murales des temples. On sait par les textes que le plus illustre peintre de la période, Zhang Sengyou, avait réalisé de tels décors qui suscitaient l'admiration de ses contemporains. Il ne resterait de ses travaux que des copies de ses peintures sur rouleaux, encore que l'origine du modèle de celles-ci soient discutées ; c'est ainsi le cas d'un manuscrit illustré représentant sous forme humaine les cinq planètes et les vingt-huit constellations, ici un sujet astrologique emprunté au répertoire mythologique taoïste. 

Le seul témoignage de sanctuaire bouddhiste de cette époque subsiste dans les faubourgs de Nankin, sur le Mont Qixia, où avaient été creusées depuis les années 480, sous les Qi du Sud, à l'initiative de riches laïcs puis de membres de la famille impériale, des grottes servant de lieu de culte bouddhiste, suivant un modèle importé depuis l'Inde, et très populaire à la même époque dans le Nord (Yungang, Longmen). Sous les Liang, le site fut étendu à deux reprises, dans la première puis la seconde moitié de la dynastie. Les autres témoignages les plus importants sur l'art bouddhiste méridional de l'ère des Liang proviennent du monastère de Wanfosi à Chengdu, dans le Sichuan, qui a livré de remarquables stèles renvoyant aux thèmes en vogue du bouddhisme de l'époque, comme la Terre pure d'Amitabha, Maitreya, et une représentation du Bouddha qui selon l'inscription l'accompagnant est « dans le style d'Ashoka ». Le style artistique de ces stèles, et des statues de bouddhas et bodhisattvas provenant de ce même site, sont souvent marquées par les influences des écoles de sculpture de l'Inde des Gupta.

Plusieurs moines bouddhistes produisirent des écrits à finalité religieuse, à l'image des Biographies des Moines éminents (Gaoseng zhuan) de Huijiao (497-554). Un autre moine, Sengyou (445-518), rédigea un important catalogue des écritures bouddhistes traduites, la Collection de notes concernant la traduction du Tripitaka (Chu sanzang jiji), citant plus de  textes, et une collection d'écrits bouddhistes dus à des moines et des laïcs, la Propagation de la Lumière (Hongming ji), source inestimable pour la connaissance de la religion de cette période. Parmi les écrits commandés par Wudi, on compte des Mémoires de Bouddha (Fo Ji) dont la préface fut rédigée par le poète et conseiller impérial Shen Yue, lui-même un ardent bouddhiste, et la première encyclopédie sur le bouddhisme.

Pour autant, les autres tendances religieuses ne firent pas l'objet de persécutions systématiques. Wudi prit ainsi des mesures en faveur de la restauration des études des classiques confucéens en ouvrant des écoles à cette fin et en donnant plus de poids aux examens impériaux. Les confucianistes animèrent les débats anti-bouddhistes portant sur l'immortalité de l'âme (défendue par les bouddhistes) ou sa destructibilité (défendue par les confucianistes), qui existaient depuis le siècle précédent. Fan Zhen (450-515) rédigea un traité sur De la destructibilité de l'esprit (Shen mie lun), polémique qui fut débattue à la cour de Wudi, qui produit lui-même une réponse, L'esprit est indestructible (Shen bu mie). Quant à Xun Ji, il estimait dans son Mémoire sur le bouddhisme que les précédentes dynasties du Sud devaient leur brièveté à leur soutien au bouddhisme, qui aurait complètement déstructuré la société ; ce violent réquisitoire ne fut pas aussi bien reçu par Wudi que ceux de ses prédécesseurs, et il fut mis à mort en 547. Wudi, malgré sa politique anti-taoïste qui entraîna la suite de nombreux moines de cette religion, aida le taoïste Tao Hongjing (456-536) à s'établir dans l'ermitage du Maoshan. Ce personnage rédigea pourtant un traité défavorable au bouddhisme, le Traité sur les Barbares et les Chinois (Yi Xia lun), qui comme son nom l'indique reproche à cette religion son origine étrangère. Il fut surtout un des principaux acteurs de la constitution de l'école de la « Haute pureté » (Shangqing), par la rédaction de son principal ouvrage, le Zhengao (Déclarations de (l'homme) vrai), ouvrage relatant avec des commentaires la révélation faite au fondateur de ce courant, Yang Xi, qui aurait vécu dans la seconde moitié du . Wudi soutint également le culte de la divinité chamanique Jiang Ziwen, un des esprits les plus vénérés de la région de la capitale, même s'il imposa qu'on cessât de lui vouer des sacrifices sanglants et tenta de rendre sa vénération plus en accord avec le bouddhisme.

Lettrés et belles-lettres 

L'empereur Wudi fut un grand promoteur des études lettrées. Il réorganisa l'enseignement de l'Académie impériale et élargit largement le nombre d'étudiants qui y étaient formés, et finança plusieurs écoles à la capitale, dont une destinée aux princes de la famille impériale, ainsi que d'autres écoles dans les grandes villes provinciales. Par ailleurs il accueillait à la cour des lettrés, leur demandant notamment de composer des poèmes, les plus méritants recevant des gratifications, et prit lui-même la plume à de nombreuses reprises, notamment dans le cadre des débats religieux, même s'il fut également un promoteur des études des classiques confucéens. De la même manière que pour l'administration, nombre des lettrés dont il assura la promotion étaient des gentilshommes de rang inférieur certains étant même issus de lignages autochtones du Sud. Shen Yue (441-513 ; on lui doit notamment la mise en évidence de l'existence des quatre tons dans la langue chinoise), issu d'un lignage méridional et qui disposait déjà d'une grande renommée après avoir fait partie du cercle littéraire du prince de Jingling des Qi du Sud dans les années 483-493 (l'ère Yongming), et Ren Fang furent parmi les principaux lettrés sur lesquels il s'appuya au début de son règne. Ceux-ci firent profiter à leur tour de leur statut auprès de l'empereur pour promouvoir d'autres lettrés de même extraction sociale qu'ils accueillaient dans leurs cercles littéraires, comme les frères Dao Gai et Dao Qia qui étaient dans l'entourage de Ren Fang et furent remarqués par l'empereur. Les princes Xiao Tong (501-531), Xiao Gang et Xiao Yi, fils Wudi, furent tout aussi dédiés que leur père à la promotion des belles-lettres, participant au mouvement de promotion de lettrés, de collection de manuscrits et de compilation de textes qui fut important à cette période. Il a pu être proposé qu'ils aient constitué des écoles littéraires rivales, le premier étant plutôt « conservateur » et les deux autres plus « avant-gardistes » (par leur promotion de la poésie de cour), mais dans les faits il apparaitrait plutôt qu'ils aient eu des goûts voisins, appréciant les mêmes poètes. Sous les auspices impériaux, les collections de la Bibliothèque impériale furent alors dotées d'une grande quantité de manuscrits, plus que sous les dynasties précédentes, et les collections privées furent également plus étoffées. Wudi avait repris et porté à son paroxysme une idée qui était déjà existante sous les dynasties méridionales précédentes, selon laquelle les cercles lettrés de Jiankang étaient les dépositaires de la tradition lettrées chinoise, face au Nord « barbare » dont la culture était vue comme moins raffinée, ne retenant de celle-ci que les « chants du Nord » liés à la culture nomade et à la virilité guerrière attribuée aux peuples du Nord. Cette conception d'un Sud plus raffiné culturellement triompha sous les Sui et les Tang, ce qui explique pourquoi la tradition littéraire méridionale a été plus valorisée et préservée par la suite, tandis que celle du Nord a été délaissée.

Parmi les œuvres marquantes de la période figurent des anthologies littéraires reprenant des œuvres des périodes précédentes. La plus célèbre est le Wenxuan (Choix littéraire ou Florilège), compilé par le prince Xiao Tong, qui présente une sélection de poèmes « rhapsodiques » (fu) et « réguliers » (shi) et de textes en prose classés par genre. Le Yutai xinyong (Nouveaux chants des terrasses de jade), compilé par le poète Xu Ling (507-583), peut-être à la demande du prince Xiao Gang, est une collection de poèmes regroupant surtout des compilations courtes, pentasyllabes, très prisées à cette période, relevant de la poésie de cour et destinée par son auteur à divertir les femmes de la cour impériale. Dans un autre registre, le Hongming ji (Propagation de la lumière) est une anthologie d'écrits bouddhistes.

La « poésie de palais » (gongti shi), mise en avant dans les Nouveaux chants des terrasses de jade et promue par le prince Xiao Gang et son entourage, notamment les poètes Xu Ling et Xu Ying qui ont donné son autre nom au genre, le « style Xu-Yu », connut une grande vogue à Jiankang et dans les villes provinciales. Ce style est souvent caractérisé d'ornemental, avant tout porté sur l'aspect formel. Marqué par les idées bouddhistes, notamment sur la méditation, l'illusion et l'illumination, il s'attache en fait à révéler et immortaliser ce qui est caché parmi ce qui peut être observé visuellement. Les poèmes en prose de type fu continuèrent à être prisés, dans des compositions longues ou d'autres plus courtes, plus originales.

La critique littéraire connu également un développement important, avec la rédaction de deux ouvrages majeurs du genre, quoi qu'ayant rencontré un faible écho à l'époque. Le Wenxin diaolong (quelque chose comme « Le cœur de la littérature et la sculpture des dragons ») de Liu Xie (465-520), lettré issu d'un lignage en déclin qui passa de longue années à étudier dans un monastère bouddhiste avant d'occuper des charges administratives de second rang, comprend une tentative de classification de la production littéraire en une trentaine de genres, suivie d'une analyse de concepts littéraires (processus de création, style et procédés rhétorique, réception des œuvres, etc.). Cette œuvre fut jugée peu importante à l'époque, et fut surtout reconnue à l'époque contemporaine. Le Shipin (Notation de la poésie) de Zhong Rong (468-518), autre lettré n'ayant occupé que des fonctions secondaires, propose une critique et une évaluation des qualités de poètes, principalement choisis parmi ceux de la période de division.

Suivant la tradition postérieure, c'est également sous la dynastie Liang qu'aurait été composé le Classique des Mille Caractères (Qianzi wen), par Zhou Xingsi à la demande de l'empereur Wu pour servir à l'éducation de ses fils. C'est un manuel destiné à l'apprentissage de la calligraphie, s'inspirant avant tout du tracé des caractères par l'illustre calligraphe Wang Xizhi (321-379). Cet ouvrage devait connaître un grand succès sous la dynastie Tang, devenant un des ouvrages de base pour l'apprentissage de l'écriture chinoise et la calligraphie.

Les événements accompagnant la chute de la dynastie Liang (prise de Jiankang en 549, puis celle de Jiangling en 554) sonnèrent le glas de cette période de création littéraire, avec la mort des poètes et mécènes de la famille impériale (Xiao Gang et Xiao Yi), et l'exil vers le Nord de plusieurs des importants lettrés de la période, souvent emmenés captifs dans les capitales du Nord, Chang'an et Ye, à l'image des poètes Xu Ling, Yu Ying et Shen Jiong et d'autres lettrés comme Yan Zhitui, qui furent plusieurs à s'inspirer de ces années de chaos dans leurs œuvres (à l'image de la Lamentation pour le Sud, long fu de Yu Ying). Ils exercèrent une forte influence sur la littérature des dernières dynasties du Nord, tandis que la tradition lettrée méridionale subsista tant bien que mal sous les Chen grâce à certains rentrés d'exil (Xu Ling, Shen Jiong) et d'autres qui avaient été formés sous les derniers temps des Liang (Yin Keng).

Arts et architecture funéraires 

Peu de témoignages de l'art de la dynastie Liang subsistent. La sculpture est représentée par les statues, stèles et piliers délimitant les bords des « voies des esprits » (shendao) conduisant aux tombes des membres de la famille impériale, qui avaient le privilège de disposer de tels aménagements : en 507, un édit autorisa les notables à placer à l'entrée de leur tombe un pilier en pierre indiquant leur nom et leur rang, mais leur interdit les statues humaines ou animales et les stèles. L'ensemble le plus complet préservé est celui de la tombe du prince Xiao Xiu, mort en 518, située comme d'autres tombes princières dans le district de Qixia, dans les faubourgs nord-ouest de Nankin. Leur entrée comprend des statues de « chimères », immortalisées au début du  par Victor Segalen, comme il s'en trouvait déjà sous les dynasties méridionales précédentes. Sous les Liang, il s'agit de « lions » (shizi), représentés la gueule ouverte et la langue pendante, avec une paire d'ailes, et un décor relativement simple sur l'arrière, qui contraste avec ceux des périodes précédentes, plus chargés. Venaient ensuite des stèles, supportées par une statue en forme de tortue. Les inscriptions qu'elles portaient sont en général trop érodées pour être lues. Les voies des esprits étaient également marquées par des colonnes à chapiteaux supportant une statue de chimère en miniature, et une inscription donnant le nom de l'occupant de la tombe à laquelle elles conduisent ; sur celle de Xiao Jing, le nom est écrit à l'envers, comme pour être lu dans un miroir, pour une raison indéterminée. À leur base se trouvaient des petites statues représentant des sortes de dragons. Les quelques tombes princières explorées (aucune tombe d'empereur n'ayant fait l'objet de fouilles), comme celles de Xiao Xiu et Xiao Rong, sont situées sous un tertre et ont un plan en forme de « jarre » : elles sont constituées d'une vaste chambre principale de forme grossièrement ovoïde, reliée à un couloir d'accès fermé par plusieurs portes de pierre.

Liste des empereurs

Notes

Références

Bibliographie 

 
 
 
 
 

Catégorie:Dynasties du Nord et du Sud
Liang
Catégorie:Dynastie Liang, In the War of the Sixth Coalition (March 1813 – May 1814), sometimes known in Germany as the War of Liberation, a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Sweden, Spain and a number of German States defeated France and drove Napoleon into exile on Elba.  After the disastrous French invasion of Russia of 1812 in which they had been forced to support France, Prussia and Austria joined Russia, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Portugal and the rebels in Spain who were already at war with France.

The War of the Sixth Coalition saw major battles at Lützen, Bautzen, and Dresden. The even larger Battle of Leipzig (also known as the Battle of Nations) was the largest battle in European history before World War I. Ultimately, Napoleon's earlier setbacks in Portugal, Spain, and Russia proved to be the seeds of his undoing. With their armies reorganized, the allies drove Napoleon out of Germany in 1813 and invaded France in 1814. The Allies defeated the remaining French armies, occupied Paris, and forced Napoleon to abdicate and go into exile. The French monarchy was revived by the allies, who handed rule to the heir of the House of Bourbon in the Bourbon Restoration.

The "Hundred Days" War of the Seventh Coalition was triggered in 1815 when Napoleon escaped from his captivity on Elba and returned to power in France.  He was defeated again for the final time at Waterloo, ending the Napoleonic Wars.

Background: Invasion of Russia

In June 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia to compel Emperor Alexander I to remain in the Continental System. The Grande Armée, consisting of as many as 650,000 men (roughly half of whom were French, with the remainder coming from allies or subject areas), crossed the Neman River on 23 June 1812. Russia proclaimed a Patriotic War, while Napoleon proclaimed a "Second Polish War".  But against the expectations of the Poles, who supplied almost 100,000 troops for the invasion force, and having in mind further negotiations with Russia, he avoided any concessions toward Poland. Russian forces fell back, destroying everything potentially of use to the invaders until giving battle at Borodino (7 September) where the two armies fought a devastating battle. Despite the fact that France won a tactical victory, the battle was inconclusive. Following the battle the Russians withdrew, thus opening the road to Moscow. By 14 September, the French had occupied Moscow but found the city practically empty. Alexander I (despite having almost lost the war by Western European standards) refused to capitulate, leaving the French in the abandoned city of Moscow with little food or shelter (large parts of Moscow had burned down) and winter approaching. In these circumstances, and with no clear path to victory, Napoleon was forced to withdraw from Moscow.

So began the disastrous Great Retreat, during which the retreating army came under increasing pressure due to lack of food, desertions, and increasingly harsh winter weather, all while under continual attack by the Russian army led by Commander-in-Chief Mikhail Kutuzov, and other militias. Total losses of the Grand Army were at least 370,000 casualties as a result of fighting, starvation and the freezing weather conditions, and 200,000 captured. By November, only 27,000 fit soldiers re-crossed the Berezina River. Napoleon now left his army to return to Paris and prepare a defence of Poland against the advancing Russians. The situation was not as dire as it might at first have seemed; the Russians had also lost around 400,000 men, and their army was similarly depleted. However, they had the advantage of shorter supply lines and were able to replenish their armies with greater speed than the French, especially because Napoleon's losses of cavalry and wagons were irreplaceable.

Formation of the Sixth Coalition

Russia, Britain and Sweden form an alliance 

At the beginning of 1812 Britain had already been at war with France for eight years, and had been fighting alongside the Portuguese and Spanish in the Peninsular War for more than three years.
Russia and Sweden, which had opposed Napoleon up to 1807 and 1810 respectively, had been forced to join his Continental System against Britain, but continued to trade secretly with her.
On 9 January 1812, French troops occupied Swedish Pomerania to end the illegal trade with the United Kingdom from Sweden, which was in violation of the Continental System. Swedish estates were confiscated and Swedish officers and soldiers were taken as prisoners. In response, Sweden declared neutrality and signed the secret Treaty of Saint Petersburg with Russia against France and Denmark–Norway on 5 April. On 18 July, the Treaty of Örebro formally ended the wars between Britain and Sweden and Britain and Russia, forming an alliance between Russia, Britain, and Sweden. When Napoleon marched on Moscow in June 1812, neither Britain nor Sweden was able to give direct military support to Russia, though that same month the British and Spanish armies had advanced into central Spain, defeating the French at Salamanca and capturing Madrid, tying down a French army of 230,000. Britain also helped subsidize the Russian war effort while Swedish Crown Prince Charles John, formerly French Marshal Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, had struck up a friendship with Alexander, and gave him moral support, strategic and tactical advice on how to defeat the French, as well as valuable insights on Napoleon himself (having had much contact with Napoleon as a member of the extended Imperial Family). However Russia bore the brunt of the French onslaught on her territory alone.

After the French Grande Armée retreated from Moscow on 18/19 October 1812 and suffered heavy casualties due to extreme cold, food shortages and repeated Russian attacks, Napoleon did not seem to be as invincible as before. On 14 December, the last French troops had left Russian soil, and Paris' allies were seriously considering rebellion and joining the Tsar's side.

Defection of Prussia 
The Convention of Tauroggen was a truce signed 30 December 1812 at Tauroggen (now Tauragė, Lithuania), between Generalleutnant Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg on behalf of his Prussian troops (who had been compelled to augment the Grande Armée during the invasion of Russia), and by General Hans Karl von Diebitsch of the Russian Army. According to the Treaty of Tilsit (9 July 1807), Prussia had to support Napoleon's invasion of Russia. This resulted in some Prussians leaving their army to avoid serving the French, like Carl von Clausewitz, who joined Russian service. When Yorck's immediate French superior Marshal MacDonald, retreated before the corps of Diebitsch, Yorck found himself isolated. As a soldier his duty was to break through, but as a Prussian patriot his position was more difficult. He had to judge whether the moment was favorable for starting a war of liberation; and, whatever might be the enthusiasm of his junior staff-officers, Yorck had no illusions as to the safety of his own head, and negotiated with Clausewitz. The Convention of Tauroggen armistice, signed by Diebitsch and Yorck, "neutralized" the Prussian corps without consent of their king. The news was received with the wildest enthusiasm in Prussia, but the Prussian Court dared not yet throw off the mask, and an order was despatched suspending Yorck from his command pending a court-martial. Diebitsch refused to let the bearer pass through his lines, and the general was finally absolved when the Treaty of Kalisch (28 February 1813) definitely ranged Prussia on the side of the Allies.

Meanwhile, Austria's alliance with France ended in February 1813, and Austria then moved to a position of armed neutrality. It would not declare war on France until half a year later, in August 1813.

Declarations of war 
On 3 March 1813, after the United Kingdom agreed to Swedish claims to Norway, Sweden entered an alliance with the United Kingdom and declared war against France, liberating Swedish Pomerania shortly thereafter. On 17 March, King Frederick William III of Prussia published a call to arms to his subjects, An Mein Volk, and declared war on France as well. The first armed conflict occurred on 5 April in the Battle of Möckern, where combined Prusso-Russian forces defeated French troops.

Meanwhile, Napoleon withdrew some 20,000 troops from the ongoing Peninsular War to reinforce his position in Central Europe, which left his Iberian forces weakened and vulnerable to Anglo–Spanish–Portuguese attacks. On 17 March 1813, his brother King Joseph Bonaparte of Spain withdrew from Madrid, a clear sign of losing control. Wellington led a 123,000-strong army across northern Spain, taking Burgos in late May, and decisively defeating Jourdan at the Battle of Vitoria on 21 June. Marshal Soult failed to turn the tide in his large-scale Battle of the Pyrenees (25 July to 2 August).

In June, the United Kingdom formally entered the coalition. Initially, Austria remained loyal to France, and foreign minister Metternich aimed to mediate in good faith a peace between France and its continental enemies, but it became apparent that the price was to be the dismantling of the Confederation of the Rhine, the Napoleon-controlled union of all German states aside from Prussia and Austria, and the return to France's pre-Revolutionary borders. Napoleon was not interested in any such compromise that would in effect end his empire, so Austria joined the allies and declared war on France in August 1813.

War in Germany

Spring campaign of 1813 

Napoleon vowed that he would create a new army as large as that he had sent into Russia, and quickly built up his forces in the east from 30,000 to 130,000 and eventually to 400,000. Napoleon inflicted 40,000 casualties on the Allies at Lützen (near Leipzig, 2 May) and Bautzen (20–21 May 1813) but his army lost about the same number of men during those encounters. Both battles involved total forces of over 250,000 – making them among the largest battles of the Napoleonic Wars to that point in time. The lack of horses for Napoleon's cavalry did not allow him to follow-up his victories with a vigorous pursuit, robbing him of decisive results.

Despite losing as many men as the Allies, Napoleon's victories had greatly demoralized the Prussians and Russians. Losses were heavy, and the Russian and Prussian forces were in shambles. Both Allied armies were in dire need of substantial reinforcements en route from the east and from Prussian recruiting depots. Many Russian officers yearned to return to Russia having achieved their goal of ridding Russia of the French. Frederick William of Prussia had always viewed a renewed war with France as dubious, and the two defeats at Lützen and Bautzen had led him to reconsider peace. Moreover, the Prussians and the Russians were hopeful of bringing the Austrians into the war and a break in the fighting would give them time to negotiate with Vienna. Another victory by Napoleon may very well have led to a favorable peace as not only were the Russians and Prussians at their nadir, but the Austrians, with their 150,000 troops would have seen a decisive French victory as ample proof that another war with France would be most undesirable.

However, despite the two victories over the Prussians and Russians, French losses had been heavy and a chronic lack of horses for his cavalry meant that Napoleon could not fully exploit his victories and inflict a decisive defeat in the same vein as Austerlitz or Friedland. Napoleon's new army was filled with fresh conscripts, lacked many necessities and was exhausted from their long march from France and Napoleon's rapid maneuvering. The French were "in dire need of a period of reconstruction and recuperation" and Napoleon needed time to acquire horses for his depleted cavalry and bring up more reinforcements. Therefore, Napoleon was amiable to the armistice offered by the Allies despite the Allies being in a grave condition. During the armistice, a disastrous interview with Austrian Chancellor Metternich, in which Napoleon heaped recriminations on the Austrians and threw his hat to the ground and stamped it with his foot, ensured that Austria would join the coalition against France. Napoleon did not know it at the time, but the armistice would turn out to be a grave mistake as the Allies gained far more from the suspension of hostilities than he did.

Meanwhile, on 19 May 1813, a Swedish corps of 15,000 occupied Hamburg without orders from Bernadotte, following a Danish declaration that they would hold the city for Napoleon, irrevocably binding Denmark to France, an action that would guarantee full Swedish cooperation in North Germany. The Swedish occupation of Hamburg came as welcome news to the Allies, insofar as holding a wealthy center of finance was a blow against Napoleon. However, Bernadotte's initial misgivings at extending his troops so far from the Allied lines were validated when Marshal Davout approached Hamburg with a large French force, intent on retaking the city. The Swedes quietly withdrew on 26 May and Davout would occupy the city until after Napoleon's abdication in 1814. It would be the last major action of the Spring before the Armistice of Pläswitz.

Armistice of Pläswitz; Austria joins the coalition 

The belligerents declared an armistice from 4 June 1813 which lasted until 13 August, during which time both sides attempted to recover from approximately a quarter of a million losses since April. During this time Allied negotiations finally brought Austria out in open opposition to France (like Prussia, Austria had moved from nominal ally of France in 1812 to armed neutral in 1813). Two principal Austrian armies deployed in Bohemia and Northern Italy, adding 300,000 troops to the Allied armies. In total the Allies now had around 800,000 frontline troops in the German theatre, with a strategic reserve of 350,000. As a consequence of the armistice, the French lost their initial advantage in numbers as the Austrians, and Russia's huge manpower reserves, were brought to the front.

Napoleon succeeded in bringing the total imperial forces in the region up to around 650,000 (although only 250,000 were under his direct command, with another 120,000 under Nicolas Charles Oudinot and 30,000 under Davout). The Confederation of the Rhine furnished Napoleon with the bulk of the remainder of the forces, with Saxony and Bavaria as principal contributors. In addition, to the south, Murat's Kingdom of Naples and Eugène de Beauharnais's Kingdom of Italy had a combined total of 100,000 men under arms. In Spain an additional 150–200,000 French troops were being steadily beaten back by Spanish and British forces numbering around 150,000. Thus in total around 900,000 French troops were opposed in all theatres by somewhere around a million Allied troops (not including the strategic reserve being formed in Germany).

During the armistice, three Allied sovereigns, Alexander of Russia, Frederick Wilhelm of Prussia, and Bernadotte of Sweden (by then Regent of the Kingdom due to his adoptive father's illness) met at Trachenberg Castle in Silesia to coordinate the war effort. Allied staffs began creating a plan for the campaign wherein Bernadotte once again put to use his fifteen years of experience as a French general as well as his familiarity with Napoleon. The result was the Trachenberg Plan, authored primarily by Bernadotte and the Austrian Chief of Staff, Field-Marshal Lieutenant Joseph Radetzky, that sought to wear down the French using a Fabian Strategy, avoiding direct combat with Napoleon, engaging and defeating his marshals whenever possible and slowly encircling the French with three independent armies until the French Emperor could be cornered and brought to battle against vastly superior numbers.

Following the conference, the Allies stood up their three armies: The Army of Silesia, with 95,000 Prussians and Russians, commanded by Field Marshal Gebhard von Blücher; the Army of the North, 120,000 Swedes, Russians, Prussians, and German troops from Mecklenburg, the Hanseatic region and North Germany, under the independent command of Sweden's Crown Prince Bernadotte; and the Army of Bohemia, the primary Allied force in the field, with which the Allied sovereigns Alexander, Francis and Frederick William oversaw the Campaign, numbering 225,000 Austrians, Russians, and Prussians commanded by Prince Karl von Schwarzenberg.

Renewal of hostilities; French losses and defecting allies 

Following the end of the armistice, Napoleon seemed to have regained the initiative at Dresden (26–27 August 1813), where he inflicted one of the most lop-sided losses of the era on the Prussian-Russian-Austrian forces. On 26 August, the Allies under Prince von Schwarzenberg attacked the French garrison in Dresden. Napoleon arrived on the battlefield in the early hours of 27 August with the Guard and other reinforcements and despite being severely outnumbered having only 135,000 men to the Coalition's 215,000, Napoleon chose to attack the Allies. Napoleon turned the Allied Left Flank, and in skillful use of terrain, pinned it against the flooded Weißeritz River and isolated it from the rest of the Coalition Army. He then gave his famed cavalry commander, and King of Naples, Joachim Murat leave to destroy the surrounded Austrians. The day's torrential rain had dampened gunpowder, rendering the Austrians' muskets and cannon useless against the sabers and lances of Murat's Cuirassiers and Lancers who tore the Austrians to shreds, capturing 15 standards and forcing the balance of three divisions, 13,000 men, to surrender.

The Allies were forced to retreat in some disorder having lost nearly 40,000 men to only 10,000 French. However, Napoleon's forces were also hampered by the weather and unable to close the encirclement the Emperor had planned before the Allies narrowly slipped the noose. So while Napoleon had struck a heavy blow against the Allies, several tactical errors had allowed the Allies to withdraw, thus ruining Napoleon's best chance at ending the war in a single battle. Nonetheless, Napoleon had once again inflicted a heavy loss on the primary Allied Army despite being outnumbered and for some weeks after Dresden Schwarzenberg declined to take offensive action.

However at about the same time the French sustained several serious defeats, first at the hands of Bernadotte's Army of the North on 23 August, with Oudinot's thrust towards Berlin beaten back by the Prussians, at Großbeeren. At the Katzbach the Prussians, commanded by Blücher, took advantage of Napoleon's march toward Dresden to attack Marshal MacDonald's Army of the Bober. During a torrential rainstorm on 26 August, and due to conflicting orders and a breakdown of communications, MacDonald's several corps found themselves isolated from one another with many bridges over the Katzback and Neisse rivers destroyed by surging waters. 200,000 Prussians and French collided in a confused battle that degenerated into hand-to-hand combat. However, Blucher and the Prussians rallied their scattered units and attacked an isolated French corps and pinned it against the Katzbach, annihilating it; forcing the French into the raging waters where many drowned. The French suffered 13,000 killed and wounded and 20,000 captured. The Prussians lost but 4,000 men.

Napoleon himself, lacking reliable and numerous cavalry, was unable to prevent the destruction of a whole army corps, which had isolated itself pursuing the enemy following the Battle of Dresden without support, at the Battle of Kulm (29–30 August 1813), losing 13,000 men further weakening his army. Realizing that the Allies would continue to defeat his subordinates, Napoleon began to consolidate his troops to force a decisive battle.

The French then suffered another grievous loss at the hands of Bernadotte's army on 6 September at Dennewitz where Ney was now in command, with Oudinot now as his deputy. The French were once again attempting to capture Berlin, the loss of which Napoleon believed would knock Prussia out of the War. However, Ney blundered into a trap set by Bernadotte and was stopped cold by the Prussians, and then routed when the Crown Prince arrived with his Swedes and a Russian corps on their open flank. This second defeat at the hands of Napoleon's ex-Marshal was catastrophic for the French, with them losing 50 cannon, four Eagles and over 20,000 men. Further losses occurred during the pursuit that evening, and into the following day, as the Swedish and Prussian cavalry took a further 13,000–14,000 French prisoners. Ney retreated to Wittenberg with the remains of his command and made no further attempt at capturing Berlin. Napoleon's bid to knock Prussia out of the War had failed; as had his operational plan to fight the battle of the central position. Having lost the initiative, he was now forced to concentrate his army and seek a decisive battle at Leipzig.

Compounding the heavy military losses suffered at Dennewitz, the French were now losing the support of their German vassal states as well. News of Bernadotte's victory at Dennewitz sent shock waves across Germany, where French rule had become unpopular, inducing Tyrol to rise in rebellion and was the signal for the King of Bavaria to proclaim neutrality and begin negotiations with the Austrians (on the basis of territorial guarantees and Maximillian's retention of his crown) in preparation of joining the Allied cause. A body of Saxon troops had defected to Bernadotte's Army during the battle and Westphalian troops were now deserting King Jerome's army in large numbers. Following a proclamation by the Swedish Crown Prince urging the Saxon Army (Bernadotte had commanded the Saxon Army at the Battle of Wagram and was well liked by them) to come over to the Allied cause, Saxon generals could no longer answer for the fidelity of their troops and the French now considered their remaining German allies unreliable. Later, on 8 October 1813, Bavaria officially ranged itself against Napoleon as a member of the Coalition.

Battle of Nations and the Frankfurt peace proposals 

Napoleon withdrew with around 175,000 troops to Leipzig in Saxony where he thought he could fight a defensive action against the Allied armies converging on him. There, at the so-called Battle of Nations (16–19 October 1813) a French army, ultimately reinforced to 191,000, found itself faced by three Allied armies converging on it, ultimately totalling more than 430,000 troops. Over the following days the battle resulted in a defeat for Napoleon, who however was still able to manage a relatively orderly retreat westwards. However, as the French forces were pulling across the White Elster, the bridge was prematurely blown and 30,000 troops were stranded to be taken prisoner by the Allied forces.

Napoleon defeated an army of his former ally Bavaria at the Battle of Hanau (30–31 October 1813) before pulling what was left of his forces back into France. Meanwhile, Davout's corps continued to hold out in its siege of Hamburg, where it became the last Imperial force east of the Rhine.

The Allies offered peace terms in the Frankfurt proposals in November 1813. Napoleon would remain as Emperor of France, but it would be reduced to its "natural frontiers".  That meant that France could retain control of Belgium, Savoy and the Rhineland (the west bank of the Rhine River), while giving up control of all the rest, including all of Poland, Spain and the Netherlands, and most of Italy and Germany.  Metternich told Napoleon these were the best terms the Allies were likely to offer; after further victories, the terms would be harsher and harsher. Metternich aimed to maintain France as a balance against Russian threats, while ending the highly destabilizing series of wars.

Napoleon, expecting to win the war, delayed too long and lost this opportunity; by December the Allies had withdrawn the offer. When his back was to the wall in 1814 he tried to reopen peace negotiations on the basis of accepting the Frankfurt proposals.  The Allies now had new, harsher terms that included the retreat of France to its 1791 boundaries, which meant the loss of Belgium and the Rhineland (in Germany).  Napoleon adamantly refused.

War in Denmark and Norway
Following the Battle of Leipzig, Bernadotte and his Army of the North parted ways with the rest of the Coalition armies, determined to see the guarantees over the Danish cession of Norway to Sweden enforced. In December 1813, Bernadotte's Army, now some 65,000, composed only of Swedish and Russian troops following the secondment of the Prussian troops to Blücher's army, attacked the Danish Army in Holstein. In a lightning campaign of only two weeks the Swedes subdued the Danes. General Anders Skjöldebrand defeated the Danes at Bornhöved on 7 December 1813. Three days later, the Danish Auxiliary Corps scored a minor victory at Sehested.

However, while the Danish victory managed to ensure the retreat of the main Danish army from immediate destruction, and brought about a three-week armistice, it could not change the course of war. Following a break-down of negotiations, the armistice concluded and on 14 January 1814 Bernadotte invaded Schleswig, swiftly invested and reduced its fortresses and occupied the entire province. The Danes, heavily outnumbered, could not prevent an Allied advance on Jutland or Copenhagen, and sued for peace. It would be the final chapter in the long and bloody history of conflicts between Sweden and Denmark with the former definitively victorious.

On 14 January 1814, the Treaty of Kiel was concluded between Sweden and Denmark–Norway. By the terms of the treaty, the Kingdom of Norway was to be ceded to the King of Sweden. However, the Norwegians rejected this, declaring independence and adopting their own constitution on 17 May. On 27 July, Bernadotte and his Swedish forces (the Russians parted ways after the Danish Campaign) invaded Norway with 70,000 well-trained, well-equipped men, many of whom were veterans of the Leipzig Campaign. Facing them were 30,000 Norwegian militia, who were short on equipment and training but full of patriotic ardor and acquitted themselves well in the face of overwhelming odds. Following a short war, where the Norwegians fought well, winning battles at Lier and Matrand, but could not stop the Swedes from advancing, an armistice (the Convention of Moss) was concluded on 14 August. The terms of Union were generous to the Norwegians as Bernadotte and the Swedes had no wish to inaugurate the union of Sweden and Norway with further bloodshed. Norway agreed to enter into a personal union with Sweden as a separate state with its own constitution and institutions, except for the common king and foreign service. The Union between Sweden and Norway was formally established on 4 November 1814, when the Parliament of Norway adopted the necessary constitutional amendments, and elected Charles XIII of Sweden as King of Norway.

With his primary goal of detaching Norway from Denmark and binding it with Sweden achieved, Bernadotte and his Army of the North played no further major role in the war against the French beyond occupying the Low Countries and masking the French forces still garrisoned in fortresses throughout northern Germany.

Peninsular War

While events unfolded in the East, the Peninsular War in Iberia continued to be Napoleon's "Spanish ulcer" tying down hundreds of thousands of French soldiers. In 1813, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, finally broke the French power in Spain and forced the French to retreat. In a strategic move, Wellington planned to move his supply base from Lisbon to Santander. The Anglo-Portuguese forces swept northwards in late May and seized Burgos; they then outflanked the French army, forcing Joseph Bonaparte into the valley of the River Zadorra. At the Battle of Vitoria, 21 June, the 65,000 French under Joseph were routed by 53,000 British, 27,000 Portuguese and 19,000 Spaniards. Wellington pursued and dislodged the French from San Sebastián, which was sacked and burnt.

The allies chased the retreating French, reaching the Pyrenees in early July. Marshal Soult was given command of the French forces and began a counter-offensive, dealing the allied generals two sharp defeats at the Battle of Maya and the Battle of Roncesvalles. Yet, he was put again onto the defensive by the British army and its Portuguese allies, lost momentum, and finally fled after the allied victory at the Battle of Sorauren (28 and 30 July).

In the Battle of the Pyrenees Wellington fought far from his supply line but won with a mixture of manoeuvre, shock and persistent hounding of the French forces.

On 7 October, after Wellington received news of the reopening of hostilities in Germany, the Coalition allies finally crossed into France, fording the Bidasoa river. On 11 December, a beleaguered and desperate Napoleon agreed to a separate peace with Spain under the Treaty of Valençay, under which he would release and recognize Ferdinand VII as King of Spain in exchange for a complete cessation of hostilities. But the Spanish had no intention of trusting Napoleon, and the fighting continued on into France.

War in France

During the last months of 1813 and into 1814 Wellington led the Peninsular army into south-west France and fought a number of battles against Marshals Soult and Suchet. The Peninsular army gained victories at Vera pass, the Battle of Nivelle, the Battle of Nive near Bayonne (10–14 December 1813), the Battle of Orthez (27 February 1814) and the Battle of Toulouse (10 April).

After retreating from Germany, Napoleon fought a series of battles, including the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube, in France, but was steadily forced back against overwhelming odds.  During the campaign he had issued a decree for 900,000 fresh conscripts, but only a fraction of these were ever raised. In early February Napoleon fought his Six Days' Campaign, in which he won multiple battles against numerically superior enemy forces marching on Paris. However, he fielded less than 80,000 soldiers during this entire campaign against a Coalition force of between 370,000 and 405,000 engaged in the campaign. At the Treaty of Chaumont (9 March) the Allies agreed to preserve the Coalition until Napoleon's total defeat. After defeating the French on the outskirts of Paris, on 31 March the Coalition armies entered the city with Tsar Alexander I at the head of the army followed by the King of Prussia and Prince Schwarzenberg. On 2 April the French Senate passed the Acte de déchéance de l'Empereur, which declared Napoleon deposed.

Abdication and peace
Napoleon was determined to fight on, proposing to march on Paris. His soldiers and regimental officers were eager to fight on. But Napoleon's marshals and senior officers mutinied. On 4 April, Napoleon was confronted by his marshals and senior officers, led by Ney. They told the Emperor that they refused to march. Napoleon asserted that the army would follow him. Ney replied, "The army will follow its chiefs".

Napoleon abdicated on 11 April 1814 and the war officially ended soon after, although some fighting continued until May. The Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed on 11 April 1814 between the continental powers and Napoleon, followed by the Treaty of Paris on 30 May 1814 between France and the Great Powers including Britain. The victors exiled Napoleon to the island of Elba, and restored the Bourbon monarchy in the person of Louis XVIII. The Allied leaders attended Peace Celebrations in England in June, before progressing to the Congress of Vienna (between September 1814 and June 1815), which was held to redraw the map of Europe.

See also 
 Napoleonic Wars
 Peninsular War
 War of the Fifth Coalition
 The Hundred Days or the War of the Seventh Coalition

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading

External links 
 Napoleon, His Armies and Tactics
 Collection of historical eBooks about the War of the Sixth Coalition 

Coalition, 6th
1810s in France
1810s in Europe
Conflicts in 1813
Conflicts in 1814
Coalition Wars
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