===James Lovelock and the Gaia hypothesis===The Gaia theory, proposed by James Lovelock, in his work "Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth", advanced the view that the Earth should be regarded as a single living macro-organism.
Hannan in Freeman ("Population Ecology of Organisations (1977)", American Journal of Sociology) trdita, da se organizacije ne le prilagajajo okolju temveč obstaja tudi okolje, ki izbere ali zavrne populacijo.