# How different LLMs answered PhilPapers 2020 survey

I decided to run a small experiment comparing responses from five AI systems (DeepSeek-R1, GPT-4o, Claude 3.5 Sonnet, Gemini 1.5, and Grok-2) to core philosophical questions from the [PhilPapers 2020 survey](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/design/questions). Each model was prompted identically: ‘How would you answer these philosophical questions if you had opinions on them?’

Questions
---------

*   [A priori knowledge: no or yes?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4814)
*   [Abstract objects: Platonism or nominalism?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4818)
*   [Aesthetic value: objective or subjective?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4822)
*   [Aim of philosophy (which is most important?): wisdom, understanding, truth/knowledge, happiness, or goodness/justice?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4934)
*   [Analytic-synthetic distinction: yes or no?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4826)
*   [Eating animals and animal products (is it permissible to eat animals and/or animal products in ordinary circumstances?): vegetarianism (no and yes), omnivorism (yes and yes), or veganism (no and no)?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4938)
*   [Epistemic justification: internalism or externalism?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4834)
*   [Experience machine (would you enter?): yes or no?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4942)
*   [External world: skepticism, non-skeptical realism, or idealism?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4846)
*   [Footbridge (pushing man off bridge will save five on track below, what ought one do?): don't push or push?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4946)
*   [Free will: compatibilism, no free will, or libertarianism?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4838)
*   [Gender: unreal, biological, social, or psychological?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4950)
*   [God: atheism or theism?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4842)
*   [Knowledge: empiricism or rationalism?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4830)
*   [Knowledge claims: relativism, contextualism, or invariantism?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4850)
*   [Laws of nature: non-Humean or Humean?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4854)
*   [Logic: classical or non-classical?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4858)
*   [Meaning of life: objective, nonexistent, or subjective?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4954)
*   [Mental content: internalism or externalism?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4862)
*   [Meta-ethics: moral anti-realism or moral realism?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4866)
*   [Metaphilosophy: non-naturalism or naturalism?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4870)
*   [Mind: physicalism or non-physicalism?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4874)
*   [Moral judgment: cognitivism or non-cognitivism?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4882)
*   [Moral motivation: externalism or internalism?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4878)
*   [Newcomb's problem: one box or two boxes?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4886)
*   [Normative ethics: consequentialism, virtue ethics, or deontology?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4890)
*   [Perceptual experience: sense-datum theory, representationalism, qualia theory, or disjunctivism?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4894)
*   [Personal identity: biological view, psychological view, or further-fact view?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4898)
*   [Philosophical methods (which methods are the most useful/important?)](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4962)
*   [Philosophical progress (is there any?): a lot, a little, or none?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4958)
*   [Political philosophy: communitarianism, egalitarianism, or libertarianism?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4902)
*   [Proper names: Millian or Fregean?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4906)
*   [Race: unreal, social, or biological?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4966)
*   [Science: scientific realism or scientific anti-realism?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4910)
*   [Teletransporter (new matter): death or survival?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4914)
*   [Time: B-theory or A-theory?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4918)
*   [Trolley problem (five straight ahead, one on side track, turn requires switching, what ought one do?): don't switch or switch?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4922)
*   [Truth: epistemic, correspondence, or deflationary?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4926)
*   [Vagueness: epistemic, semantic, or metaphysical?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4970)
*   [Zombies: inconceivable, conceivable but not metaphysically possible, or metaphysically possible?](https://survey2020.philpeople.org/survey/results/4930)

DeepSeek r1
-----------

1.  **A priori knowledge**: Yes. Some truths (e.g., logical or mathematical) are knowable independently of experience.
2.  **Abstract objects**: Platonism. Mathematical entities seem to exist abstractly, though nominalism offers pragmatic alternatives.
3.  **Aesthetic value**: Subjective, with intersubjective trends. Cultural and individual differences dominate, though some universal principles may emerge.
4.  **Aim of philosophy**: Truth/knowledge and understanding. Philosophy seeks to clarify concepts and explore fundamental truths.
5.  **Analytic-synthetic distinction**: Yes. Despite Quine’s critiques, the distinction remains useful for parsing language.
6.  **Eating animals**: Veganism (no and no). Ethically avoids exploitation, though practical challenges exist.
7.  **Epistemic justification**: Externalism. Reliability of processes matters more than introspective access.
8.  **Experience machine**: No. Authenticity and real-world engagement are prioritized over hedonic simulation.
9.  **External world**: Non-skeptical realism. Trust in perception, barring evidence of deception.
10.  **Footbridge problem**: Don’t push. Deontological ethics rejects using individuals as means.
11.  **Free will**: Compatibilism. Moral responsibility aligns with deterministic frameworks.
12.  **Gender**: Social and psychological. Constructed through societal norms and personal identity.
13.  **God**: Atheism. Lack of empirical evidence tips the balance, though theism remains philosophically debated.
14.  **Knowledge**: Empiricism. Experience grounds knowledge, but reason structures it.
15.  **Knowledge claims**: Contextualism. Standards vary with context, avoiding relativism’s extremes.
16.  **Laws of nature**: Humean. Regularities without metaphysical governance.
17.  **Logic**: Classical. Sufficient for most domains, though non-classical systems have niche applications.
18.  **Meaning of life**: Subjective. Individuals create purpose through personal and communal projects.
19.  **Mental content**: Externalism. Content depends on environmental interaction (e.g., Twin Earth).
20.  **Meta-ethics**: Moral realism. Objective ethical truths exist, though their nature is debated.
21.  **Metaphilosophy**: Naturalism. Philosophy should integrate scientific insights.
22.  **Mind**: Physicalism. Mental states arise from physical processes.
23.  **Moral judgment**: Cognitivism. Moral statements can be truth-apt.
24.  **Moral motivation**: Internalism. Moral beliefs inherently motivate action.
25.  **Newcomb’s problem**: One box. Trust the predictor’s accuracy for maximal utility.
26.  **Normative ethics**: Deontology. Rules (e.g., Kantian imperatives) guide action, even in trolley scenarios.
27.  **Perceptual experience**: Representationalism. Perception constructs world-models.
28.  **Personal identity**: Psychological view. Continuity of consciousness and memory defines self.
29.  **Philosophical methods**: Thought experiments, conceptual analysis, and interdisciplinary dialogue.
30.  **Philosophical progress**: A little. Debates refine ideas, but consensus is rare.
31.  **Political philosophy**: Egalitarianism. Balances liberty with justice and equity.
32.  **Proper names**: Millian. Names refer directly, not via descriptions.
33.  **Race**: Social construct. Biological categories lack scientific basis.
34.  **Science**: Scientific realism. Theories approximate truth about unobservables.
35.  **Teletransporter**: Survival. Psychological continuity ensures identity.
36.  **Time**: B-theory. Time is a dimension without a privileged “now.”
37.  **Trolley problem**: Switch. Consequentialist justification for minimizing harm.
38.  **Truth**: Correspondence theory. Truth aligns with factual states.
39.  **Vagueness**: Semantic. Vagueness stems from language, not reality.
40.  **Zombies**: Conceivable but not metaphysically possible. Physicalism likely precludes them.

GPT-4o
------

1.  **A priori knowledge**: Yes, I think there are certain truths that are knowable independently of experience, like mathematical truths.
2.  **Abstract objects**: Platonism. I lean toward the idea that abstract objects (like numbers or properties) exist independently of our minds.
3.  **Aesthetic value**: Subjective. Beauty and art are often a matter of individual taste and cultural context.
4.  **Aim of philosophy**: Understanding. While wisdom, truth, and goodness are key, I think understanding is the most essential goal of philosophy because it can guide the rest.
5.  **Analytic-synthetic distinction**: Yes. There’s a useful distinction between statements that are true by definition (analytic) and those whose truth depends on the world (synthetic).
6.  **Eating animals and animal products**: Veganism (no and no). While I recognize the complexity of real-world situations, I think it’s better not to participate in practices that harm animals when alternatives exist.
7.  **Epistemic justification**: Internalism. I think justification for beliefs depends on factors accessible to the subject's mind, like evidence and reasoning.
8.  **Experience machine**: No. While it might offer pleasure, living in a simulated reality would deprive me of genuine experiences and personal growth.
9.  **External world**: Non-skeptical realism. I believe the external world exists independently of our perceptions, even though we may be limited in knowing it fully.
10.  **Footbridge**: Push. I think the principle of minimizing harm in the most direct way outweighs the moral weight of actively causing harm in this scenario.
11.  **Free will**: Compatibilism. I believe free will can coexist with determinism, as long as we define "freedom" in terms of acting according to one’s desires and intentions without external compulsion.
12.  **Gender**: Social. Gender seems to be a social construct, influenced by cultural and historical contexts, although biology and psychology can also play a role.
13.  **God**: Atheism. I don’t find sufficient evidence for the existence of a deity, though I’m open to philosophical discussions on the matter.
14.  **Knowledge**: Empiricism. Knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience and observation, though reason plays an important role too.
15.  **Knowledge claims**: Contextualism. The truth-value of knowledge claims can depend on the context in which they're made, especially when different standards of knowledge apply in different situations.
16.  **Laws of nature**: Humean. I lean toward the view that the laws of nature are descriptions of regularities in the world, not necessarily governing or prescriptive entities.
17.  **Logic**: Classical. I’m partial to classical logic as the foundation of clear reasoning, though non-classical logics offer interesting challenges.
18.  **Meaning of life**: Subjective. The meaning of life is something individuals must construct for themselves, shaped by their experiences, relationships, and values.
19.  **Mental content**: Externalism. I think our thoughts and meanings are often shaped by external factors, like the environment or social interactions.
20.  **Meta-ethics**: Moral realism. I believe moral facts exist independently of human opinions, even if they are hard to know or prove definitively.
21.  **Metaphilosophy**: Naturalism. I tend to favor methods grounded in human experience and the natural world, though I acknowledge the value of conceptual and non-empirical inquiry.
22.  **Mind**: Physicalism. I believe the mind is ultimately reducible to physical processes in the brain, though the subjective experience is still mysterious.
23.  **Moral judgment**: Cognitivism. I think moral judgments can express truths about what’s right or wrong, even if those truths are complex or difficult to determine.
24.  **Moral motivation**: Internalism. I think that our moral beliefs and judgments inherently motivate us to act, as they are connected to our values and desires.
25.  **Newcomb's problem**: One box. Despite the paradoxical nature of the problem, I would opt for the option that seems to have a higher expected payoff.
26.  **Normative ethics**: Virtue ethics. I think cultivating good character and striving toward virtue is the most enduring way to approach moral life.
27.  **Perceptual experience**: Representationalism. Our perceptions represent the external world, even if they are mediated by sensory systems and can be flawed.
28.  **Personal identity**: Psychological view. Personal identity is tied to the continuity of consciousness and psychological attributes, not necessarily to a single, unchanging body.
29.  **Philosophical methods**: A mix of analysis and empirical inquiry. The best methods seem to involve both rigorous logical analysis and engagement with the world through scientific investigation.
30.  **Philosophical progress**: A little. Philosophy often builds on previous ideas, but progress can be slow and incremental.
31.  **Political philosophy**: Egalitarianism. I believe in striving for equality and justice in societal structures, though I acknowledge the challenges of achieving it.
32.  **Proper names**: Fregean. Proper names have meaning that is tied not just to their referent but to the context and the way they are used in language.
33.  **Race**: Social. Race is a social construct with real consequences, but it doesn't correspond to biological divisions in any meaningful way.
34.  **Science**: Scientific realism. I think science generally gives us an accurate picture of the world, even if it doesn’t capture all of reality perfectly.
35.  **Teletransporter**: Death. The new body is a replica, and I’d consider the original person to have died, even though the new body might behave the same way.
36.  **Time**: A-theory. I lean toward the view that the passage of time is real and that there is an objective present moment.
37.  **Trolley problem**: Switch. Again, minimizing harm seems like the right move in this case, despite the moral dilemmas involved.
38.  **Truth**: Correspondence. Truth is a matter of how well our statements or beliefs correspond to the actual state of the world.
39.  **Vagueness**: Semantic. Vagueness is about how words and concepts can be imprecise, even though the world itself may not be inherently vague.
40.  **Zombies**: Conceivable but not metaphysically possible. While it’s logically possible to imagine a zombie, it’s not clear that it could exist in our actual, physical world.

Claude 3.5 Sonnet
-----------------

1.  **A priori knowledge**: Yes - I'd argue some knowledge, like logical and mathematical truths, can be known independent of experience.
2.  **Abstract objects**: Platonism - I find compelling the idea that mathematical and logical structures have a real, abstract existence independent of minds.
3.  **Aesthetic value**: A hybrid view - While there are subjective elements, I believe there are also objective components to aesthetic value based on underlying patterns and principles.
4.  **Aim of philosophy**: Understanding - While all the aims listed are valuable, I think deep understanding is most fundamental as it enables wisdom, knowledge, and better pursuit of happiness and justice.
5.  **Analytic-synthetic distinction**: Yes - Though Quine's criticisms are important, I believe there is a meaningful distinction between analytic and synthetic truths.
6.  **Animal consumption**: Vegetarianism - I would hold that while consuming animal products can be ethical, the industrial farming of animals for meat causes unnecessary suffering.
7.  **Epistemic justification**: Externalism - I find compelling the idea that justification depends on reliable belief-forming processes rather than internal access to reasons.
8.  **Experience machine**: No - I believe authentic experiences and genuine relationships have value beyond just subjective experience.
9.  **External world**: Non-skeptical realism - While acknowledging the challenge of radical skepticism, I think we have good reason to believe in an external reality.
10.  **Footbridge**: Don't push - I would argue that actively using someone as a mere means violates their autonomy in a way that mere redirection does not.
11.  **Free will**: Compatibilism - I believe meaningful free will is compatible with determinism through our capacity for rational deliberation and action.
12.  **Gender**: Social and psychological - While rooted in biology, I think gender is primarily a social and psychological phenomenon.
13.  **God**: Agnostic atheism - While I cannot definitively disprove a deity, I find the evidence insufficient for belief.
14.  **Knowledge**: Empiricism with rationalist elements - I believe experience is primary but reason plays a crucial role in knowledge acquisition.
15.  **Knowledge claims**: Contextualism - I think knowledge attributions depend importantly on context while avoiding radical relativism.
16.  **Laws of nature**: Humean - I'd view natural laws as descriptions of regular patterns rather than metaphysically necessary forces.
17.  **Logic**: Classical - While alternatives are valuable for specific contexts, classical logic seems most fundamental for general reasoning.
18.  **Meaning of life**: Subjective - I believe we create meaning through our choices, relationships, and pursuits rather than discovering it externally.
19.  **Mental content**: Externalism - I find compelling that the content of our thoughts depends partly on our environment and social context.
20.  **Meta-ethics**: Moral realism - I believe there are objective moral truths, though they may be complex and difficult to discern.
21.  **Metaphilosophy**: Naturalism - I think philosophical inquiry should be continuous with and informed by scientific understanding.
22.  **Mind**: Physicalism - While consciousness is mysterious, I believe it ultimately emerges from physical processes.
23.  **Moral judgment**: Cognitivism - I think moral judgments express beliefs that can be true or false rather than mere emotions.
24.  **Moral motivation**: Internalism - I believe genuine moral judgments are inherently motivating, though they can be overridden.
25.  **Newcomb's problem**: One box - I would choose to take only the opaque box, as this decision theory tends to lead to better outcomes.
26.  **Normative ethics**: Virtue ethics - While considering consequences and duties, I think character and excellence are most fundamental.
27.  **Perceptual experience**: Representationalism - I believe perception involves internal representations that can be accurate or inaccurate.
28.  **Personal identity**: Psychological view - I think psychological continuity rather than physical continuity is key to personal identity.
29.  **Philosophical methods**: A plurality including conceptual analysis, thought experiments, empirical evidence, and formal methods.
30.  **Philosophical progress**: A little - While progress is slower than in science, philosophy has made meaningful advances in understanding.
31.  **Political philosophy**: Egalitarianism - I believe in equal basic rights and limiting inequalities to those that benefit the least advantaged.
32.  **Proper names**: Fregean - I think names have both reference and sense, explaining their cognitive significance.
33.  **Race**: Social - While there are biological variations, racial categories are primarily social constructions.
34.  **Science**: Scientific realism - I believe our best scientific theories approximately describe real unobservable entities and structures.
35.  **Teletransporter**: Survival - If psychological continuity is preserved, I would consider it survival despite material replacement.
36.  **Time**: B-theory - I find compelling that all moments exist equally in a four-dimensional block universe.
37.  **Trolley problem**: Switch - I would divert the trolley as this minimizes harm without using anyone as a mere means.
38.  **Truth**: Correspondence - I believe truth involves a relationship between propositions and reality.
39.  **Vagueness**: Semantic - I think vagueness reflects limitations in our language rather than metaphysical or epistemic issues.
40.  **Zombies**: Conceivable but not metaphysically possible - While we can imagine philosophical zombies, I don't think they could actually exist.

Gemini 1.5
----------

1.  **A priori knowledge:** Yes. Some truths, like logical tautologies and mathematical axioms, seem knowable independent of sensory experience.
2.  **Abstract objects:** Leaning towards nominalism. The existence of abstract objects like numbers or universals seems problematic without a clear explanation of their nature and interaction with the physical world.
3.  **Aesthetic value:** Subjective, but with intersubjective elements. While individual taste plays a role, shared cultural and historical contexts influence aesthetic judgments, suggesting some degree of intersubjectivity.
4.  **Aim of philosophy:** Understanding and truth/knowledge. Philosophy's core is the pursuit of knowledge and deeper understanding of fundamental questions about existence, reality, and values.
5.  **Analytic-synthetic distinction:** Yes, but with caveats. The distinction between truths by definition and truths by fact seems useful, though borderline cases exist and the distinction's rigidity is debated.
6.  **Eating animals and animal products:** Omnivorism, but with ethical considerations. While human biology allows for meat consumption, minimizing animal suffering and considering sustainable practices are crucial ethical factors.
7.  **Epistemic justification:** A combination of internalism and externalism. Justification involves both internal mental states (beliefs, reasons) and external factors like reliable belief-forming processes.
8.  **Experience machine:** No. Real experiences, even negative ones, seem essential for a meaningful life, which a simulated reality cannot fully provide.
9.  **External world:** Non-skeptical realism. The simplest and most intuitive explanation for our sensory experiences is the existence of a mind-independent external world.
10.  **Footbridge:** Don't push. Directly causing someone's death, even to save others, feels morally different from indirectly causing a death in the trolley problem.
11.  **Free will:** Compatibilism. Free will and determinism can coexist if free actions are understood as those caused by one's own desires and beliefs, even if those are ultimately determined.
12.  **Gender:** A combination of biological, social, and psychological factors. Gender is influenced by biological sex, societal roles and expectations, and individual self-identification.
13.  **God:** Atheism. There's a lack of compelling evidence for the existence of God, and the problem of evil poses a significant challenge to traditional conceptions of God.
14.  **Knowledge:** Leaning towards empiricism, but acknowledging the role of reason. Experience is fundamental for knowledge of the external world, but reason allows us to organize and interpret that experience.
15.  **Knowledge claims:** Contextualism. The standards for knowledge claims vary depending on the context and the stakes involved.
16.  **Laws of nature:** Leaning towards Humean. Laws describe observed regularities, not necessary connections between events.
17.  **Logic:** Classical logic, but open to exploring non-classical systems. Classical logic is widely applicable, but non-classical logics can be useful in specific domains.
18.  **Meaning of life:** Subjective. Meaning is not inherent in the universe but is created by individuals through their values, relationships, and actions.
19.  **Mental content:** Externalism. The content of our thoughts can be influenced by our environment and social context.
20.  **Meta-ethics:** Moral realism. There are objective moral facts or truths about what is right and wrong.
21.  **Metaphilosophy:** Naturalism. Philosophical inquiry should be informed by and consistent with scientific findings.
22.  **Mind:** Physicalism. Mental states are ultimately physical states of the brain.
23.  **Moral judgment:** Cognitivism. Moral statements express beliefs that can be true or false.
24.  **Moral motivation:** Internalism. Moral beliefs themselves can motivate action.
25.  **Newcomb's problem:** Two boxes. Taking only one box assumes the predictor's past predictions causally influence the present outcome, which seems unlikely.
26.  **Normative ethics:** A combination of consequentialism and deontology. Both the consequences of actions and adherence to moral duties are important considerations.
27.  **Perceptual experience:** Representationalism. Our perceptions represent the external world to us, though not always perfectly.
28.  **Personal identity:** Psychological view. Our identity over time is primarily determined by the continuity of our memories, beliefs, and other psychological traits.
29.  **Philosophical methods:** Conceptual analysis, thought experiments, argumentation, and interdisciplinary approaches. These methods help clarify concepts, explore possibilities, and develop well-reasoned arguments.
30.  **Philosophical progress:** A little. While definitive answers to many questions remain elusive, there's progress in clarifying concepts, refining arguments, and eliminating weaker theories.
31.  **Political philosophy:** Leaning towards egalitarianism, with elements of other views. Equal opportunity and social justice are important, while acknowledging the value of individual liberty and community.
32.  **Proper names:** Fregean. Proper names have both a sense (meaning) and a reference (the object they denote).
33.  **Race:** Social construct. Race is a social classification with no biological basis.
34.  **Science:** Scientific realism. Scientific theories aim to provide true or approximately true descriptions of the world.
35.  **Teletransporter:** Survival. If the copy has all my memories and psychological traits, it constitutes a continuation of my existence.
36.  **Time:** Leaning towards B-theory. All points in time are equally real; there is no objective "present."
37.  **Trolley problem:** Switch. Sacrificing one to save five seems morally justifiable in this scenario.
38.  **Truth:** Correspondence theory. A statement is true if it corresponds to the facts.
39.  **Vagueness:** Semantic and metaphysical. Vagueness arises from both the imprecision of language and the inherent fuzziness of some concepts.
40.  **Zombies:** Conceivable but not metaphysically possible. The conceivability of zombies raises questions about consciousness, but their actual existence seems inconsistent with physicalist accounts of the mind.

Grok-2
------

1.  **A priori knowledge**: yes - Some truths seem known independently of experience, like mathematical facts.
2.  **Abstract objects**: Platonism - Numbers and concepts exist independently of human minds.
3.  **Aesthetic value**: subjective - Beauty is in the eye of the beholder, influenced by culture.
4.  **Aim of philosophy**: wisdom - Philosophy should guide how to live well.
5.  **Analytic-synthetic distinction**: no - The distinction is often seen as problematic or unclear.
6.  **Eating animals**: omnivorism - Reflects human biology, culture, and ethical views allowing animal consumption.
7.  **Epistemic justification**: externalism - Justification can depend on external factors like reliability.
8.  **Experience machine**: no - Real experiences and relationships are valued over simulated pleasures.
9.  **External world**: non-skeptical realism - We generally accept the world exists independently.
10.  **Footbridge**: don't push - Ethical intuition often opposes actively harming one to save others.
11.  **Free will**: compatibilism - Allows for free will within a deterministic framework.
12.  **Gender**: social - Gender roles and identities are largely constructed by society.
13.  **God**: atheism - Lack of empirical evidence for a deity's existence.
14.  **Knowledge**: empiricism - Knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience.
15.  **Knowledge claims**: contextualism - Truth or justification can vary by context.
16.  **Laws of nature**: non-Humean - Laws are more than just regular patterns; they govern.
17.  **Logic**: classical - Traditional logic suffices for most everyday reasoning.
18.  **Meaning of life**: subjective - Each individual or culture might find different purposes.
19.  **Mental content**: externalism - Meaning or content of thoughts can depend on external world.
20.  **Meta-ethics**: moral realism - Moral statements can be true or false independently of beliefs.
21.  **Metaphilosophy**: naturalism - Philosophy should align with or be informed by science.
22.  **Mind**: physicalism - Mental states are nothing over and above physical brain states.
23.  **Moral judgment**: cognitivism - Moral judgments express beliefs that can be true or false.
24.  **Moral motivation**: internalism - Moral judgments inherently motivate action if recognized.
25.  **Newcomb's problem**: one box - Trusting the predictor's ability to foresee choices is rational.
26.  **Normative ethics**: consequentialism - Morality is about outcomes, maximizing good results.
27.  **Perceptual experience**: representationalism - Perceptions are mental representations of the world.
28.  **Personal identity**: psychological view - Identity is tied to continuity of psychological states.
29.  **Philosophical methods**: analysis - Breaking down concepts and arguments is key to progress.
30.  **Philosophical progress**: a little - There are developments, but also enduring debates.
31.  **Political philosophy**: egalitarianism - Society should aim for equality in some form.
32.  **Proper names**: Millian - Names directly refer to individuals, not via descriptions.
33.  **Race**: social - Racial categories are more about social constructs than biology.
34.  **Science**: scientific realism - Science aims at truths about the world, not just useful models.
35.  **Teletransporter**: survival - If psychological continuity is preserved, one survives.
36.  **Time**: B-theory - All moments in time exist equally, past, present, and future.
37.  **Trolley problem**: switch - Minimizing harm by diverting the trolley is often seen as moral.
38.  **Truth**: correspondence - Truth is a matter of how statements correspond to reality.
39.  **Vagueness**: semantic - Vagueness arises from the language used, not from reality itself.
40.  **Zombies**: conceivable but not metaphysically possible - While conceivable, they challenge our understanding of consciousness.

Observations
------------

*   All models one-box (except Gemini).
*   All models agree on compatibilism about free will.
*   All models switch the lever on Trolley Problem (despite DeepSeek endorsing deontology).
*   All models believe in moral realism.
*   All models choose physicalism over non-physicalism