Question: Who along with Philips developed the CD in the late 70s?
Answer: Sony

Koninklijke Philips N.V. (Royal Philips, commonly known as Philips) is a Dutch technology company headquartered in Amsterdam with primary divisions focused in the areas of electronics, healthcare and lighting. It was founded in Eindhoven in 1891 by Gerard Philips and his father Frederik. It is one of the largest electronics companies in the world and employs around 105,000 people across more than 60 countries.

Philips is organized into three main divisions: Philips Consumer Lifestyle (formerly Philips Consumer Electronics and Philips Domestic Appliances and Personal Care), Philips Healthcare (formerly Philips Medical Systems) and Philips Lighting. As of 2012 Philips was the largest manufacturer of lighting in the world measured by applicable revenues.  In 2013, the company announced the sale of the bulk of its remaining consumer electronics operations to Japan's Funai Electric Co,  but in October 2013, the deal to Funai Electric Co was broken off and the consumer electronics operations remain under Philips. Philips said it would seek damages for breach of contract in the $200-million sale.   In April 2016, the International Court of Arbitration ruled in favour of Philips, awarding compensation of 135 Million Euro in the process. 

Philips has a primary listing on the Euronext Amsterdam stock exchange and is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index.  It has a secondary listing on the New York Stock Exchange.

History

The Philips Company was founded in 1891 by Gerard Philips and his father Frederik. Frederik, a banker based in Zaltbommel, financed the purchase and setup of a modest, empty factory building in Eindhoven, where the company started the production of carbon-filament lamps and other electro-technical products in 1892. This first factory has been adapted and is used as a museum. 

In 1895, after a difficult first few years and near bankruptcy, the Philipses brought in Anton, Gerard's younger brother by sixteen years.  Though he had earned a degree in engineering, Anton started work as a sales representative; soon, however, he began to contribute many important business ideas. With Anton's arrival, the family business began to expand rapidly, resulting in the founding of Philips Metaalgloeilampfabriek N.V. (Philips Metal Filament Lamp Factory Ltd.) in Eindhoven in 1908, followed in 1912 by the foundation of Philips Gloeilampenfabrieken N.V. (Philips Lightbulb Factories Ltd.). After Gerard and Anton Philips changed their family business by founding the Philips corporation, they laid the foundations for the later electronics multinational.

In the 1920s, the company started to manufacture other products, such as vacuum tubes. In 1939 they introduced their electric razor, the Philishave (marketed in the US using the Norelco brand name). The "Chapel" is a radio with built-in loudspeaker, which was designed during the early 1930s.

Philips Radio

On 11 March 1927 Philips went on the air with shortwave radio station PCJJ (later PCJ) which was joined in 1929 by sister station PHOHI (Philips Omroep Holland-Indië). PHOHI broadcast in Dutch to the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) while PCJJ broadcast in English, Spanish and German to the rest of the world.

The international program on Sundays commenced in 1928, with host Eddie Startz hosting the Happy Station show, which became the world's longest-running shortwave program.  Broadcasts from the Netherlands were interrupted by the German invasion in May 1940. The Germans commandeered the transmitters in Huizen to use for pro-Nazi broadcasts, some originating from Germany, others concerts from Dutch broadcasters under German control.

Philips Radio was absorbed shortly after liberation when its two shortwave stations were nationalised in 1947 and renamed Radio Netherlands Worldwide, the Dutch International Service.  Some PCJ programs, such as Happy Station, continued on the new station.

Stirling engine

Philips was instrumental in the revival of the Stirling engine when, in the early 1930s, the management decided that offering a low-power portable generator would assist in expanding sales of its radios into parts of the world where mains electricity was unavailable and the supply of batteries uncertain. Engineers at the company's research lab carried out a systematic comparison of various power sources and determined that the almost forgotten Stirling engine would be most suitable, citing its quiet operation (both audibly and in terms of radio interference) and ability to run on a variety of heat sources (common lamp oil – "cheap and available everywhere" – was favoured).  They were also aware that, unlike steam and internal combustion engines, virtually no serious development work had been carried out on the Stirling engine for many years and asserted that modern materials and know-how should enable great improvements. 

Encouraged by their first experimental engine, which produced 16 W of shaft power from a bore and stroke of ,  various development models were produced in a programme which continued throughout World War II. By the late 1940s the 'Type 10' was ready to be handed over to Philips' subsidiary Johan de Witt in Dordrecht to be productionised and incorporated into a generator set as originally planned. The result, rated at 180/200 W electrical output from a bore and stroke of , was designated MP1002CA (known as the "Bungalow set"). Production of an initial batch of 250 began in 1951, but it became clear that they could not be made at a competitive price, besides which the advent of transistor radios with their much lower power requirements meant that the original rationale for the set was disappearing. Approximately 150 of these sets were eventually produced. 

In parallel with the generator set Philips developed experimental Stirling engines for a wide variety of applications and continued to work in the field until the late 1970s, though the only commercial success was the 'reversed Stirling engine' cryocooler. However, they filed a large number of patents and amassed a wealth of information, which they later licensed to other companies. 

Shavers

The first Philips shaver was introduced in the 1930s, and was simply called “The Philishave”. In the USA, it was called the “Norelco”, which remains a part of their product line today. 

World War II

On 9 May 1940, the Philips directors learned that the German invasion of the Netherlands was to take place the following day. Having prepared for this, Anton Philips and his son in law Frans Otten, as well as other Philips family members, fled to the United States, taking a large amount of the company capital with them. Operating from the U.S. as the North American Philips Company, they managed to run the company throughout the war. At the same time, the company was moved (on paper) to the Netherlands Antilles to keep it out of American hands.

On 6 December 1942, The British No. 2 Group RAF led an air raid which heavily damaged the Philips Radio factory in Eindhoven with few casualties among the Dutch workers and civilians.  The Philips works in Eindhoven was bombed again by the RAF on 30 March 1943.  

Frits Philips, the son of Anton, was the only Philips family member to stay in the Netherlands.  He saved the lives of 382 Jews by convincing the Nazis that they were indispensable for the production process at Philips.  In 1943 he was held at the internment camp for political prisoners at Vught for several months because a strike at his factory reduced production. For his actions in saving the hundreds of Jews, he was recognized by Yad Vashem in 1995 as a "Righteous Among the Nations". 

1945 to 2001

After the war the company was moved back to the Netherlands, with their headquarters in Eindhoven.

In 1949, the company began selling television sets. In 1950, it formed Philips Records.

Philips introduced the audio Compact Audio Cassette tape in 1963, and it was wildly successful. Compact cassettes were initially used for dictation machines for office typing stenographers and professional journalists. As their sound quality improved, cassettes would also be used to record sound and became the second mass media alongside vinyl records used to sell recorded music.

Philips introduced the first combination portable radio and cassette recorder, which was marketed as the "radiorecorder", and is now better known as the boom box. Later, the cassette was used in telephone answering machines, including a special form of cassette where the tape was wound on an endless loop. The C-cassette was used as the first mass storage device for early personal computers in the 1970s and 1980s. Philips reduced the cassette size for the professional needs with the Mini-Cassette, although it would not be as successful as the Olympus Microcassette.  This became the predominant dictation medium up to the advent of fully digital dictation machines.

In 1972 Philips launched the world's first home video cassette recorder, in the UK, the N1500.  Its relatively bulky video cassettes could record 30 minutes or 45 minutes. Later one-hour tapes were also offered. As competition came from Sony's Betamax and the VHS group of manufacturers, Philips introduced the N1700 system which allowed double-length recording. For the first time, a 2-hour movie could fit onto one video cassette.  In 1977, the company unveiled a special promotional film for this system in the UK, featuring comedian Denis Norden.  The concept was quickly copied by the Japanese makers, whose tapes were significantly cheaper. Philips made one last attempt at a new standard for video recorders with the Video 2000 system, with tapes that could be used on both sides and had 8 hours of total recording time. As Philips only sold its systems on the PAL standard and in Europe, and the Japanese makers sold globally, the scale advantages of the Japanese proved insurmountable and Philips withdrew the V2000 system and joined the VHS Coalition.

Philips had developed a LaserDisc early on for selling movies, but delayed its commercial launch for fear of cannibalizing its video recorder sales. Later Philips joined with MCA to launch the first commercial LaserDisc standard and players. In 1982, Philips teamed with Sony to launch the Compact Disc; this format evolved into the CD-R, CD-RW, DVD and later Blu-ray, which Philips launched with Sony in 1997 and 2006 respectively.

In 1984, Philips split off its activities on the field of photolithographic integrated circuit production equipment, the so-called wafer steppers, into a joint venture with ASM International, located in Veldhoven under the name ASML. Over the years, this new company has evolved into the world's leading manufacturer of chip production machines at the expense of competitors like Nikon and Canon.

In 1991, the company's name was changed from N.V. Philips Gloeilampenfabrieken to Philips Electronics N.V. At the same time, North American Philips was formally dissolved, and a new corporate division was formed in the U.S. with the name Philips Electronics North America Corp.

In 1997 the company officers decided to move the headquarters from Eindhoven to Amsterdam along with the corporate name change to Koninklijke Philips Electronics N.V. The move was completed in 2001. Initially, the company was housed in the Rembrandt Tower, but in 2002 they moved again, this time to the Breitner Tower. Philips Lighting, Philips Research, Philips Semiconductors (spun off as NXP in September 2006) and Philips Design, are still based in Eindhoven. Philips Healthcare is headquartered in both Best, Netherlands (near Eindhoven) and Andover, Massachusetts, United States (near Boston).

In 2000, Philips bought Optiva Corporation, the maker of Sonicare electric toothbrushes. The company was renamed Philips Oral Healthcare and made a subsidiary of Philips DAP.

In 2001, Philips acquired the Healthcare Solutions Group (HSG) based in Böblingen, Germany from Agilent Technologies for EUR 2 billion.  

2001 to 2011

In 2004, Philips abandoned the slogan "Let's make things better" in favour of a new one: "Sense and simplicity".

In December 2005 Philips announced its intention to sell or demerge its semiconductor division. On 1 September 2006, it was announced in Berlin that the name of the new company formed by the division would be NXP Semiconductors. On 2 August 2006, Philips completed an agreement to sell a controlling 80.1% stake in NXP Semiconductors to a consortium of private equity investors consisting of Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. (KKR), Silver Lake Partners and AlpInvest Partners. On 21 August 2006, Bain Capital and Apax Partners announced that they had signed definitive commitments to join the acquiring consortium, a process which was completed on 1 October 2006. In 2006 Philips bought out the company Lifeline Systems headquartered in Framingham, Massachusetts.

In August 2007 Philips acquired the company Ximis, Inc. headquartered in El Paso, Texas for their Medical Informatics Division.  In October 2007, it purchased a Moore Microprocessor Patent (MPP) Portfolio license from The TPL Group.

On 21 December 2007 Philips and Respironics, Inc. announced a definitive agreement pursuant to which Philips acquired all of the outstanding shares of Respironics for US$66 per share, or a total purchase price of approximately €3.6 billion (US$5.1 billion) in cash. 

On 21 February 2008 Philips completed the acquisition of VISICU Baltimore, Maryland through the merger of its indirect wholly owned subsidiary into VISICU. As a result of that merger, VISICU has become an indirect wholly owned subsidiary of Philips. VISICU was the creator of the eICU concept of the use of Telemedicine from a centralized facility to monitor and care for ICU patients. 

The Philips physics laboratory was scaled down in the early 21st century, as the company ceased trying to be innovative in consumer electronics through fundamental research. 

2011 to present

In January 2011 Philips agreed to acquire the assets of Preethi, a leading India-based kitchen appliances company.

On 27 June 2011 Philips acquired Sectra Mamea AB, the mammography division of Sectra AB, together with the MicroDose brand. 

Because net profit slumped 85 percent in Q3 2011, Philips announced a cut of 4,500 jobs to match part of an €800 million ($1.1 billion) cost-cutting scheme to boost profits and meet its financial target. 

In March 2012 Philips announced its intention to sell, or demerge its television manufacturing operations to TPV Technology.

In 2011, the company posted a loss of €1.3 billion, but earned a net profit in Q1 and Q2 2012, however the management wanted €1.1 billion cost-cutting which was an increase from €800 million and may cut another 2,200 jobs until end of 2014. 

On 5 December 2012, the antitrust regulators of the European Union fined Philips and several other major companies for fixing prices of TV cathode-ray tubes in two cartels lasting nearly a decade. 

On 29 January 2013, it was announced that Philips had agreed to sell its audio and video operations to the Japan-based Funai Electric for €150 million, with the audio business planned to transfer to Funai in the latter half of 2013, and the video business in 2017.  As part of the transaction, Funai was to pay a regular licensing fee to Philips for the use of the Philips brand. The purchase agreement was terminated by Philips in October because of breach of contract. 

In April 2013, Philips announced a collaboration with Paradox Engineering for the realization and implementation of a “pilot project” on network-connected street-lighting management solutions. This project was endorsed by the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC). 

In 2013, Philips omitted the word "Electronics" from its name, which is now Royal Philips N.V. 

On 13 November 2013 Philips unveiled its new brand line “Innovation and You” and a new design of its shield mark. The new brand positioning is cited by Philips to signify company’s evolution and emphasize that innovation is only meaningful if it is based on an understanding of people’s needs and desires. 

On 28 April 2014 Philips agreed to sell their Woox Innovations subsidiary (consumer electronics) to Gibson Brands for $US135 million.

On 23 September 2014, Philips announced a plan to split the company into two, separating the lighting business from the healthcare and consumer lifestyle divisions.  it moved to complete this in March 2015 to an investment group for $3.3 billion 

On February 2015, Philips acquired Volcano Corporation to strengthen its position in non-invasive surgery and imaging. 

On June 2016, Philips spun off its lighting division to focus on the healthcare division.  

Corporate affairs

CEOs

Past and present CEOs:

*1891–1922: Gerard Philips
*1922–1939: Anton Philips
*1939–1961: Frans Otten
*1961–1971: Frits Philips
*1971–1977: Henk van Riemsdijk
*1977–1981: Nico Rodenburg
*1982–1986: Wisse Dekker
*1986–1990: Cornelis Van der Klugt
*1990–1996: Jan Timmer
*1996–2001: Cor Boonstra
*2001–2011: Gerard Kleisterlee
*2011–now: Frans van Houten

CFOs

Past CFO (Chief Financial Officer)

*1960-1968: Cor Dillen

Acquisitions

Companies acquired by Philips through the years include Amperex, Magnavox, Signetics, Mullard, VLSI, Agilent Healthcare Solutions Group, Marconi Medical Systems, ADAC Laboratories, ATL Ultrasound, Sectra Mamea AB, portions of Westinghouse and the consumer electronics operations of Philco and Sylvania. Philips abandoned the Sylvania trademark which is now owned by Havells Sylvania except in Australia, Canada, Mexico, New Zealand, Puerto Rico and the USA where it is owned by Osram. Formed in November 1999 as an equal joint venture between Philips and Agilent Technologies, the light-emitting diode manufacturer Lumileds became a subsidiary of Phillips Lighting in August 2005 and a fully owned subsidiary in December 2006.   An 80.1 percent stake in Lumileds was sold to Go Scale in early 2015. 

On 20 January 2006, Philips Electronics NV said it would buy Lifeline Systems Inc in a deal valued at $750 million, its biggest move yet to expand its consumer-health business (M). 

Operations

Philips is registered in the Netherlands as a naamloze vennootschap and has its global headquarters in Amsterdam. At the end of 2013 Philips had 111 manufacturing facilities, 59 R&D Facilities across 26 countries and sales and service operations in around 100 countries. 

Philips is organized into three main divisions: Philips Consumer Lifestyle (formerly Philips Consumer Electronics and Philips Domestic Appliances and Personal Care), Philips Healthcare (formerly Philips Medical Systems) and Philips Lighting. Philips achieved total revenues of €22.579 billion in 2011, of which €8.852 billion were generated by Philips Healthcare, €7.638 billion by Philips Lighting, €5.823 billion by Philips Consumer Lifestyle and €266 million from group activities. At the end of 2011 Philips had a total of 121,888 employees, of whom around 44% were employed in Philips Lighting, 31% in Philips Healthcare and 15% in Philips Consumer Lifestyle.

Philips invested a total of €1.61 billion in research and development in 2011, equivalent to 7.1% of sales. Philips Intellectual Property and Standards is the group-wide division responsible for licensing, trademark protection and patenting.   Philips currently holds around 54,000 patent rights, 39,000 trademarks, 70,000 design rights and 4,400 domain name registrations.

Asia

Thailand

Philips Thailand was established since 1952. It is a branch of Royal Philips Electronics of the Netherlands which is a healthcare, lifestyle and lighting. Philips started manufacturing in Thailand in 1960 with an incandescent lamp factory. Philips has diversified its production facilities to include a fluorescent lamp factory and a luminaries factory, serving Thai's and worldwide markets.
 

Hong Kong

Philips Hong Kong began operation in 1948. Philips Hong Kong houses the global headquarters of Philips' Audio Business Unit. It also house Philips' Asia Pacific regional office and headquarters for its Design Division, Domestic Appliances & Personal Care Products Division, Lighting Products Division and Medical System Products Division. 

In 1974 Philips opened a lamp factory in Hong Kong. This has a capacity of 200 million pieces a year and is certified with ISO 9001:2000 and ISO 14001. Its product portfolio includes prefocus, lensend and E10 miniature light bulbs.

China

In early 2008 Philips Lighting, a division of Royal Philips Electronics, opened a small engineering center in Shanghai to adapt the company's products to vehicles in Asia. 

India

Philips began operations in India in 1930 with the establishment of Philips Electrical Co. (India) Pvt Ltd in Kolkata as a sales outlet for imported Philips lamps. In 1938, Philips established its first Indian lamp-manufacturing factory in Kolkata. In 1948, Philips started manufacturing radios in Kolkata. In 1959, a second radio factory was established near Pune. In 1957, the company converted into a public limited company, renamed "Philips India Ltd". In 1970 a new consumer electronics factory began operations in Pimpri near Pune; the factory was closed in 2006. In 1996, the Philips Software Centre was established in Bangalore, later renamed the Philips Innovation Campus.  In 2008, Philips India entered the water purifier market. In 2014, Philip's was ranked 12th among India's most trusted brands according to the Brand Trust Report, a study conducted by Trust Research Advisory. 

Israel

Philips has been active in Israel since 1948 and in 1998 set up a wholly owned subsidiary, Philips Electronics (Israel) Ltd. The company has over 700 employees in Israel and generated sales of over $300 million in 2007.

Philips Medical Systems Technologies Ltd. (Haifa) is a developer and manufacturer of Computerized Tomography (CT), diagnostic and Medical Imaging systems. The company was founded in 1969 as Elscint by Elron Electronic Industries and was acquired by Marconi Medical Systems in 1998, which was itself acquired by Philips in 2001.

Philips Semiconductors formerly had major operations in Israel; these now form part of NXP Semiconductors.

Pakistan

Philips has been active in Pakistan since 1948 and has a wholly owned subsidiary, Philips Pakistan Limited (Formerly Philips Electrical Industries of Pakistan Limited).

The head office is in Karachi with regional sales offices in Lahore and Rawalpindi.

Europe

France

Philips France has its headquarters in Suresnes. The company employs over 3600 people nationwide.

Philips Lighting has manufacturing facilities in Chalon-sur-Saône (fluorescent lamps), Chartres (automotive lighting), Lamotte-Beuvron (architectural lighting by LEDs and professional indoor lighting), Longvic (lamps), Miribel (outdoor lighting), Nevers (professional indoor lighting).

Germany

Philips Germany was founded in 1926 in Berlin. Now its headquarters is located in Hamburg. Over 4900 people are employed in Germany. 
* Hamburg
** Distribution center of the divisions Healthcare, Consumer Lifestyle, and Lighting.
** Philips Medical Systems DMC. 
** Philips Innovative Technologies, Research Laboratories.
* Aachen
** Philips Innovative Technologies.
** Philips Innovation Services.
* Böblingen
** Philips Medical Systems, patient monitoring systems.
* Herrsching
** Philips Respironics.
* Ulm
** Philips Photonics, development and manufacture of vertical laser diodes (VCSELs) and photodiodes for sensing and data communication.

Greece

Philips' Greece is headquartered in Marousi, Attica. As of 2012 Philips has no manufacturing plants in Greece, although there have been in the past.

Italy

Philips founded its Italian headquarter in 1918, basing it in Monza (Milan) where it still operates, for commercial activities only.

Poland

Philips' operations in Poland include: a European financial and accounting centre in Łódź; Philips Lighting facilities in Bielsko-Biała, Pabianice, Piła, and Kętrzyn; and a Philips Domestic Appliances facility in Białystok.

Portugal

Philips started business in Portugal in 1927 as "Philips Portuguesa S.A.R.L.".   Currently, Philips Portuguesa S.A. is headquartered in Oeiras near Lisbon.  There have been three Philips factories in Portugal: the FAPAE lamp factory in Lisbon;   the Carnaxide magnetic-core memory factory near Lisbon, where the Philips Service organization is also based; and the Ovar factory in northern Portugal making camera components and remote control devices. The company still operates in Portugal with divisions for commercial lighting, medical systems and domestic appliances. 

Sweden

Philips Sweden has two main sites, Kista, Stockholm County, with regional sales, marketing and a customer support organization and Solna, Stockholm County, with the main office of the mammography division.

United Kingdom

Philips UK has its headquarters  in Guildford. The company employs over 2500 people nationwide. 

* Philips Healthcare Informatics, Belfast develops healthcare software products.
* Philips Consumer Products, Guildford provides sales and marketing for televisions, including High Definition televisions, DVD recorders, hi-fi and portable audio, CD recorders, PC peripherals, cordless telephones, home and kitchen appliances, personal care (shavers, hair dryers, body beauty and oral hygiene ).
* Philips Dictation Systems, Colchester.
* Philips Lighting: sales from Guildford and manufacture in Hamilton.
* Philips Healthcare, Reigate. Sales and technical support for X-ray, ultrasound, nuclear medicine, patient monitoring, magnetic resonance, computed tomography, and resuscitation products.
* Philips Research Laboratories, Cambridge (Until 2008 based in Redhill, Surrey. Originally these were the Mullard Research Laboratories.)

In the past, Philips UK also included
* Consumer product manufacturing in Croydon
* Television Tube Manufacturing Mullard Simonstone
* Philips Business Communications, Cambridge: offered voice and data communications products, specialising in Customer Relationship Management (CRM) applications, IP Telephony, data networking, voice processing, command and control systems and cordless and mobile telephony. In 2006 the business was placed into a 60/40 joint venture with NEC. NEC later acquired 100% ownership and the business was renamed NEC Unified Solutions.
* Philips Electronics Blackburn; vacuum tubes, capacitors, delay-lines, Laserdiscs, CDs.
* Philips Domestic Appliances Hastings: Design and Production of Electric kettles, Fan Heaters, plus former EKCO brand "Thermotube" Tubular Heaters and "Hostess" Domestic Food Warming Trolleys.
* Philips Semiconductors, Hazel Grove, Stockport and Southampton, both also earlier part of Mullard. These became part of NXP.
* London Carriers, logistics and transport division.
* Mullard Equipment Limited (MEL) which produced products for the military
* Pye Telecommunications Ltd of Cambridge
* TMC Limited of Malmesbury
* Pye TVT Ltd of Cambridge

North America

Canada

Philips Canada was founded in 1934. It is well known in medical systems for diagnosis and therapy, lighting technologies, shavers, and consumer electronics.

The Canadian headquarters are located in Markham, Ontario.

For several years, Philips manufactured lighting products in two Canadian factories. The London, Ontario, plant opened in 1971. It produced A19 lamps (including the "Royale" long life bulbs), PAR38 lamps and T19 lamps (originally a Westinghouse lamp shape). Philips closed the factory in May 2003. The Trois-Rivières, Quebec plant was a Westinghouse facility which Philips continued to run it after buying Westinghouse's lamp division in 1983. Philips closed this factory a few years later, in the late 1980s.

Mexico

Philips Mexicana SA de CV is headquartered in Mexico City. Philips Lighting has manufacturing facilities in:Monterrey, Nuevo León; Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua; and Tijuana, Baja California. Philips Consumer Electronics has a manufacturing facility in Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua. Philips Domestic Appliances formerly operated a large factory in the Industrial Vallejo sector of Mexico City but this was closed in 2004.

United States

Philips' Electronics North American headquarters is based in Andover, Massachusetts. Philips Lighting has its corporate office in Somerset, New Jersey, with manufacturing plants in Danville, Kentucky, Dallas, Salina, Kansas and Paris, Texas and distribution centers in Mountain Top, Pennsylvania, Ontario, California and Memphis, Tennessee. Philips Healthcare is headquartered in Andover, Massachusetts. The North American sales organization is based in Bothell, Washington. There are also manufacturing facilities in Andover, Massachusetts, Bothell, Washington, Baltimore, Maryland, Cleveland, Ohio, Foster City, California, Gainesville, Florida, Milpitas, California and Reedsville, Pennsylvania. Philips Healthcare also formerly had a factory in Knoxville, Tennessee. Philips Consumer Lifestyle has its corporate office in Stamford, Connecticut.  Philips Lighting has a Color Kinetics office in Burlington, Massachusetts. Philips Research North American headquarters is in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

In 2007, Philips entered into a definitive merger agreement with North American luminaires company Genlyte Group Incorporated, which provides the company with a leading position in the North American luminaires (also known as ˜lighting fixtures"), controls and related products for a wide variety of applications, including solid state lighting. The company also acquired Respironics, which was a significant gain for its healthcare sector. On 21 February 2008 Philips completed the acquisition of VISICU Baltimore, Maryland. VISICU was the creator of the eICU concept of the use of Telemedicine from a centralized facility to monitor and care for ICU patients.

Oceania

Australia and New Zealand

Philips Australia was founded in 1927 and is headquartered in North Ryde, New South Wales and also manages the New Zealand operation from there. The company currently employs around 800 people. Regional sales and support offices are located in Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth and Auckland.

Current activities include: Philips Healthcare (also responsible for New Zealand operations); Philips Lighting (also responsible for New Zealand operations); Philips Consumer Lifestyle (also responsible for New Zealand operations); Philips Sleep & Respiratory Care (formerly Respironics), with its ever increasing national network of Sleepeasy Centres ; Philips Dynalite (Lighting Control systems, acquired in 2009, global design and manufacturing centre) and Philips Selecon NZ (Lighting Entertainment product design and manufacture).

South America

Brazil

Philips do Brasil () was founded in 1924 in Rio de Janeiro.  In 1929, Philips started to sell radio receivers. In the 1930s, Philips was making its light bulbs and radio receivers in Brazil. From 1939 to 1945, World War II forced Brazilian branch of Philips to sell bicycles, refrigerators and insecticides. After the war, Philips had a great industrial expansion in Brazil, and was among the first groups to establish in Manaus Free Zone. In the 1970s, Philips Records was a major player in Brazil recording industry. Nowadays, Philips do Brasil is one of the largest foreign-owned companies in Brazil. Philips uses the brand Walita for domestic appliances in Brazil.

Former operations

Philips subsidiary ' manufactured pharmaceuticals for human and veterinary use and products for crop protection. Duphar was sold to Solvay in 1990. In subsequent years Solvay sold off all divisions to other companies (crop protection to UniRoyal, now Chemtura, the veterinary division to Fort Dodge, a division of Wyeth, and the pharmaceutical division to Abbott Laboratories).

PolyGram, Philips' music television and movies division, was sold to Seagram in 1998 and merged into Universal Music Group and Universal Studios. Philips Records continues to operate as record label of UMG, its name licensed from its former parent.

Origin, now part of Atos Origin, is a former division of Philips.

ASM Lithography is a spin-off from a division of Philips.

Hollandse Signaalapparaten was a manufacturer of military electronics. The business was sold to Thomson-CSF in 1990 and is now Thales Nederland.

NXP Semiconductors, formerly known as Philips Semiconductors, was sold a consortium of private equity investors in 2006. On 6 August 2010, NXP completed its IPO, with shares trading on NASDAQ.

Philips used to sell major household appliances (whitegoods) under the name Philips. After selling the Major Domestic Appliances division to Whirlpool Corporation it changed from Philips Whirlpool to Whirlpool Philips and finally to just  Whirlpool. Whirlpool bought a 53% stake in Philips' major appliance operations to form Whirlpool International. Whirlpool bought Philips' remaining interest in Whirlpool International in 1991.

Philips Cryogenics was split off in 1990 to form the Stirling Cryogenics BV, Netherlands. This company is still active in the development and manufacturing of Stirling cryocoolers and cryogenic cooling systems.

North American Philips distributed AKG Acoustics products under the AKG of America, Philips Audio/Video, Norelco and AKG Acoustics Inc. branding until AKG set up its North American division in San Leandro, California in 1985.  (AKG's North American division has since moved to Northridge, California.)

Polymer Vision was a Philips spin-off that manufactured a flexible e-ink display screen. The company closed in 2009.  

Products

Philips' core products are consumer electronics and electrical products, including small domestic appliances, shavers, beauty appliances, mother and childcare appliances, electric toothbrushes and coffee makers (products like Smart Phones, audio equipment, Blu-ray players, computer accessories and televisions are sold under license); healthcare products (including CT scanners, ECG equipment, mammography equipment, monitoring equipment, MRI scanners, radiography equipment, resuscitation equipment, ultrasound equipment and X-ray equipment); 

Lighting products

* Professional indoor luminaires  
* Professional outdoor luminaires  
* Professional lamps  
* Lighting controls and Control Systems  
* Digital projection lights  
* Horticulture lighting  
* Solar LED lights  
* Smart office lighting systems  
* Smart retail lighting systems  
* Smart city lighting systems  
* Home lamps  
* Home fixtures  
* Home Systems  

Audio products

* Hi-fi systems
* Wireless speakers
* Radio systems
* Docking stations
* Headphones
* DJ mixers
* Alarm clocks

Healthcare products

Philips healthcare products include:
* CT scan

Clinical informatics

* Cardiology informatics (IntelliSpace Cardiovascular, Xcelera)
* Enterprise Imaging Informatics (IntelliSpace PACS, XIRIS)
* IntelliSpace family of solutions

Imaging systems

* Cardio/Vascular X-Ray
* Computed tomography (CT)
* Fluoroscopy
* Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
*Mammography
* Mobile C-Arms
* Nuclear medicine
* PET (Positron emission tomography)
* PET/CT
* Radiography
* Radiation oncology Systemsroots
* Ultrasound

Diagnostic monitoring

* Diagnostic ECG

Defibrillators

* Accessories
* Equipment
* Software

Consumer

* Philips AVENT

Patient care and clinical informatics

* Anesthetic gas monitoring
* Blood pressure
* Capnography
* D.M.E.
* Diagnostic sleep testing
* ECG
* Enterprise patient informatics solutions
OB TraceVue
Compurecord
ICIP
eICU program
Emergin
* Hemodynamic
* IntelliSpace Cardiovascular
* IntelliSpace PACS
* IntelliSpace portal
* Multi-measurement servers
* Neurophedeoiles
* Pulse oximetry
* Temperature
* Transcutaneous gases
* Ventilation
* ViewForum
* Xcelera
* XIRIS
* Xper Information Management

Coat of arms/logotype

Image:Philips history shield.jpg|Original Philips shield introduced in 1938
Image:Philips old logo.svg|Philips shield in use from 1968 until March 2008 
Image:Philips logo.svg|The Philips logo in use until March 2008
Image:Philips logo new.svg|The current Philips logo
Image:Philips Shield blue.svg|Philips Shield in use until November 2013
Image:Philips New Shield 2013.svg|Philips shield design introduced in November 2013

Sponsorships

In 1913, in celebration of the 100th anniversary of the independence of the Netherlands, Philips founded Philips Sport Vereniging (Philips Sports Club, now commonly known as PSV). The club is active in numerous sports, but is now best known for its football team, PSV Eindhoven, and swimming team. Philips owns the naming rights to Philips Stadion in Eindhoven, which is the home ground of PSV Eindhoven.

Outside of the Netherlands, Philips sponsors and has sponsored numerous sport clubs, sport facilities and events. In November 2008 Philips renewed and extended its F1 partnership with AT&T Williams. Philips owns the naming rights to the Philips Arena in Atlanta, Georgia and to the Philips Championship, the premier basketball league in Australia, traditionally known as the National Basketball League. From 1988 to 1993 Philips was the principal sponsor of the Australian rugby league team The Balmain Tigers.

Outside of sports Philips sponsors the international Philips Monsters of Rock festival.

Environmental record

Green initiatives

Philips is running the EcoVision4 initiative in which it committed to a number of environmentally positive improvements by 2012. 

Also Philips marks its "green" products with the Philips Green Logo, identifying them as products that have a significantly better environmental performance than their competitors or predecessors. 

L-Prize competition

In 2011, Philips won a $10 million cash prize from the US Department of Energy for winning its L-Prize competition, to produce a high-efficiency, long operating life replacement for a standard 60-W incandescent lightbulb.  The winning LED lightbulb, which was made available to consumers in April 2012, produces slightly more than 900 lumens at an input power of only 10 W. 

Greenpeace ranking

In Greenpeace's 2012 Guide to Greener Electronics that ranks electronics manufacturers on sustainability, climate and energy and how green their products are, Philips ranks 10th place with a score of 3.8/10.  The company was the top scorer in the Energy section due to its energy advocacy work calling upon the EU to adopt a 30% reduction for greenhouse gas emissions by 2020. It is also praised for its new products which are free from PVC plastic and BFRs. However, the guide criticizes Phillips' sourcing of fibres for paper, arguing it must develop a paper procurement policy which excludes suppliers involved in deforestation and illegal logging. 

Philips have made some considerable progress since 2007 (when it was first ranked in this guide), in particular by supporting the Individual Producer Responsibility principle, which means that the company is accepting the responsibility for the toxic impacts of its products on e-waste dumps around the world. 

Publications

* A. Heerding: The origin of the Dutch incandescent lamp industry. (Vol. 1 of The history of N.V. Philips gloeilampenfabriek). Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 0-521-32169-7
* A. Heerding: A company of many parts. (Vol. 2 of The history of N.V. Philips' gloeilampenfabrieken). Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-521-32170-0
* I.J. Blanken: The development of N.V. Philips' Gloeilampenfabrieken into a major electrical group. Zaltbommel, European Library, 1999. (Vol. 3 of The history of Philips Electronics N.V.). ISBN 90-288-1439-6
* I.J. Blanken: Under German rule. Zaltbommel, European Library, 1999. (Vol. 4 of The history of Philips Electronics N.V).  ISBN 90-288-1440-X

The rise and fall of the CD: 12 facts you might not know - BT
 
The rise and fall of the CD: 12 facts you might not know
We celebrate the compact disc, a ground-breaking audio format that changed the way we listen to music.
 
Print this story
On March 8 1979 Philips demonstrated the compact disc for the first time – the Compact Disc Audio Player.
Although this technology has faded a little in the internet age, with the advent of mp3 players and streaming services, it was hugely important.
Piet Kramer, who worked in Philips optical group said at the time the teams didn’t realise the impact the CD would have: “ In the late 70s and early 80s, we never imagined that one day the computing and entertainment industries would also opt for the digital CD for storing the growing volume of data for computer programs and movies.”
Check out the video above from Philips to mark the 25th anniversary of the CD to find out more.
Here are 12 fascinating facts about the CD
Technology giants Philips and Sony developed the CD format together. In 1979, a task force was set-up to create a digital audio disc and set a standard for the music industry that all manufacturers could follow and develop for.
The CD was the first digital format, it was marketed as having better sound and less liable to scratch than analogue formats such as cassette or record.
1.2mm deep and 120mm in diameter, CD’s are made from polycarbonate plastic, with aluminium coating which makes the surface reflective. Data is encoded on a track in indents - known as pits - which start in the centre and spirals out. Lasers in CD players read this information from the disc without physical contact.
CDs must comply with what is known as the ‘Red Book’ audio specification. The document of standards was created by Sony and Philips in 1980.
The world’s first compact disc was manufactured in Langenhagen, Germany on August 17 1982. The first CD made at the plant was Abba’s The Visitors.
The CD has a 74-minute playing time, allegedly because vice president of Sony, Norio Ohg’s wife’s favourite piece of music was Beethoven’s Ninth symphony.
Dire Straits’ Brothers in Arms was the first album to sell over one million CDs. The band and Philips promoted the sound quality, as you can see in this picture.
The BBC’s Tomorrow’s World famously demonstrated the CD in 1981. Host Kieran Prendiville was sceptical “whether there’s a market for this kind of disc” and is seen scratching a BeeGees CD. Urban legend suggested he spread jam on it first.
The first commercially available CD player was the Sony CDP-101, which was released in 1982 priced 168,000 yen (around £922). Sony CEO Nobuyuki Idei based the model name on the numbers 0101, which is number five in binary code, meaning the product was medium class.
Over 200 billion CDs have been sold worldwide. If all the CDs produced were piled up, they would circle the earth six times.
The CD has spawned a range of optical-disc formats: Super Audio CD, CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, DVD, right up to Blu-ray today.
Sales of CDs have been declining for years, in part down to the rise in digital music for portable music players and smartphones, but the decline has been slow. The Neilson end of year music report states that there were 140.8 million CD album sales in 2014, a drop from 165.4 million in 2013, but more than 106.5 million digital sales. Sales of both are being impacted by the popularity of streaming services like Spotify and YouTube.
Do you still use CDs or do you download or stream music? What was your first CD player? Let us know in the Comments below.
 
Photo credit: Philips Company Archive, Joop Sinjou, Atreyu, Wikimedia Commons

Philips celebrates 25th anniversary of the compact disc  |  WebWire
Philips celebrates 25th anniversary of the compact disc
WEBWIRE – Thursday, August 16, 2007
* Worldï¿½s first CD manufactured at Philips factory near Hanover, Germany, on August 17, 1982
* Philips and Sony co-developed CD ï¿½ over 200 billion CDs sold in last 25 years
* CD ushered in shift from analogue to digital in the music industry, spawned new digital technologies, including CD-Rom and DVD
Amsterdam, The Netherlands ï¿½ Exactly 25 years ago tomorrow, on August 17, 1982, Royal Philips Electronics ( NYSE:PHG , AEX:PHI) manufactured the worldï¿½s first Compact Disc at a Philips factory in Langenhagen, just outside of Hanover, Germany. The invention of the CD ushered in a technological revolution in the music industry as CDs ï¿½ with their superior sound quality and scratch free durability ï¿½ marked the beginning of the shift from analogue to digital music technology. The CD became a catalyst for further innovation in digital entertainment, helping pave the way for the launch of DVD and the current introduction of Blu-ray optical media. Having played a key role in the innovation of digital music, at home and on the move, consumers continue to witness huge advances in entertainment and lifestyle technologies.
The Philips factory in Germany, where the worldï¿½s first CD was pressed, belonged to Polygram ï¿½ the recording company, which Philips owned at the time. The first CD to be manufactured at the plant was ï¿½The Visitorsï¿½ by ABBA. By the time CDs were introduced on the market in November 1982, a catalogue of around 150 titles ï¿½ mainly classical music ï¿½ had been produced. The first CDs and CD players ï¿½ including Philipsï¿½ CD100 ï¿½ were introduced in Japan in November, followed by a US and European market introduction in March of 1983.
Philips and Sony partnered to develop CD ï¿½ collaboration based on open innovation helped position CD as standard for the music industry
As early as 1979, Philips and Sony set up a joint task force of engineers to design the new digital audio disc. Many decisions were made in the year to follow ï¿½ such as the disc diameter. The original target storage capacity for a CD was one hour of audio content, and a disc diameter of 115 mm was sufficient for this, however both parties extended the capacity to 74 minutes to accommodate a complete performance of Beethovenï¿½s 9th Symphony. In June 1980, the new standard was proposed by Philips and Sony as the ï¿½Red Bookï¿½ containing all the technical specification for all CD and CD-Rom standards.
Piet Kramer, who at the time was a member of the optical group at Philips that made a significant contribution to the CD technology, commented on Philipsï¿½ and Sonyï¿½s collaborative work: ï¿½When Philips teamed up with Sony to develop the CD, our first target was to win over the world for the CD. We did this by collaborating openly to agree on a new standard. For Philips, this open innovation was a new approach ï¿½ and it paid off. In the late 70s and early 80s, we never imagined that one day the computing and entertainment industries would also opt for the digital CD for storing the growing volume of data for computer programs and movies.ï¿½
In 1985, Philips and Dire Straits team up to promote the Compact Disc
As music industry sales of CDs started to take off in 1983, more than 1000 different titles were on the market. In 1985, one of the most famous bands in the world, Dire Straits, adopted the CD. The infamous album ï¿½Brothers in Armsï¿½, as one of the first fully digital recording (DDD) to be brought to market, went on to become the top selling CD at the time, and the third greatest selling CD of the decade. The joint collaboration with Philips entailed Philips and Dire Straits jointly promoting the sound quality of the CD to consumers, making ï¿½Brothers in Armsï¿½ the first album to sell over one million copies in this new format, marking the success of the CD as the emerging format of choice for music quality.
ï¿½The Compact Disc has proven its significance in bringing the highest quality of music to consumers who wish to enjoy scratch free music. The enormous success of the CD over the last twenty-five years has opened many new opportunities for consumers to make the most of their music at home and on the move,ï¿½ said Lucas Covers, Senior Vice President & Chief Marketing Officer, Philips Consumer Electronics. ï¿½It has played a pivotal role in the shift from analogue music to digital, not least for the DVD as well in music, though moreover in helping lay the foundation for even new technologies such as Blu-ray quality today,ï¿½ he added.
Over 200 billion CDs have been sold worldwide over the past 25 years
The Compact Disc, is the forefather of todayï¿½s extensive family of optical discs for a wide range of applications such as CD-Rom, CD-R and CD-RW, DVD, DVD R, DVD RW and Blu-ray. Philips estimates that over the past 25 years, since the first CD was pressed at the Philips factory near Hanover, Germany, over 200 billion CDs have been sold worldwide. Even though a single CD is only 1.2 mm thick, if all CDs ever produced were piled up, the stack of CDs would circle the earth six times. The compact disc, as well as the DVD disc, remain a very popular music/ video carrier, because of their digital quality, portability, and resilience to damage, and remain a very popular gift.
Related Links

Vintage Cassettes
Websites
History of Compact Cassette:
The Compact Cassette is a plastic case containing a spool of 3.81 mm magnetic  tape spooled between two reels. The tape is run at a rate of 4.76 cm/second.  A tape head in the tape player or deck, in contact with an exposed portion  of the tape, interprets an analog signal from the tape's magnetic surface.
The dawn of magnetic recording (1878-1930)
~1878
Oberlin Smith (Mechanical engineer) develops a theory of magnetic recording after a visit to Edison's lab.
1888
The Electrical World publishes Smith's "Some Possible Forms of Phonograph" September 8.       The paper describes a machine with an electromagnet and a string covered with iron filings.
1898
Valdemar Poulsen discovered       the magnetic recording principle while working as a mechanic in the Copenhagen Telegraph Company (1894).       In 1898 he patented the telegraphone, the first successful magnetic recording device (USF patent 661,619)
When Poulsen's patent expired in 1918, Germany led efforts to improved magnetic recording.  Between 1920 and 1945 series of machines using wire and steel tape were developed (Germany, UK and Japan).
Magnetic recording on tape (1930-58)
1928
Fritz Pfleumer is granted a patent               for applying magnetic powder to film or paper strips.         (In 1936 the German National Court declares that Pfleumer's patent was covered in       Poulsen's original patents of 1898 and 1899.)
1930
BASF launched PES-18 tape.
1962
3M introduces Scotch 201/202 "Dynarange," a black oxide low-noise mastering tape with a 4 dB improvement in s/n ratio over Scotch 111.
The marketing in USA and Europe had learned that home tape recording was a very  attractive function for consumers, but that reel-to-reel would never exceed the  very limited market of those who have technical skills. Consequently, from around the mid 1950s trials to get the tape in one or another case started (Tefi cassette for Tefifon in 1955, Dictet cassette for Dictaphone in 1957, Saba cassette for Sabamobile in 1958). Below we present the most successful attempts.
Cartridges and Cassettes (1958-65)
Launch of tape cartridges by RCA spurred companies worldwide into developing tape cartridges,  cassettes and "magazine tapes" under various names and based on different standards. The common  feature of these products was, unlike manually threaded reel-to-reel systems, simply inserting  the encased tape into a tape player and pressing a button could operate the new systems. People without  technical backgrounds could operate it very easily. Naturally, the machine itself could also be miniaturized.
1958
RCA cartridge. It was the first attempt to put reel-to-reel tape in cartridge form.       Dimensions: 5 x 7 1/8 x 1/2 inches (127 x 197 x 13 mm). The cartridges were reversible       and either side could be played. Tape speed was either 3.75 ips resulting in 30 minutes       of audio on 0.25 inch tape or 1 7/8 ips selected by a small lever.      RCA Records made an early attempt at making this a popular pre-recorded music format.       However it turned out to be a major "Flop" in that regard. Cartridges would have prices      ranging from $4.95 for a 20 minute tape to $9.95 for an hour      RCA was slow to produce machines for the home market and to license recorded music,       and the format disappeared from the market by 1964.
1959
Fidelipac (NAB cartridge). Introduced in 1959 by Collins Radio at the 1959 NAB Convention. The cart tape format       was designed for use by radio broadcasters to play commercials,  bumpers and announcements.      It will be used until the late 1990s and is on the direct path       to the first popular consumer tape format.      It was originally a 1/4-inch-wide (6.4 mm) audio recording tape, two-track format at 7.5 ips.      Fidelipac cartridge was later adapted by Earl "Madman" Muntz in 1962 for his Stereo-Pak cartridge system (run at 3.75 ips).      Muntz also sold a library of 3000 titles licensed from 40 record companies.       In the 1960s, Muntz sold about half of the 700,000 Fidelipac-type players.
1963
Compact Cassette Philips introduced a prototype in Europe in August 1963 (at the Berlin Radio Show).      Philips cassette was 1/4 the size of the Fidelipac       or Lear cartridge, making possible small battery-powered versatile players that could be carried anywhere.      It had a reversible housing with maximum tape protection       allowing 30 or 45 minutes of stereo music per side. Tape speed: 1 7/8 ips (=4.76cm/s). Tape width: 0.15inch (=3.81mm).      In US Philips was using the name NORELCO.        Below is the picture of      the first cassette player (EL 3300) and the first cassette (it had BASF PES-18 tape inside).
1965
DC International. In 1965 during Berlin Exhibition Grundig together with Telefunken and Blaupunkt introduced       "DC-International" cassette. The cassette was       available in 2x 45 or 2x 90 minutes and run at 5.08cm/s, allowing a 40Hz to 10Khz frequency response.      The first recorder was Grundig C 100 L.
1965
8-track. (known also as STEREO 8 and Lear Jet).      The cartridge was designed by       Lear Jet Corporation in 1964 (by Ralph Miller while working under Bill Lear) for the Ford new car models of 1965, with a tape library       provided by RCA Victor.       The major change to Fidelipac was to incorporate a neoprene rubber and nylon pinch roller into the cartridge itself,       rather than to make the pinch roller a part of the tape player, reducing mechanical complexity.       It used only one single reel containing a continuous endless loop of recording tape specifically       prepared so that the tape were able to slip out from its inner round of the tape spool.            Tape speed: 3.75 ips. Tape width: 0.25 in.
The King emerge: Compact Cassette
The rather stiff license fees demanded by the creators were the  reasons why Philips and Grundig decided to jointly develop a "Euro" cartridge system.  The cooperation did not last long and Philips  introduced a prototype in Europe in August 1963 (at the Berlin Radio Show). Scarcely any product has drawn more attention of Japanese industry visitors  then the Philips cassette. No doubt it was the most photographed product of that event.
When the cassette was developed there were only three tapes in the world which enabled  Philips to get it right, 3M's low-noise cartridge tape, KODAK's triple-play tape P 300  and BASF's PES-18. Of these only BASF tape was perfectly balanced in all its properties,  in particular also the mechanical characteristics. Consequently, BASF had the honor  to make the very first tapes for the compact cassette.
Grundig was preparing war against the Philips compact cassettes. In 1965 during  Berlin Exhibition together with Telefunken and Blaupunkt they introduced "DC-International"  cassette system and planned not to ask any license fees. Philips wanted the common  license fee for hardware, nothing for music cassettes.
One day in September 1963, at the opening of the Berlin IFA Exhibition, Fredrich Lachner of  the German company Grundig proposed to Ohga that the two companies cooperate in developing  a DC International Standard for cassette tapes, a standard conceived by three German manufacturers.  While Ohga considered this possibility, another proposal came from Wisse Dekker, manager  of the Philips Electronics Far East Division and later president, and L.F. Ottens, a technical  expert also from Philips. They came to Japan and proposed the co-development of the compact  cassette to Ohga. Philips had already developed a compact cassette in 1963. The advantages  of both the Grundig and Philips formats were weighed and considered. In the end, Ohga chose  the Philips compact cassette because of its smaller size.
A problem over royalties arose during the contract stage. Philips  initially suggested that it receive a payment of 25 yen for each unit sold by  companies in Japan. Ohga thought this was excessive and did not agree to it.  A few days later, Philips showed some flexibility and asked for 6 yen per unit, a  figure it said other companies had agreed to. Masanobu Tada, Operations Division manager,  recommended that Sony accept the offer, but Ohga still refused, insisting that  unless Philips waived royalties altogether, Sony would collaborate with Grundig.  Finally, Philips agreed to waive royalties, but did not give Sony exclusive rights  to the technology. In 1965, based on a patent that guaranteed compatibility, Philips  made the technology available free of charge to manufacturers all over the world.
During first two years everybody has its own name. Sometimes cartridge, sometimes cassette.  A uniform name was necessary. The result is well known. Since 1965 the cassette carries  the name compact cassette.
The reign: Compact Cassette (1965-90)
The Compact Cassette format initially offered fairly poor fidelity and was marketed  for voice recording and dictation. Technology improved quickly, and advances  in noise reduction technology, its ability to play stereo tapes, and new tape  formulations soon assured high-quality sound from the compact format. Here we present the milestones in Compact Cassette development:
1963
Sales of recorded compact cassettes (audio cassettes) exceed LP sales for the first time.
1990
Dolby S. Based on an advanced profesional spectral recording system.        Dolby C reduced tape signal-to-noise by 24 dB.
1990
Super metals. High end metal cassettes were introduced: TDK MA-XG, Metal Vertex,      Sony Metal Master, That's Suono.
Over the years the improvement of tape itself and better shells made compact cassettes high fidelity source. Advances have been made in all areas of compact cassette manufacturer, from the magnetic particles of the tape itself, to the material used to bind material in place and to the cassette shell itself. TDK says it has reduced particle size by almost a factor of 10 over the years, while magnetic energy of each particle has almost doubled.
Unfortunatelly it was a start of a decline as CD start taking over. It was just cheaper to produce good sounding CD and CD player then cassette deck and compact cassette. The sales declined but they well still high for 10 or so years. The global sale of blank cassettes in 1996 was 2.098 billion pieces. In 1997 this decreased by 4.5% to 2.003 billion.
Reference and Contributors:
Terry O'Kelly (email exchange)
Willem Andriessen,  `THE WINNER'; compact cassette. A commercial and technical look back at the greatest success story in the history of AUDIO up to now. Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, Volume 193, Issues 1-3, March 1999, Pages 11-16
AES Society files. http://www.aes.org/aeshc/docs/audio.history.timeline.html
Magnetic recording: the first 100 years (Edited By Eric D. Daniel, C. Denis Mee, Mark H. Clark) Wiley-IEEE Press (August 17, 1998).
Philips: http://www.philipsmuseumeindhoven.nl/phe/products/e_cc.htm
"sowa_pszemodzala" for picture of the first Compact Cassette.
Wilhelm from "Tapeheads" for picture of Magnetophon K1 recorder and  Magnetophonband Type C tape.
© 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 vintagecassettes.com

Compact Disc is 25 Years Old | WIRED
Compact Disc is 25 Years Old
subscribe
6 months for $5 - plus a FREE Portable
Phone Charger.
1 hour
There is no future. There is no past. There is only Donald Glover rocking this look. bit.ly/2jEg1wW
Author: Rob Beschizza. Rob Beschizza Gear
Date of Publication: 08.16.07.
Time of Publication: 3:55 pm.
3:55 pm
Compact Disc is 25 Years Old
An obsolete form of optical media known as the "Compact Disc" celebrates its 25th birthday tomorrow. In a press release issued Thursday, Philips said a staggering 200 billion of them were produced (194 billion accounted for by AOL signup disks) since the first one was stamped off the production line on Aug. 17, 1982.
"The first CD to be manufactured at the plant was “The Visitors” by ABBA. By the time CDs were introduced on the market in November 1982, a catalogue of around 150 titles – mainly classical music – had been produced. The first CDs and CD players – including Philips’ CD100 – were introduced in Japan in November, followed by a US and European market introduction in March of 1983."
Though the CD is well past its prime, the form factor and basic technology saw renewal in the DVD and, later, next-gen formats such as HD-DVD and Blu-Ray Disc. Anyone remember how the thing was originally marketed as being indestructible? And remember those green pens that audiophiles would pay $19.99 for under the belief it would make the data sound better? Good times, man.
PHILIPS CELEBRATES 25th ANNIVERSARY OF THE COMPACT DISC
• World’s first CD manufactured at Philips factory near Hanover, Germany, on August 17, 1982
• Philips and Sony co-developed CD – over 200 billion CDs sold in last 25 years
• CD ushered in shift from analogue to digital in the music industry, spawned new digital technologies, including CD-Rom and DVD
Amsterdam, The Netherlands – Exactly 25 years ago tomorrow, on August 17, 1982, Royal Philips Electronics (NYSE:PHG, AEX:PHI) manufactured the world’s first compact disc at a Philips factory in Langenhagen, just outside of Hanover, Germany. The invention of the CD ushered in a technological revolution in the music industry as CDs – with their superior sound quality and scratch free durability – marked the beginning of the shift from analogue to digital music technology. The CD became a catalyst for further innovation in digital entertainment, helping pave the way for the launch of DVD and the current introduction of Blu-ray optical media. Having played a key role in the innovation of digital music, at home and on the move, consumers continue to witness huge advances in entertainment and lifestyle technologies.
The Philips factory in Germany, where the world’s first CD was pressed, belonged to Polygram – the recording company, which Philips owned at the time. The first CD to be manufactured at the plant was “The Visitors” by ABBA. By the time CDs were introduced on the market in November 1982, a catalogue of around 150 titles – mainly classical music – had been produced. The first CDs and CD players – including Philips’ CD100 – were introduced in Japan in November, followed by a US and European market introduction in March of 1983.
Philips and Sony partnered to develop CD – collaboration based on
open innovation helped position CD as standard for the music industry
As early as 1979, Philips and Sony set up a joint task force of engineers to design the new digital audio disc. Many decisions were made in the year to follow – such as the disc diameter. The original target storage capacity for a CD was one hour of audio content, and a disc diameter of 115 mm was sufficient for this, however both parties extended the capacity to 74 minutes to accommodate a complete performance of Beethoven’s 9th Symphony. In June 1980, the new standard was proposed by Philips and Sony as the “Red Book” containing all the technical specification for all CD and CD-Rom standards.
Piet Kramer, who at the time was a member of the optical group at Philips that made a significant contribution to the CD technology, commented on Philips’ and Sony’s collaborative work: “When Philips teamed up with Sony to develop the CD, our first target was to win over the world for the CD. We did this by collaborating openly to agree on a new standard. For Philips, this open innovation was a new approach – and it paid off. In the late 70s and early 80s, we never imagined that one day the computing and entertainment industries would also opt for the digital CD for storing the growing volume of data for computer programs and movies.”
In 1985, Philips and Dire Straits team up to promote the Compact Disc
As music industry sales of CDs started to take off in 1983, more than 1000 different titles were on the market. In 1985, one of the most famous bands in the world, Dire Straits, adopted the CD. The infamous album “Brothers in Arms”, as one of the first fully digital recording (DDD) to be brought to market, went on to become the top selling CD at the time, and the third greatest selling CD of the decade. The joint collaboration with Philips entailed Philips and Dire Straits jointly promoting the sound quality of the CD to consumers, making “Brothers in Arms” the first album to sell over one million copies in this new format, marking the success of the CD as the emerging format of choice for music quality.
“The Compact Disc has proven its significance in bringing the highest quality of music to consumers who wish to enjoy scratch free music. The enormous success of the CD over the last twenty-five years has opened many new opportunities for consumers to make the most of their music at home and on the move,” said Lucas Covers, Senior Vice President & Chief Marketing Officer, Philips Consumer Electronics. “It has played a pivotal role in the shift from analogue music to digital, not least for the DVD as well in music, though moreover in helping lay the foundation for even new technologies such as Blu-ray quality today,” he added.
Over 200 billion CDs have been sold worldwide over the past 25 years
The Compact Disc, is the forefather of today’s extensive family of optical discs for a wide range of applications such as CD-Rom, CD-R and CD-RW, DVD, DVD R, DVD RW and Blu-ray. Philips estimates that over the past 25 years, since the first CD was pressed at the Philips factory near Hanover, Germany, over 200 billion CDs have been sold worldwide. Even though a single CD is only 1.2 mm thick, if all CDs ever produced were piled up, the stack of CDs would circle the earth six times. The compact disc, as well as the DVD disc, remain a very popular music/ video carrier, because of their digital quality, portability, and resilience to damage, and remain a very popular gift.

History's Dumpster: The History of Cassettes
History's Dumpster for Smartphones, Tablets and Old/Slow Computers http://historysdumpster.blogspot.com/?m=1
Sunday, July 15, 2012
The History of Cassettes
The advent of the cartridge style tape began with the usual seven words that begin the road to any invention. Fourteen if you count those other seven nasty words (that usually precede these):
"There's GOT to be a better way!"
Tape, like the wire recordings that came before them were on spools or reels and had to be hand threaded through the playback mechanism. A time consuming feat in itself for the average person.  And prone to accidents.
When the first reel tape became available to the masses, it had immediate advantages over the vinyl records of the time. First, they were in stereo years before the first stereo LPs were available. They didn't scratch or have surface noise (other than a very low level audible hiss. Noise reduction would be another 15 years away.) And best yet, you could record 3 hours of uninterrupted, high quality music or radio broadcasts per reel.
But to a consumer base who were used to instant playback as offered by records, they didn't want to waste time setting up and threading a reel of tape and take the risk of any clumsy and at the time, expensive accidents. No matter what the audio advantages were.
RCA noticed this and sympathized. And ever the innovators, they began work on a simple, self threading style of tape and unveiled it in 1958.                                          
Blank  tapes, as well as pre-recorded titles like these, were made  available.
They were played on machines like this;
Most of these machines and tapes still work gloriously after all these years. Note the RCA plug inputs on the side of the unit. They're STILL compatible with home stereo/computer inputs/outputs of TODAY with a simple cheap patch cord!
It did impress an number of people. But the problem was it was still big and bulky. And reel tape deck machines shrank in size over early '60s.
Super small, but not super sounding
Philips developed the Compact Audio Cassette in 1963. At the time, it was only one of several competing cartridge based formats (including RCA's cartridge) designed to simplify tape recording. 
The very first cassette tape recorder, from 1963
The very first cassette tape, 1963
The format initially offered fairly poor fidelity and was marketed for voice recording and dictation. It's super slow speed, 1 7/8 ips pretty much made sure of that.
 
But Philips approached Sony Corporation in Japan after realizing that Japanese acceptance of the new format would vastly improve the chances of success in America and Europe. After some hardball negotiation, Philips agreed to license the system to Sony without royalties. In fact, by 1965 Philips had opened the format up to other manufacturers free of charge.
 
Technology improved quickly, including an ability to play stereo tapes, and new tape formulations soon assured a higher quality sound from the cassette than the earliest tapes. 
One of the very first pre-recorded cassette tapes. From 1968.
Pre-recorded cassettes quietly appeared on the market in the late '60s and at first, didn't gain much traction. First, there were few car stereos..... 
....and very few high-end home units at the time to play them on. The  8-Track was still the dominate portable tape playing medium. Most cassette players were tinny sounding mono portables.  
And cassette tapes, for all their improvements still sounded pretty bad compared to the reel tape and even the 8-Track. But it was soldiers in the Vietnam war that quickly embraced the cassette for it's small size and ease of mailing to and from home. By the dawn of the '70s, things began looking up. Even more improvements, such as Dolby noise reduction and increasingly better tape formulations started putting cassettes on nearly the same par as the other tape formats.
Ampex and Sony were the companies that REALLY pushed for the cassette's survival in it's early days and paved the way for other companies such as Maxell, Memorex and TDK....
Remember when pre-recorded cassettes came in boxes and colours like THIS?
Ever try to REMOVE a cassette from one of THESE things? It's vice like grip made for an epic struggle that often took about 5 minutes average just to remove the thing from it's case! New, easier opening cases, similar to what blank cassette manufacturers were using for their products were introduced by the major record companies a few years later.....
The first Cr02 (chrome) blank cassette tapes came out in the early '70s. These tapes were not compatible for recording in a Normal bias cassette deck because the erase head needed to re-record over a chrome tape had to be much more powerful than a Normal bias erase head as well as the recording head itself had to be more powerful to make a loud enough recording on them. But a normal bias cassette deck can PLAY a chrome tapes (or later metal formulations, which required even more powerful erase/record heads) perfectly well. For those with unswitchable Normal bias decks, increasingly better Normal bias formulations appeared to put the lowly Normal bias tape nearly on par with the chrome tapes 
By 1975, cassette tape was starting to overtake the 8-Track as the popular tape format of choice and by the mid-late '70s, the first car stereo cassette players and stereo portables had become popular and the cassettes had improved to the point where it rendered the reel tape pretty much redundant beyond radio stations and professional recording studios.
New hope for those left behind with 8-Track machines
The Sony Walkman was introduced in 1979 and acceptance of the cassette as a serious home and portable medium started really taking off. 
In 1980. The British New Wave group Bow Wow Wow released the first cassette single "C·30 C·60 C·90 Go!" in the UK. 
 
By 1983, pre-recorded cassettes were actually starting to outsell vinyl LPs. Record companies began doing extra gimmicks such as adding extra songs to the cassette versions of their albums to help foster the trend. Blank cassettes were also unbelievably cheap.
And I do mean CHEAP.....
New looks to the cassettes themselves helped improve the staid appearance of the typical cassette.
Remember THESE things? (1985)
In 1985, Warner/Reprise broke the mold of the old bland pre-recorded cassette look by introducing clear cassette shells and cases for their pre-recorded cassettes, starting with Prince's Around The World In A Day album and Brothers In Arms from Dire Straits. 
It was in part a reaction to the look of the newly introduced CD, but also illustrated a higher quality mechanism and should the tape have problems, you could directly see what the problem was. Other record companies quickly followed - except for RCA and Columbia/Epic. They would use standard cassette shells and cases until 1989.
...and who could forget THESE?
The standard playing time of a blank cassette tape was 60 to 90 minutes which corresponded to the typical playing time of a complete album for each side. There were 30 minute and 40 minute tapes available in the '70s (they were phased out by the beginning of the '80s) and some 120 minute tape lengths and TDK even made an insane 180 minute tape.
The problem with the longest lengths (120 and especially 180 minute tapes) were they were on EXTREMELY thin tape, which were far more prone to stretching and breakage (the manufacturers themselves advised that you should not rewind or fast forward these tapes.) Due to the thinness of the tape, they also suffered from an effect called "print through", in which loud passages from adjacent layers of tape would increasingly echo through the tape several seconds earlier during playback.
But with the introduction of the CD, the running time of a typical album increased by nearly 10 minutes. And the polymer backing had to be strengthened to allow rewind/fast forward capability as well as eliminating the print through effect, as CDs had a much wider dynamic range and louder volume level than a typical vinyl album or cassette. 110 minute cassettes were introduced by 1987.
1987 also saw the rebirth of the cassette single, this time for the US market. Which the recording companies hoped would jump start the sagging market for pop singles as sales of the 45 RPM record began to seriously decline.
A&M records released Bryan Adams "Heat Of The Night" as a cassette single, the first one since the Bow Wow Wow cassette mentioned earlier. Note the unusual case. "O" slipcards would be introduced by Warner/Reprise a few weeks later with their first cassette singles and all recording companies - including A&M, immediately followed suit.
The mid '80s to the mid '90s were the glory days of the cassette tape. And CD prices were still ridiculously expensive ($15 - $20 average). A lawsuit targeting the major record labels for overcharging the public in the late '80s and '90s for CDs resulted in CD prices dropping to nearly the same price as cassettes.
And cassettes themselves got a high tech upgrade when the DCC (Digital Compact Cassette) was invented. They played and recorded special DCC tapes and even standard analog cassettes.
DCC Cassette tape
DCC Recorder/player
But the tide really started turning in the late '90s with CD-Rs. With the new MP3 format and computers and some stereos capable of playing MP3 discs, a single all 128kb bitrate MP3 CD could play continuously for over 12 HOURS. 
The last American major label pre-recorded cassettes were released in 2005. (In some areas such as India, Thailand and Indonesia, pre-recorded cassettes are STILL being manufactured.)
But like all audio formats once considered "obsolete", they never truly are. And like vinyl, the cassette is enjoying a new revival too. Not from long time tape heads, but a new generation who are tired of virtual mediums like MP3s and want something PHYSICAL and retro-cool. As well as independent DIY rock groups who are sick of the corporatization of digital mediums and want something real instead of mass copied MP3s and CDs
Bless 'em all......

History of DVD « miqrogroove
Friday, September 24, 1999
.
In May of 1994, Sony and Philips announced that they would be cooperatively developing a new high-density medium known popularly as Digital Video Disk (DVD) (Dwyer).  This infant technology was to be the successor to compact disks (CD-ROM) for computers, and replace VHS tapes and laserdiscs in the entertainment industry.  A disk the same size as a CD but with five to ten times the data capacity would be very useful indeed.  The distribution of some large video games that would otherwise reside on a set of many CD’s would only require a single disk.  DVD audio would be a great improvement over the already crystal clear and popular CD audio.  Watching movies that would normally require you to flip sides on a laserdisc could live up to the same standards of quality, and far surpass them.
Development of this new technology immediately invited problems of a political nature.  Toshiba and Warner Home Entertainment announced their own project to develop similar, yet specifically different DVD technology at the same time (Dwyer).  The two duo developers would soon find out that the market for potential licensees of the new specifications (e.g. disc and drive manufacturers) would be unreceptive to two competing and incompatible formats of DVD discs.  Organizations such as the Hollywood Digital Video Disc Advisory Group also had a reasonable interest in the development of this technology.  Movie distributors began stirring up controversy about the necessity of copy protections in the DVD specification.  It seemed as though anyone and everyone wanted a say in deciding which methods of video and audio compressions would be used, and details as specific as the color of the book that the DVD specifications would be published in.  All of these concerns led to costly delays for the consumers and manufacturers who expectantly awaited a single seamless solution.
Sony was the first to showcase its DVD technology.  John Eargle described the demonstration that was held at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show in early January 1995.  In his article, The great DVD debate, Eargle quickly said, “its color and sharpness were more than a match for the Laserdisc,” but his focus was on the technical specifications that had been officially announced in December (Pemberton).  Because the new DVD disc would be identical in shape, size, and appearance to a CD, “minimal changes in manufacturing methods will be required for mass production” (Eargle).  The increased data density of a DVD was attributed to a laser of a color higher in the light spectrum and a technology being developed with 3M that would allow the laser to be refocused to a second “layer” in the disc.  Having a double-layer disc increases the capacity to 7.4 gigabytes.
“Three weeks later, on January 24th in Beverly Hills, Time Warner and Toshiba held a press conference to announce their version of the DVD.”  The “DVD debate” had begun.  Eargle reported two technical differences between the DVD versions.  First, Toshiba’s disc was “double-sided” to give it a capacity of 10 gigabytes.  Although this was an obvious drawback, it did make the disc bigger and better than Sony’s version.  Second, Toshiba used thinner discs, yielding a density that bested even Sony’s DVD.  This allowed for a higher data rate, which would improve the quality of an MPEG-2 picture.  (The Motion Picture Experts Group has set this standard for video compression.)  Additionally, “thinner discs permit shorter manufacturing cycle times.”
The contention building between the two formats and their developers was illustrated in Heather Pemberton’s, Has Hollywood fallen in love with Time Warner/Toshiba’s DVD? Matsushita, Thomson, Hitachi, Pioneer, MCA, and MGM/UA were now supporting Toshiba’s DVD format and assisting in the development of its final specifications.  As reported, “their format is being quite widely reported as the winner in the effort to establish a common format.”  This article focused on the movie-related specification that the eight party development team had been emphasizing.  At the time, the group’s obsession with packaging movie specifications into the DVD standard seemed logical.
During the spring of 1995, the conflict between the two developers had been fueled by Toshiba’s own development of a two-layer disc called SD (Super Density).  Sony and Philips were then tightly grid locked in competition.  Then, in December of that same year, after a playful yet appropriate allusion to Chinese literature, Ken Pohlmann coveys the news of an alliance between the two formats.  In The Art of War, Pohlmann begins by writing that “something” had motivated Sony, Philips, and the Toshiba posse to unite in their efforts to create the DVD.  More specifically, that “something” was a report by Apple, Compaq, Fujitsu, HP, IBM, and Microsoft in which the software and hardware giants collectively refused to support the dueling standards.  The agreement to work together toward the DVD standard was centered in the mutual exchange and pooling of technologies.  The developers (now ten corporations large) would use Toshiba’s SD disc, with its thinness and high data density, in combination with Sony’s “data coding methods,” called EFM Plus.
Eight months later the assemblage of DVD inventors were still quibbling over how to produce a five-inch disk.  Every detail of the standardization had to be agreed upon.  The still Hollywood-supported group had decisions in front of it regarding protocols specific to movie reproduction and distribution around the world.  DVD players and titles were expected to hit the consumer market in late 1996 (Pohlmann), but it was already August of that year.  The product development lead-time was getting out of hand.  Philips and Sony then took it upon themselves to break off the stagnant relationship.  On August 5th they announced that they would be licensing the DVD specification (MacLellan), allowing the DVD-Video standards to continue in development for months to come, without further hindering the manufacturers who were antsy to pay for use of the patents.  One month later an agreement was made with Toshiba and Warner to formulate the split of royalties with Philips, the licensor of the patents (Wall Street Journal).
In evaluating these articles, there is one in particular which may be flawed.  The title, Has Hollywood fallen in love with Time Warner/Toshiba’s DVD, is the first indication that the author may be biased.  The aforementioned quote, “widely reported as the winner,” is from the first sentence of the article and appears to be wholly unsubstantiated.  The author goes out of her way to show that the “requirements proposed … by the Hollywood Digital Video Disc Advisory Group … are all part of the Time Warner/Toshiba standard,” but does not discuss whether or not Sony’s DVD meets those same standards.  Pemberton does not even answer the question she poses in the title.  The alignment of Warner and Toshiba with several Hollywood companies is the only fact relevant to that question, and is mentioned after the fact that Sony “owns several Hollywood movie companies.”  Her message was unclear.
Despite the bias, there are two critical statements that can be recognized in the article.  One is regarding the increased data density on Toshiba’s disc: that “several industry experts question the usefulness of this claim; there are also some reservations about the statement that thinner discs permit shorter manufacturing time cycles.”  The other critical statement is a slam against “the Toshiba CD-ROM product line managers’ own unfamiliarity with DVD.”  The first statement is as unsubstantiated as the claim it is trying to refute.  The second statement suggests that the author was irritated because she didn’t get the key interview that she needed for this article.
The original intent in researching the History of DVD was to define the DVD as a recently introduced product, then analyze it in terms of engineering processes.  As was discovered and presented here, the DVD began as a technology and not as a product.  When Sony and Philips began work on this new technology, they did not aim to get bought out by a larger company.  With prior experience in licensing the patents on CD technology (MacLellan), these companies set out to establish themselves as having the final say in the successor to the CD.  This is a function in the beginning of product development: concept planning.  They were capable of producing a technology that their customers (the Original Equipment Manufacturers) wanted to license and sell to consumers, who also wanted this technology.
Sony and Philips may have underestimated their competition.  Perhaps sufficient benchmarking would have found that they would have direct competition in their new endeavor.  In the end, they were able to make up for this unanticipated competition in the product-planning phase.  It was this phase in which Toshiba and Warner lost their footing in the market.  Their assumed essential relationship with the movie industry turned out to be a falling block.  Sony and Philips decisively determined which technologies to incorporate and perfect in their DVD format, then carried those technologies through the product-engineering phase.  Both duos were able to manufacture over a million discs “to ascertain mass-producibility” (Pohlmann).  Toshiba and Warner, however, could not weigh the pros and cons of different file formatting techniques in a timely manner.
The final phases of product development, including process engineering, were left up to the licensees of the DVD patents.  The final specification for the technology was specific enough that all discs made to the requirements of the standard would be compatible with all drives that were also made to comply with the standard.  Sony and Philips, in terms of product design concepts, engineered a product that they themselves would not produce.  With the exception of a few timely mistakes, they successfully planned out and defined a new technology, and carried out that plan to completion.  This is the History of DVD.
Bibliography
Dwyer, T.  (1994, July 11).  Format wars are back: CD-ROM battles resemble video brawls of the ’70s [Abstract].  Variety.  Retrieved September 24, 1999 from the World Wide Web: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000005720081&Fmt=1&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=44&Sid=1&RQT=309
Eargle, J.  (1995, May).  The great DVD debate.  Audio.  Retrieved September 23, 1999 from the World Wide Web: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000004492296&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=17&Idx=3&Sid=12&RQT=309
MacLellan, A.  (1996, August 5).  Philips, Sony pooling DVD patents.  Electronic News.  Retrieved September 22, 1999 from the World Wide Web: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000010059330&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=17&Idx=6&Sid=1&RQT=309
Pemberton, H.  (1995, April).  Has Hollywood fallen in love with Time Warner/Toshiba’s DVD?  CD – ROM Professional.  Retrieved September 22, 1999 from the World Wide Web: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000001879634&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=17&Idx=2&Sid=12&RQT=309
Pohlmann, K.  (1995, December).  The art of war.  Stereo Review.  Retrieved September 22, 1999 from the World Wide Web: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000009084701&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=17&Idx=6&Sid=12&RQT=309
Wall Street Journal.  (1996, September 16).  Key firms launching digital video disks reach licensing pact.  New York.  Retrieved September 22, 1999 from the World Wide Web: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000010232829&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=17&Idx=9&Sid=1&RQT=309

Fast Guide to CD/DVD - Reference from WhatIs.com
Fast Guide to CD/DVD
Share this item with your network:
Word of the Day
A Brief History of CD/DVD
The first disc that could be written and read by optical means (using light as a medium) was developed by James T. Russell. In the late 1960s, Russell created a system that recorded, stored, and played audio/video data using light rather than the traditional contact methods, which could easily damage the disks during playback. Russell developed a photosensitive disc that stored data as 1 micron-wide dots of light and dark. The dots were read by a laser, converted to an electrical signal, and then to audio or visual display for playback.
Russell's own company manufactured the first disc player in 1980, although the technology never reached the marketplace until Philips and Sony developed the technology. In late 1982, Philips and Sony released the first of the compact disc (CD) formats, which they then called CD-DA (digital audio). In the years since, format has followed format as the original companies and other industry members developed more adaptations of the original specifications.
Digital Versatile disc (DVD) had its beginning in 1994, when two formats, Super disc (SD) and Multimedia CD (MMCD) were introduced. Promoters of the competing technologies failed to reach an agreement on a single standard until 1996, when DVD was selected as a convergence format. DVD has, in the few years since, grown to include variations that do anything that CD does, and more efficiently. Standardization and compatibility issues aside, DVD is well-placed to supplant CD.
Magnetic vs Optical Media
Optical media are storage media that hold information in digital form and that are written and read by a laser; these media include all the various CD and DVD variations, as well as optical jukeboxes and autochangers. Optical media have a number of advantages over magnetic media such as the floppy disk. Optical disc capacity ranges up to 6 gigabytes; that's 6 billion bytes compared to the 1.44 megabytes (MgB) - 1,440,000 bytes - of the floppy. One optical disc holds about the equivalent of 500 floppies worth of data. Durability is another feature of optical media; they last up to seven times as long as traditional storage media.
The Optical Storage Technology Association (OSTA) is an international trade organization dedicated to the promotion of standardized writable optical technologies and related products. Incorporated in 1992, OSTA is made up of members and associates from the leading optical media manufacturers and resellers of North America, Europe, and Asia. OSTA members include Adaptec, Hewlett-Packard, Philips, and Sony.
Hard disks, floppy disks and DAT (digital audio tape) are types of magnetic storage media. Magnetic media function similarly to an audio cassette tape player: there is a device called a read/write head , which creates and reads magnetic impressions on the disk. These microscopic magnets can be polarized to represent either a zero or a one, which is stored as binary data, the only type of data that computers can deal with.
CDs and DVDs are types of optical storage media. Optical storage media are written and read with an extremely fine, precisely aimed laser beam. Data storage consists of millions of indentations burnt into a reflective metallic surface. The indentations refract (change the direction of) the light, reducing the intensity of the reflection. When a laser beam is aimed at the disc surface through a two-way mirror, sensors register the difference in reflection intensity as binary data - zeros and ones. The two main advantages of optical storage media are greater data density and increased stability. Data can be more densely packed on optical media than on magnetic media. Also, the life span of optical media is much greater than that of magnetic media. After about 5 years, the magnetic impression storing data on magnetic media fades away.
Optical Media Drives
Drives (such as the hard drive, floppy drive, CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, and DVD-ROM drives) are the hardware devices that read computer data from disks. After the hardware is installed, the operating system will assign a drive letter. Typically, on a DOS or Windows-based personal computer, the letters "A," and "B" are reserved for the floppy drive (years ago one of the drives was used for a different type of removable disk, larger than the floppy), the letter "C" is reserved for the hard drive and the letter "D" is usually reserved for the CD-ROM. Drives added subsequently are generally assigned the first available letter after existing drives.
Data can be read once the disc spins (for one to two seconds) and the operating system has located and identified the drive. The CD-ROM's own file system is standardized in ISO 9660.
Optical Media Drive Capabilities
1.25 MB/sec
No exact data, but much slower than 1X CD-ROM
There are only minor increases in speed as one moves from the 24X, 32X, and 40X drives. The high rotation speeds produced can create noise and vibrations, and performance may vary from drive to drive. It seems unlikely, because of these vibrations and performance variations, that speeds will increase much above present levels. Even though a hard drive can reach much faster speeds of rotation, its enclosure stabilizes the entire mechanism and therefore avoids much of the noise and vibration inherent in the open CD-ROM drive.
 
Multi-beam CD-ROM Drives
A new technological development, the multi-beam CD-ROM drive uses 7 laser beams instead of one to to produce 36X performance from a 6X rotation speed. Six beams are used for reading data; the other one is used for error correction. A new development by Hi-Val in multi-beam CD-ROM drives, the first 40X drive, utilize 7 laser beams, reading simultaneously. (6 that read, and one for error correction, the same as above). The yield is true 40X performance and a transfer rate that can reach 6MB/second. The CD-ROM disc rotates as smoothly as a 6X drive.
DVD-ROM Drives
On the surface, there isn't much that would distinguish a DVD-ROM drive from a CD-ROM drive; internally, there are more similarities than differences. Drive interfaces are either ATAPI or SCSI and transport of data occurs similarly to the CD-ROM. The DVDs data layer is in the middle of the disc thickness, in order to accomodate double-sided disks, whereas data is recorded near the surface of the CD-ROM disk. The laser on the DVD drive has a pair of lenses on a swivel: one to focus the beam on the correct DVD data layer, and one for reading CD-ROM disks.
Although DVD-ROM drives have a much lower RPM (revolutions per minute) value, data transfer rates are substantially higher than a CD-ROMdrive at equivalent RPMs, because the data is compressed by the use of a greater number of smaller data pits and a smaller track pitch (the distance between tracks). For example, a 1X DVD-ROM drive transfers data at 1,250KBps, whereas a 1X CD-ROM drive transfers data at only 150KBps. By 1998, multispeed DVD-ROM drives became available that were capable of reading DVD media at double-speed, resulting in a transfer rate of 2,700 KBps, and of rotating CDs at 24X. By the end of that year DVD drive speeds had increased to 5X. Presently, DVD drives are capable of a 6X speed (8,100 KBps) for DVD media and 32X speed for reading CD-ROMs.
Optical Media Drive Interfaces
The word interface , defined as the surface that connects two areas which share a common boundary , is used to refer to the connections between certain kinds of computer hardware. For the computer to communicate with the CD-ROM, an additional piece of hardware is necessary to serve as the interface between the two devices.
SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) vs IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics)
Before you select the drive or interface, consider what types of connections are already present in your system. If there is an extra IDE connector on your motherboard, consider an ATAPI drive. If you have a SCSI adapter installed for your hard drive or other external devices, like scanners or drives for high-volume storage disks, or if you have a sound card that offers a SCSI interface, consider a SCSI drive.
ATAPI CD-ROM Interface
ATAPI stands for AT Attachment Packet Interface. This interface was introduced by Western Digital in 1994 as part of the Enhanced IDE specification. Initially used in hard drives, the technology is now being used in CD-ROMs as well. An ATAPI drive plugs directly into an IDE connector in your system. Unlike the SCSI or proprietary interfaces, it does not require a separate card. However, if your motherboard is jammed, many ATAPI drives come with a separate card to be used as the interface. ATAPI cards are also available as stand-alone items. The ATAPI drive and its interface are extremely easy to install and configure, are faster than most proprietary drives, and are almost as fast asmost SCSI drives.
Proprietary Interfaces
Proprietary interfaces are specific to one manufacturer and utilize that company's private standard. For example, Mitsumi, Panasonic, and Sony are three companies that manufacture proprietary CD-ROM drives and interfaces. The primary advantage of purchasing proprietary drives and interfaces is cost savings. The prices of such drives and interfaces are dramatically lower than other ATAPI or SCSI devices. The disadvantage is that the CD-ROM drive is only compatible with an interface card manufactured by the same company that produced the drive. If any other card is used, the drive will simply not function.
SCSI CD-ROM Interface
SCSI CD-ROM drives have become extremely popular, and are widely used today, especially on 4X and 6X CD-ROMs. They are both the fastest and most expensive CD-ROM drives and interface cards on the market. A SCSI CD-ROM drive is ideal if you already have a SCSI hard-drive. The drive can be connected directly to the same interface device that your hard-drive uses. If you do not have a SCSI hard-drive, a separate interface card can be installed. It can be purchased separately or may come with the SCSI CD-ROM. All SCSI devices are compatible. In addition, SCSI interfaces are extremely efficient. You can daisy-chain (link sequentially) up to 7 SCSI devices, both internal and external, to one interface card. For example, a printer can be connected to a scanner that is connected to an external storage device that is connected to the SCSI hard-drive that is plugged into the SCSI interface card.
Compact disc (CD)
A CD (Compact Disk) is an optical media storage device, originally developed by Philips and Sony and introduced as CD-Digital Audio (CD-DA) in 1982. CD-DA was originally developed to contain only audio information, digitized at a sample rate of 44,100 samples per second, in a range of 65,536 possible values (16 bits), with a storage capacity of about 650 megabytes (MB).
The specifications for CD-DA were laid out by the two companies in their 1980 standard document, informally known as the Red Book. Subsequent CD formats (as well as DVD formats) all follow the basic Red Book specification. Adaptations of CD technology have been explicated in amendments to the Red Book, including the Yellow Book (which, in conjunction with other standards, details the specifications for CD-ROM and CD-ROM XA), the Orange Book (which details the specifications for CD-R, CD-WO, CD-RW, and CD-MO), the White Book (which details the specifications for various multimedia disks, such as Video CD), the Green Book (which details the specifications for CD-I), the Blue Book (which details the specifications for Enhanced CD), the Scarlet Book (which details the specifications for Super Audio CD), and the Purple Book (which specifies the Double Density CD (DDCD).
CD Structure
According to Red Book specifications, a standard CD is 120 mm (4.75 inches) in diameter and 1.2 mm (0.05 inches) thick and is composed of a polycarbonate plastic substrate (underlayer - this is the main body of the disk), one or more thin reflective metal (usually aluminum) layers, and a lacquer coating. CDs are divided into a lead-in area, which contains the table of contents (TOC), a program area, which contains the audio data, and a lead-out area, which contains no data. An audio CD can hold up to 74 minutes of recorded sound, and up to 99 separate tracks. Data on a CD-DA is organized into sectors (the smallest possible separately addressable block) of information and the sectors are further broken down into logical blocks (smaller segments within a sector that can only be accessed by the logical block number (LBN) and are identified by the header bytes that hold this address information. There are a variety of logical block sizes, 512, 1024 and 2048, that might be used on different CDs, but the logical block size cannot exceed the sector size). The audio information is stored in frames of 1/75 second length. 44,100 16-bit samples per second are stored, and there are two channels (left and right). This gives a sector size of 2,352 bytes per frame, which is the total size of a physical block on a CD.
CD Mastering
In a process known as mastering , information from a digital tape master is used to modulate a laser beam, which is tracing a spiral track on a spinning glass disc coated with a photosensitive material. An electromagnetic current is used to vary the intensity of the laser beam and the photosensitive coating dissolves where the laser hits, creating pits in the glass. The glass disc is called a glass master and is in turn used to create metal masters (sometimes called fathers ), formed by coating the glass master with a thin layer of nickel. For mass production, disks called mothers are created from the metal masters; the mothers serve as the masters for a number of metal stampers (sometimes called sons ). The stampers are the forms used to mould the CD's polycarbonate layer, which is then coated with aluminum and the final acrylic layer. The process of recording a CD in a desktop environment is sometimes also referred to as mastering.
CD Recording and Playback
Data is encoded in the CD's polycarbonate layer in a continuous spiral track, from the inside to the outside, about 1.6 to 2.2 microns wide (a micron is 1/1000 of a millimeter), with pits about 0.6 microns wide scored into the track. The thin metallic layer conforms to the contours of the substrate, and the outer acrylic layer over it is impressed with the CD label.
When a CD is placed in a CD player, the recorded track is scanned by a low-intensity infrared laser. To enable a consistent scanning rate (from the smaller center to the larger outside of the disk), the rotation rate slows from 500 to 200 rpm (revolutions per minute) as the laser beam spirals outward. Two additional lasers are sometimes used to help control the focus of the primary laser and the rotation of the disk. The pits and smooth areas (the smooth areas are called lands ) are read by a laser when the disc is played. Pits and lands reflect the light from the laser differently, and that difference is encoded as binary data: the light hitting a land reflects back directly to a photodiode, which generates an electrical pulse, while the light hitting a pit is refracted (deflected from a straight path, or scattered), and, consequently, reduced below the level needed to activate the photodiode. Based on its length, each pit is interpreted as a sequence of zeroes, and, based on its length, each land is interpreted as a sequence of ones. Digital-to-analog conversion translates the binary data into audio signals for reproduction.
UDF (Universal Disc Format)
The UDF (Universal Disc Format) resolves the numerous incompatibility problems which plagued the CD. Presented by the Optical Storage Technology Association (OSTA), the UDF file structure ensures the accessability of any file by any drive, computer, or consumer video disc player. Because of the use of disks for data, video, audio or a combination of all three, the development of a universal standard became crucial. Reasonable communication with standard operating systems became possible, it was written to be compatible with the ISO 9660 CD standard for file names and structures.
Prior to the release of Windows 98 by Microsoft, UDF wasn't supported by Windows, however, and DVD manufacturers were forced use an interim format called UDF Bridge. Windows 95 OSR2 (OEM Service Release: a version of Windows 95 incorporating bug fixes and new functionality released to PC vendors for bundling with new PCs. Not available as an upgrade to older versions of Windows95.), supports UDF Bridge. Earlier versions do not. DVD manufacturers who wanted to be compatible with Windows 95 were forced to supply UDF Bridge support in conjunction with their hardware.
Standards and Specifications
According to industry legend, at least the original CD specification (the Red Book) was released in a booklet with a red cover. Although each of the specifications have formal titles, they are generally referred to as different colours of books.
Specification Document
Information technology -- Volume and file structure of read-only and write-once compact disc media for information interchange -- Part 2: Volume and file structure, (ISO, http:www.iso.ch)
CD-DA (Compact Disk-Digital Audio)
CD-DA (Compact Disk-digital audio), the original compact disc for music, was defined in the Red Book by Philips and Sony, in 1982. The CD-DA allows a music playing time of 74 minutes 30 seconds. Data on a CD-DA is organized into logical blocks of information. The audio information is stored in frames of 1/75 second length. There are 44,100 samples per second stored. Each sample occupies two bytes (16bits) and there are two channels (left and right) stored on the CD-DA. This gives a sector size of 2,352 bytes per frame, which is the total size of a physical block on a CD.
 
CD-ROM (Read-Only-Memory)
CD-ROM (Compact Disk, read-only-memory) is an adaptation of the CD that is designed to store computer data in the form of text, video, and graphics, as well as stereo sound. The original data format standard was defined by Philips and Sony in the Yellow Book. Other standards are used in conjunction with it to define directory and file structures, including ISO 9660, HFS (Hierarchal File System, for Macintosh computers), and Hybrid HFS-ISO. Format of the CD-ROM is the same as for audio CDs: a standard CD is 120 mm (4.75 inches) in diameter and 1.2 mm (0.05 inches) thick and is composed of a polycarbonate plastic substrate (underlayer - this is the main body of the disk), one or more thin reflective metal (usually aluminum) layers, and a lacquer coating.
High Sierra Format (HSF)
The Yellow Book specifications were so general that there was some fear in the industry that multiple incompatible and proprietary formats would be created. In order to prevent such an occurrence, representatives from industry leaders met at the High Sierra Hotel in Lake Tahoe to collaborate on a common standard. Nicknamed the High Sierra Format , this version was later modified to become ISO 9660. Today, CD-ROMs are standardized and will work in any standard CD-ROM drive. CD-ROM drives can also read audio compact disks for music, although CD players cannot read CD-ROM disks.
CD-ROM Data Storage
Although the disc media and the drives of the CD and CD-ROM are, in principle, the same, there is a difference in the way data storage is organized. Two new sectors were defined, Mode 1 for storing computer data and Mode 2 for compressed audio or video/graphic data.
CD-ROM Mode 1
CD-ROM Mode 1 is the mode used for CD-ROMs that carry data and applications only. In order to access the thousands of data files that may be present on this type of CD, precise addressing is necessary. Data is laid out in nearly the same way as it is on audio disks: data is stored in sectors, which each hold 2,352 bytes of data, with an additional number of bytes used for error detection and correction, as well as control structures. For mode 1 CD-ROM data storage, the sectors are further broken down, and 2,048 used for the expected data, while the other 304 bytes are devoted to extra error detection and correction code, because CD-ROMs are not as fault tolerant as audio CDs. There are 75 sectors per second on the disk, which yields a disc capacity of 681,984,000 bytes (650MB) and a single speed transfer rate of 150 KBps, with higher rates for faster CD-ROM drives. Drive speed is expressed as multiples of the single speed transfer rate, as 2X, 4X, 6X, and so on. Most CD-ROM drives support CD-ROM XA and Photo-CD (including multisession disks).
CD-ROM Mode 2
CD-ROM Mode 2 is used for compressed audio/video information and uses only two layers of error detection and correction, the same as the CD-DA. Therefore, all 2,336 bytes of data behind the sync and header bytes are for user data. Although the sectors of CD-DA, CD-ROM Mode 1 and Mode 2 are the same size, the amount of data that can be stored varies considerably because of the use of sync and header bytes, error correction and detection. The Mode 2 format offers a flexible method for storing graphics and video. It allows different kinds of data to be mixed together, and became the basis for CD-ROM XA. Mode 2 can be read by normal CD-ROM drives, in conjunction with the appropriate drivers.
Data Encoding and Reading
The CD-ROM, like other CD adaptations, has data encoded in a spiral track beginning at the center and ending at the outermost edge of the disk. The spiral track holds approximately 650 MB of data. That's about 5.5 billion bits. The distance between two rows of pits, measured from the center of one track to the center of the next track is referred to as track pitch. The track pitch can range from 1.5 to 1.7 microns, but in most cases is 1.6 microns.
Constant Linear Velocity (CLV)
Constant Linear Velocity is the principle by which data is read from a CD-ROM. This principal states that the read head must interact with the data track at a constant rate, whether it is accessing data from the inner or outermost portions of the disk. This is affected by varying the rotation speed of the disk, from 500 rpm at the center, to 200 rpm at the outside. In a music CD, data is read sequentially, so rotation speed is not an issue. The CD-ROM, on the other hand, must read in random patterns, which necessitates constantly shifting rotation speeds. Pauses in the read function are audible, and some of the faster drives can be quite noisy because of it.
 
CD-R
CD-R (for Compact Disk, recordable ) is a type of write once, read many (WORM) CD format that allows one-time recording on a disk. The CD-R (as well as the CD-RW) format was introduced by Philips and Sony in their 1988 specification document, the Orange Book. Prior to the release of the Orange Book, CDs had been read-only audio (CD-Digital Audio, detailed in the Red Book), to be played in CD players, and multimedia (CD-ROM), to be played in computers' CD-ROM drives; after the Orange Book, any user with a CD recorder drive could create their own CDs from their desktop computers.
CD-Rs are composed of a polycarbonate plastic substrate, a thin reflective metal coating, and a protective outer coating. However, in a CD-R, a layer of organic polymer dye between the polycarbonate and metal layers serves as the recording medium. The composition of the dye is permanently transformed by exposure to a specific frequency of light. Some CD-Rs have an additional protective layer to make them less vulnerable to damage from scratches, since the data - unlike that on a regular CD - is closer to the label side of the disk. A pregrooved spiral track helps to guide the laser for recording data, which is encoded from the inside to the outside of the disc in a single continuous spiral. The laser creates marks in the dye layer that mimic the reflective properties of the pits and lands (lower and higher areas) of the traditional CD. The distinct differences in the way the areas reflect light register as binary data that is then unencoded for playback.
CD-R disks usually hold the standard 74 minutes (650MB) of data, although some can hold up to 80 minutes (700MB). With packet writing software and a compatible CD-R or CD-RW drive, it is possible to save data to a CD-R in the same way as one can save it to a floppy disk, although - since each part of the disc can only be written once - it is not possible to delete files and then reuse the space. The rewriteable CDs, CD-RWs, use an alloy layer (instead of the dye layer) which can be transformed to and from a crystalline state repeatedly.
CD recorders (usually referred to as CD burners), were once much too expensive for the home user, but now are similar in price to CD-ROM drives. CD-Rs can be created in any CD-R or CD-RW drive.
CD-RW
CD-RW (for Compact Disk, rewriteable ) is a CD format that allows repeated recording on a disk. The CD-RW format was introduced by Hewlett-Packard, Mitsubishi, Philips, Ricoh, and Sony, in a 1997 supplement to Philips and Sony's Orange Book. CD-RW is Orange Book III (CD-MO was I, while CD-R was II). CD-RW drives can write both CD-R and CD-RW disks and can read any type of CD.
Unlike CD-R, in which is a layer of organic polymer dye (which is permanently changed by the laser) serves as the recording medium, in a CD-RW, the dye is replaced with an alloy that can change back and forth from a crystalline form when exposed to a particular light, through a technology called phase change. The patterns created are less distinct than those of other CD formats, requiring a more sensitive device for playback. Only drives designated as "MultiRead" are able to read CD-RW reliably.
Similar to CD-R, the CD-RW's polycarbonate substrate is preformed with a spiral groove to guide the laser. The alloy phase-change recording layer, which is commonly a mix of silver, indium, antimony and tellurium, is sandwiched between two dielectric layers that draw excess heat from the recording layer. After heating to one particular temperature, the alloy will become crystalline when it is cooled; after heating to a higher temperature it will become amorphous (won't hold its shape) when it is cooled. By controlling the temperature of the laser, crystalline areas and non-crystalline areas are formed. The crystalline areas will reflect the laser, while the other areas will absorb it. The differences will register as binary data that can be unencoded for playback. To erase or write over recorded data, the higher temperature laser is used, which results in the non-crystalline form, which can then be reformed by the lower temperature laser.
CD-RW disks usually hold 74 minutes (650MB) of data, although some can hold up to 80 minutes (700MB) and, according to some reports, can be rewritten as many as 1000 times. With packet writing software and a compatible CD-RW drive, it is possible to save data to a CD-RW in the same way as one can save it to a floppy disk. For a CD to record correctly, it is crucial for a steady data stream to be created. Typically, the drives have a 2MB cache, used as a buffer. If the buffer runs out of data during the writing process, the CD produced will be unusable.
 
CD-ROM XA
CD-ROM XA (Compact disc - read-only-memory, extended architecture) is a modification of CD-ROM that defines two new types of sectors that enable it to read and display data, graphics, video, and audio at the same time. CD-ROM XA was developed jointly by Sony, Philips and Microsoft, and its specifications were published in an extension to the Yellow Book.
CD-ROM XA (for eXtended Architecture) disks contain Mode 2 sectors (areas left free for extra data by the omission of error detection and correction code) and were designed to allow audio and other data to be interleaved (stored in a mixed format rather than separately) and read simultaneously. Formerly, images had to be loaded before the audio tracks could be played. The CD-ROM XA specifications include 256 color modes, which are compatible with PC formats and CD-I, and Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM) audio, which is also defined for CD-I. Photo CD, Video CD and CD-EXTRA have all subsequently been based on CD-ROM XA, although it has not survived as a separate technology. p>
CD-ROM XA disks can mix standard CD-ROM, Mode 1 and CD-ROM, Mode 2 tracks. The mode 2 tracks are divided into two additional types, Form 1 and Form 2. CD-ROM XA disks usually must be read by drives certified to decipher the CD-ROM XA format. These drives will probably contain hardware decoders that will allow decompression of compressed audio or video files.
The two logical block sizes on the CD-ROM XA are:
1. 2048 bytes per block for data
2. 2324 bytes per block for audio/video information
CD-i
CD-i (Compact disc - interactive) is a multimedia CD format specified in 1986, in the Green Book. CD-i was detailed as a whole system, comprising not just a disc and data format, but an entire hardware and software system, a variety of special compression methods for audio and visual data, and a method of interleaving audio, video, and text data. Developed as a user-friendly alternative to a PC, CD-i players are easier to use, and have TV video output as well. Full screen motion video capabilities were added to the original specification later.
A CD-i player is a stand-alone system that comprises CPU, memory and an integrated operating system. It can be connected to a TV-set for displaying pictures and sound, or to a stereo system. The user interacts by positioning a cursor and selecting options, with a device such as a specialized remote control.
Although CD-i never realized broad commercial success, it is now used in the education system, and for training and other professional applications.
Bridge Disks
A CD-Bridge disc (sometimes just called a bridge disk ) is a CD format that includes extra information on a CD-ROM XA track, so that the disc can be played on either a CD-i player attached to a television, or a CD-ROM XA drive attached to a computer. A bridge disc with appropriate application software may also play on other XA-compatible devices, such as a Photo CD or Karaoke CD player. Video CD (VCD), Photo CD, and Karaoke CD are three bridge disc formats.
CD-Bridge disc specifications are built on those from the Yellow Book extension, which defined CD-ROM XA, and the Green Book, which defined CD-i, and must conform to the complete requirements of both formats. The complete CD-Bridge disc definition is detailed in the White Book, which was released by Sony, Philips, Matsushita, and JVC in 1993.
 
Enhanced CD
Enhanced CD (E-CD) is a CD format that enables disks to be played on either a CD player or a multimedia-capable device, such as a CD-i player,or a DVD-ROM, or CD-ROM drive, where added material can be displayed. E-CD, technically known as stamped multisession , is used to refer to any audio CD that has CD-ROM data added. Most audio CDs use only about 60 minutes-worth of the disk's 74 available minutes-worth of space; E-CD takes advantage of the unused space to include extra data on audio CDs. Recording artists have used E-CD technology to include video clips, artist profiles, lyrics, interviews, animation, promotional material, and even games on audio disks.
E-CD specifications are detailed in the Blue Book, a 1995 supplement to the 1988 Philips and Sony Orange Book, that was intended as a separate definition for stamped multisession disc format. Because the disks are stamped (pressed from copies of the original recording), they are not user-recordable. The Blue Book, which called the new format CD Plus specified two recording sessions, one for audio data and one for any other included data. Like all CD formats, enhanced CD is based on the original Red Book specifications. E-CD is sometimes called CD-Extra, CD-Plus, stamped multisession , or simply Blue Book format .
E-CD format is designed to overcome the problems of mixed-mode CDs, which also consisted of separate tracks for audio and other data. Mixed-mode disks were often responsible for speaker damage: when a CD player tried to read the data tracks, the result was loud static. Because E-CD data and audio tracks are written in separate sessions, the data track(s) can be made invisible to the CD player, so that only the audio tracks are played.
CD-MO (Magneto-Optical)
Compact disc - Magneto Optical (CD-MO) is a CD format that uses magnetic fields for data storage. Defined by Philips and Sony in their 1990 Recordable CD Standard , (informally known as the Orange Book) CD-MO disks can, at least theoretically, be rewritten an unlimited number of times.
CD-MO disks are constructed of an alloy of terbium ferrite and cobalt. The reading of an MO disc is based on the Kerr effect. (In the Kerr effect, linear, polarized light is deflected when it is influenced by a magnetic field, and the plane of polarization is twisted.) The MO method changes the magnetic characteristics of tiny areas on the disk's surface so that the reading laser beam is reflected differently on altered areas than on unaltered areas.
When writing to the disk, a laser beam is focused on an extremely small spot, and the alloy is heated to a specific temperature (called the Curie point ) sufficient to cause the ferromagnetic properties of the aligned elementary particles to be lost. An electromagnet is positioned on the other side of the disk, changing the polarity of the particles, whose differences will be encoded as binary data for storage. Like other optical media, such as DVD and other CD formats, CD-MO is read by a laser beam, which makes it more reliable than a hard disc or a floppy disk. However, a strong magnetic field can corrupt the stored data.
Multisession CD
A Multisession CD is a recordable CD (like a CD-R) that allows data to be recorded to a disc in more than one recording session. If there is free space left on the CD after the first session, additional data can be written to it at a later date. Every session has its own lead in, program area, and lead out. This takes up about 20MB of space, and therefore, is less efficient than recording data all at once.
Multisession CDs can be read in current CD-ROM drives, unless data is recorded track-by-track or sector by sector. This process is known as packet writing and in this case only newer CD-ROM drives accompanied by appropriate software would be able to read the disk.
Super Audio CD (SACD)
Super Audio Compact disc (SACD) is a high-resolution audio CD format. Version 1.0 specifications were detailed by Philips and Sony in March of 1999, in the Scarlet Book. SACD and DVD-Audio (DVD-A)are the two formats competing to replace the standard audio CD. Most of the industry is backing DVD-A, with Philips and Sony being the major exceptions.
Like SACD, DVD-A offers 5.1 channel surround sound in addition to 2-channel stereo. Both formats improve the complexity of sound by increasing bit rates and sampling frequencies, and can be played on existing CD players, although only at quality levels similar to those of traditional CDs. SACD uses Direct Stream Digital (DSD) recording, a proprietary Sony technology that converts an analog waveform to a 1-bit signal for direct recording, instead of the pulse code modulation (PCM) and filtering used by standard CDs. DSD uses lossless compression (so-called because none of the data is lost in the compression process) and a sampling rate of 2.8MHz to improve the complexity and realism of sound. SACD can also contain extra information, such as text, graphics, and video clips.
The first SACD player was released in North America in December of 1999, with an $8000 price tag. In late 2000, Sony released a new model, priced at $1000.
Double Density CD (DDCD)
Double Density Compact disc (DDCD) is a CD format that increases the storage capacity of the disc through means such as increasing the number of tracks and pits. Philips and Sony detailed the DDCD specifications in their 2000 document (known informally as the Purple Book).
Although DDCD did not receive much industry notice until Philips and Sony produced the Purple Book specifications, the Optical disc Corporation (ODC) released a similar format, High Density CD (HDCD) in 1993, and Nimbus Technology and Engineering introduced their own Double Density CD format in 1994. The general feeling in the industry is that DDCD has been introduced as a stop-gap measure to tide over the market until DVD inevitably solves its problems (such as standardization and compatibility issues) and completely obliterates the CD.
 
DVD ( Digital Versatile Disk)
DVD is a relatively new optical disc technology that uses denser recording techniques in addition to layering and two-sided manufacturing to achieve very large disc capacities. DVDs can hold video, audio and computer data. DVD drives are also able to read CD-ROMs. The original purpose of DVD was to hold video data in particular - DVD once was said to stand for Digital Video Disk . However, as the number of DVD applications grew, the variety of data that can be stored on DVD was reflected in its present name, Digital Versatile disc (although some claim that it should be referred to only by the three letters, DVD).
Also a 4.7 inch diameter (120 mm) by .05 inch (1.2mm) thick disk, the DVD stores data on a spiral track like the CD. The wave length of the laser beam used to read the DVD disc is shorter than that used for standard CDs. The DVD disc is created with shallower and smaller indentions, thereby enabling greater storage capacity.
In addition, there are more tracks per disc on DVDs, because they are placed closer together than on CDs. The track pitch has been reduced to 0.74 microns. This is less than half that of CDs, which is 1.6 microns. Data pits are considerably smaller, which allows a greater number per track than on CDs. The average DVD disc holds 4 times the number of data pits that can be held by a CD. The average capacity of a single-sided, single-layered disc is 4.7 gigabytes. DVD has also increased the efficiency of the data structure on the disk. In the 1970s, when CDs were first developed, considerable error correction was necessary to ensure that the disc would play correctly. More bits were being used for error detection and correction, which limited the disk's capacity to carry user data. DVD's more efficient error correction code (ECC) allows increased capacity for user data.
The larger number of data pits on a DVD is accomplished by shortening the wavelength of the laser used to create the pits. The wavelength was reduced from 780nm (nanometers), infrared light, for the CD, to 635nm to 650nm, red light, for the DVD. Synchronization ensures that both audio and video portions of the DVD are presented to the user simultaneously (at the same time), an important aspect of digital movie playback architecture.
Double-Layered DVD Disks
DVD disks can also be constructed with two layers. On a double-layered disk, each data layer is half as thick as that used in the CD-ROM. Data can, therefore, be written in two layers. The outer layer is semi transparent to allow reading of the underlying silver layer. The reading laser operates at two different intensities, the stronger one reads the inner, silver layer. This increases the storage capacity to 8.5 Gb of data and eliminates the necessity of removing and flipping the disk.
An additional feature that improves efficiency is the dual-directional readability of the second data layer. Unlike standard-density CD-ROMs, which can only be read from the innermost part of the spiral track to the outermost part, the second layer of the double-layered DVD can be written to and read from either direction. This results in faster transitions by the reading laser. It can actually take less time for the reading laser to refocus to retrieve data from a different layer on a DVD than it does for the laser to relocate and retrieve data from a different part of the same layer on a CD-ROM.
An extension of the double-layered disc is the double-sided DVD disk. To enable the refocusing of the read laser, manufacturers have constructed DVD disks with a thinner plastic substrate than that used on a CD-ROM disk. This reduces the distance that the laser must travel to reach the data pits. The resulting disks were only 0.6mm thick, too thin to remain flat and withstand handling. Two disks were then bonded back-to-back resulting in a thickness of 1.2mm, a manageable thickness. This virtually doubled the disc capacity.
DVD Versions and Storage Capacity
Unlike standard CDs, DVD disks have varying storage capacities, expressed as a numeral.
DVD Version
Double-sided, double-layered disc with 17Gb capacity
DVD Regional Codes
In an effort to control the home release of movies in different countries, motion picture studios have devised a method to prevent playback of certain disks in certain geographical regions. Since theatre releases are not simultaneous, and because studios sell distribution rights to foreign distributors and would like to guarantee exclusive markets, pressure was brought to bear on the writers of the DVD standard. The standard now includes codes that can be used in playback devices to ensure that only disks purchased in the same geographical areas as the players will function properly.
Regional codes are entirely optional for disc manufacturers, however. disks without codes will play on any player regardless of its origin. One byte of information holding the regional code can be checked by the player. There is no encryption involved, but regional codes are a permanent part of the disc with no unlocking mechanism included. Although manufacturers originally planned to code only new releases, most DVD disks today are geographically coded.
The DVD Forum
The DVD Forum is an international organization made up of companies using or manufacturing DVD - related products. The Forum, which was originally called the DVD Consortium, was created in 1995 when ten companies (Hitachi, Matsushita, Mitsubishi, Philips, Pioneer, Sony, Thomson Multimedia, Time Warner, Toshiba Corporation, and Victor) joined for the common purpose of promoting DVD worldwide, establishing single formats of each DVD application for the marketplace, and addressing the issues threatening DVD acceptance, such as standardization and device compatibility issues. From ten founding members, the DVD Forum membership has grown to include some 230 companies worldwide. The Forum's activities are directed by a steering committee that is elected every second year. Separate working groups are established to define specifications. A Verification Task Force (VTF) exists to define test specifications, tools, and procedures to be used and to ensure that products bearing the official DVD logo comply with all specifications. The DVD defines as its purposes, to:
Define DVD Format specification
DVD Formats
Although DVD was once thought of as being solely a video format, there are several other DVD specifications:
DVD-ROM
Digital Versatile disc - Read Only Memory (DVD-ROM) is a DVD format with technology similar to the familiar DVD video disk, but with a more computer-friendly file structure. The DVD-ROM format was designed to store the same type of computer data typical of a CD-ROM, and is intended for use in DVD-ROM drives in a personal computer. DVD-ROMs have seven times the storage capacity of CD-ROMs. DVD-ROM specifications were detailed in the original 1997 document, Book A.
DVD-ROM is sometimes described as a "bigger bit bucket," meaning that it is a larger storage space, and one that can be filled with whatever the user chooses, such as video, music, or computer-specific data. A DVD-ROM drive is similar to the CD-ROM drive, but with enhanced optical engineering that enables it to read the greater data load. DVDs, although the same size as CDs, have varying storage capacities of up to 17GB (this is a format called DVD-18), compared with the standard CD's approximate (and unvarying) capacity of 750MB. DVDs increase the numbers of pits and lands (lower and higher areas on the disc that are read by the laser and recorded as binary data) by decreasing both the size of the pits and the track pitch (space between tracks). In order to read the data from the smaller pits, the laser wavelength used by DVD-ROM drives was also reduced significantly.
DVD-ROM drives have a base speed of 1.32 megabytes/second; specific drive speeds are expressed as multiples of base, in the same way that CD-ROM drives are. DVD-ROM drives are backward compatible, and can read CD-ROMs, usually at speeds comparable to a 24X or 32X CD-ROM drive. The DVD-ROM drive - which is being manufactured by most makers of CD-ROM drives - is expected to replace the CD-ROM in the near future.
DVD-RAM
Digital Versatile disc - Random Access Memory (DVD-RAM) is an adaptation of DVD-ROM that uses magneto-optical technology to record data, both on the grooves and the lands (flat areas) of the disk. DVD-RAM specifications, known as Book E, were released by the DVD Forum in 1998. Like most DVD formats, DVD-RAM can contain any type of information, such as video, text, audio, and computer data; however, at 2.6 gigabytes, the storage capacity is much lower than the other types of DVD. Single-sided DVD-RAM disks can be read by DVD-ROM drives, but double-sided DVD-RAM disks are not compatible with most DVD-ROM drives. Hitachi's DVD-RAM drive was introduced in 1998. The Hitachi drive could record and play single and double-sided DVD-RAM disks and could play CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, and audio CDs .
DVD-Audio
DVD-Audio (DVD-A) is a DVD format developed by Panasonic that is specifically designed to hold audio data, and particularly, high-quality music. The DVD Forum released the final DVD-A specification in March of 1999. The new DVD format is said to provide at least twice the sound quality of audio CD on disks that can contain up to seven times as much information. Various types of DVD-A-compatible DVD players are being manufactured, in addition to the DVD-A players specifically developed for the format.
Almost all of the space on a DVD video disc is devoted to containing video data. As a consequence, the space allotted to audio data, such as a Dolby Digital 5.1 soundtrack, is severely limited. A lossy compression technique - so-called because some of the data is lost - is used to enable audio information to be stored in the available space, both on standard CDs and DVD-Video disks. In addition to using lossless compression methods, DVD-A also provides more complexity of sound by increasing the sampling rate and the frequency range beyond what is possible for the space limitations of CDs and DVD-Video. DVD-Audio is 24-bit, with a sampling rate of 96kHz; in comparison, DVD-Video soundtrack is 16-bit, with a sampling rate of 48kHz, and standard audio CD is 16-bit, with a sampling rate of 44.1kHz.
Although DVD-A is designed for music, it can also contain other data, so that - similarly to Enhanced CD - it can provide the listener with extra information, such as liner notes, and images. A variation on the format, DVD-AudioV, is designed to hold a limited amount of conventional DVD video data in addition to DVD-Audio. DVD-A is backed by most of the industry as the technology that will replace the standard audio CD. The major exceptions are Philips and Sony, whose Super Audio provides similar audio quality. Like DVD-A, SACD offers 5.1 channel surround sound in addition to 2-channel stereo. Both formats improve the complexity of sound by increasing bit rates and sampling frequencies (among other techniques), and can be played on existing CD players, although only at quality levels similar to those of traditional CDs.
DVD-R
Digital Versatile disc - Recordable (DVD-R) is a type of write once, read many (WORM) DVD format that allows the user to record a single time on a DVD disk. DVD-R specifications, known as Book D, were released by the DVD Forum in 1997. Similarly to CD-R, DVD-R can contain any type of information, such as video, text, audio, and computer data, for example. DVD-R disks can be played on any type of DVD playback device that can handle the type of information stored, such as a DVD-ROM drive, or a DVD video player. DVD-R disks are read at the same speeds as commercially made DVDs.
DVD-R recording, like CD-R recording, is enabled by the use of a layer of organic dye that is permanently changed by exposure to a finely focused laser beam. The dye layer is coated onto the DVD's base layer, a polycarbonate plastic substrate (the base layer of all CDs and DVDs), which is injection molded, and has a pre-grooved spiral track on its surface to guide the laser. To increase the storage capacity of DVDs, both the wavelength and aperture size of the laser are decreased so that smaller pits (the areas read by the laser to obtain binary data) can be created - reading the disc also requires the same changes. Once the data has been written, the dye layer is coated with a thin, reflective metal coat that will enable the laser to read data from the differences in the way pits and lands reflect light. DVD-Rs can be written in a single session (called write-at-once recording) or incrementally, in a process similar to the packet writing technology used for CD-Rs.
DVD-RW
Digital Versatile disc - Rewritable (DVD-RW) is a DVD format that allows the user to record and erase multiple times on a single DVD disk. DVD-RW specifications were released as Book F in 1999 by the DVD Forum. A slightly different rewritable DVD format, DVD+RW is backed by a group of companies known as the DVD+RW Consortium, made up of Philips, Sony, Hewlett-Packard, Mitsubishi Chemical, Yamaha, and Ricoh.
Similarly to CD-RW and DVD-R, DVD-RW can contain any type of information, such as video, text, audio, and computer data, for example. DVD-RW disks can be played on any type of DVD playback device that can handle the type of information stored, such as a DVD-ROM drive, or a DVD video player. Like DVD-R, DVD-RW disks can hold up to 9.4 gigabytes of data, compared to the 650 megabyte capacity of the CD.
DVD-RW recording is similar to CD-RW recording, just as the one-time recording format, DVD-R, has a similar process to that of CD-R. The basic structure of all CDs and DVDs - a polycarbonate substrate, a thin, reflective metal layer, and a protective outer layer - is the same. In the case of the one-time recording formats, an organic dye layer (which is permanently changed by exposure to a finely focused laser) serves as the recording medium. In a DVD-RW, the dye layer is replaced with an alloy that can change back and forth from a crystalline form when exposed to a particular light, through a technology called phase change. The patterns created are less distinct than those of other CD formats, requiring a more sensitive device for playback.
Similarly to DVD-R, the DVD-RW's polycarbonate substrate is preformed with a spiral groove to guide the laser. The alloy phase-change recording layer is sandwiched between two dielectric layers that draw excess heat from the recording layer. After heating to one particular temperature, the alloy will become crystalline when it is cooled; after heating to a higher temperature it will become amorphous (won't hold its shape) when it is cooled. By controlling the temperature of the laser, crystalline areas and non-crystalline areas are formed. The crystalline areas will reflect the laser, while the other areas will absorb it. The differences will register as binary data that can be unencoded for playback. To erase or write over recorded data, the higher temperature laser is used, which results in the non-crystalline form, which can then be reformed by the lower temperature laser.
The Future of CD/DVD Technology
Although there are still compatibility and standardization issues to settle - and a few challenges from some of the newer CD formats - most industry members predict that DVD, which has greater storage capacities and faster access times, will replace CD technologies in the near future. DVD-ROM drives are likely to be bundled with new computer systems in the way that CD-ROM drives have been. Nevertheless, the future is hard to predict, given the pace of ongoing research and development. The industry moves forward, and newer technologies, such as HD-ROM, are being developed.
HD-ROM (High Density-Read-Only-Memory)
HD-ROM (High-Density - Read Only Memory) is a high capacity storage technology developed at Norsam Technologies, in conjunction with an IBM research group, that enables the discs to store hundreds of times as much information as a CD-ROM. HD-ROM uses a very narrow, finely focused particle beam (consisting of charged gallium ions) to write data. HD-ROM technology can be used to write data on different types of media, such as metal or other durable materials, to create virtually indestructible storage.
HD-ROM's particle beam, at a size of 50 nanometers, enables a storage capacity of 165 gigabytes on disks the same size as a CD or DVD. In comparison, CD-ROM uses an 800-nanometer wavelength laser beam for a storage capacity of 650 megabytes, and DVD-ROM uses a 350-nanometer wavelength laser for a storage capacity of 4.7 gigabytes. HD-ROM was designed to store large databases, such as those required by government agencies, banks, insurance companies, scientific users, and libraries. In addition to the enormous storage capacity, HD-ROM's benefits over traditional archival storage systems (such as magnetic tape and RAID) include faster access times, greater durability, and lower costs.
Media

The History of Car Audio | eHow
The History of Car Audio
photo by Alex Cosper
The automobile industry developed in the early 1900s, followed by the radio industry in the 1920s. Since the 1950s, people have been able to choose what they listen to beyond radio in their cars. From tapes to discs and now digital files, drivers keep gaining more control of their listening choices.
1900s-1920s
Radio was invented in the early 1900s but did not come into widespread use until the 1920s. Early car radio experimentation was done in 1922 by George Frost. The earliest listing of a car radio in "Radio Collector's Guide 1921-1932" is the Airtone 3D in 1925. Mass production of car radios began in 1927 with the Transitone TH-1. Two years later two brothers in Chicago, Paul and Joseph Galvin of Galvin Manufacturing, developed a car radio that was marketed in 1930 by Motorola as model 5T71.
1930s-1950s
By the 1930s, AM car radios were common. In 1952 the first FM tuner to join the AM band in cars was introduced, although FM radio listening remained scarce all decade. Chrysler included a turntable in its Imperial series, but the idea never caught on. The advent of the portable transistor radio in the late '50s created another way to listen to radio while moving in a car.
1960s
The 8-track tape player made its debut in Ford vehicles in 1965, nine years after Ford began to feature similar 4-track tape players. This system of tape cartridges won over turntables in the car because cartridges were more stable and gave the listener more control. An album was divided into four stereo programs, accounting for the eight tracks. The listener could select a program.
1970s
Cassettes were introduced in the early '60s and made their way into the car by 1970. Cassettes became the most popular audio medium in 1977, as 8-track tapes faded. Cassettes were smaller and easier to store and had sound quality that rivaled all audio formats. The surge in popularity of FM radio in the late '70s paralleled the development of car receivers that could pick up FM signals better while driving. Citizens Band radio, used by truckers, was a brief fad in 1976.
1980s
FM became so popular in the '80s that AM stations had to reinvent themselves, leading to more talk and sports channels. With the expansion of radio dial choices for drivers, button-pushing became part of the common listening experience. The compact disc was introduced by Philips and Sony in 1982, and the first CD players in cars arrived in 1984. A year later, automatic CD changers began to appear in cars.
1990s
The cassette remained viable through the '90s but inevitably was overshadowed by the CD. The cassette had been the best medium to date for making "mix tapes" that were ideal for road trips. People making their own CD compilations paralleled the rise in popularity of personal computers. DVD players first appeared in 1996.
2000s
The 2000s marked an acceleration in the development of portable digital gadgets. Apple introduced the iPod in 2001, allowing 1,000 songs to be stored on a small player. The iPod and MP3 players became accessories for car listening. Another new package of listening choices came with Sirius XM, a satellite radio company offering hundreds of channels that can be heard around the world.