From: lhermi@magnus.acs.ohio-state.edu (Lotfi Hermi)
Newsgroups: soc.religion.islam
Subject: Some Theoretical and Historical Aspects of Caliphate
Date: 15 Dec 1992 03:08:49 GMT
Organization: The Ohio State University
Reply-To: lhermi@magnus.acs.ohio-state.edu (Lotfi Hermi)
NNTP-Posting-Host: wookumz.gnu.ai.mit.edu
Originator: gwydion@wookumz.gnu.ai.mit.edu

	Aspects of Caliphate (Quotes from Ibn Khaldun's Muqadimmah)
		Translation by F. Rosenthal (Section # precedes article)
	
I.  Theoretical aspects: 

[23] The meaning of caliphate and imamate.

(As explained,) the real meaning of royal authority is 
that it is a form of organization necessary to mankind. ( Royal 
authority) requires superiority and force, which express the 
wrathfulness and animality (of human nature). The deci-
sions of the ruler will therefore, as a rule, deviate from what 
is right. They will be ruinous to the worldly affairs of the 
people under his control, since, as a rule, he forces them to 
execute his intentions and desires, which it may be beyond 
their ability (to do). This situation will differ according to 
the difference of intentions to be found in different gener-
ations. (But) it is for this reason difficult to be obedient to
(the ruler).  Disobedience makes itself noticeable and leads
to trouble and blodshed.  

Therefore, it is necessary to have reference to ordained 
political norms, which are accepted by the mass and to whose 
laws it submits. The Persians and other nations had such 
norms. The dynasty that does not have a policy based on such 
(norms), cannot fully succeed in establishing the supremacy 
of its rule. "This is how God proceeded with those who were 
before." 

If these norms are ordained by the intelligent and leading 
personalities and (best) minds of the dynasty, the result will 
be a political (institution) on an intellectual (rational) basis. 
If they are ordained by God through a lawgiver who es-
tablishes them as (religious) laws, the result will be a political
(institution) on a religious basis, which will be useful for life 
in both this and the other world.
 
This is because the purpose of human beings is not only 
their worldly welfare. This entire world is trifling and futile. 
It ends in death and annihilation. God says: "Do you think 
that we created you triflingly?''  The purpose (of human 
beings) is their religion, which leads them to happiness in 
the other world, "the path of God to whom belongs that 
which is in heaven and that which is on earth.'' Therefore, 
religious laws have as their purpose to cause (human beings) 
to follow such a course in all their dealings with God and 
their fellow men. This (situation) also applies to royal au-
thority, which is natural in human social organization. (The 
religious laws) guide it along the path of religion, so that 
everything will be under the supervision of the religious law. 
Anything (done by royal authority) that is dictated by force, 
superiority, or the free play of the power of wrathfulness, is 
tyranny and injustice and considered reprehensible by (the 
religious law), as it is also considered reprehensible by the
requirements of political wisdom. Likewise anything (done 
by royal authority) that is dictated ( merely by considerations 
of policy or political decisions without supervision of the 
religious law, is also reprehensible, because it is vision 
lacking the divine light. "He for whom God makes no light 
has no light whatever."  The Lawgiver (Muhammad) 
knows better than the mass itself what is good for them so 
far as the affairs of the other world, which are concealed from 
the mass itself, are concerned. At the Resurrection, the ac-
tions of human beings, whether they had to do with royal 
authority or anything else, will all come back to them. 
Muhammad said: "It is your own actions that are brought 
back to you."
 
Political laws consider only worldly interests. "They 
know the outward life of this world."  (On the other hand,) 
the intention the Lawgiver has concerning mankind is their 
welfare in the other world.  Therefore, it is necessary, as 
required by the religious law, to cause the mass to act in 
accordance with the religious laws in all their affairs touching 
both this world and the other world. The authority to do so 
was possessed by the representatives of the religious law, 
the prophets. (Later on, it was possessed) by those who took
their place, the caliphs.
 
This makes it clear what the caliphate means. (To exer-
cise) natural royal authority means to cause the masses to 
act as required by purpose and desire. (To exercise) political 
(royal authority) means to cause the masses to act as re-
quired by intellectual (rational) insight into the means of 
furthering their worldly interests and avoiding anything that 
is harmful (in that respect). (And to exercise) the caliphate 
means to cause the masses to act as required by religious in-
sight into their interests in the other world as well as in this 
world. (The worldly interests) have bearing upon (the in-
terests in the other world), since according to the Lawgiver 
( Muhammad), all worldly conditions are to be considered in 
their relation to their value for the other world. Thus, (the 
caliphate) in reality substitutes for the Lawgiver (Muham-
mad), in as much as it serves, like him, to protect the religion 
and to exercise (political) leadership of the world.
 
This should be understood and be kept in mind in the 
following discussion. God is wise and knowing.

II.  Historical aspects

[50] Human civilization requires political leadership
for its organization.

We have mentioned before in more than one place that
human social organization is something necessary. It is the
thing that is meant by "the civilization'' which we have been
discussing. (People) in any social organization must have
someone who exercises a restraining influence and rules them
and to whom recourse may be had. His rule over them is
sometimes based upon a divinely revealed religious law.
They are obliged to submit to it in view of their belief in
reward and punishment in the other world, (things that were
indicated) by the person who brought them (their religious
law). Sometimes, (his rule is based) upon rational politics.
People are obliged to submit to it in view of the reward
they expect from the ruler after he has become acquainted
with what is good for them.

The first (type of rule) is useful for this world and for
the other world, because the lawgiver knows the ultimate
interest of the people and is concerned with the salvation of
man in the other world. The second (type of rule) is useful
only for this world.(749)

We do not mean here that which is known as "political
utopianism" (siyasah madaniyah).(750) By that, the philosophers
mean the disposition of soul and character which each mem-
ber of a social organization must have, if, eventually, people
are completely to dispense with rulers. They call the social
organization that fulfills these requirements the "ideal city."
The norms observed in this connection are called "political
utopias" (siyasah madaniyah). They do not mean the kind of
politics (siyasah) that the members of a social organization
are led to adopt through laws for the common interest. That
is something different. The "ideal city" (of the philosophers)
is something rare and remote. They discuss it as a hypothesis.

Now, the afore-mentioned rational politics may be of two
types. The first type of rational politics may concern itself
with the (public) interest in general, and with the ruler's
interest in connection with the administration of his realm,
in particular. This was the politics of the Persians. It is
something related to philosophy. God made this type of
politics superfluous for us in Islam at the time of the cali-
phate. The religious laws take its place in connection with
both general and special interests, for they also inclucle
the maxims (of the philosophers) and the rules of royal
authority.

The second type (of rational politics) is the one con-
cerned with the interest of the ruler and how he can maintain
his rule through the forceful use of power. The general
( public) interest is, here, secondary . This is the type of
politics practiced by all rulers, whether they are Muslims or
unbelievers. Muslim rulers, however, practice this type of
politics in accordance with the requirements of the Muslim
religious law, as much as they are able to. Therefore, the
political norms here are a mixture of religious laws and ethi-
cal rules, norms that are natural in social organization to-
gether with a certain necessary concern for strength and
group feeling. Examples to be followed in (the practice of)
this (kind of politics) are, in the first place, the religious law,
and then, the maxims of the philosophers and the way of
life of rulers ( of the past) .

The best and most comprehensive written exposition of
this subject is the letter of Tahir b. al-Husayn, al-Ma'mun's
general, to his son 'Abdallah b. Tahir when (al-Ma'mun)
appointed him governor of ar-Raqqah, Egypt, and the inter-
vening territories. On that occasion, his father Tahir wrote
him the famous letter. In it, he exhorted him and gave him
his advice concerning all religious and ethical matters. (He
discussed) all (important) political problems as handled by
the religious law and all problems of power politics that he
would have to know in his government and administration.
He urged him to strive for virtue and good qualities, in a
manner so exemplary that no king or commoner can do
without (these exhortations)...

The historians report that people liked the letter when it
appeared, and it found wide circulation. Al-Ma'mun heard
about it. When it had been read to him, he said: ''Abu
t-Tayyib--that is, Tahir--did not omit any of the matters
that concern this world, the religion, administration, (the
formation of) opinion, politics, the improvement of the realm
and the subjects, the preservation of the government, obedi-
ence to the caliphs, and maintenance of the caliphate. He has
dealt very well with all these matters, and has given direc-
tions (how to handle) them.'' Al-Ma'mun then ordered the
letter to be sent to all officials in the various regions, so that
they might use it as a model and act accordingly.

This is the best treatment of this type of politics that I
have found. God inspires whomever of His servants He
wants to inspire.

------------------------END----------------------------------------