From: aabdalla@pollux.usc.edu (Ahmed Abd-Allah)
Newsgroups: talk.religion.misc
Subject: The Qur'an and Science
Date: 22 Aug 1992 22:38:54 -0700
Organization: University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
NNTP-Posting-Host: pollux.usc.edu

Here is a VERY long article on Islam (you know, the religion which you love
to hate out of ignorance) and science (you know, the thing which has dogged
the Old and New Testaments).

The first part touches on knowledge in general in the Qur'an.  The second 
part gives concrete examples of 'scientific' verses - compare the general 
tone of them with what you find in the Bible.  Also for the skeptics, keep
in mind as you read this, that your accusation is that a single man wrote
down the Qur'an...  as opposed to saying it comes from God Who wished to
guide us back from the doctrinal errors of Judaism and Christianity.

Read...
*********************************

THE DESCRIPTION OF KNOWLEDGE IN THE QUR'AN AND BY THE PROPHET

There are plenty of references to knowledge and the pursuit of knowledge in
the Qur'an.  The general feeling they leave the reader with is that the 
possessor of knowledge or wisdom has been given a very powerful gift, and 
that the pursuit of knowledge is something which should be done actively 
by everyone.  Here are a few verses on the subject:

     [96:1-5]
     Read!  In the name of your Lord who created -
     Created the human from something which clings.
     Read!  And your Lord is Most Bountiful -
     He who taught (the use of) the Pen,
     Taught the human that which he knew not.

Please note that the above passage is the first passage revealed from the 
Qur'an to mankind through the Prophet Muhammad.  It is interesting that of 
all the things which God chose to begin His revelation with is related to 
the actions of reading and writing, especially the latter.  The ability to 
write and store information is described by Professor Carl Sagan in his 
book COSMOS: "Writing is perhaps the greatest of human inventions, binding 
together people, citizens of distant epochs, who never knew one another.  
Books break the shackles of time, proof that humans can work magic." 

     [2:269]
     He [God] grants wisdom to whom He pleases; and he to whom
     wisdom is granted indeed receives a benefit overflowing.
     But none will grasp the Message except men of understanding.

     [20:114]
     High above all is Allah, the King, the Truth.  Be not in
     haste with the Qur'an before its revelation to you is 
     completed, but say, "O my Lord!  Advance me in knowledge."

     [3:190]
     Behold!  In the creation of the heavens and the earth, and 
     the alternation of night and day - there are indeed signs for
     men of understanding; Men who remember Allah, standing, sitting, 
     and lying down on their sides, and contemplate the creation of
     the heavens and the earth (with the thought) "Our Lord!  Not 
     for naught have You created (all) this.  Glory to You!  Give us
     salvation from the suffering of the Fire."

This verse is a clear demonstration that 'science' and 'religion' were NOT 
meant to be fundamentally incompatible with each other by God.  In fact, 
the verse strongly implies that "contemplating" the world around us is an 
integral part of faith.

     [29:20]
     Say:  Travel through the earth and see how Allah did originate
     creation; so will Allah produce the second creation (of the
     Afterlife): for Allah has power over all things.

There are also references in the Qur'an describing the value (in the sight 
of God) of a knowledgeable person as opposed to an ignorant person.  They 
are not equal:

     [39:9]
     ...Say:  Are those equal, those who know and those who do
     not know?  It is those who are endued with understanding that
     remember (Allah's Message).

     [58:11]
     ...Allah will raise up to (suitable) ranks (and degrees) those
     of you who believe and who have been granted knowledge.

          *         *         *         *         *         *

The first source of knowledge for Islam is the Qur'an.  The second, lesser 
source is the sayings and practices of the Prophet Muhammad.  Here are a 
few of the Prophet's sayings on the subject of knowledge:

     "Upon a person whom Allah desires good, He bestows the 
     knowledge of faith."  - from the collections of Bukhari and Muslim

Note that the Prophet has conclusively tied faith to knowledge by this 
statement.

     "A person who follows a path for acquiring knowledge, Allah
     will make easy the passage to Paradise for him."  
                                    - from the collection of Muslim

     "A Muslim is never satiated in his quest for good (knowledge)
     till it ends in Paradise."  - from the collection of Tirmidhi

          *         *         *         *         *         *

A SMALL HISTORY OF THE EARLY DEBATE BETWEEN REVELATION AND REASON IN ISLAM

Early on after the revelation of the Qur'an was complete and the Prophet 
had died, the Muslim community began to address the question of defining 
the relationship between revelation and human reason.  Which of the two 
was better equipped to define truth?  Within 500 years after the end of 
the Qur'an's revelation, the following rough classification of knowledge 
and philosophy appeared:

     Revelation                    Reason
       |                          /     \
       |                        /         \
     Qur'an       Esoteric Knowledge    Rational, Empirical Knowledge
                                             /     \
                                           /         \
                                       Hikma        Kalam
                                                   /     \
                                                 /         \
                                         Mu'tazelism     Ash'arism

What follows is a brief explanation of these two trees.  This explanation 
is only a small introduction to what are actually huge subjects in and of 
themselves; one cannot do them justice with a few words.

1. Revelation:  The Qur'an is the only source of revelation in Islam. All 
other sources (Torah, Bible, etc.) have either been corrupted by man, or 
were never true to begin with.  God describes His Words, the  Qur'an, as 
being truthful and consistent:

     [41:41-42]
     ...And indeed it is a Book of exalted power.  No falsehood
     can approach it from before or behind it:  It is sent down
     by One full of Wisdom, worthy of all Praise.

     [4:82]
     Do they not consider the Qur'an (with care)?  Had it been
     from other than Allah, they would surely have found therein
     much discrepancy.

The Qur'an is also complete in describing the relationship between man and 
God, and it may also cover the essence of other subjects:

     [5:3]
     ...This day have I perfected your religion for you, completed
     my favor upon you, and have chosen for you Islam as your 
     religion.

     [17:12]
     ...All things have We explained in detail.

2. Reason:  This is often defined as the domain of the human mind, whether 
it is used for cold, rational, scientific thought or for spiritual, 
esoteric, mystical contemplation.  This definition is obviously open to 
debate - as are the following classifications as well.

3. Esoteric Knowledge:  The type of knowledge which includes that which is 
described in the Qur'an as the "knowledge of the unseen (unknown)", and it 
refers to those things that humans cannot physically experience or observe.
This area also includes the school known as Sufism, where a man seeks to 
draw closer to God through meditation, isolation, intense devotion, etc.

4. Rational, Empirical Knowledge:  Knowledge which can be tested by 
mankind, either through abstract thought or by empirical methods.

5. Hikma:  Pure philosophy.  Here the belief is that by employing reason 
completely independent of revelation, man will ultimately arrive at the 
same truths or conclusions contained in revelation.

6. Kalam:  What makes this area different from Hikma is revelation may be 
consulted in the midst of 'proving' or simply observing things in the 
world.

7. Mu'tazelism:  The difference between this school of thought and the next 
is in the relative priorities assigned to revelation and reason.  
Mu'tazelism theory understands reason to be the real criterion for Truth, 
whereas revelation only confirms reason.  The object of revelation is to 
remove doubts from the weak-minded by confirming revelation.

8. Ash'arism:  Opposed to the previous school, revelation is understood 
here to be the real criterion of Truth.  Reason simply substantiates the 
doctrines and statements of revelation with its arguments or proofs.

          *         *         *         *         *         *

The above outline was an extremely brief, condensed description of what is 
actually a very large subject in Islam, namely, the different schools of 
thought regarding revelation and reason which evolved within the first 
500  years after the Qur'an's revelation was complete.  At the end of this 
period, the Ash'ari school had the clear and firm upper hand, and became 
established as the preminent model.

As an interesting side note, if we jump forward almost one thousand years 
to 1931, we have Kurt Godel establishing the incompleteness of mathematics 
(Peano's axioms, to be precise).  The implications of his discovery are 
extremely powerful: there will ALWAYS be certain statements which are true,
and yet which cannot be proven.  Apparently God has made the world such 
that our powers of reason will never fully be able to describe the Truth
(at least not using our present system of mathematics).  Uncertainty is, 
and forever will be, dominant.

          *         *         *         *         *         *

SCIENCE IN ISLAM

Unlike Christian history, there was never any serious clash between Muslim 
scientists and Muslim theologians.  There are at least two potential 
reasons for this.  The first is the lack of contradictions in the Qur'an 
with observable natural phenomena (a striking contrast to the Bible).  The 
second reason is the presence in the Qur'an itself of very clear and 
positive encouragement to contemplate and investigate the world.  As the 
verses quoted above indicate, God has not forbidden man to question, and 
in fact, it seems He wants us to do so.

However, the Qur'an goes beyond simply encouraging all human beings to be 
aware of the natural world.  It also contains widely dispersed references 
on a variety of subjects which are not only scientifically accurate, but 
in some cases, quite advanced.  For the Muslim who reads and understands 
these references, they serve to strengthen his or her faith of course.  
For the non-Muslim who questions the authenticity or authorship of the 
Qur'an, these references provide some interesting answers.  One possible 
reason for these Qur'anic verses which describe the natural world can be 
found in the following verse:

     [41:53]
     Soon will We show them Our Signs in the (farthest) horizons, 
     and within themselves, until it becomes manifest to them that
     it is the Truth...

The historical event which this verse alludes to is the conquest of Makkah.
However, almost every verse in the Qur'an carries a historical and a 
universal meaning, and therefore one interpretation of this verse (and a 
strong one) is that it refers to the gradual discovery of greater and 
greater natural "evidence" of the Creator's involvement in our world.  Two 
of the most important and most fascinating goals of modern science are to 
peer farther and farther out to the edge of the universe, and to look 
deeper and deeper into the structure of the human body.  It is in these 
two areas that we find the "signature" of God's creative power at its 
strongest.

          *         *         *         *         *         *

A SELECTION OF QUR'ANIC VERSES WHICH COMMENT ON THE NATURAL WORLD

A. - Pollution and the wasting of natural resources

     [30:41]
     Rottenness (decay/corruption) has appeared on land and sea
     because of what the hands of men have earned, that (Allah)
     may give them a taste of some of their deeds, in order that
     they may turn back (from evil).
     
     [7:31]
     O Children of Adam!  Wear your beautiful apparel at every time 
     and place of prayer; eat and drink, but waste not by excess,
     for Allah does not love those who waste.

The importance of understanding the ecological consequences of our actions 
as individuals or as a society was not fully appreciated until only this 
century.  We now understand that we cannot alter the face of the earth 
indiscriminately without paying some penalty, which may be disastrous.  We 
also understand that caution ought to be applied globally, not just 
locally, but truly "on land and sea".  Ecological awareness does not 
imply asceticism however.  According to the Qur'an, we are not forbidden 
to take pleasure in this life, however we are forbidden from wasting 
resources needlessly.

B. - Dual nature of iron

     [57:25]
     ...And We sent down iron in which is mighty harm, as well as 
     many benefits for mankind...

Iron is the single metal which is found abundantly on the earth.  It was 
known to many ancient civilizations, and is obviously the most important 
metal we use today.  The general description of it in the Qur'an was 
accurate in the time of the ancients, and it is even more so today: iron 
is the basis for most weapons of war and most of the everyday tools which 
we work with.

C. - Diversity of mankind

     [30:22]
     And among His Signs is the creation of the heavens and the
     earth, and the variations in your languages and your colors;
     verily in that are Signs for those who know.

     [49:13]
     O mankind!  We created you from a male and female, and made
     you into nations and tribes, that you may know each other.
     Verily the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is the
     one who is most deeply conscious of Him...

The racial and linguistic differences between humans are not meant as 
reasons to discriminate.  God simply describes this diversity as a part of 
His creative power, and He does not single out any race as being 
inherently superior to the others.  The emphasis in [49:13], in fact, is 
to learn to communicate with one another.

D. - Water Cycle

Most of us are familiar with the water cycle from our classes in middle 
school, where we learned how a drop of seawater evaporates, then becomes 
a drop of rainwater, and then finally returns to the sea via rivers or 
underground channels.  The first person in modern times to understand this 
process was Bernard Palissy who described it correctly in 1580.  Prior to 
him, most of the ancient Greek and Roman scholars had various incomplete 
or incorrect theories on the water cycle (Plato, for example, believed 
that precipitation eventually descended into the abyss called Tartarus and 
from there it fed into the oceans). 

The Qur'an does not give a complete description of the water cycle from 
start to end, however there are a few precise references to specific 
stages.  Perhaps the most fascinating of these references are the 
following two verses on rain clouds:

     [30:48]
     It is Allah Who sends the winds, and then they raise clouds:
     then He spreads them in the sky as He wills and makes them
     dark, then you see the drops issue from the midst of them...

     [24:43]
     Don't you see how Allah drives clouds with force, then joins
     them together, then makes them into a heap? - then you see 
     the drops issue from the midst of them.  And He sends down 
     from the sky mountains (of clouds) wherein is hail: He strikes
     therewith whom He pleases and He turns it away from whom He
     pleases.  The flash of His lightning well-nigh snatches away
     the sight.

(Note: It is an unfortunate fact that the most popular English translation 
of the Qur'an (by Yusuf Ali) severely mistranslates parts of these two 
verses.  The above translation is a much sharper, literal translation.)

The two verses are describing the stages in the formation of rain clouds, 
which is in turn a stage in the water cycle.  If we examine the verses 
closely, we find that they are fundamentally incompatible with each other: 
for example, one speaks of "spreading" the clouds, whereas the other 
speaks of "joining" the clouds.  The only explanation is that they must be
describing two different processes by which rain clouds are formed.  
Modern meteorology has come to the same conclusion within the last two 
centuries.

There are two types of clouds which can yield precipitation, and they are 
classified by their shape: stratus (layer-type) and cumulus (heap-type).  
The precipitative layer clouds are further subdivided into stratus and 
nimbostratus (nimbo meaning rain).  The first verse above on rain clouds 
([30:48]) precisely sums up the formation of layer rain clouds.  We know 
today that these types of clouds are started under conditions of gradual, 
rising winds ("and then they [winds] raise clouds").  Next, the cloud 
takes on its distinctive shape, that of a layer ("then He spreads them").  
If the conditions are right (i.e. low enough temperature, high enough 
humidity, etc.), the cloud droplets further condense into (larger) rain 
droplets, and we observe this effect from the ground as a darkening of 
the cloud layer ("and makes them dark").  Finally, drops of rain fall from 
the cloud.

The second type of precipitative cloud is the heap type, and it is 
subdivided into cumulus, cumulonimbus, and stratocumulus.  These clouds 
are characterized by being puffy-shaped and piled upon each other.  
Cumulus and cumulonimbus are the true heap clouds - stratocumulus is a 
form of degenerated, spread-out cumulus.  The second verse above on rain 
clouds ([24:43]) describes the formation of heap rain clouds.  Heap clouds 
are formed under conditions of strong updrafts (thermals) and downdrafts 
of air ("drives clouds with force").  As the puffs of clouds form, they 
can unite into a single giant cloud, all piled up on one another ("then 
joins them together, then makes them into a heap").  At this point, 
either a cumulus or a cumulonimbus cloud has formed - either of which can 
yield rain.  The rest of the verse is applicable to the case of a 
cumulonimbus (which is familiar to all of us as the towering thunderstorm 
type of cloud).  If the heap cloud assumes large vertical proportions, 
then it can appear to the observer on the ground as a huge mountain or 
hill, but more importantly, by extending high into the atmosphere, the 
upper cloud droplets can freeze and thereby yield hail ("And He sends 
down from the sky mountains (of clouds) wherein is hail").  Finally, 
cumulonimbus clouds (i.e. thunderstorms) can have one last vivid property:
lightning ("The flash of His lightning well-nigh snatches away the sight").
Many meteorologists today are inclined to believe that only those 
cumulonimbus clouds which DO cross the freezing level are capable of 
lightning.  Though the Qur'anic verse does not make such a strong claim, 
the order of the particular phrases within the verse could imply this.

Other Qur'anic verses deal with more stages in the water cycle.

     [23:18]
     And We send down water from the sky according to (due) 
     measure, then We cause it soak into the soil.  And We are
     most certainly able to withdraw it.

This is a single verse stating that rainfall is absorbed into the ground 
and that it can eventually be removed (drained).

     [13:17]
     He sends down water from the sky, and the rivers flow, 
     each according to its measure...

     [39:21]
     Don't you see that Allah sends down rain from the sky, and 
     leads it through the springs in the earth?...

Two methods by which absorbed rainfall is moved are described here: 
surface and underground rivers.  

There are other references in the Qur'an to the water cycle, and all of 
them have the same property as the verses quoted above: modern scientific 
findings are fully compatible with them.

A few other verses also deal with water but in a slightly different 
context. They are not nearly as numerous as the verses on the water cycle.

     [56:68-69]
     Do you see the water which you drink?  Do you bring it down 
     from the cloud or do We?

This rhetorical question emphasizes our inability to fulfill one of our 
oldest dreams: to control the rain.  The fact is we cannot make it rain 
unless a pre-existing cloud is in the vicinity - and then only under the 
proper conditions, and even then we are not assured of success.  The cloud 
should have different sized cloud particles, large quantities of water 
release from the rising air, and good vertical development.  If all of 
these characteristics are present, then we MAY coax some more rain out 
through cloud seeding and various other techniques.  However, modern 
meteorologists are unsure of its effectiveness.  Regardless, it is the 
presence of the necessary preconditions which we have no control over, and 
this ultimately stops us from arbitrarily bringing down the water of any 
cloud in the form of rain.

     [25:53]
     It is He who has caused to mix freely the two great bodies 
     of water, this one pleasant-tasting and sweet and this one 
     salty and bitter, and He made between them a barrier and a 
     forbidding ban.

A description of the estuaries of large rivers is supplied by the verse 
above.  These estuaries are unusual comparatively because the outgoing 
fresh water of the river does not immediately mix with the salt water of 
the sea into which the river empties.  Instead, the fresh water penetrates 
deep into the salt water body before any mixing occurs, far from the mouth 
of the river.  Small rivers do not have this property.

     [52:44]
     And were they to see a piece of the sky falling down, they
     would (only) say "Heaps of clouds!"

Another reference to clouds but this time in the context of responding to 
a challenge by an earlier peoples who ridiculed a prophet by asking him to 
cause a piece of the sky to fall on them, apparently thinking it to be a 
solid cap around the earth.  God refutes their challenge here, declaring 
that they would only find a pile of clouds, something all of us would
understand today.

E. - Human Embryological and Fetal Development

The Qur'an has an extensive amount of information on the growth of the 
human embryo and fetus, especially the former.  Before presenting this 
information, it may be helpful to provide a brief outline of human 
development in the womb as modern science understands.

     1. An unfertilized egg is produced by the female, and is
     subsequently placed in her Fallopian tubes.

     2. The male cohabits with the female, and a single sperm
     cell fertilizes the egg.

     3. The fertilized egg retreats into the uterus, and attaches
     itself to the uterine wall.

     4. Embryological growth (roughly 3 months).

     5. Fetal growth (6 months).

     6. Birth

We will examine some of these stages in greater detail as the verses in 
the Qur'an require.  First, however, two verses which give a general 
overview of human development:

     [71:14]
     ...seeing that it is He (God) Who has created you in 
     stages...

     [35:11]
     And Allah created you from dust, then from a drop, then
     He made you pairs (male and female)...

The first verse is a most general, yet accurate description of our 
creation as coming in stages (see the six step outline above).  
The second verse puts some perspective on the whole affair: how man 
originally came from dust, then from a drop, and followed by the 
development into one of the sexes.

There are at least four specific details regarding human development in 
the Qur'an which modern science has revealed only within the last few 
centuries, and in some cases only in this present century.  The first 
concerns the emission of semen:

     [75:37]
     Was he (man) not a drop of semen emitted?

In spite of the large amount of liquid which can be produced by a man 
during human intercourse, this verse makes it very clear that only a 
small drop of it is important.

The second important detail in the Qur'an on human development is the 
description of the fertilizing liquid (i.e. semen):

     [86:6]
     He (man) is created from a gushing liquid.

     [76:2]
     We created the human from a drop which is a mixture...

     [32:8]
     Then He (God) made his (Adam's) progeny from a quintessence
     of a despised liquid.

The second and third verses relate to the contents of semen.  Modern 
science has established that semen is in fact a composition of different 
secretions which come from four different glands during ejaculation: the 
testicles, the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the urinary tract 
glands.  The actual sperm cells come from the testicles; the other three 
glands produce no fertilizing agents.  The Qur'an goes farther than just 
informing us that semen is a mixture of liquids.  It also tells us in 
[32:8] that only the "quintessence" of the liquid is used (the "despised" 
comes from the fact that semen is emitted from the same place as urine, 
and thus may be despicable in some people's sight).  The Arabic word for 
"quintessence" in this verse signifies extracting the absolute best out of 
something.  The numbers tell the story: a normal ejaculation involves 
about 3 ml of fluid containing between 120,000,000 and 150,000,000 sperm 
cells.  Of these cells, only ONE fertilizes the egg in the female, and 
this is the point which [32:8] alludes to.

A third detail of human development mentioned in the Qur'an concerns the 
newly fertilized egg:

     [75:37-38]
     Was he (man) not a drop of semen emitted?  Then he did 
     become something leech-like which clings...

Recent observation of the fertilized egg in the womb has revealed that the 
egg literally implants itself into the uterine wall.  It "clings" in the 
strongest sense, and it remains like so in the early stage of development.
On top of that, the developing organism acts as a leech on the female host 
in the sense that it draws its sustenance from its mother's body.

Finally, the Qur'an gives a fascinating account of embryological 
development (the first three months) in the following verses (certain 
words have been transliterated directly from the Arabic):

     [23:14]
     ...We made the drop into an ALAQAH (leech-like structure), 
     and then We changed the ALAQAH into a MUDGHAH 
     (chewed-like substance), then We changed the MUDGHAH into 
     IDHAAM (bones, skeleton), then We clothed the IDHAAM with 
     LAHM (flesh, muscles), then We caused him to grow and
     come into being as another creation.

     [22:5]
     ...We created you out of dust, then out of a drop, then out of 
     a MUDGHAH, partly formed and partly unformed...

Verse [23:14] divides embryological development into four stages.  The 
first stage picks up right after fertilization ("drop"), and is 
characterized by an ALAQAH or "leech-like structure" which describes how 
the egg implants itself into the uterus (see above).  The second stage 
describes the embryo as evolving into a MUDGHAH which means something 
which has been chewed (especially a piece of meat), or which has the 
appearance of having been chewed.  This apparently crude description is 
quite accurate: after the fertilized egg lodges itself in the uterus, 
it begins to receive its nutrients and energy from its mother.  
Consequently, it begins to grow especially rapidly, and after a week or 
two it looks like a ragged piece of meat to the naked eye.  This effect is 
enhanced by the development of small buds and protrusions which will 
eventually grow into complete organs and limbs.  

The next two stages described in verse [23:14] tell of bones being made 
from the MUDGHAH, followed by the "clothing" of the bones with flesh or 
muscles.  If we follow the progress of the embryo with our own eyes, we 
find that after approximately four weeks, a process called differentiation 
begins, where groups of cells within the embryo transform themselves to 
form certain large organs.  One of the earliest structures to develop in 
this stage is the cartilaginous basis of the human skeleton (in subsequent 
months, the cartilage hardens).  It is followed soon after by the 
appearance of a host of other organs including muscles, ears, eyes, 
kidneys, heart, and more.  This maintains the order described in the 
Qur'an.  Verse [23:14] concludes with the growth of the organism in the 
womb (and simple growth is the primary characteristic of the fetal stage) 
followed by its birth.

Verse [22:5] adds one more interesting note on the embryo.  In this verse, 
the MUDGHAH is qualified with the phrase "partly formed and partly 
unformed."  As alluded to above, our modern observations of embryological 
development has revealed how different structures and organs develop one 
after another through differentiation.  This gives rise to unusual 
situations where the embryo is unevenly formed (i.e. lungs but no ears for 
example).

F. - Cosmology

Of all the references in the Qur'an to scientific matters, the most 
numerous are on the creation and structure of the universe and the earth.
This area is singled out in several verses like the one below as an 
indication of God's creative power:

     [45:3]
     Verily, in the heavens and the earth are signs for those who believe.

For a much more detailed exposition of the Qur'an and cosmology (and 
science in general), interested readers should consider reading 
M. Bucaille's book _The Bible, The Qur'an, and Science_.  Below, a brief 
summary of some of the more powerful verses.

First, a verse which makes a small note regarding the age of mankind with 
respect to the universe:

     [76:1]
     Has there not been over Man a long period of Time when he was not
     yet a thing thought of?

The Arabic word for "Time" in this verse is "Dahr" and it can mean either 
all of eternity or simply a tremendously long time.  Modern science can 
help us understand this verse better.  The first appearance of man on this 
earth is estimated to have occurred on the order of one million years ago.
The age of the universe, on the other hand, is estimated at roughly 
fifteen billion years.  If we normalize the age of the universe to one 
day, then man would be less than six seconds old.

The following verse deals with the creation of the heavens and the earth.

     [50:38]
     And We created the heavens and the earth and all between them 
     in six days, and nothing touched us of weariness.

It is easy to notice the sharp counterpoint to the Bible at the end of 
this verse regarding whether God "rested" after the sixth day from 
tiredness.  However, a more subtle yet perhaps vastly more important 
difference is brought out when we look at the first verse in the Bible, 
Genesis [1:1]:

     Bible [1:1]
     In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.

There is no mention of "and all between them", as opposed to the Qur'an 
(which refers to this in several verses, no less).  Modern science has 
just within this last century discovered that much of the mass of the 
universe is contained in the vast spaces between galaxies and stars 
(ignoring for the moment the possibility of 'dark matter' which would only 
make a stronger point).  In spite of having only a single hydrogen atom 
every few cubic meters on average (interstellar material), the universe 
is so huge that the "empty" space may account for more of the total 
universe's mass than all the stars combined - at the very least, it is a 
significant amount.  Thus, it is an important omission to leave out "all 
between" the earth and the other stars and galaxies ("heavens").

As to the debate which has wracked Christianity and Judaism for centuries 
regarding the meaning of "six days", the word "days" in classical Arabic 
has a secondary meaning of a very long time or an era.  The Qur'an, 
however, presents a different answer to this question via the following 
three verses scattered throughout the text:

     [22:47]
     And yet they ask you to hasten on the Punishment!  But Allah 
     will not fail in His promise.  Verily a Day in the sight of 
     your Lord is like a thousand years of your reckoning.

     [32:5]
     He (Allah) directs (all) affairs from the heavens to the earth: 
     in the end will (all affairs) go up to Him on a Day the space 
     whereof will be (as) a thousand years of your reckoning.

     [70:4]
     The angels and the Spirit ascend to him in a Day the space 
     whereof is (as) fifty thousand years.

It is clear from these verses that a "day" in the sight of God can easily 
have different meanings in different contexts, and is thus not constrained 
to mean the strict 24-hour period.

The next two verses address certain details of creation.

     [21:30]
     Don't those who reject faith see that the heavens and the earth 
     were a single entity then We ripped them apart?...

     [41:11]
     Moreover, He applied His design to the heavens, while it 
     was (yet) smoke, and He said to it and to the earth, "Come 
     (into being), willingly or unwillingly."  They said, "We
     do come in obedience."

Verse [21:30] foreshadows the modern cosmological theory known as the 
Big Bang theory wherein all matter is presumed to have originated from a 
violent explosion.  Verse [41:11] refers to a later stage in creation, one 
in which a cosmologist would describe the universe as filled with a 
nebulous gas undergoing a slow coalescence into gross structures such as 
stars, galaxies, planets, and so on.  The words of these two verses may 
seem coarse and very simplistic to the modern eye, but this does not 
detract from their general accuracy.

Then there are verses that speak of the sun and the moon.

     [25:61]
     Blessed is He Who put in the heavens constellations, and put 
     in it a lamp and a light-giving moon.

This verse emphasizes the sun as a direct source of light ("lamp"), 
whereas the moon is not given this title.  Man has long since established 
that the moon's light is simply reflected sunlight.  

     [55:5]
     The sun and the moon follow precise courses.

The meaning of this verse is quite obvious, and we have known the 
mathematical description of these "courses" since Newton formulated them 
several centuries ago.

     [21:33]
     It is He Who created the night and the day, and the sun 
     and the moon: all swim along, each in its rounded course.

This verse supplements the previous one: here, we learn that the sun and 
moon follow "rounded courses."  It is significant that the Arabic word 
used here - "falak" - does not mean circular course, just rounded.  Kepler 
was the first astronomer to realize that the paths of the planets and the 
moon are elliptical.  It was not until later, though, that astronomers 
also realized that the sun has an orbit as well - around the center of the 
Milky Way.

     [13:2]
     ...He has subjected the sun and the moon (to His laws), each 
     running its course for an appointed time.

This verse describes the orbits of the sun and moon as being finite in 
lifetime - and modern astronomy has come to the same conclusion.  The sun 
and moon will eventually be destroyed, and will orbit no more.

The Qur'an contains a number of verses on the structure and contents of 
the universe.  There are too many to list here, but the following three 
form an interesting sample:

     [51:47]
     And the heavens We did create with Our Hands, and We do 
     cause it to expand.

Flatly stating what Einstein refused to believe at first, this verse 
anticipates Hubble's discovery of the expanding universe by approximately 
thirteen centuries.  It also embodies a prediction: modern science has not 
yet discovered whether the universe has enough mass to eventually cease 
expanding and consequently collapse upon itself (because of the 
overwhelming pull of gravitation)  However, this verse makes a very clear 
point that the expansion will never end.

     [42:29]
     And among His signs is the creation of the heavens and 
     the earth, and the living creatures that He has scattered 
     through both of them...

     [45:13]
     And He has subjected to you (man), from Him, all that is in 
     the heavens and on earth: behold, in that are signs indeed
     for those who reflect.

These two verses are extremely interesting.  Not only does the first one 
very strongly imply the existence of living creatures on other planets 
throughout the universe, but the second tells us that the heavens are 
"subject" to us.  With a little imagination, we can begin dreaming of the 
possibility of interstellar travel - and not just confined to our own 
solar system...


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