From: aabdalla@pollux.usc.edu (Ahmed Abd-Allah)
Newsgroups: soc.culture.arabic
Subject: The Qur'an and Science
Date: 1 Oct 1992 14:54:26 -0700
Organization: University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
NNTP-Posting-Host: pollux.usc.edu

Here's a second draft of a LONG article on knowledge, science, and
the Qur'an.  It includes a large number of the "scientific observations"
contained in the Qur'an.

If you don't agree with anything contained below, please send me your
reasons...

Ahmed Abd-Allah

**********************************************************************

THE DESCRIPTION OF KNOWLEDGE IN THE QUR'AN AND BY THE PROPHET

There are plenty of references to knowledge and the pursuit of knowledge 
in the Qur'an.  The general feeling they leave the reader with is that 
the possessor of knowledge or wisdom has been given a very powerful 
gift, and that the pursuit of knowledge is something which should be 
done actively by everyone.  Here are a few verses on the subject:

	[96:1-5]
	Read!  In the name of your Lord who created -
	Created the human from something which clings.
	Read!  And your Lord is Most Bountiful -
	He who taught (the use of) the Pen,
	Taught the human that which he knew not.

These five verses make up the first passage revealed from the Qur'an to 
mankind through the Prophet Muhammad.  It is interesting that of all the 
things which God chose to begin His revelation with is related to the 
actions of reading and writing, especially the latter.  The ability to 
write and store information is described by Professor Carl Sagan in his 
book COSMOS: "Writing is perhaps the greatest of human inventions, 
binding together people, citizens of distant epochs, who never knew one 
another.  Books break the shackles of time, proof that humans can work 
magic." [21]

	[2:269]
	He [God] grants wisdom to whom He pleases; and 
	he to whom wisdom is granted indeed receives a 
	benefit overflowing.  But none will grasp the 
	Message except men of understanding.

	[20:114]
	High above all is Allah, the King, the Truth.  
	Do not be in haste with the Qur'an before its 
	revelation to you is completed, but say, "O my 
	Sustainer!  Increase my knowledge."

	[3:190]
	Verily in the creation of the heavens and the 
	earth, and the alternation of night and day - 
	there are indeed signs for men of understanding; 
	Men who remember Allah, standing, sitting, and 
	lying down on their sides, and contemplate the 
	creation of the heavens and the earth (with the 
	thought) "Our Lord!  Not for naught have You 
	created (all) this.  Glory to You!  Give us 
	salvation from the suffering of the Fire."

These verses are a clear demonstration that 'science' and 'religion' 
were NOT meant to be fundamentally incompatible with each other by God.  
In fact, verse [3:190] strongly implies that "contemplating" the world 
around us is an integral part of faith.

	[29:20]
	Say:  Travel through the earth and see how Allah 
	originated creation; so will Allah produce the 
	second creation (of the Afterlife): for Allah 
	has power over all things.

There are also references in the Qur'an describing the value (in the 
sight of God) of a knowledgeable person as opposed to an ignorant 
person.  They are not equal:

	[39:9]
	...Say:  Are those equal, those who know and 
	those who do not know? It is those who are 
	endued with understanding that remember (Allah's 
	Message).

	[58:11]
	...Allah will raise up to (suitable) ranks (and 
	degrees) those of you who believe and who have 
	been granted knowledge.

The first source of information on Islam is the Qur'an - and we have 
seen some verses above on the subject of knowledge.  The second, lesser 
source of information is the sayings and practices of Prophet Muhammad.  
Here are a few of the Prophet's sayings on the subject of knowledge:

	"Upon a person whom Allah desires good, He 
	bestows the knowledge of faith."  - from the 
	collections of Bukhari and Muslim

Note that the Prophet has conclusively tied faith to knowledge by this 
statement.

	"A person who follows a path for acquiring 
	knowledge, Allah will make easy the passage to 
	Paradise for him."  - from the collection of 
	Muslim

	"A Muslim is never satiated in his quest for 
	good (knowledge) till it ends in Paradise."  - 
	from the collection of Tirmidhi

	"Ali asked the Prophet one day about the 
	principles governing his general behavior, and 
	he replied, 'Knowledge is my capital, reason is 
	the basis of my religion, love is my foundation, 
	desire is my mount for riding, remembrance of 
	God is my comrade, confidence is my treasure, 
	anxiety is my companion, science is my arm, 
	patience is my mantle, contentment is my booty, 
	modesty is my pride, renunciation of pleasure is 
	my profession, certitude is my food, truth is my 
	intercessor, obedience is my sufficiency, 
	struggle is my habitude, and the delight of my 
	heart is in the service of worship.' - Qadi 
	Iyad, Shifa

A BRIEF HISTORY OF REVELATION AND REASON IN SUNNI ISLAM

Early on after the revelation of the Qur'an was complete and the Prophet 
had died, the Muslim community began to address the question of defining 
the relationship between revelation and human reason.  Which of the two 
was better equipped to define truth?  Within 500 years after the end of 
the Qur'an's revelation, the following rough classification of knowledge 
and philosophy appeared [8]:

      Revelation                      Reason
           |                          /     \
           |                        /         \ 
         Qur'an    Esoteric Knowledge      Rational, Empirical Knowledge
                                              /     \
                                            /         \
                                        Hikma        Kalam
                                                     /    \
                                                   /        \
                                             Mu'tazelism    Ash'arism

What follows is a brief explanation of these two trees.  This 
explanation is only a small introduction to what are actually huge 
subjects in and of themselves; one cannot do them justice with a few 
words.

1. Revelation:  The Qur'an is the only source of revelation in Islam. 
All other sources (Torah, Bible, etc.) have either been corrupted by 
man, or were never true to begin with.  God describes His Words, the  
Qur'an, as being truthful and consistent:

	[41:41-42]
	...And indeed it is a Book of exalted power.  No 
	falsehood can approach it from before it or 
	behind it:  It is sent down by One full of 
	Wisdom, worthy of all Praise.

	[4:82]
	Do they not consider the Qur'an (with care)?  
	Had it been from other than Allah, they would 
	have surely found in it many contradictions.

The Qur'an is also complete in describing the relationship between man 
and God, and it may also cover the essence of other subjects:

	[5:3]
	...This day have I perfected your religion for 
	you, completed my favor upon you, and have 
	chosen for you Islam as your religion.

	[17:12]
	...All things have We explained in detail.

Note that God uses the pronoun 'We' in the Qur'an to refer to Himself to 
emphasize His vastness (among other reasons known only to Him).  The 
essence of Islam, however, is to accept God as the Single Deity (see 
chapter 112 of the Qur'an for a concise description).

Finally, the Qur'an gives an intriguing dual classification of the 
verses to be found in it:

	[3:7]
	It is He Who has sent down to you the Book: some 
	of its verses are clear and precise in meaning - 
	they are the foundation of the Book - while 
	others are allegorical.  But those whose hearts 
	have deviation follow the allegorical part 
	seeking to create discord and to find its final, 
	true meaning.  Yet noone knows its final, true 
	meaning except Allah.  And those who are well-
	grounded in knowledge say, "We believe in it; 
	all of it is from our Sustainer." but only the 
	wise take heed.

2. Reason:  This is often defined as the domain of the human mind, 
whether it is used for cold, rational, scientific thought or for 
spiritual, esoteric, mystical contemplation.  This definition is 
obviously open to debate - as are the following classifications as well.

3. Esoteric Knowledge:  The type of knowledge which includes that which 
is described in the Qur'an as the "knowledge of the unseen (or 
unknown)", and it refers to those things that humans cannot physically 
experience or observe.  This area also includes the school known as 
Sufism, where a man seeks to draw closer to God through meditation, 
isolation, intense devotion, etc.

4. Rational, Empirical Knowledge:  Knowledge which can be tested by 
mankind, either through abstract thought or by empirical methods.

5. Hikma:  Pure philosophy.  Here the belief is that by employing reason 
completely independent of revelation, man will ultimately arrive at the 
same truths or conclusions contained in revelation.

6. Kalam:  As opposed to Hikma, here revelation may be consulted in the 
midst of 'proving' or simply observing things in the world.

7. Mu'tazelism:  The difference between this school of thought and the 
next is in the relative priorities assigned to revelation and reason.  
Mu'tazelism theory understands reason to be the real criterion for 
Truth, whereas revelation only confirms reason.  The object of 
revelation is to remove doubts from the weak-minded by confirming 
revelation.

8. Ash'arism:  Opposed to the previous school, revelation is understood 
here to be the real criterion of Truth.  Reason simply substantiates the 
doctrines and statements of revelation with its arguments or proofs.

The above outline is an extremely brief, condensed description of what 
is actually a very large subject in Islam, namely, the different schools 
of thought regarding revelation and reason which evolved within the 
first 500  years after the Qur'an's revelation was complete.  At the end 
of this period, the Ash'ari school had the clear and firm upper hand, 
and became established as the preminent model.

As an interesting side note, if we jump forward almost one thousand 
years to 1931, we have Kurt Godel establishing the incompleteness of 
mathematics (Peano's axioms, to be precise).  The implications of his 
discovery are extremely powerful: there will ALWAYS be an inifinite 
number of statements which are true, and yet which cannot be proven 
within our formal system of mathematics.  Apparently God has made the 
world such that our powers of reason will never fully be able to 
describe the Truth (at least not using our present system of 
mathematics).  Uncertainty is, and forever will be, dominant.

ON THE SCIENTIFC OBSERVATIONS OF THE QUR'AN

Unlike Christian history, there was never any serious clash between 
Muslim scientists and Muslim theologians.  There are at least two 
potential reasons for this.  The first is the lack of contradictions in 
the Qur'an with observable natural phenomena (in striking contrast to 
the Bible).  The second reason is the presence in the Qur'an itself of 
very clear and positive encouragement to contemplate and investigate the 
world around us.  As the verses quoted above indicate, God has not 
forbidden man to question, and in fact, it seems He wants us to do so.

However, the Qur'an goes beyond simply encouraging all human beings to 
be aware of the natural world.  It also contains widely dispersed 
references on a variety of subjects which are not only scientifically 
accurate, but in some cases, quite advanced relative to the time of 
Muhammad.  For the Muslim who reads and understands these references, 
they serve to strengthen his or her faith of course.  For the non-Muslim 
who questions the authenticity or authorship of the Qur'an, these 
references provide some interesting answers.  One possible reason for 
these Qur'anic verses which describe the natural world can be found in 
the following verse:

	[41:53]
	Soon will We show them Our Signs in the 
	(farthest) horizons, and within themselves, 
	until it becomes manifest to them that it is the 
	Truth...

The historical event which this verse alludes to is the conquest of 
Makkah.  However, almost every verse in the Qur'an carries a historical 
and a universal meaning, and therefore one strong interpretation of this 
verse is that it refers to the gradual discovery of greater and greater 
natural "evidence" of the Creator's involvement in our world.  Two of 
the most important and most fascinating goals of modern science are to 
peer farther and farther out to the edge of the universe, and to look 
deeper and deeper into the structure of the human body.  It is in these 
two areas that we find the "signature" of God's creative power at its 
strongest.

A SELECTION OF QUR'ANIC VERSES WHICH COMMENT ON THE NATURAL WORLD

A. - On the ongoing process of creation

	[16:8]
	...and He creates other things beyond your 
	knowledge...

	[24:45]
	...Allah creates what He wills...

These two verses, among others, indicate that God has not 'finished' 
creation; rather, it is an ongoing process.  This is very significant 
from a scientific point of view because we are gradually beginning to 
observe and understand certain natural phenomena which are still in a 
process of formation.  One prime example is our observation of still-
emerging galaxies from huge clouds of nebulae.  Another is the evolution 
of species, with its associated evidence of strange and exotic 
"intermediate" life forms turned into fossils.  These two examples are 
just the tip of the iceberg; the following excerpt from the physicist 
Paul Davies' book The Cosmic Blueprint underscores the growing awareness 
of continuous creation:

	"An increasing number of scientists and writers 
	have come to realize that the ability of the 
	physical world to organize itself constitutes a 
	fundamental, and deeply mysterious, property of 
	the universe.  The fact that nature has creative 
	power, and is able to produce a progressively 
	richer variety of complex forms and structures, 
	challenges the very foundation of contemporary 
	science.  'The greatest riddle of cosmology,' 
	writes Karl Popper, the well-known philosopher, 
	'may well be...that the universe is, in a sense, 
	creative.'" [21]

B. - Pollution and the wasting of natural resources

	[30:41]
	Rottenness (decay/corruption) has appeared on 
	land and sea because of what the hands of men 
	have earned, that (Allah) may give them a taste 
	of some of their deeds, in order that they may 
	turn back (from evil).

	[7:31]
	O Children of Adam!  Wear your beautiful apparel 
	at every time and place of prayer; eat and 
	drink, but waste not by excess, for Allah does 
	not love those who waste.

The importance of understanding the ecological consequences of our 
actions as individuals or as a society was not fully appreciated until 
this century.  We now understand that we cannot alter the face of the 
earth indiscriminately without paying some penalty, which may be 
disastrous.  We also understand that caution ought to be applied 
globally, not just locally, but truly "on land and sea".  Ecological 
awareness does not imply asceticism however.  According to the Qur'an, 
we are not forbidden to take pleasure in this life, however we are 
forbidden from wasting resources needlessly.

C. - The dual nature of iron

	[57:25]
	...And We sent down iron in which is mighty 
	harm, as well as many benefits for mankind...

Iron is one of two metals found abundantly on the earth (aluminum being 
the other).  It was known to many ancient civilizations, and is 
obviously the most important metal we use today.  The general 
description of it in the Qur'an was accurate in the time of the 
ancients, and it is even more so today: iron is the basis for most 
weapons of war and most of the everyday tools which we work with.

D. - Origin of life in water

	[21:30]
	...And We made every living thing from water...

	[24:45]
	And Allah has created every animal from water...

Modern scientific theory on the origin of life was not firmly 
established up until the last two or three centuries.  Prior to that, 
the predominant theory on the origin of life was based on a concept 
called "spontaneous generation" where living creatures literally popped 
out of inanimate matter spontaneously and continuously.  This view was 
discredited with the work of many Renaissance scientists including 
Harvey and Redi, and in the 1850's, Louis Pasteur's research on 
bacteriology sealed the coffin on this theory.  Starting with the work 
of Huxley up to the present day, an alternative theory has been proposed 
where life is understood to have emerged from a long, increasingly 
complex chain of chemical reactions.  These reactions are believed to 
have started in the depths of the oceans because the atmosphere was not 
sufficiently developed to protect living organisms from ultraviolet 
radiation:

	"...it is believed that early forms of life 
	developed in oceans or pools...It has been 
	suggested that the colonization of land, about 
	425,000,000 years ago, was possible only because 
	enough ozone was then produced to shield the 
	surface from ultraviolet light for the first 
	time." [20]

This idea of life originating in the oceans is strongly supported by the 
three Qur'anic verses quoted above.

E. - Diversity of mankind

	[30:22]
	And among His Signs is the creation of the 
	heavens and the earth, and the variations in 
	your languages and your colors; verily in that 
	are Signs for those who know.

	[49:13]
	O mankind!  We created you from a male and 
	female, and made you into nations and tribes, 
	that you may know each other.  Verily the most 
	honored of you in the sight of Allah is the one 
	who is most deeply conscious of Him...

The racial and linguistic differences between humans are not meant as 
reasons to discriminate.  God simply describes this diversity as a part 
of His creative power, and He does not single out any race as being 
inherently superior to the others.  The emphasis in [49:13], in fact, is 
to learn to communicate with one another.

F. - Water Cycle

Most of us are familiar with the water cycle from our classes in middle 
school, where we learned how a drop of seawater evaporates, then becomes 
a drop of rainwater, and then finally returns to the sea via rivers or 
underground channels.  The first person in modern times to understand 
this process was Bernard Palissy who described it correctly in 1580.  
Prior to him, most of the ancient Greek and Roman scholars had various 
incomplete or incorrect theories on the water cycle (Plato, for example, 
believed that precipitation eventually descended into the abyss called 
Tartarus and from there it fed into the oceans [10]). 

The Qur'an does not give a complete description of the water cycle from 
start to end, however there are a few precise references to specific 
stages.  Perhaps the most fascinating of these references are the 
following two verses on rain clouds:

	[30:48]
	It is Allah Who sends the winds, and then they 
	raise clouds: then He spreads them in the sky as 
	He wills and makes them dark, then you see the 
	drops issue from the midst of them...

	[24:43]
	Don't you see how Allah drives clouds with 
	force, then joins them together, then makes them 
	into a heap? - then you see the drops issue from 
	the midst of them.  And He sends down from the 
	sky mountains (of clouds) wherein is hail: He 
	strikes therewith whom He pleases and He turns 
	it away from whom He pleases.  The flash of His 
	lightning well-nigh snatches away the sight.

The two verses are describing the stages in the formation of rain 
clouds, which is in turn a stage in the water cycle.  If we examine the 
verses closely, we find that they are fundamentally incompatible with 
each other: for example, one speaks of "spreading" the clouds, whereas 
the other speaks of "joining" the clouds.  The only explanation is that 
they must be describing two different processes by which rain clouds are 
formed.  Modern meteorology has come to the same conclusion within the 
last two centuries. [17,18,19]

There are two types of clouds which can yield precipitation, and they 
are classified by their shape: stratus (layer-type) and cumulus (heap-
type).  The precipitative layer clouds are further subdivided into 
stratus and nimbostratus (nimbo meaning rain).  The first verse above on 
rain clouds ([30:48]) precisely sums up the formation of layer rain 
clouds.  We know today that these types of clouds are started under 
conditions of gradual, rising winds ("and then they [winds] raise 
clouds").  Next, the cloud takes on its distinctive shape, that of a 
layer ("then He spreads them").  If the conditions are right (i.e. low 
enough temperature, high enough humidity, etc.), the cloud droplets 
further condense into (larger) rain droplets, and we observe this effect 
from the ground as a darkening of the cloud layer ("and makes them 
dark").  Finally, drops of rain fall from the cloud.

The second type of precipitative cloud is the heap type, and it is 
subdivided into cumulus, cumulonimbus, and stratocumulus.  These clouds 
are characterized by being puffy-shaped and piled upon each other.  
Cumulus and cumulonimbus are the true heap clouds - stratocumulus is a 
form of degenerated, spread-out cumulus.  The second verse above on rain 
clouds ([24:43]) describes the formation of heap rain clouds.  Heap 
clouds are formed under conditions of strong updrafts (thermals) and 
downdrafts of air ("drives clouds with force").  As the puffs of clouds 
form, they may unite into a single giant cloud, all piled up on top of 
one another ("then joins them together, then makes them into a heap").  
At this point, either a cumulus or a cumulonimbus cloud has formed - 
either of which can yield rain.  The rest of the verse is applicable to 
the case of a cumulonimbus (which is familiar to all of us as the 
towering thunderstorm type of cloud).  If the heap cloud assumes large 
vertical proportions, then it can appear to the observer on the ground 
as a huge mountain or hill, but more importantly, by extending high into 
the atmosphere, the upper cloud droplets can freeze and thereby yield 
hail ("And He sends down from the sky mountains (of clouds) wherein is 
hail").  Finally, cumulonimbus clouds (i.e. thunderstorms) can have one 
last vivid property: lightning ("The flash of His lightning well-nigh 
snatches away the sight").  Many meteorologists today are inclined to 
believe that only those cumulonimbus clouds which DO cross the freezing 
level are capable of lightning.  Though the Qur'anic verse does not make 
such a claim, the order of the particular phrases within the verse could 
imply this.

Other Qur'anic verses deal with more stages in the water cycle.

	[23:18]
	And We send down water from the sky according to 
	(due) measure, then We cause it soak into the 
	soil.  And We are most certainly able to 
	withdraw it.

This is a single verse stating that rainfall is absorbed into the ground 
and that it can eventually be removed (drained).

	[13:17]
	He sends down water from the sky, and the rivers 
	flow,  each according to its measure...

	[39:21]
	Don't you see that Allah sends down rain from 
	the sky, and leads it through the springs in the 
	earth?...

Two methods by which absorbed rainfall is moved are described here: 
surface and underground rivers.  

There are other references in the Qur'an to the water cycle, and all of 
them have the same property as the verses quoted above: modern 
scientific findings are fully compatible with them. [10]

A few other verses also deal with water but in a slightly different 
context. They are not nearly as numerous as the verses on the water 
cycle.

	[56:68-69]
	Do you see the water which you drink?  Do you 
	bring it down from the cloud or do We?

This rhetorical question emphasizes our inability to fulfill one of our 
oldest dreams: to control the rain.  The fact is we cannot make it rain 
unless a pre-existing cloud is in the vicinity - and then only under the 
proper conditions, and even then we are not assured of success.  The 
cloud should have different sized cloud particles, a high rate of 
condensation from the rising air, and good vertical development.  If all 
of these characteristics are present, then we MAY coax some more rain 
out through cloud seeding and various other techniques.  However, modern 
meteorologists are unsure of its effectiveness.  Regardless, it is the 
presence of the necessary preconditions which we have no control over, 
and this ultimately stops us from arbitrarily bringing down the water of 
any cloud in the form of rain. [10]

The following verse describes a property of large rivers.

	[25:53]
	It is He who has caused to mix freely the two 
	great bodies of water, this one pleasant-tasting 
	and sweet and this one salty and bitter, and He 
	made between them a barrier and a forbidding 
	ban.

A description of the estuaries of large rivers is supplied by the verse 
above.  These estuaries are relatively unusual because the outgoing 
fresh water of the river does not immediately mix with the salt water of 
the sea into which the river empties.  Instead, the fresh water 
penetrates deep into the salt water body before any mixing occurs, far 
from the mouth of the river.  Small rivers do not have this property. 
[10]

Finally, one more reference to clouds.

	[52:44]
	And were they to see a piece of the sky falling 
	down, they would (only) say "Heaps of clouds!"

Another reference to clouds but this time in the context of responding 
to a challenge by an earlier peoples who ridiculed a prophet by asking 
him to cause a piece of the sky to fall on them, apparently thinking it 
to be a solid cap around the earth.  God refutes their challenge here, 
declaring that they would only find a pile of clouds, something all of 
us would understand today. [10]

G. - Human Embryological and Fetal Development

The Qur'an has an extensive amount of information on the growth of the 
human embryo and fetus, especially the former.  Before presenting this 
information, it may be helpful to provide a brief outline of human 
development in the womb as modern science understands it. [10]

	1. An unfertilized egg is produced by the 
	female, and is subsequently placed in her 
	Fallopian tubes.

	2. The male cohabits with the female, and a 
	single sperm cell fertilizes the egg.

	3. The fertilized egg retreats into the uterus, 
	and attaches itself to the uterine wall.

	4. Embryological growth (roughly 3 months).

	5. Fetal growth (6 months).

	6. Birth

We will examine some of these stages in greater detail as the verses in 
the Qur'an require.  First, however, two verses which give a general 
overview of human development:

	[71:14]
	...seeing that it is He (God) Who has created 
	you in stages...

	[35:11]
	And Allah created you from dust, then from a 
	drop, then He made you pairs (male and 
	female)...

The first verse is a most general, yet accurate description of our 
creation as coming in stages (see the six step outline above).  The 
second verse puts some perspective on the whole affair: how man 
originally came from dust, then from a drop, and followed by the 
development into one of the sexes.

There are at least four specific details regarding human development in 
the Qur'an which modern science has revealed only within the last few 
centuries, and in some cases only in this present century.  The first 
concerns the emission of semen:

	[75:37]
	Was he (man) not a drop of semen emitted?

In spite of the large amount of liquid which can be produced by a man 
during human intercourse, this verse emphasizes that only a small drop 
of it is important.

The second important detail in the Qur'an on human development is the 
description of the fertilizing liquid (i.e. semen):

	[86:6]
	He (man) is created from a gushing liquid.

	[76:2]
	We created the human from a drop which is a 
	mixture...

	[32:8]
	Then He (God) made his (Adam's) progeny from a 
	quintessence of a despised liquid.

The second and third verses relate to the contents of semen.  Modern 
science has established that semen is in fact a composition of different 
secretions which come from four different glands during ejaculation: the 
testicles, the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the urinary 
tract glands.  The actual sperm cells come from the testicles; the other 
three glands produce no fertilizing agents.  The Qur'an goes farther 
than just informing us that semen is a mixture of liquids.  It also 
tells us in [32:8] that only the "quintessence" of the liquid is used 
(the "despised" comes from the fact that semen is emitted from the same 
place as urine, and thus may be despicable in some people's sight).  The 
Arabic word for "quintessence" in this verse signifies extracting the 
absolute best out of something.  The numbers tell the story: a normal 
ejaculation involves about 3 ml of fluid containing between 120,000,000 
and 150,000,000 sperm cells.  Of these cells, only one fertilizes the 
egg in the female, and this is the point which [32:8] alludes to. [15]

A third detail of human development mentioned in the Qur'an concerns the 
newly fertilized egg:

	[75:37-38]
	Was he (man) not a drop of semen emitted?  Then 
	he did become something leech-like which 
	clings...

Recent observations of the fertilized egg in the womb have revealed that 
the egg literally implants itself into the uterine wall.  It "clings" in 
the strongest sense, and it remains like so in the early stage of 
development.  On top of that, the developing organism acts as a leech on 
the female host in the sense that it draws its sustenance directly from 
its mother's body. [10]

Finally, the Qur'an gives a fascinating account of embryological 
development (the first three months) in the following verses (certain 
words have been transliterated directly from the Arabic):

	[23:14]
	...We made the drop into an ALAQAH (leech-like 
	structure), and then We changed the ALAQAH into 
	a MUDGHAH (chewed-like substance), then We 
	changed the MUDGHAH into IDHAAM (bones, 
	skeleton), then We clothed the IDHAAM with LAHM 
	(flesh, muscles), then We caused him to grow and 
	come into being as another creation.

	[22:5]
	...We created you out of dust, then out of a 
	drop, then out of a MUDGHAH, partly formed and 
	partly unformed...

Verse [23:14] divides embryological development into four stages.  The 
first stage picks up right after fertilization ("drop"), and is 
characterized by an ALAQAH or "leech-like structure" which describes how 
the egg implants itself into the uterus (see above).  The second stage 
describes the embryo as evolving into a MUDGHAH which means something 
which has been chewed (especially a piece of meat), or which has the 
appearance of having been chewed.  This apparently crude description is 
quite accurate: after the fertilized egg lodges itself in the uterus, it 
begins to receive its first nutrients and energy from its mother.  
Consequently, it begins to grow especially rapidly, and after a week or 
two it looks like a ragged piece of meat to the naked eye.  This effect 
is enhanced by the development of small buds and protrusions which will 
eventually grow into complete organs and limbs.  

The next two stages described in verse [23:14] tell of bones being made 
from the MUDGHAH, followed by the "clothing" of the bones with flesh or 
muscles.  If we follow the progress of the embryo with our own eyes, we 
find that after approximately four weeks, a process called 
differentiation begins, where groups of cells within the embryo 
transform themselves to form certain large organs.  One of the earliest 
structures to develop in this stage is the cartilaginous basis of the 
human skeleton (in subsequent months, the cartilage hardens or 
ossifies).  It is followed soon after by the appearance of a host of 
other organs including muscles, ears, eyes, kidneys, heart, and more.  
This maintains the order described in the Qur'an.  Verse [23:14] 
concludes with the growth of the organism in the womb (and simple growth 
is the primary characteristic of the fetal stage) followed by its birth.

Verse [22:5] adds one more interesting note on the embryo.  In this 
verse, the MUDGHAH is qualified with the phrase "partly formed and 
partly unformed."  As alluded to above, our modern observations of 
embryological development have revealed how different structures and 
organs develop one after another through differentiation.  This gives 
rise to unusual situations where the embryo is unevenly formed (i.e. 
lungs but no ears for example). [11,16]

H. - Cosmology

Of all the references in the Qur'an to scientific matters, the most 
numerous are on the creation and structure of the universe and the 
earth.  This area is singled out in several verses like the one below as 
an example of God's creative power:

	[45:3]
	Verily, in the heavens and the earth are signs 
	for those who believe.

For a much more detailed exposition of the Qur'an and cosmology (and 
science in general), interested readers should consider reading M. 
Bucaille's book The Bible, The Qur'an, and Science.  Below, a brief 
summary of some of the more powerful verses.

First, a verse which makes a small note regarding the age of mankind 
with respect to the universe:

	[76:1]
	Has there not been over Man a long period of 
	Time when he was not yet a thing thought of?

The Arabic word for "Time" in this verse is "Dahr" and it can mean 
either all of eternity or simply a tremendously long time.  Modern 
science can help us understand this verse better.  The first appearance 
of man on this earth is estimated to have occurred on the order of one 
million years ago.  The age of the universe, on the other hand, is 
estimated at roughly fifteen billion years.  If we normalize the age of 
the universe to one day, then man would be less than six seconds old.

The following verse deals with the creation of the heavens and the 
earth.

	[50:38]
	And We created the heavens and the earth and all 
	between them in six days, and nothing touched us 
	of weariness.

Notice the sharp counterpoint to the Bible at the end of this verse 
regarding whether God "rested" after the sixth day from tiredness.  
However, a more subtle yet perhaps vastly more important difference is 
brought out when we look at the first verse in the Bible, Genesis [1:1]:

	Bible [1:1]
	In the beginning, God created the heavens and 
	the earth.

There is no mention of "and all between them", as opposed to the Qur'an 
(which refers to this in several verses, no less).  Modern science has 
just within this last century discovered that much of the mass of the 
universe is contained in the vast spaces between galaxies and stars 
(ignoring for the moment the possibility of 'dark matter' which would 
only make a stronger point).  In spite of having only a single hydrogen 
atom every few cubic meters on average (interstellar material), the 
universe is so huge that the "empty" space may account for more of the 
total universe's mass than all the stars combined - at the very least, 
it is a significant amount.  Thus, it is an important omission to leave 
out "all between" the earth and the other stars and galaxies 
("heavens").

As to the debate which has wracked Christianity and Judaism for 
centuries regarding the meaning of "six days", the word "days" in 
classical Arabic has a secondary meaning of a "very long time" or an 
"era".  The Qur'an, however, presents a conclusive answer to this 
question via the following three verses scattered throughout the text:

	[22:47]
	And yet they ask you to hasten on the 
	Punishment!  But Allah will not fail in His 
	promise.  Verily a Day in the sight of your Lord 
	is like a thousand years of your reckoning.

	[32:5]
	He (Allah) directs (all) affairs from the 
	heavens to the earth: in the end will (all 
	affairs) go up to Him on a Day the space whereof 
	will be (as) a thousand years of your reckoning.

	[70:4]
	The angels and the Spirit ascend to Him in a Day 
	the space whereof is (as) fifty thousand years.

It is clear from these verses that a "day" in the sight of God can 
easily have different meanings in different contexts, and is thus not 
constrained to mean the strict 24-hour period.

The next two verses address certain details of creation.

	[21:30]
	Don't those who reject faith see that the 
	heavens and the earth were a single entity then 
	We ripped them apart?...

	[41:11]
	Moreover, He applied His design to the heavens, 
	while it was (yet) vapor,and He said to it and 
	to the earth, "Come (into being), willingly or 
	unwillingly."  They said, "We do come in 
	obedience."

Verse [21:30] foreshadows the modern cosmological theory known as the 
Big Bang theory wherein all matter is presumed to have originated from a 
violent explosion.  Verse [41:11] refers to a later stage in creation, 
one in which a cosmologist would describe the universe as filled with a 
nebulous gas undergoing a slow coalescence into gross structures such as 
clusters, galaxies, stars, and so on.  The words of these two verses may 
seem coarse and very simplistic to the modern eye, but this does not 
detract from their general accuracy.

Then there are verses that speak of the sun and the moon.

	[25:61]
	Blessed is He Who put in the heavens 
	constellations, and put in it a lamp and a 
	light-giving moon.

This verse emphasizes the sun as a direct source of light ("lamp"), 
whereas the moon is not given this title.  Man has long since 
established that the moon's light is simply reflected sunlight.  

	[55:5]
	The sun and the moon follow precise courses.

The meaning of this verse is obvious, and we have known the mathematical 
description of these "courses" since Kepler and Newton formulated them 
several centuries ago.

	[21:33]
	It is He Who created the night and the day, and 
	the sun and the moon: all swim along, each in 
	its rounded course.

This verse supplements the previous one: here, we learn that the sun and 
moon follow "rounded courses."  It is significant that the Arabic word 
used here - "falak" - does not mean circular course, just rounded.  
Kepler was the first European astronomer to realize that the paths of 
the planets and the moon are elliptical.  It was not until later, 
though, that astronomers also realized that the sun has an orbit as well 
- around the center of the Milky Way.

	[13:2]
	...He has subjected the sun and the moon (to His 
	laws), each running its course for an appointed 
	time.

This verse describes the orbits of the sun and moon as being finite in 
lifetime - and modern astronomy has reached the same conclusion.  The 
sun and moon will eventually be destroyed, and will orbit no more.

The Qur'an contains a number of verses on the structure and contents of 
the universe.  There are too many to list here, but the following three 
form an interesting sample:

	[51:47]
	And the heavens We did create with Our Hands, 
	and We do cause it to expand.

Flatly stating what Einstein refused to believe at first, this verse 
anticipates Hubble's discovery of the expanding universe by 
approximately thirteen centuries.  It also embodies a prediction: modern 
science has not yet discovered whether the universe has enough mass to 
eventually cease expanding and consequently collapse upon itself 
(because of the overwhelming pull of gravitation)  However, this verse 
makes a very clear point that the expansion will never end (until the 
Day of Judgement, to be precise).

	[42:29]
	And among His signs is the creation of the 
	heavens and the earth, and the living creatures 
	that He has scattered through both of them...

	[45:13]
	And He has subjected to you (man), from Him, all 
	that is in the heavens and on earth: behold, in 
	that are signs indeed for those who reflect.

These two verses are extremely interesting.  Not only does the first one 
very strongly imply the existence of living creatures on other planets 
throughout the universe, but the second tells us that the heavens are 
"subject" to us.  With a little imagination, we (or perhaps our 
children) can begin dreaming of the possibility of interstellar travel - 
and not just confined to our own solar system...


************************************************************************

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1].  The Qur'an

[2].  At-Tabari.  Abridged Tafseer (commentary) of the Qur'an.  Arabic

[3].  Ali, Abdullah Yusuf.  The Meaning of the Holy Qur'an.  Amana 
Corporation, Maryland, 1991

[4].  Asad, Muhammad.  The Message of the Qur'an.  Dar-Al-Andalus 
Limited, Gibraltar, 1984

[5].  Irving, Thomas.  The Noble Qur'an.  Amana Books, Vermont, 1992.

[6].  Pickthall, Mohammed.  The Meaning of the Glorious Koran.  Penguin 
Books, New York

[7].  Dawood, N. J.  The Koran.  Penguin Books, London, 1990

[8].  Nadvi, Syed M.  Muslim Thought and its Source.  Ashraf Press, 
Lahore, 1947

[9].  Kazi, Mazhar.  Guidance from the Messanger.  Islamic Circle of 
North America, New York, 1990

[10].  Bucaille, Maurice.  The Bible, the Qur'an, and Science.  American 
Trust Publications, Indiana, 1979

[11].  Moore, K., A. Zindani, M. Ahmed.  New Terms For Classifying Human 
Development

[12].  Wehr, Hans.  Arabic-English Dictionary.  Spoken Language 
Services, New York, 1976

[13].  Steingass, F.  Arabic-English Dictionary.  Librairie du Liban, 
Lebanon, 1978

[14].  The Holy Bible - Revised Standard Version

[15].  Sussman, Maurice.  Developmental Biology.  Prentice-Hall, New 
Jersey, 1973

[16].  Bodemer, Charles.  Embryology, Encyclopedia Americana.  Grolier 
Incorporated, Connecticut, 1988

[17].  Chandler, T. J.  The air around us.  Natural History Press, New 
York, 1969

[18].  Kotsch, William.  Weather for the Mariner.  Naval Institute 
Press, Maryland, 1983

[19].  Battan, Louis.  Fundamentals of Meteorology.  Prentice-Hall, New 
Jersey, 1983

[20].  Sagan, Carl et. al.  Life, Encyclopedia Brittanica.  Encyclopedia 
Britannica, Chicago, 1992

[21].  Davies, Paul.  The Cosmic Blueprint.  Simon & Schuster, New York, 
1988

[22].  Sagan, Carl.  Cosmos.  Ballantine Books, New York, 1980

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