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Original_cc:  VITA
Newsgroups: bit.listserv.devel-l
Date:         Thu, 31 Dec 1992 20:27:00 EST
Reply-To:     Volunteers in Technical Assistance <VITA@GMUVAX.BITNET>
              <DEVEL-L@AUVM.BITNET>
From:         Volunteers in Technical Assistance <VITA@GMUVAX.BITNET>
Subject:      Your January DevelopNet News.

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     January 1993                                   Volume 3, No. 1

                              IN THIS ISSUE


     OPINION

               Technical Decisions in Developing Countries


     LITERATURE REVIEWS

                      Marketing for Small Business

             Agriculture in Africa: Resources and Obstacles

                       A University for the World

                        Afro-Asian Cooperation

     VITA PROJECTS

                  Remote-Controlled Power in Indonesia

          Technical Problems: Some Challenges for Our Readers


     ANNOUNCEMENTS

                  Communications Planning and Strategy

                    Urban Water Supply and Sanitation


                               *   *   *


    DevelopNet News is published monthly by Volunteers in Technical
     Assistance (VITA) in Arlington, Virginia, USA. For additional
          information, please see the end of this newsletter.


                               *   *   *


O p i n i o n

TECHNICAL DECISIONS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

By Philip Heiberger, VITA Volunteer

To an entrepreneur in a developing country, chemical manufacturing may
seem an appropriate and straightforward investment choice. He needs only
to import a few essential raw materials made by one of the giant inter
national chemical suppliers, combine them with local components accor
ding to the accompanying instructions, package the combination, and
market it regionally. Blending, mixing, and packaging are labor-
intensive technologies that are locally appropriate. However, it is
often overlooked that key ingredients are not ordinary chemicals, but
special products that must be used under controlled conditions.

Consider paint, a mixture of pigments dispersed in a resinous solution
or emulsion, modified with a host of additives and formulated for spe
cific end use. The additives -- resins, catalysts, stabilizers, pig
ments, and solvents -- are developed after years of research, and manu
factured in complex and costly equipment by large firms in developed
countries.

Because blending (mixing, dissolving, emulsifying, homogenization) is a
technical skill, the firm must employ one or more technically trained
persons to "manage" production. This responsibility includes all ele
ments of manufacturing, plus the associated scheduling, quality control,
warehousing, fire protection, product formulation, and trouble shooting.
If the technical staff follows the provider's instructions, avoiding
substitutions and controlling each step carefully, manufacture and pro
duct performance should not be troublesome. The technical manager and
his staff understand this and if permitted to work in this manner, plant
problems should be minimal.

The technical people I have worked with were educated locally. Although
responsible for all the "technical" activities, they had no say in pur
chasing, pricing, technical staffing, salaries of subordinates, safety,
and related activities normally associated with plant management. In
addition, the technical branch was woefully undermanned and the staff
was undertrained. In every operation I saw, the technical manager was
the most overworked and the least appreciated employee.

In contrast, the entrepreneurs of the developing world are usually weal
thy, well connected members of the elite class, educated in business or
law, and highly profit oriented. Although very able and well traveled,
they often lack technical education.

The origin of most of the difficulties I observed was the owner's effort
to reduce costs and the usage of imported materials. In developed coun
tries, the raw materials comprise less than half of the cost of a pro
duct, with labor usually the most expensive component. In developing
countries, it is the reverse: imported materials may comprise 90% to 95%
of the costs of the finished goods.

The cost factor is well understood by a profit-motivated proprietor.
Thus, he may focus on the potential cost saving of a "simple" substitu
tion without being aware of the problems that it can generate. Lacking
technical education, he is not likely to appreciate the important dif
ferences between a low-cost aliphatic hydrocarbon and an expensive aro
matic hydrocarbon, or a more expensive vinyl copolymer emulsion and a
cheaper homopolymer emulsion, believing that the differences are
trivial.

The technical manager usually knows the pitfalls, but his social status
does not allow him to challenge the judgement of his boss. Since the
owner is usually responsible for purchasing, he often buys an untested
substitute material (claimed to be an equivalent) or a cheaper, off-
specification version of a standard material, and then expects the
technical staff to use the inferior components without mishap. In fact,
product deterioration, customer complaints, and ruined plant batches are
likely outcomes.

The following events are then set into motion. The frustrated owner
usually blames the technical staff and manages to contact representa
tives of international assistance programs. Most requests for such aid
do come from plant owners and, as one might expect, typically state that
the problems are technical; they are due to the lack of a skilled tech
nical infrastructure, the inadequacies of the local university to train
technicians, and to the lack of a local governmental support mechanism.

Accepting the owner's assessment, the agency finds a technical expert to
visit and assist the troubled enterprise. The expert soon identifies the
problem. As a consultant I always found technical problems, but the key
problem was always uninformed technical decision making by a plant
owner.

Under these conditions, how can a visiting expert be most helpful? He
must address technical issues, but also help both the owner and the
technical manager to find common ground without losing self-esteem.
Thus, strong technical skills are often less important than "people
skills." During my visits, I had to build up the confidence of the
technical staff in addition to suggesting new or better procedures, I
had to convince plant owners to trust their technical people and to
resist the temptation to make technical decisions unilaterally.

[The author, a retired industrial chemist with experience in Latin
America, is a consultant in paint technology and technology transfer.]


L i t e r a t u r e   R e v i e w s

MARKETING FOR SMALL BUSINESS

Millard, Edward, 1992. Export Marketing for a Small Handicraft Business.
London: Oxfam / Intermediate Technology Publications.

This how-to manual on basic marketing technology is aimed at craft pro
ducers and organizations that market craft products. Right off, the
author states that successful marketing requires offering a product that
is wanted, selling it at an acceptable price, bringing it effectively to
the attention of the market, and making it accessible to the market. In
the light of these basics, marketing for export is no different from
local marketing. But the craftsman often has insufficient knowledge of
the nature of export markets. Many such persons are unaware of what and
whom to ask.

Starting at this level, Edward Millard analyzes in nine chapters the
concept of marketing from the viewpoint of small business and provides
much practical advice, culminating in "ten golden rules for the
exporter." In closing, he observes that "the number of very poor handi
craft producers in the world is increasing, as new people start produ
cing, in search of a source of income. If the handicraft sector is going
to fulfill the hopes placed in it, marketing must assume its preeminent
business role."


AGRICULTURE IN AFRICA: RESOURCES AND OBSTACLES

Pierre-Marie Bosc, Peter Calkins, and Jean-Michel Young, 1991, "Technol
ogy Adoption in the Sahelian and Sudanese Regions, Approach and Major
Findings." In Susan Gnaegy and Jock R. Anderson (eds.), Agricultural
Technology in Sub-Saharan Africa, A Workshop on Research Issues. Discus
sion Papers No. 126, pp. 45-54. Washington: World Bank.  David Seckler,
Doug Gollin and Pierre Antoine, 1991, "Agricultural Potential of 'Mid-
Africa:' A Technical Assessment." Op. cit. pp. 61-103.

Two recent reports summarize the technologies that are ready to be
transferred to farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa, and some of the man-made
obstacles to transfer. David Seckler, Doug Gollin and Pierre Antoine
(Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development,
Morrilton, Arkansas) skillfully deal with infrastructure and govern
mental policies, and the improvement of soil fertility. They describe
the benefits and problems associated with the delivery and use of
chemical fertilizers. Then they summarize the present availability of
crop technologies for maize, cassava, rice, bananas and plantain, and
millet and sorghum. The important cash crops for export are cotton and
coffee. The main issues of livestock farming are described. The authors
say that regional transportation is a crucial issue, urging considera
tion of a "growth corridor" highway to cross Africa from Nigeria to
Kenya. It should not cost more than $1,000 million and could "play a
catalytic role in stimulating growth, intraregional trade, and general
commercial activity."

Pierre-Marie Bosc, Peter Calkins, and Jean-Michel Young (Centre de
Cooperation Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Develop
pement, Montpellier, France) analyze the "yield gaps" between the high
outputs per hectare obtained at experiment stations and the generally
low yields actually produced by farmers. "Africa's failure to produce
sustained food surpluses for its rapidly growing population is a cause
of many environmental and human problems." The reasons lie only partly
in the inhospitable nature of the environment. The research of Bosc and
his colleagues shows that individual farmers very often make incorrect
decisions on technology adoption to gain specific advantages while
minimizing risks. The risks involve crop yield, family structure, and
loan availability, among other factors.


A UNIVERSITY FOR THE WORLD

"U.S. Higher Education and Development." In: Jimmy Carter (task force
chmn.), 1992. Partnerships for Global Development: The Clearing Hori
zon," pages 68-69. New York: Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology,
and Government (10 Waverly Place, Second Floor, New York, New York
10013. Tel. +1 (212) 998-2150. Fax +1 (212) 995-3181.)

"America has become a university for the world. For the one million
students who now travel abroad to pursue their higher education, the
United States is by far the preferred destination, with over 400,000
students." According to a report just published, most students come to
the United States for technical training, and about 75% of foreign
students in the United States come from developing or newly industrial
izing countries.

Returning to their home countries, students from some U.S. universities
form tight-knit and influential groups later in their careers. An exam
ple is provided by economics graduates of the University of Chicago
returning to Latin America. However, "In some fields, more than half of
all foreign students remain in the United States, benefitting the United
States but drawing talent from their homelands . . . Some students who
remain in the United States later return to their home countries and
become major investors in economic growth."

The report argues, "It is both futile and wrong to try to prevent the
flow of human resources." On the contrary, more can and should be done
to use the U.S. education system for building capacity in developing
countries. One promising strategy is to create social institutions for
nurturing careers that will contribute to development. For example, the
African Academy of Sciences could start a Fellows Program for study
outside of Africa, not only in developed, but also in other developing
areas of the world. Its purpose would be "to create a mobile intellec
tual reserve, fluent in science and technology at the world level and
dedicated to development within Africa." Both sending and receiving
countries must have a stake in the program.

The main sections of the report describe the reasons for cooperation for
development, the content of cooperation, and the required organization,
decision making, and resources. It is available without charge from the
publisher.


AFRO-ASIAN COOPERATION

Tabassum Jamal and Ashok Jain (eds.), Technical Co-operation Among
Developing Countries; Focus on Afro-Asian Cooperation. Bombay: Popular
Prakashan, 1989.

This slim, hardbound volume is a delayed report of a conference held in
New Delhi in 1986, but is nevertheless welcome. Most of the report is
taken up by basic documents (official plans of action of international
organizations) on cooperation among developing countries and directories
of national agencies, including scientific and technical agencies, con
cerned with development. There are short papers summarizing technology
transfer between India and several African countries. The developmental
priorities of 18 countries have been tabulated in order of rank.


V I T A   P r o j e c t s

REMOTE-CONTROLLED POWER IN INDONESIA

By the end of March 1993, two remote Indonesian locations now without
utility-grade power will receive it from complex arrays of local gener
ators. The systems will be automatically managed from Rockville,
Maryland, by electronic messages carried by VITASAT, VITA's communica
tions satellite. This is believed to be the first use of a low earth-
orbiting satellite for the remote control of a complex technical system.

The communities are Tanglad on the island of Nusa Penida about 20 km off
the coast of Bali, and Bonto village on Sumbawa Island. The systems will
provide power for over 500 households, community centers, clinics, and
schools, as well as rural enterprises.

The systems contain photovoltaic arrays, wind turbines, battery banks,
diesel generators, and microprocessor system controllers. They will be
equipped for remote automated communications, control, evaluation and
supervision. The VITASAT ground station installed at each Indonesian
site will collect data at least daily and transmit them to the satellite
as it passes overhead. Later, the data will be downloaded to another
VITASAT ground station in Rockville. There, at the control headquarters
of the Integrated Power Corporation (IPC), the data will be used to
assess each systems' performance. IPC will then send instructions back
to the systems via VITASAT on a return orbit.

VITA's involvement results from an agreement with IPC, a subsidiary of
Westinghouse Electric Corporation, and is funded by the U.S. Agency for
International Development and the U.S. Export Council for Renewable
Energy. IPC has developed its project in cooperation with BPP Teknologi
of the Government of Indonesia.

Information: Joe Sedlak, VITA.


TECHNICAL PROBLEMS: Some Challenges for Our Readers

Can you help VITA's Inquiry Service to answer these recent questions? If
you need more information about them, kindly contact Brij Mathur at
VITA. Use the reference numbers shown below. Please assume that the
inquirer lacks access to bookstores or libraries. Your help will be
appreciated.

1. A requester in Nigeria wants to build a frequency-modulation trans
mitter to operate an FM station. He needs circuit diagrams that would
aid him in its construction. (VITA Ref. 175298)

2. A requester in Nicaragua needs information on low-cost water treat
ment methods. Specifically, he needs to know how to rid the water of
cholera bacteria and other disease-inducing microorganisms. (VITA Ref.
175367)


A n n o u n c e m e n t s

COMMUNICATIONS PLANNING AND STRATEGY

From 2 to 29 June 1993 Cornell University will be offering a course for
communication planning and strategy. This will be the 13th year for this
workshop/seminar that has over the years attracted more than 300 persons
from approximately 60 nations. The program emphasizes organization of
communication, nonformal education, and information programs that
involve various groups of people -- from policy makers to villagers.
Among the topics covered will be developing a communication strategy,
analyzing audiences, message design issues, media selection, mobiliza
tion of resources, interpersonal communication, mass media, small group
communication, social marketing and communication research and evalua
tion. The course has been designed for officials and project leaders in
health, agriculture, family planning and related sectors.

Information: Joan Payton, CPS-93, Department of Communication, Cornell
University, Kennedy Hall, Ithaca, NY  14853; Tel: +1 (607) 255-6500;
Fax: +1 (607) 255-7905; Telex: 6713054; E-mail:
JFP@CORNELLC.CIT.CORNELL.EDU.


URBAN WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION

The International Water and Sanitation Centre (IRC) has announced that
from 4 to 22 May 1993 it will be sponsoring a short course in Community
Management in Urban Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation Schemes.
The course will be given in the Netherlands where IRC is headquartered.

The course has been designed to help senior staff working in urban pro
grams address increasing health and environmental problems that result
because of a lack of access to safe and reliable water and sanitation
facilities by large proportions of the rapidly growing population of
low-income urban areas. Because of the diversity of these problems, no
blueprint approaches can be established to overcome these constraints.
Rather, tailor-made strategies are required.

The course, which is carried out in collaboration with the Institute for
Housing and Urban Development Studies (IHS), offers its participants the
training necessary to develop strategies and approaches that can help
overcome the problems that they may encounter. It is divided in three
parts. The first part identifies key issues and strategies in water sup
ply and sanitation for low-income urban communities. The second part,
which includes keynote presentations, emphasizes community-based
approaches, helps to distinguish this course from many other more tech
nically oriented courses. This second part includes technology selection
and service levels, sociocultural aspects of environmental sanitation
and community-based financial management. During the third part of the
course participants develop a strategy for their own professional situ
ations, which they present to their fellow participants.

Information: Training Section, International Water and Sanitation
Centre, P.O.Box 93190, 2509 AD The Hague, The Netherlands; Tel.: + 31
(70) 331-4133; Fax: +31 (70) 381-4034.


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                               *   *   *

DevelopNet News is an electronic newsletter published monthly by Volun-
teers in Technical Assistance (VITA), a private, nonprofit, interna
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          Acting Editor: Vicki Tsiliopoulos
          Editorial Assistant: Rafe Ronkin, VITA Volunteer


VITA specializes in information dissemination and communications tech
nology. It offers services related to sustainable agriculture, food
processing, renewable energy applications, water sanitation and supply,
small enterprise development, and information management. VITA is cur
rently involved in long- and short-term projects in Africa, Asia, and
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