From: zippy%bklyn.bitnet@CUNYVM.CUNY.EDU (Tzipporah Ben Avraham)
Newsgroups: misc.handicap
Subject: media disabled and the voting process
Date: 29 Sep 92 15:50:47 GMT
Reply-To: zippy%bklyn.bitnet@CUNYVM.CUNY.EDU (Tzipporah Ben Avraham)
X-Fidonet: None
Originator: wtm@sheldev.shel.isc-br.com

Index Number: 24553

[Forwarded by: Patt Bromberger <patt@squid.tram.com>]

please pass this on.
I want to share this all with you. I wrote this in my first
semester of Poli Sci masters work when I was at Brooklyn
College in 1985. It is part of my masters thesis as well.
Since we are in the throes of election time, I think
it rings a discordant bell here. It has as much meaning
today as it did in 1985 when I wrote it. Please also
look at the cites. In present time, we do not have the
AYERS guide to publications, however the people who bought
it is Gale Publications. Also now we have bbses and ascii
so electronic media, which was only an academic discussion
in 1985 is a reality now. It still rings as much true
despite the changes in directory ownerships. Opinions
anyone?

POLITICAL SCIENCE PAPER:      PUBLIC OPINION AND THE MEDIA
PROFESSOR RONALD BERKMAN,     BROOKLYN COLLEGE  CUNY
STUDENT: Tzipporah Benavraham
SPRING SEMESTER 1985

         HOW DO PERSONS WITH COMMUNICATION DIFFICULTIES
      AND HANDICAPS MAKE AN OPINION FROM THE MEDIA TO VOTE?

HYPOTHESIS:    Blind, deaf and communication impaired persons use different
techniques to communicate and gain information. We live in a highly
technological time where alternate formats of communication is not so
hard to  facilitate. The blind need recorded braille and large print
materials. The deaf need captioning of films and visual media. In the
media explosion, television, radio and print is everywhere. Yet how
accessible is all forms of media  to all members of the society? How
do they make an opinion to vote from what is presented? Is there
sufficient evidence that  there  that there is enough information
to the disabled population to make an intelligent decision to vote?
What evidence is there to show the lack of information and attitudes
against any one disability are stereotypical. Who sets policy on these
alternative media formats? Are these individuals deliberately kept in
the dark about pertinent information? I say the blind, deaf, print
disabled, and wheelchair users are precluded from valuable information.

          Walter Lippman, in his book PUBLIC OPINION, speaks of barriers
evident in the contact and opportunity most men have to media.(1) In fact,
he devotes the better part of a chapter to this subject. He mentions
that "there are distinct limits upon circulation of ideas. He cites,
money,(2) economic class,(3) and access from the media producers
themselves.(4)

          Yet when we speak of the blind, the deaf and those in
wheelchairs, we speak of a population of about 12.3 persons in the
United States according  to the 1980 census.(5) That is one out of
every twelve persons with a major impairment of a life function...
like seeing, hearing, walking, breathing, sitting, stooping or
lifting, These are figures for the age 18-64 age population. In
other words, this is the working age adult population. This is
the population that votes, consumes products, uses media, and
participates in many different kinds of adulthood activities.

          Yet when we speak of the media, such as television,
newspapers, radio, films, and magazines, this 12.3 million people
are at a great disadvantage. It was not until 1984 when Levi
Strauss made a commercial for 501c Jeans with a person in a
wheelchair that the disabled was even thought of as a market.(6)
Yet how many people are we speaking of and what are the needs of
media to these people? What are their different needs? How
widespread is their information? What access do they have to
information?

               Special needs
               THE BLIND AND PRINT HANDICAPPED

          Of the 12.3 million persons cited as having a disability,
4.8 million are blind or significantly visually impaired.(1) And of
the 36.4 percent of the population of the U.S. being over 40 years
old, this number becomes significant.(2) It is significant because
after the age of 40 opthomologists state the human eye goes through
major changes and print becomes progressively harder to see.(3)
Large print becomes even more important. The majority of all human
blindness comes on during the ages of 60-90 from such things as glaucoma,
diabetic complications, senile muscular degeneration, and cataract.(4)

The implications of this is that a large population of the blind are
those unable to read regular newsprint unassisted are voting age
adults.(5)  This means there is a population of adults who read print,
had unlimited selections of newspapers, magazines, periodicals, local
newspapers, and television programs, that now do not have such ready
access.

         The new needs become compelling. Large print (over 14 point
type..and most typewriters type 10 to 12 point type), braille and tape
recorded materials needs become overwhelming. The National Library
Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped in Washington, D.C.
is charged with the responsibility of disseminating alternate formal
media, such as braille, tape recorded and other materials to this
population.(6)

     However, in this population is also those with no vision problem
but those who are physically handicapped. This means people too weak
to hold a book, or those who are arthritic, or who have dyslexia, a
form of learning disability, or are too palsied to use regular print.

          This is the population that has physically based problems in
reading. They were allowed the materials from the Library for the
Blind in 1966 when President Johnson signed Public Law 89.522 to
include persons who had lost limbs and had other physically based
problems in reading.(7) Yet according to this newer increased
accessibility to materials we might suspect that all library
materials available to all library users might have just been
expanded. Let me blow up the fallacy that this occurred.

          According to them there were 8,796 public libraries
available to the general public in the United States in 1985.(8)
Yet the Library for the Blind and Physically Handicapped only has
160 participating libraries in the U. S. as  of 1985. That means
12.3 million people had access to 160 libraries.(9)

          Yet how many even used the materials available to begin
with? In the media survey of the National Survey for the Blind
and Physically Handicapped showed that it is estimated that 58% of
all those eligible for the service of the library ever use it and
indeed on page 57 of the Library Service a study,(10) economic
factors, rural living, transportation and access to metropolitan
areas were cited as impediments to this population even getting
access to the services of the library service to begin with. This
is in direct agreement with Lippman's statement that access to
opportunity  relate to these factors.(11) This population is
economically disadvantaged. More than 80% of this population has
incomes under $12,000 annually.(12) Lengthy escorted trip to library
centers for the material is difficult if not impossible.

          WHAT DO YOU FIND IN THESE SPECIAL LIBRARIES?
           HOW MUCH POLITICAL INFORMATION DO YOU FIND?

          Most local public libraries have the local newspapers
available to the general public. Yet the special library for
blind and physically handicapped has no stack library. It is
strictly a mail service. I am going to focus for the purpose of
this study on the periodicals and newspapers access in these
libraries. Most of the political news is found in newspapers and
magazines, as politics is a volatile set of circumstances. The
quickly circulating materials are often put on computer tapes in
modern times, and then printed and typeset from this tape.(1) Many
of the publications are then put on Bibliographic Retrieval Service,
a database of information which is used by subscribers of the
service. Most of these persons are then able if they have the
proper personal computer and equipment for the blind and
physically handicapped is expensive. Often totalling over $15,000
per computer. With most of the handicap's income being under
$2,000 a year, this is prohibitive.

          Let us now explore what magazines are in the special
library. In a reference circular called MAGAZINES IN SPECIAL MEDIA,
there are a total number of 387 magazines available in braille,
recorded disc, or cassette recording. That is a national figure.
That means that the print disabled have access only to a choice of
26 magazines dealing with current affairs.(2)

          Of all the various forms of media in print... the ones
persons get the most amount of political information is the newspaper.
In the publication MAGAZINES IN THE SPECIAL MEDIA there is only one
newspaper in braille, large print and recorded format. It is the New
York Times Large Print Weekly. There are 10 articles printed each
week. Compare this to 9,134 newspapers(3) in the United States published
with varying frequency, and you come up with the fact that nationally a
non-print disabled person has a better than 9000 to 1 chance of being
better informed than a print handicapped person with only one newspaper
of national impact being easily accessible to them in a format they
understand. Most of the information about the local elected officials
a print handicapped person might want to access is in small local
newspapers. Not one of the local newspapers even has large print access
according to AYERS of a column for the 'older eyes' reader over age 40.
So access to local political news is all but unavailable except through
word of mouth locally. Local State Assemblymen and Senators, and members
of the City Council usually blow their own horn in local newspapers. But
it is a horn not directed to the print handicapped voter.

         Of all magazines and publications in the country, AYERS GUIDE TO
PUBLICATION 1984 edition states, the United States has a grand total of
21,974 magazines, periodicals, journals and newspapers.(4) It becomes an
overwhelming amount of information to access to most non print handicapped
individuals. If a person wishes to use the print media to make an opinion
to vote, there is certainly no lack of information available to them. Of
course there are other variables in voting aside from access to media
information about the candidate. But for the purpose of this study that
is the ONLY variable I am investigating. I am assuming most persons who are
literate in this country like to read for their information. Many of the
print handicapped become so in adult years. I am therefore assuming
based on my knowledge of developmental years. I am therefore assuming
based on my knowledge of developmental psychology that there is a variable
of desire of access to print media at least as equal to what there was
before the print handicap. This all bespeaks a categorical lack of
awareness of this population, and their particular need.

          The sound media is often the most looked at as a source of
information for the visually and print impaired. So the medium of radio
and the sound portion of the television are not inaccessible to this
population. One idea that came of age in 1969 was the RADIO READING
SERVICE. This was instituted in order to let volunteer readers read
local news and items of interest on a subchannel radio wave for the print
handicapped. The first one was in 1969 instituted by C. Stanley Potter in
Minnesota. At present there are 85 such services in the United States.
The New York City Radio Reading Service is called IN TOUCH NETWORK. It
now beams many of its programs nationally by satellite, thus being
the most advanced of all the radio reading services for the print
handicapped. However, I wish to examine the impact this media has
for the print disabled.

              RADIO READING SERVICES AND THE PRINT
            HANDICAPPED AND POLITICAL CONTENT OF NEWS

          The purpose of the Radio Reading Service is to make available
to the print disabled as much pertinent news as possible from local news
sources. It is recognized sound and touch is the alternate technique for
this population to access information. But let us look at what is read
for long and how many people use this medium.

          The radio reading service asks volunteer readers who are
screened for voice quality to read segments of local newspapers on
the radio subcarrier line. This subcarrier is available only if the
person can afford it or os ambulatory enough to pick it up. Once again,
Lippman's argument on access to the media due to economic constraints
applied.(1) In New York City for example, the subcarrier radio costs $75
to those who can afford it, and is available for $10 to those who cannot.
In other words, only those who can afford this special receiver has access
to this media.

          Secondly, there is a problem of lack of advertising that this
service even exists. The major source of information about this service
is rehabilitation facilities for the blind. In the study of the National
Library Service for the Blind Volume 2 Page 57,(2) it states there are
varied reasons why 58% of the persons eligible ever use the library
service. One factor is lack of availability of rehabilitation for the new
print disability. As rehabilitation is costly and those over 65 are
precluded from services from the state, many who can avail themselves
of rehabilitation for new vision impairment do not. And only 20% of all
those REHABILITATED ever hear about the radio reading services for the
blind. So in New York City where the IN TOUCH NETWORK exists, there are
only 5,127 people using the service.(3)

          Third, even of those who use the service, the newspapers are
read between 9 A.M. to 5 P.M.(4) Most political news such as that from
the New York Times and Daily News and Post are on during working hours
for most print disabled. There are such things as blind social workers,
lawyers, professors and blue collar workers. So the working print
disabled are at a disadvantage when it comes to hearing the news on this
medium. And at that, mostly national news like issues of the President and
summits are heard. Most of the media uses its time for business news,
advertisements of grocery ads, OP ED pages, and social news. There are
occasional reading of such magazines as PLAYBOY and ESQUIRE and the NEW
YORKER, yet the content of the reading is timed and if the timer rings
before the reader finishes the article, that is the end of the sharing
of information. On rare occasions, interviews with local senators and
congressmen do take place. But certainly the whole spectrum of all the
local newspapers in any given city as big as New York is sparse, if not
non-existent.

     Fourth, most of the information concerning politics and campaigning is
precluded because of the fact these stations are tax-exempt not for profit
corporations. Under a 1984 pamphlet numbered a-122 from the Office of
Management and Budget in Washington, D.C.,(5) tax exempt not-for-profit
corporations such as the radio reading service can lose their not-for-profit
status if they engage in political activity. So this medium is all but
eliminated as a source of political information from which a print
disabled person can make an opinion to vote.

     According to IN TOUCH NETWORK, many things they would like to do are
precluded as they may not accept advertising or do commercial programming.
In effect, they are a social service, not a news disseminating vehicle. In
New York State, according to Ayers Guide to Publications 1984 edition,
there are 2,428 magazines, newspapers, and periodicals printed annually.(6)
IN TOUCH only reads about 22 of them.(7) Again, not even 1% of the
information available to the general public is available in this medium
for the print disabled. So once again, information is precluded in a very
demonstrable way to the print disabled of New York.

       EXPLORATION OF  REASONS FOR LIMITED ACCESS TO MEDIA OF
       PRINT HANDICAPPED...IS IT STEREOTYPE OR  IGNORANCE?

In attempting to find information for myself as a blind individual for
the 1985 New York City Mayoral and councilmanic race, I asked several
questions to gain information about candidates. I called the League of
Women Voters for information on who represents me now. I gave them my
address and assured them I was a registered voter. They have a book
called "THEY REPRESENT YOU." I sent them $4 for two copies of the book.
Just finding out who my elected officials were became a problem.

          I asked if there were a person there who would tape record the
book or if there was a way I could obtain written permission to have a
volunteer organization tape it for me. Their first statement was blind
people don't vote, and persons who can't read are precluded from voting.
I found this to be a grievous non sequitur. I said I was blind, I do vote
and I want it taped for me so I can be an informed voter and keep track
of my elected officials. Through a snarl and maze of stereotyping of my
inability to do anything let alone vote, I finally got a hold of two
volunteers unknown to the League of Women Voters to record the
publication.

     At this point I wish to quote Lippman as well as Boorstein who quotes
Lippman about stereotypes. He defines stereotypes as "an oversimplification
pattern that helps us find meaning in the world. In examples he states crude
stereotypes we carry around in our heads of large and varied classes of
people like Germans, South Americans, Negroes, Harvard men, agitators. The
stereotype, Lippman explains, satisfies our needs and helps us defend our
prejudices by seeming to give definiteness and consistency to our turbulent
and disorderly daily lives. In one sense, of course, stereotypes - the
excessively simple, but easily grasped images of racial, national or
religious groups, are only another example of pseudoevents. But generally
speaking, they are closer to propaganda. For they simplify rather than
complicate. Stereotypes narrow and limit experience in an emotionally
satisfying way; but pseudoevents embroider and dramatize experience
in an interesting way."(2) I quote this in total to expound hypothesis.
The League of Women Voters is an organization dedicated by its charter to
promoting voting and political information to be able to vote. My impression
they would reject any stereotypes that would preclude a person from voting. Yet
the stereotype that a blind person cannot vote  because they cannot read was so
overwhelming that it was verbalized to me as a reason their own publication was
not in a format available to the print disabled. Even they did not admit
disabled persons vote. And I am a woman...that flies in the face of their
stated purpose. I even told them the benefit of making their publication in
an alternate format and where it could be done for only the cost of cassette
tapes. This idea was rejected as too costly and complicated and unnecessary.

          The next phase of my exploration was news about my local elected
officials. There are 12 local newspapers in my neighborhood most proclaiming
the political platitudes of achievement and public works of my local elected
officials. I called IN TOUCH NETWORK and asked if anyone would read those
articles on the air concerning my district. They refused stating it was
too localized information not of general use to the whole of New York
City.

          The third phase of my exploration was to ask the local newspapers
to read over the telephone those articles about the elected officials.
They declined stating they were too busy. When I mentioned I was a blind
political science student, it met with the cold shoulder.

     The fourth phase of my exploration of political information in an
alternative format was  the listing of volunteers from a book called
VOLUNTEERS WHO PRODUCE BOOKS(2) from the National Library Service for
the Blind. This resource directory is in braille for free, so I used it and
asked 10 different groups to read these articles to me. I would even supply
tape recorders and blank cassettes for this purpose and pay to have them
read to me. Nine out of 10 of the groups declined. Only one agreed to tape
one newspaper a month for me under those circumstances and that was the
LIGHTHOUSE FOR THE BLIND in Manhattan. This would mean I would have to take
a taxi there, drop off the material with cassettes and a tape recorder pay
them and pay my way back to Brooklyn. As you see, this is quite costly. If
not for student financial aid, I would not have even been able to
accomplish this.

          I then went into stage two of my investigation. I asked if local
newspapers would consider making one page in large print. Of the 12 local
newspapers only one agreed to make one page of large print. I got him to
agree to use an Orator II ball for his IBM Selectric typewriter used in
making the print copy for the paste-ups. This local newspaper is now very
popular with the senior citizens because this print is larger and easier to
read. Three of the newspapers use a computer tape to make their copy. I
asked them to let me access their tape, and I would adapt it for sound
for my voice synthesizer computer. All three declined citing infringement
of copyright. This exercise demonstrated heroic effort and desire for
information. I had more resources and intelligence and drive than most
print handicapped individuals to obtain this information. Imagine the
stumbling block put in front of someone not so challenged by the task of
obtaining information! The obstacles were  mountainous even for this small
amount of information. And ingenuity for modes of access was not to blame.
I used every conceivable route to obtain this information that was feasible.

          My personal belief is that the stereotype of what a print disabled
person can and cannot do is the stumbling block more than the lack of
ability or desire of the print disabled person to obtain the information.
When presented with methods to make their medium more accessible to the
print disabled, most producers of the print were reluctant or cold to it
as a possibility.

          In Erving Goffman's book STIGMA, I quote "That the stigmatized
individual can be caught taking the tactful acceptance of himself too
seriously indicates that his acceptance is conditional. It depends upon
'normals' not being pressed past the  point at which they can easily extend
acceptance-or at worst uneasily extend it. The stigmatized fully expect to be
gentlemanly and not press their luck; they should not test the limits of the
acceptance shown them, nor make it the basis for further demands. Tolerance,
of course is usually part of the bargain."(4)

          The more I pressed for access to information, the stronger the
stereotype of what I could not do persisted. An attitude of 'why can't you
stay in your place' appeared.  I did not make an acceptance of my
stereotype, and this confused and angered my 'normals'. Yet I only wanted
accommodation to the same information my fellow non-print handicapped had
to the same information. But in this very exploration of access to print I
had made my point resoundingly. It was attitude and stereotype rather than
lack of available technology or money that precluded my access.

        THE  HEARING IMPAIRED POPULATION: ACCESS TO SOUND
           MEDIA IN FORMS OF CAPTIONED NEWS BROADCAST.

          Probably more ignored and with less information to the sound media
than even the print handicapped is the hearing impaired. According the Chris
Pruszynski, manager of Instructional Television at the National Technical
Institute for the Deaf, there are about 13 million deaf or hearing impaired
persons in the United States. Of these, 2.5 million are profoundly deaf or
hearing impaired, and of that 2.5 million only 90% know sign language!(1) The
preferred medium of the deaf is printed words based on this statement. Their
mode of information gathering is visual. While this population can read local
newspapers, and can watch television, radio is not accessible to them. And
television usually does not take into consideration the needs of the deaf.
Candidates in political debated do not face the camera, so lipreading is
often impossible. And just as deprivation of sight denies print impaired
the print media, deprivation of sound deprived the hearing impaired
the sound media.

     One accommodation for the hearing impaired to access the sound and visual
media is a device called closed captioning. Perhaps in foreign language films
you have seen subtitles with English words. It is difficult to follow such
films yet this is the prototype of what the hearing impaired use to 'hear'
films and visual sound media. It is the prototype of closed captioning.
Closed captioning is printed words in an LED type readout in line 20 for a
cathode rat tube (commonly called a television screen). A cathode ray tube
produces its pictures in little dots and rows of dots across the screen moving
at a fast pace. As the dots are reproduced, line by line, the picture comes
into view. Line 20 is the 20 line of 172 lines per average screen transmission
from the bottom of the television set picture. With the use of a device called
closed caption film decoder, deaf persons who own such a device can read line
20 of the screen to find out what the person on the screen is saying.

          According to the booklet, CAPTIONING AT NTID: TEAMWORK,
TECHNIQUE AND TECHNOLOGY,(2) this is now a computerized operation. Simple
access to the special computer necessary can access this form of medium. And
13 million potential users is a formidable market. With this 'easy access'
you would think there were many news programs, commercials, and newscasts
with this medium. The resounding answer is there is not.

          According to Chris Pruszynski, there is only 40 hours of network
TV programs closed captioning each week. Most of these are on the Public
Broadcasting Station and American Broadcasting Station. The only news
broadcast that is closed captioned is PETER JENNINGS.(3)

          What can we conclude? Technology is there to make closed
captioning possible yet not a significant number of television stations
use it. How many television stations are there in the United States?
According to Statistical Abstracts of the United States, 1984 edition,
there are 841 commercial television stations in the U.S.(4) But PBS and ABC
are the only ones which close caption any broadcasts. And the political
information available is greatly diminished.

          In Erving Goffman's STIGMA, Ms. Peck, a pioneering social worker
for the hard of hearing often found hard of hearing persons targeted for
miracle cures like magnetic head caps, vibrating machines, artificial
eardrums, blowers, inhalers, massagers, magic oils, balsams, and other...
cures for deafness.(5) Perhaps the stereotype of the 'medicine man with a
magic cure' deters many possible reputable possible producers of captioning
away from the endeavor. Again, I feel stereotype is the problem, not lack
of technology or access to means of doing the task of accommodation.

     To prove a point about the hearing impaired and their access to
information on captioning of media, the National Technical Institute for
the Deaf as well as National Association of the Deaf and a government
agency called Captioned Film and Media Applications Branch, Division of
Education Programs, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative
Service of the United States Department Of Education advises people on
captioned media. There are many sources of information and ways to
accomplish captioning, yet many people in the media do not think of deaf
as a market let alone a target of political propaganda to vote.

          Only one known public opinion poll was ever made of the viewers of
closed captioned television commercial watchers. According to the survey,
4,108 television commercials were closed captioned In the year 1982, 84%
who had close caption decoders who watched the commercials felt they were
informative; 75% felt they were entertaining; 655 felt they were going to
change brands.(6) I feel this demonstrates when an accommodation is offered
and a market targeted despite stereotypes it has a positive impact. Perhaps
politicians wishing to influence 13 million potential voters should
re-think their insistence of lack of it in regards to close captioning of
their debates on television.

      Mobility Impaired Persons and Those Institutionalized.
               Wheelchair Users in New York City.

     It is estimated by the New  York State Department of Social Services,
there are over 100,000 wheelchair users on medicaid.(1) This includes those
in nursing homes as will as veterans, (Some veterans have medicaid) Also
according to the Eastern Paralyzed Veteran Association of New York City
there are about 1,000,000 persons in all with severe to moderate mobility
impairments in the New York City area.(2) This includes  people who use canes
to walk, walkers, wheelchairs and any ambulation aid. This is 1/8 of the
population. The majority or the people who use canes and walkers are senior
citizens. I already gave the statistic on how many people percentage-wise
are seniors in our national population. That is 11.7% over the age of 65.(3)
As quoted before also, of the 12.3 million persons of working age with
disabilities, 80% of them live in poverty. This is compelling! This
figure delineates aa huge portion of our population without access to
the funds to buy 'niceties' to improve their quality of life.

          In the publication and survey done by the National Library
Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped by the American
Foundation for the Blind, the entire volume three of devoted to "THE
ROLE OF HEALTH CARE INSTITUTIONS IN SATISFYING THE READING NEEDS OF
RESIDENTS WITH PRINT HANDICAPS.(4) Many issues of who does and does not
have access to materials from the library, as sparse as it is in political
content, appear.

          On page 108 of this survey volume, many persons in nursing homes
are precluded by public policy in even obtaining the service of the talking
book and magazine service.(5) Usually, there is no coordinator for the
service, and there is a fear of theft of the machinery used to play the
recorded materials. Many nursing homes don't even know there is such a
thing as talking books and radio reading service. Of the deaf in these
institutions, not many own caption film decoders or even watch television
if there is none in the facility. The mobility impaired and institutionalized
person has a marked decrease in access to political news from which to make
an opinion.  Many times even local neighborhood newspapers don't even make
an effort to reach out with copies of their publications to the local
residents of a health related institution except to include a news blurb
on the activities of the facilities as 'public relations good news stories.'

          On page 51 of this volume,(6) it demonstrates that often the person
who makes the selection for the rare person who is a reader of talking book
program is an occupational therapist, nurse, doctor, or volunteer. Often
the person wanting even the sparse information offered is not at liberty
in these settings to make their own choice of materials.

          Is it any small wonder then, that persons in health care facilities
do not vote too often? Many do not have the ability to get enough information
let alone political information to vote. Local elected officials seldom
target these facilities for political campaigning. This truly one of the most
deprived from media group of adult voters. Yet there seems to be no public
policy to alleviate their isolation or enforce their particular rights of
equal access to information and 'the outside world'.

          Also I have cited that the elderly and disabled are poor. In
recognition of that fact, Housing and Urban Development has set us a
program for elderly and handicapped specifically. In 1983, 1,483,000 units
of housing for the elderly and handicapped poor were subsidized by HUD by
contract.(7) This means we have another area to find elderly and
handicapped..namely, in these particular housing units. Yet federal law
precludes them as places for polling. These units are called section 202
units. We can now include a potential one and half million persons
nationally not in health institutions with limited resources and
impairments in obtaining information to vote. All these section 202
units are accessible for mobility impaired individuals. That means the
wheelchair, cane or walker user.

          In the bibliography reference circular, ACCESSIBILITY: DESIGNING
BUILDINGS FOR THE NEEDS OF HANDICAPPED PERSONS, 1979 by the National
Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, mention is made
that less than 10% of all buildings are accessible to wheelchairs. Of that
figure, only 4% of those buildings are public facilities like libraries,
stores, schools, social service agencies and government buildings. Most
facilities which are not architecturally inaccessible are private residences
like section 202 houses. So based on that, even if severely mobility impaired
persons who use canes, walkers and wheelchairs could make an opinion from the
media to vote, it is unlikely they would find many places to do it that did
not fight them architecturally in getting in.

           THE VOTING PROCESS: IF THE DISABLED DO MAKE
            AN OPINION TO VOTE FROM THE SPARSE AMOUNT
              OF MEDIA AT THEIR ACCESS, THEN WHAT?

          I have already demonstrated how media starved disabled persons
might possibly be able to make some vague opinion from the media to vote.
More often than not, the disabled voter is uninformed due to various
factors. Yet what of the voter registration and voting process? Is it
accessible or is it yet another obstacle to voting?

          My research has proven that even the voting process is not
accommodating. In a May, 1985 telephone interview I had with the New York
City Board of Elections Commissioner, Betty Dolan, over 85% of all polling
places are not architecturally accessible. Also, for the deaf population, it
wasn't until 1984 that the New York City Board of Elections had a telephone
on which the deaf could get information.(1) The name of this phone is a
TELECOMMUNICATIONS DEVICE FOR THE DEAF. When it was first invented in 1969,(2)
it was the first telegraphy means for the deaf to type in words at one end
on a 'modem' and transmit back and forth information on the phone lines. A
man named Walbreight invented it in Nevada. This is one accommodation for
the deaf to get information on voting and voting procedures if they own
this $250 device called a TELECOMMUNICATION DEVICE FOR THE DEAF.

          For the blind and print handicapped, much information is not
available in alternate format. And law precludes bringing a reader into
the voting booth. Since there is no braille in voting machines, and large
print is not used, many blind persons vote absentee if at all. Or if they
bring a reader to read the voting list at the polling place, both democratic
and republican judges have to go in with the person and their reader...thus
4 people to a voting booth. It is embarrassing and a deterrent to many
self-conscious print disabled persons. In fact,  it is a major impediment to
voting.

          For the mobility impaired, many of the polling places are in public
schools over 100 years old. A bare minimum of them are architecturally
accessible to wheelchairs, or to elderly with walkers and canes. Long
flights of steps act as a further impediment to voting access to this
population as well.

          For persons in institutions, many are precluded by public policy
of the institution from even registering to vote. There are no facilitators
for registration or for voting. And there is no official outreach to those
persons to vote. Administrators have daily living needs to attend to and
consider voting registration and facilitation a luxury too expensive to
pursue for their clientele.

          Thus categorically a potential 24% of the voting age public is
precluded from voting if they even wanted to by lack of clear public
policy.

          There is one hope for the disabled. It is the VOTING ACCESSIBILITY
FOR THE ELDERLY AND HANDICAPPED ACT. This is Public Law 98:435 passed
into law on September 28, 1984.(3) By 1985, December 31, there must be in
place laws and procedures to eliminate barriers to voting for the elderly
and handicapped. Thus if a disabled person does indeed make an opinion
from the media to vote, they will not be precluded under law or public
policy from doing so.

          According to Commissioner Dolan, of the 65,000 absentee ballots
in the 1984 presidential election, 14,000 were listed as permanently
disabled. And of 160 persons in wheelchairs asking help to the polls, only
42 used assistance to the polls to actually vote.(4)

         HOPES FOR RESOLVE: PUBLIC POLICY AND INCENTIVES
                      PROJECTIONS AND IDEAS

          My first suggestion is that those persons who have the technological
know-how market the idea of their media production for the disabled to
governments. If these producers of the media and devices make themselves
known and promote their skills on a contracting basis to government, perhaps
more information can be gotten to this population of disabled.

          Second suggestion is that disabled special interest groups from
coalitions of special interests and political action committees (PACS) and
support of oppose candidates. Presently there are several groups of blind,
or deaf, or mobility impaired individuals as well as a few elderly groups
who have done this. Most noteworthy among the blind is the NATIONAL
FEDERATION OF THE BLIND, BLIND VETERANS ASSOCIATION, AMERICAN COUNCIL OF
THE BLIND and the NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE VISUALLY HANDICAPPED. They
have already made a lot of alternate format media available to their
constituencies. In this way, they spread views and share them among their
peer group forming a pluralistic special interest group. Organizations of
deaf, such as National Association for the deaf, have political newspapers
of their own with views on political candidates. Also they promote
Telecommunication devices for the deaf and captioned media. If all 13
million deaf made a coalition, they would be a formidable group to oppose
when they demanded these accommodations. Also such groups as the Paralyzed
Veterans of America, The American Coalition of Citizens with Disabilities,
Disabled Veterans of America have all formed newspapers and magazines for
the pluralist groups they represent.

          In digression, I wish to cite the view of HOLLOWAY AND GEORGE
in their book, PUBLIC OPINION COALITIONS, ELITES AND MASSES. They say on
page 129 that according to Gordon, 'cultural pluralism is complex. The
pluralist groups formed by these disabled groups has to throw off the
stereotype of inability from disability, and thus try to melt into the
melting pot adverse to their inclusion.  The group identity of the
disability would be the common link, yet, it would make the group
'ethnically distinct', with the identifying disability being the chief
group identity. In the secondary relationship these groups would have,
they would become as in Gordon's second step 'characteristic of the
economic and political sector and the system's culture as a whole,' and
that the combination of distinctiveness of group identity yet economic
and political culture identification would create a cultural pluralism
sufficiently minimal to prevent significant amount of intermarriage while
cooperating with other groups and individuals in secondary relations of
political life, economic life and civil responsibility.'(1)

     I feel this expresses the type of impact I would expect PACS of
disabled consumers to exert to gain equal rights. I would hope these
groups could maintain their purity of 'differentness while blending enough
as per Gordon's idea of not being 'too pushy' in their stereotypical
behavior.

          The third suggestion I have is that governments institute the
provisions in the VOTING ACCESSIBILITY FOR THE ELDERLY AND HANDICAPPED
of the requirements that doctors have to certify permanent disability for
those permanently disabled persons wishing to vote absentee. Also, the use
of assisting devices both 'access' the words in voting, should be allowed
in all polling places and places of registration. Health facilities should
be targeted by boards of elections for both registration as well as voting
during primaries as well as elections.

          The fourth suggestion I have is that buildings already identified
as architecturally  accessible should be used as polling places. There can
be more than schools used for this purpose. Social service agencies, senior
citizen centers, health facilities, diagnostic laboratories, religious
institutions, community meeting halls, bank buildings with appropriate places
can all be and should be considered when choice is made for a polling place.
The use exclusively of school buildings which are not accessible is
antiquated.

          The fifth incentive is a tax break to those who make their facility
accessible for either production of alternate format purposes (i.e.,
brailling, large print manufacture) actual use of facility for voting for
handicapped, of anything they do to facilitate aiding of handicapped to vote.
There should be an incentive for middle to large employers to let their
handicap person indicate they are, and where they want assistance to get to
a polling place. The employer should be able with a certificate that their
employees participated in this activity from the board of elections take
off dollar per dollar the money they paid their employees during that
activity.

          The answers and solutions to the problems of access to the disabled
are there. It is just up to the rest of the country to catch up with the fact
and facilitate the changes.
LISTING OF PERSONAL INTERVIEWS:

1.   May 10, 1985: Corine Kirscher - Social Research Director
     American Foundation for the Blind

2.   April, 1985: Commissioner B. Dolan - New York City Commissioner
     Board of  Elections

3.   April, 1985: New York State Department of Social Services - Durable
     Medical Equipment Co-ordinator - Mr. Altscul.
     Regarding how many wheelchairs were purchased  under medicaid in the
     State of New York in the last five years.

4.   New York Society for the Deaf  Dr. Jerome Schein - numbers of deaf
     in  U.S., N.Y.S. and N.Y.C.  March, 1985

5.   Eastern Paralyzed Veterans Association, N.Y.C. decision -  Patrick
     O'Connell lobbyist and co-ordinator of voter registration April 1985

6.   March, 1985: Grant Mack - President American Council of the Blind -
     Regarding availability of media to blind and print handicapped

7.   April, 1985: Cathy Crosby - Manager of Library Services Recording
     for the Blind and Visually Handicapped - Princeton, N.J. Re: Her
     masters thesis on high tech availability of information to the print
     disabled

8.   April, 1985: Chris Prusznyski, Manager Instructional Television for
     National Technical Institute for the Deaf - Regarding captioning of
     film and how possible it is in the U.S.A. Caption film and broadcast
     access in U.S.

9.   April, 1985: Mr Gary Olsen - Interim Director National Association
     for the Deaf - Silver Springs, Maryland Detailed interview about
     accessibility to both education as well as publications with political
     content, for the deaf population.

10.  April, 1985: Mr Jasha Levi, Director  IN TOUCH NETWORK NYC radio
     reading service for the Print Handicapped. He is Executive Director.
     We discussed how many people use his services in the metropolitan
     New York area

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

The entire 1,972 page survey done in 1979 for the National Library Service
for the Blind and Physically Handicapped by the American Foundation of the
Blind by Marvin Berkowitz, Lorraine G. Hiatt, Pamela DeToledo, John Shapiro,
and Margery Lurie includes these five volumes:

1. READING WITH PRINTED LIMITATIONS: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY; VOLUME 1

2. CHARACTERISTIC, ACTIVITIES AND NEEDS OF PEOPLE WITH LIMITATIONS
   IN PRINT READING; VOLUME 2

3. THE ROLE OF HEALTH CARE INSTITUTIONS IN SATISFYING THE READING
   NEEDS OF THE RESIDENTS WITH PRINT LIMITATIONS: VOLUME 3

4. CURRENT ISSUES IN LIBRARY SERVICES FOR PEOPLE WITH LIMITATIONS
   IN READING PRINT: VOLUME 4

5. DESIGN AND EXECUTION OF STUDY OF READING LIMITATIONS: VOLUME 5

The following are bibliographies and reference circulars used by the
Library for the Blind and Physically Handicapped. 1291 Taylor Street
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20542 which I used for this study:

1. MAGAZINES IN SPECIAL MEDIA, 1981

2. READING MATERIAL IN LARGE PRINT, 1979

3. READING MACHINES FOR THE BLIND, 1980

4. ACCESSIBILITY: DESIGNING BUILDINGS FOR THE NEEDS OF HANDICAPPED
   PERSONS: 1979

5. NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS CONCERNED WITH VISUALLY AND
   PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED PERSONS: 1980

THE FOLLOWING BOOKS WERE USED FOR INFORMATION ABOUT THE DEAF:

1. Directory of NATIONAL INFORMATION SERVICES IN HANDICAPPING
   CONDITIONS: U.S.  Department of Education- Superintendent of
   Documents  1982

2. National TECHNICAL INSTITUTE FOR THE DEAF: A CATALOG OF
   EDUCATION RESOURCES 1985

3. CAPTIONING AT NTID: TEAMWORK, TECHNIQUES AND TECHNOLOGY 1985

4. Adapted MEDIA EXCHANGE PROJECT: NATIONAL TECHNICAL INSTITUTE
   FOR THE DEAF 1985

The following books were used for this course:

1. PUBLIC OPINION:  Walter Lippman  FREE PRESS  1965

2. MEDIA IN POLITICS:  Doris Graber Congressional Quarterly  1984

3. PUBLIC OPINION:  COALITIONS, ELITES AND MASSES:  by Harry Holloway
   and John George St. Martin Press  1979

4. THE IMAGE:  A GUIDE TO PSEUDO EVENTS IN AMERICA by Daniel J.
   Boorstin Atheneum Press N.Y.  1982

OTHER SIGNIFICANT BOOKS  AND PUBLICATIONS:

1. THE IMS '84 AYER DIRECTORY OD PUBLICATIONS:  IMS FREE PRESS
   Pennsylvania 1984

2. WORLD ALMANAC 1984

3. PUBLISHERS AND NEWSPAPER ENTERPRISES ASSN 928pp. NY NY for
   number of television stations in U.S.

4. DISABLED USA* magazine of the PRESIDENT'S COMMITTEE ON
   EMPLOYMENT OF THE HANDICAPPED...WASHINGTON, D.C..September
   1984 and Spring 1985 issues

5. THAT ALL MAY READ*  NATIONAL LIBRARY SERVICE FOR THE BLIND AND
   PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED* 1984 - Dealing with issuers of those who
   have reading problems.

FOOTNOTES
Prologue

1. PUBLIC OPINION by Walter Lippman FREE PRESS  pp 31-36
2. IBID page 32
3. IBID page 32
4. IBID page 36
5. DISABLED USA* Publication of the President's Committee on Employment
of the Handicapped Sept. 1984  HOW MANY ARE WE?: SOME STATISTICAL LIGHT
ON DISABILITY by Robert Gorski, editor, DISABLED  USA
6. Personal interview March 1984 with Robert Gorski, DISABLED * USA

SPECIAL NEEDS: BLIND AND PRINT HANDICAPPED

1. Personal interview with Corine Kirschner - Social Researcher and Chief
   Statistician for American Foundation for the Blind. She cites data
   from 1979 study of the National Society to Prevent Blindness as well
   as an exploration from the Rehabilitative Services Administration in
    Washington. D.C.
2. Statistical Abstracts of the Unites States 1984 edition - U.S.
   Department of Commerce
3. American Opthomological Association and National Society to Prevent
   Blindness, as cited in May, 1985 interview with Corine Kirschner
   (see above)
4. 1979 survey National Society to Prevent Blindness
5. Interview Corine Kirscher, May, 1985
6. DISABLED USA March, 1984; READ INTO THE SYSTEM AND THRIVE By
   Tzipporah Ben Avraham page 20
7. THAT ALL MAY READ by Library for the Blind and Physically Handicapped
   Jan., 1984 page 14
8. RR BOWKER- Bowkers annuals 1985 edition
9. THAT ALL MAY READ by Library for the Blind and Physically Handicapped;
   page 226
10. CHARACTERISTICS, ACTIVITIES AND NEEDS OF PEOPLE WITH
   LIMITATIONS IN READING PRINT: VOLUME 2 NATIONAL LIBRARY SERVICE
   FOR THE BLIND AND PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED by American Foundations
   for the Blind 1979 page 57
11. WALTER LIPPMAN* PUBLIC OPINION: FREE PRESS 1949 pages 31-36
12. DISABLED USA publication of the President's Committee on Employment
   of the Handicapped Sept. 1984 HOW MANY ARE WE: SOME STATISTICAL
   LIGHT ON DISABILITY.

WHAT DO YOU FIND IN THESE SPECIAL LIBRARIES? HOW MUCH POLITICAL
INFORMATION DO YOU FIND?

1. INTERVIEW WITH CORINE KIRSCHNER* SOCIAL RESEARCH AND
   STATISTICIAN FOR THE AMERICAN FOUNDATION FOR THE BLIND  May,
   1985
2. MAGAZINES IN SPECIAL MEDIA  by the National Library Service for the
   Blind and Physically Handicapped 1980 reference circular

FOOTNOTES Page Two

3. AYERS GUIDE TO PUBLICATIONS 1984 edition by IMS Communications
4. IBID

RADIO READING SERVICES AND THE PRINT HANDICAPPED AND POLITICAL
CONTENTS OF NEWS

1. WALTER LIPPMAN: Public Opinion by Free Press page 32
2. CHARACTERISTICS, ACTIVITIES AND NEEDS OF PEOPLE WITH
   LIMITATIONS IN READING PRINT VOLUME 2 by American Foundation for the
   Blind 1979 Page 57
3. Personal Interview with J. Levy - Director IN TOUCH NETWORK The NYC
   radio reading service for print handicapped. April, 1985
4. Program guide of the IN TOUCH NETWORK 1985 guide as given to its
   subscribers
5. Circular a-122 of the OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET Washington,
   D.C. which in part says in this March 1984 document that tax-exempt
   not for profit organizations (501 c-3) corporations may not participate
   in any political activity under peril of losing their tax exempt not
   for profit status.
6. AYERS GUIDE TO PUBLICATIONS by IMS Communications 1984 edition
7. From guide to programs to IN TOUCH NETWORK sent to its subscribers

EXPLORATION OF REASONS FOR LIMITED ACCESS TO MEDIA OR PRINT
HANDICAPPED. IS IT STEREOTYPE OR IGNORANCE OR ACCOMMODATION?...

1. THEY REPRESENT YOU. Booklet of elected officials in New York City with
   maps of districts, addresses of officials and information on the voting
   process    1984 edition
2. THE IMAGE: A GUIDE TO PSEUDO EVENTS IN AMERICA by Daniel Boorstein
   Atheneum Press: New York 1982 page 37 on stereotypes
3. VOLUNTEERS WHO PRODUCE BOOKS 1984 reference circular NATIONAL
   LIBRARY SERVICE FOR HE BLIND AND PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED
4. STIGMA page 120 by Erving Goffman 1963 Prentice Hall

HEARING IMPAIRED

1. Letter to me from Chris Pruszynski - Director and manager of Institutional
   Television at Rochester's National Technical Institute for the Deaf
   Letter dated April 22, 1985
2. Captioning at NTID: TEAMWORK TECHNIQUES AND TECHNOLOGY,  a
   pamphlet to inform those who are interested in the production of
   this media at this facility.
3. Quote from April 22, 1985 letter from Chris Pruszynski as above
4. STATISTICAL ABSTRACTS ON THE UNITED STATES by the U.S. Department
   of Commerce page 542 1984 edition
FOOTNOTES Page Three

5. STIGMA Page 9 By Erving Goffman 1983 by Prentice Hall
6. NATIONAL CAPTIONING INSTITUTE INC. March, 1963 NCI CLOSE CAPTION
   BULLETIN Vol. 3

MOBILITY IMPAIRED PERSONS AND THOSE INSTITUTIONALIZED WHEELCHAIR
USERS IN NEW YORK CITY

1. Personal interview with Mr. Altschul - NYS DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL
   SERVICE Program Analyst to Commissioner concerning medicaid. May, 1985
   interview
2. PATRICK O'CONNOR Personal interview, He is lobbyist and statistician for
   the NYC EASTERN PARALYZED VETERANS ASSOCIATION Interview date March
   1984 edition
3. STATISTICAL ABSTRACTS OF THE UNITED STATES, by U.S. Department of
   Commerce 1984 edition
4. THE ROLE OF HEALTH CARE FACILITIES IN SATISFYING THE READING
   NEEDS OF RESIDENTS WITH PRINT LIMITATIONS VOLUME 3 NATIONAL
   LIBRARY SERVICE FOR THE BLIND AND PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED by
   American Foundation for the Blind 1979
5. IBID page 108
6. IBID page 51
7. STATISTICAL ABSTRACTS OF THE UNITED STATES, by U.S. Department of
   Commerce 1984 edition
8. ACCESSIBILITY: DESIGNING BUILDINGS FOR THE NEEDS OF HANDICAPPED
   PERSONS reference bibliography 1979 National Library Service for the
   Blind

THE VOTING PROCESS:

1. Interview with Commissioner Betty Dolan, Commissioner NYC Board of
   Elections May 1985
2. Inventor Weibreicht invented this device in 1969 in Nevada according to
   the Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf
3. VOTING RIGHTS ACT FOR THE ELDERLY AND HANDICAPPED ACT P. L.
   98:435
4. Interview with Gregory Maraskowitz - director of Voter Access of the
   Mayor's Office for the Handicapped persons this was a project to assist
   handicapped get to and from polling places and to vote.

HOPES FOR RESOLVE

1. PUBLIC OPINION COALITIONS ELITES AND MASSES by Holloway and George
   page 129

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