From: budaraju@cae.wisc.edu (Srinivas Budaraju)
Subject: Sardar Saroavar Project - An Overview - 6/7
Organization: U of Wisconsin-Madison College of Engineering
Distribution: world 
Date: 12 Oct 92 14:10:44 CDT

II.2.	Alternatives to Large Dams

There are viable alternatives to large dams that have the 
potential to meet each of the major goals of large dams, 
namely, irrigation, power generation, and flood control.  The 
most important alternative is to build multiple small dams, 
and there are examples to show that this can be successful in 
meeting all three of these goals, without the concomitant 
costs of soil erosion, deforestation, desertification, and 
displacement.  Other options include alternate energy sources 
such as biogas and tidal power, energy conservation, minor 
schemes such as ground-water usage for irrigation, and 
afforestation for flood control. Below, we examine the case 
for small dams, as well as some of the other alternatives, in 
a little more detail.

Irrigation Wherever water resources have been harnessed 
through small reservoirs by constructing bunds or small dams, 
the lives and environments of the people in the area have 
been transformed without anyone having to pay the cost of 
development.  Prembhai, in Mirzapur district of Uttar 
Pradesh, led the construction of over 750 small dams 
(bandhis), at an average cost of about Rs. 60,000 per bandhi.  
Each bandhi irrigates about 40 acres of land.  Careful 
planning of the bandhis has resulted in 60% higher cropping 
intensity and 160% higher agricultural production.  All the 
bandhis were constructed entirely with local labor, providing 
valuable employment.  Farmers have been able to turn even 
lean years to their advantage by desilting dried-up catchment 
areas, and returning fertile silt to the fields.  Strikingly 
similar results were obtained at Sukhomajri, near Chandigarh, 
where the construction of 3 small dams helped improve farm 
production, reduced grazing pressure on non-agricultural land 
by increasing fodder production from crop residue, and 
induced spectacular growth of trees, bushes and grasses 
merely by better management of the water-shed.  Villagers who 
used to be driven out of Sukhomajri by near-desert conditions 
during the lean season have now turned to growing fruit trees 
and vegetables to tide over the lean season.

The above two examples demonstrate the potential of small 
dams for cost-effective irrigation by better utilization of 
water, improved agricultural productivity, and ecological 
enhancement [Agarwal and Narain 1991].  Furthermore, small 
check dams can easily be constructed to suit the topology of 
the land, using a few acres to store water.  Thus, as in both 
examples above, small dams generate benefits without the 
displacement of nearby residents, extensive deforestation, 
silting of the reservoir leading to lower storage capacity, 
and potential danger of downstream floods due to over 
capacity in the huge reservoirs [Agarwal and Narain 1991, 
Singh 1990].

Another important alternative to large dams for irrigation 
are minor schemes such as the use of ground-water.  Planning 
Commission figures show that it costs over Rs. 2,800 to 
provide irrigation to one hectare of land through major and 
medium irrigation schemes (generally large and medium sized 
dams) in comparison to Rs. 840 for an equal area by ground-
water [Singh 1990].  In fact the total outlay in the first 
five Annual Plans was Rs. 75 billion for major or medium 
schemes compared to Rs. 12.9 billion for minor schemes, and 
yet the total irrigation potential generated by the minor 
schemes was higher: 187.16 million ha versus 168.88 million 
ha.

Power Generation   China is an enduring example of the 
potential of small dams for power generation.  China had over 
88,000 small hydro-power stations with an installed capacity 
of 6929 MW in 1980.  These small units require less capital, 
lower power distribution cost and lower transmission losses.  
Moreover, as production is small it plays an important role 
in the overall development of the people of the rural areas.  
They can be built, maintained and operated by rural 
communities and need not become part of the national grid.

In India, there are innumerable sites with fast flowing hill 
streams and river slopes where small hydel schemes can be 
constructed.  An official estimate put the potential for 
small hydro-power generation at about 2,000 MW in hilly 
areas, and an additional 3,000 MW in so-called micro-hydel 
units (100 kW or less) that can be set up in the small falls 
that are common to many irrigation canals in the plains 
[Agarwal and Narain 1991].  Yet the total installed capacity 
of small hydel units in India was only 220 MW in 1980.  A 
common argument against small dams is that they are costlier 
per unit of electricity than large dams: Rs. 8,000 to Rs. 
15,000 per MW as against Rs. 3,000 to Rs. 7,000 [Singh 1990].  
But this does not take into account the smaller initial 
capital and much shorter gestation periods.  Furthermore, 
this also does not account for the larger social and 
environmental damage due to large dams, nor the environmental 
benefits of small ones.

Overall, small hydel projects cannot meet the hydro-
electricity requirements of the country.  The first, and most 
important, form of alternate energy is energy conservation.  
Other alternate energy sources for which technology is now 
available include natural gas, geothermal energy, bio-mass, 
solar energy, tidal energy and wind power.

Flood Control An important, even essential method of flood 
control is the prevention of deforestation, along with 
afforestation wherever possible.  Cutting down forests 
dramatically increases the risks of flooding.  According to a 
UNESCO study, the watershed of one river released between 1% 
and 3% of the total rainfall when forested but once the trees 
were cut down, released between 97% and 99% [Singh 1990]. The 
volume of water carried by rivers in deforested areas can be 
huge, putting tremendous pressure and often breaching the 
flood control embankments.  Afforestation, on the other hand, 
has the potential to control both the problems of silting and 
flooding.

The more general concept of "living with floods" is 
increasingly attracting public and scientific attention.  The 
report of the Working Group on Integrated Action and Flood 
Control has stated that within the limits of resources and 
time, floods cannot be controlled completely [Agarwal and 
Narain 1991].  This has been demonstrated time and again by 
the failures of dams and embankments to control floods, and 
mitigate their impact on human lives.  Instead, human 
settlements, public utility institutions and investments on 
land and water should be regulated keeping in view the flood 
hazard of the area concerned.  The basic aim of this strategy 
is to reduce societal susceptibility to flood damage and to 
reduce those causes that aggravate floods.  For instance, the 
government of Assam has come up with a scheme to build raised 
platforms about the size of a soccer ground for groups of 
four or five villages in flood-prone areas, especially in 
villages situated near embankments to provide alternative 
shelter during the flood period.  These also can help 
authorities to undertake speedy rescue and flood relief 
efforts.  Another essential aspect of this general solution 
is better flood forecasting and warning systems, along with 
improved preparedness.  Finally, the most important long-term 
strategy is to modify cropping methods so that farmers can 
cope with floods.  Deep-water rice (which can survive floods) 
provides a sort of flood-insurance to farmers in Assam, 
despite being of lower quality.  Other examples include a 
shift of emphasis from kharif to rabi crops, better 
arrangements for recovery from floods through fast supply of 
replacement seedlings, and adjustment of planting dates for 
some crops, including the most flood-prone kharif rice.  
Agriculture and floods are two sides of the same coin.

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-Srinivas				budaraju@cae.wisc.edu

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