HDTenEightyP/NetNews huggingface dataset:
From: jil@uts.uucp (Jamie Lubin)
Subject: Re: Hayflick limit (was Bioflavonoids)
Reply-To: jil@donuts0.bellcore.com
Organization: Bellcore, Piscataway, NJ
Date: Thu, 21 Jan 93 14:25:45 GMT

In article <1993Jan20.151057.3141@porthos.cc.bellcore.com> jil@donuts.bellcore.com writes:
>In article <225@sftwks.UUCP> bradbury@sftwks.UUCP (Robert Bradbury) writes:
>>In article <1993Jan14.151118.12288@porthos.cc.bellcore.com> jil@uts.uucp (Jamie Lubin) writes:
>>>In article <1993Jan13.210702.25774@spdcc.com> dyer@spdcc.com (Steve Dyer) writes:
> 
>(Much informative info re bioflavonoids, etc. deleted)
>
>>>>>And if you don't
>>>>>want to say "bioflavonoids," you can say "the substance in Szent-Gyorgyi's
>>>>>experiments present in the natural vitamin C, but not in the synthetic, which
>>>>>reduced the tendency of hemorrhage in the small blood vessels."  OK, maybe it
>>>>>wasn't bioflavonoids after all--it could've been the associated factors ;-)
>>>>
>>>>This research was done 65 years ago, and there's never been anything shown
>>>>since to work better in the hemorrhages caused by vitamin C deficiency than
>>>>vitamin C, whatever its source.
>>>
>>
>>Just because a result is old, doesn't make it invalid.  CM McCays experiments
>>in the 1935 that show that calorie restriction extends the lifespan of rodents
>>are just as valid today as they were then.  On the other hand A Carrel's and
>>E Ebeling's experiments published in 1912/13 which "proved" cells can divide
>>forever were disproven by HE Swim and L Hayflick in the 50's and 60's.
>
>Anyone remember the research (late 70s-early 80s?) in which the "Hayflick
>limit" was extended thru the use of vitamin E?  This kicked off many articles
>re vitamin E & aging.  I could check at home to see who/what was involved, but
>I wanted to post this now (the names Packer or Tappel come to mind).

Since no one else commented on this, I looked up the experiments:

Leonard Hayflick had shown that cells divide & reproduce ~ 50 times.  Some
physiologists (Drs. Lester Packer & James R. Smith of the Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory) repeated Hayflick's experiment, but did so in a vitamin E enriched
medium.  They found that the cells divided > 120 times & that the cells were
young & healthy.  The researchers reported their full findings in the December
1974 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.  One account of this can
be found in Supernutrition: Megavitamin Revolution by Richard Passwater, Ph.D.
(biochemistry).
Newsgroups: sci.med.nutrition
From: yazz@locus.com (Bob Yazz)
Subject: Re: Hayflick limit (was Bioflavonoids)
Date: Fri, 22 Jan 93 03:45:06 GMT

jil@donuts.bellcore.com writes:

| Anyone remember the research (late 70s-early 80s?) in which the "Hayflick
| limit" was extended thru the use of vitamin E?

I don't think the Hayflick limit* has been exceeded, to this day.

What is important tho, is that humans die way before the Hayflick limit
of their cells has been reached.  No need to worry about the speed
of light when the legal limit is 55mph!

== Bob Yazz ==

* The Hayflick limit is the number of times, or generations, that a given
cell will divide in a laboratory dish.  Hayflick noted that you could
freeze and thaw cells, feed them all sorts of different nutrient baths,
and so forth, but if a cell was going to be able to last for, say, 200
generations, nothing was going to make it exceed that limit.

It was also noted that the Hayflick limit for, say fruitflies, was a
lot lower than for humans.
-- 


"The times they are a-changing."
From: dyer@spdcc.com (Steve Dyer)
Subject: Re: Diet Pills
Organization: S.P. Dyer Computer Consulting, Cambridge MA
Date: Thu, 28 Jan 1993 19:59:14 GMT

In article <69740001@hplvec.LVLD.HP.COM> eisele@hplvec.LVLD.HP.COM (Jon Eisele) writes:
>Do diet pills containing phenylpropanolamine (e.g.  Dexatrim) interfere
>with the ability to digetst food?

No, they lower food intake (or reduce appetite, if you like).
There are some ongoing studies with lipase inhibitors, drugs which
prevent fats from being hydrolyzed into their constituent fatty acids
and absorbed.  This is an entirely different class of drug.
-- 
Steve Dyer
dyer@ursa-major.spdcc.com aka {ima,harvard,rayssd,linus,m2c}!spdcc!dyer
Newsgroups: sci.med.nutrition
From: kenl@origami.cc.bellcore.com (Ken Lehner)
Subject: Medium Chain Triglycerides?
Followup-To: sci.med.nutrition, misc.fitness
Organization: Bellcore
Date: Thu, 21 Jan 93 18:49:49 GMT

Over on misc.fitness, I found

In article <31j3=3d@rpi.edu>, cecchinr@hornsby.cs.rpi.edu (Ron Cecchini) writes:
|> In article <C17n8o.LtM@jabba.ess.harris.com> mvm@epg.harris.com (Matt Mahoney) writes:
|> >MCT, Medium Chain Triglycerides.  Isn't that just fat?  What is their
|> >nutritional value (if any)?  What foods contain them?
|> >
|> 
|> MCTs are an "unconventional" fat derived from, I think, coconuts.
|> They are put under a structural alteration (some carbon atoms are removed) that 
|> makes it nearly impossible (not totally impossible) for the body to
|> store them as fat.
|> 
|> They are an excellent supplement (though I haven't been able to afford them yet)
|> essentially because they *are* so calorie dense, and you basically can't get
|> fat from them.  And when you are trying to gain mass, calories (again, the
|> right kind of calories) are critical.  When you restrict your calorie
|> intake, you run the risk of hampering any muscular gains.
|> 

Comments, anyone?  The bodybuilders seem to swear that they are the
ultimate supplement for muscle gain.  Sounds fishy to me.
Newsgroups: sci.med.nutrition
From: young@clpd.kodak.com (Rich Young)
Subject: Re: Vitamin E and Toxicity
Originator: young@sasquatch
Reply-To: young@clpd.kodak.com
Organization: Clinical Diagnostics Division, Eastman Kodak Company
Date: Mon, 25 Jan 93 22:44:59 GMT

In article <108211@bu.edu> shishir@acs.bu.edu (Shishir Gundavaram) writes:
>
>Hi,
>
>I know that Vitamin E is toxic in large doses (because it is
>fat soluble). The two questions I have are:
>
>1) What are the symptoms of toxicity?
>2) I'm currently taking a 1000 IU (supposedly 3333% of US RDA) blend
>   of d-alpha, and gamma tocepherol in a gel form. Will this lead to
>   toxicity over time?

	I don't know how reputable it is, but THE DOCTOR'S VITAMIN AND
	MINERAL ENCYCLOPEDIA says, "Many researchers regard vitamin E
	as non-toxic in doses up to 600 IUs per day.  Avoid higher doses
	unless taking them under a doctor's prescription."

	For what it's worth.


-Rich Young (These are not Kodak's opinions.)
From: techjn1@sdc.boeing.com (Henry Noble)
Newsgroups: sci.med.nutrition
Subject: Re: Weight gain puzzle
Date: 20 Jan 93 23:52:15 GMT
Organization: Boeing Computer Services (ESP), Seattle, WA

In article <1993Jan18.195659.1@acfcluster.nyu.edu> hochbrgz@acfcluster.nyu.edu writes:
.
.
.

>
>Where does the "extra" .17 pounds come from??? Recall that I ate 1 pound -
>recall also that conservation of mass holds (no thermonuclear reactions
>are taking place in my stomach to convert energy to mass.) So how does
>1 ingested pound turn into 1.17 pounds?
>
>Zev Hochberg

In my case a pound of,say, peanuts or chocolate ingested => 5 pounds of fat!  *sigh*
-henry
.
.



-- 
Henry Noble               | techjn1@sdc.boeing.com      
Boeing Computer Services  | techjn1%sdc@atc.boeing.com
(206) 865-2447            | uw-beaver!bcsaic!sdc!techjn1
From: fwj@reg.triumf.ca (JONES,FRED_W.)
Newsgroups: sci.med.nutrition
Subject: Re: Primrose Oil
Date: 26 Jan 1993 10:50 PST
Organization: TRIUMF: Tri-University Meson Facility
Distribution: world
NNTP-Posting-Host: reg.triumf.ca
News-Software: VAX/VMS VNEWS 1.41    

paulk@garfield.cs.mun.ca (Paul E. King) writes...

>One of the nice things about omega-3 is that there really is no limit to the
>amount of omega-3 you can ingest. This only applies to the purified forms
>of omega-3, such as Max-EPA (Eicosapentaenoic acid, in purified form. There
>are probably others), however. Cod liver oil, and Evening primrose oil contain
>omega-3, but an unlimited ingestion of these will cause toxicity due to the 
>impuriries present in these extracts particularly from the vitamins in cod
>liver oil. 

How about flax seed oil?  Are there other good sources?


Thanks

Frederick Jones
fwj@reg.triumf.ca
Newsgroups: sci.med.nutrition,misc.health.alternative
From: slotfi@magnus.acs.ohio-state.edu (Sherveen Lotfi)
Subject: Re: Ginseng
Organization: The Ohio State University
Date: Sun, 24 Jan 1993 00:34:03 GMT

i tried some ginsana a few weeks ago.  i noticed almost no difference at
all.  i think it's most effective if you're actually "physically" tired.
i was mostly "mentally" exhausted... if that makes any sense to you guys
or not, i don't know.
there were two things that i noticed, though.  for the the first few days,
if i took two capsules, right before i went to bed, i would wake up almost
exactly four ours after i took them.  that stopped happening after the
first few days.  also, if i took the two tablets in the morning, that
evening, i would get unsubsantiated headaches.  granted i get headaches
all the time, usually that's because i've slept too much, or because i
haven't eaten all day.  although i'm not sure if the ginsana was causing
my headaches, i can certainly say that they weren't due to the things that
usually cause them... so i must assume it was the ginsana.
i still have more than half the box left.  i've stopped taking it.  on the
box it says that it's not habit forming.  seeing that i've discontinued its
use, i can personally verify that the claim on the box is correct- or at
least in my case.

-sherveen
-- 
 * Sherveen Lotfi, lotfi.1@osu.edu * 'oonga ga galoonga' *
 * Life-Cycle Engineering Group    * -carl               *
 * Ohio State Dept of Mech Eng     *  asst. greenskeeper *
 *********************************************************
From: jack@dcs.glasgow.ac.uk (Jack Campin)
Newsgroups: sci.med.nutrition
Subject: Re: Primrose Oil
Date: 26 Jan 93 13:27:51 GMT
Reply-To: jack@dcs.glasgow.ac.uk (Jack Campin)
Organization: COMANDOS Project, Glesga Yoonie

paulk@garfield.cs.mun.ca (Paul E. King) wrote:
> jr1@ElSegundoCA.ncr.com (Joseph Rayhanian) writes:
>> Does any body has any experience with Primrose Oil.
> I have not heard of this, but I know that it is high in omega-3 fatty acids,
> and one book on multiple sclerosis specifically recommended evening primrose
> oil, chiefly for its content of omega-3. [...]
> One of the nice things about omega-3 is that there really is no limit to the
> amount of omega-3 you can ingest.

This stuff is potentially lethal to epileptics.  *Any* supplementation with
it is a no-no for them.

-- 
--  Jack Campin    room G092, Computing Science Department, Glasgow University,
17 Lilybank Gardens, Glasgow G12 8RZ, Scotland   TEL: 041 339 8855 x6854 (work)
INTERNET: jack@dcs.glasgow.ac.uk or via nsfnet-relay.ac.uk    FAX: 041 330 4913
BANG!net: via mcsun and uknet     BITNET: via UKACRL    UUCP: jack@glasgow.uucp
Newsgroups: sci.med.nutrition
From: karpen@nrlfs1.nrl.navy.mil (Judy Karpen)
Subject: Re: Zinc for sore throat - recommendations?
Followup-To: sci.med.nutrition
Organization: NRL
Distribution: usa
Date: Fri, 22 Jan 1993 17:11:05 GMT

In article <1jk4r8INNhdj@terminator.rs.itd.umich.edu>,
potts@oit.itd.umich.edu (Paul Potts) wrote:
> 
> Has anyone taken zinc lozenges for sore throat?  Anyone had good results?
> I have some lozenges that contain 10 mg. zinc, but I've seen recommendations
> that is is all right to use well over the dosage on the bottle for short
> periods of time. Is this safe? The US RDA 10th edition says that 15 mg.
> is recommended, and that daily intake of 18.5 mg or 25 mg per day caused
> low copper levels. I'm wondering if sucking on a 10 mg. lozenge six or
> eight times a day for a couple of days could have toxic effects.
> 
Purely anecdotal evidence, here, but what the heck: I do the zinc trick
whenever I feel a cold coming on (which often includes that preliminary
sore throat). It seems to work for me, as I've had only 1 nasty cold in
several years (after years of having a few per year); instead of getting a
full-blown cold, I get moderate sniffles and a vague feeling of
not-quite-wellness, plus maybe a headache or so. 

Anyway, I read about this first in an interesting book about immunology by
(I think) R. Desowitz, a tropical-medicine professor at U. Hawaii.  The
title was something like "The Thorn in the Starfish", or maybe that was
another book by him that I liked....sorry, it's been several years since I
read it, & my memory is terrible for titles. Desowitz recommended one ~25mg
lozenge a day, dissolved in the mouth for as long a time as possible (to
bathe the mucous membranes with the zinc). His approach is really nice,
IMHO --- he summarizes the role of certain vitamins & minerals in the
immune system (selenium, vitamin E, etc.), at least as far as current
research can tell, and then has some low-key recommendations about what one
might do to maintain/strengthen one's immune system. He's very frank about
lack of solid evidence for some of this, but is careful to keep dosages in
reasonable ranges (no megavitamin nonsense here) and subscribes to the "do
least harm" philosophy. I'll try to check on the real title for the book,
in case anyone is interested (it was available in my public library, so
maybe in yours too).

Judy Karpen                "pushing back the frontiers of science"
karpen@nrlfs1.nrl.navy.mil  Naval Research Lab, Washington, DC USA
From: traub@rtf.bt.co.uk (Michael Traub)
Newsgroups: sci.med.nutrition
Subject: Re: True Vegeterian - is it OK?
Date: 26 Jan 93 15:25:03 GMT
Organization: BT Customer Systems, Brighton, UK

In article <C1Eutx.1FH@dcs.glasgow.ac.uk> dam@dcs.glasgow.ac.uk (David Morning) writes:
>His rational goes....plants are sensitive to humans, they respond to being
>spoken to and they react when damaged i.e. they hurt when fruit/grain etc is
>picked. He is devoted to peace and therefore should not do anything that will
>hurt another living thing including plants therefore he should eat nothing
>that hasn't fallen naturally to the ground, just like (he thinks) the Red 
>Indians. This eliminates virtually everything from his diet including rice
>which is harvested.

The  best  thing  to do is agree with him and get him to link up with other
fruitarians.  While  fruitarianism  sounds like a crazy diet to most people
there  are  people in the UK who have been successfully fruitarian for many
years.  It  does  however  require  a  very  varied  diet  and  some  loose
definition  of  what  is  and  what is not a "fruit". The founder of the UK
fruitarian  group  has  only  just  retired  (he  is  in  his eighties). By
getting  your  friend  active  in  the movement you may get him to be a bit
more  active  generally.  He  may  realise  that  strict  adherence  to his
current  diet  is  neither healthy nor necessary and he wll be getting this
information from people who understand where he is at.

For further information send a large SAE to:

	The Fresh Network
	The Orchard,
	Coldridge,
	Devon
	EX17 6AX

Another  thing  you can try is getting him to take up dairy products. While
not  necessarily  the  most healthy thing to eat, they at least are full of
fat  and  protein  which  is  probably  what  he  needs  at  present.  Many
spiritual  vegetarians  argue  that  dairy  products  are the "fruit of the
cow".  The  Jains  of  India  who  are  probably the largest cultural group
approaching fruitarianism follow this belief.

If all that fails buy him lots of avocados and bananas.


-- 
Michael Traub
BT Customer Systems, Brighton Systems Centre. traub@btcs.bt.co.uk

    JOE, taxi driver: Unemployment will rise and sooner or later the
    masses will revolt against it. There'll be civil disorder and the
    further breakdown of civil society. The end result I hope will be
    the triumph of the people over capitalism. I also wouldn't mind
    if a few more people used taxis this year - '92 was rotten.

(Taken from "Hopes and Fears" in The Guardian, December 31st 1992, a
section which looked at what people saw 1993 bringing)
From: elci@bugs.gs.com
Newsgroups: sci.med.nutrition
Subject: Chromium rich foods...
Date: 26 Jan 93 10:39:21 GMT
Article-I.D.: bugs.9301262237.AA12012
Organization: UTexas Mail-to-News Gateway
NNTP-Posting-Host: cs.utexas.edu


The books I use do not list chromium content of foods. There has been some
publications lately about the positive effects of chromium overdoses. Can anyone
suggest a source for this information? If you do have this source, could you
list a few with chromium contents as an example? Thanks!

Reha Elci
From: shishir@acs.bu.edu (Shishir Gundavaram)
Newsgroups: sci.med.nutrition
Subject: Vitamin E and Toxicity
Date: 25 Jan 93 19:31:19 GMT
Organization: Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
Originator: shishir@acs.bu.edu


Hi,

I know that Vitamin E is toxic in large doses (because it is
fat soluble). The two questions I have are:

1) What are the symptoms of toxicity?
2) I'm currently taking a 1000 IU (supposedly 3333% of US RDA) blend
   of d-alpha, and gamma tocepherol in a gel form. Will this lead to
   toxicity over time?

Thanks,

--Shishir


Newsgroups: sci.med.nutrition
From: mcoyne@kean.ucs.mun.ca
Subject: "Fit For Life" Question
Organization: Memorial University. St.John's Nfld, Canada
Date: Thu, 28 Jan 1993 17:08:20 GMT

This subject was probably discussed years  ago by this group and if so 
I apologize. I am a new user. I would like to know what the consensus  
is on the book "Fit For Life" by the Diamonds which appeared in the 
mid-80's.

Thanks

mcoyne@kean.ucs.mun.ca

Xref: sparky sci.med.nutrition:2035 soc.college.gradinfo:1877 soc.college.grad:2362
From: atul@nynexst.com (Atul Chhabra)
Newsgroups: sci.med.nutrition,soc.college.gradinfo,soc.college.grad
Subject: Graduate Programs in Nutrition and Cancer?
Keywords: nutrition, cancer, graduate programs
Date: 26 Jan 93 15:23:56 GMT
Reply-To: atul@nynexst.com
Followup-To: sci.med.nutrition
Organization: NYNEX Science & Technology, Inc

I am posting this for a friend.

  I am interested in finding out about schools that have graduate
  programs in nutrition with a specialization in the effect of diet
  on cancer (prevention). Any info on scholarships/assistantships
  in this area will also be highly appreciated. 

Please reply by email or post to the net and I will forward the
replies to the friend. Thanks.

--Atul
===================================================================
Atul K. Chhabra                        Phone: (914)644-2786
Member of Technical Staff                Fax: (914)644-2404
NYNEX Science & Technology          Internet: atul@nynexst.com
500 Westchester Avenue
White Plains, NY 10604
===================================================================
From: sdl@linus.mitre.org (Steven D. Litvintchouk)
Newsgroups: sci.med.nutrition
Subject: Re: Weight gain puzzle
Date: 22 Jan 93 18:37:28 GMT
Organization: The MITRE Corporation, Bedford, MA


In article <1993Jan22.031909.10553@trl.oz.au> jbm@hal.trl.OZ.AU (Jacques Guy) writes:

> >The following two items are often encountered:
> >1. A gram of fat contains about 9 calories
> >2. Eating about 3500 extra (non expended) calories results in a weight gain
> >   of 1 pound.
> 
> >Suppose I eat 1 pound of fat. 1 kilogram ~= 2.2 lb, so 1 lb ~= 454.54 grams.
> >At 9 calories/gram, 1 pound of fat contain about 4090 calories.
> >If these are all excess calories, a weight gain of 4090/3500 = 1.17 pounds
> >should result.
> 
> >Where does the "extra" .17 pounds come from??? Recall that I ate 1 pound -
> >recall also that conservation of mass holds (no thermonuclear reactions
> >are taking place in my stomach to convert energy to mass.) So how does
> >1 ingested pound turn into 1.17 pounds?

The fat that is stored in your body is not necessarily the original
fat you ate, but fat that is synthesized from the metabolic processes
that involve the food you ate, the water you drank and the oxygen you
inhaled.  You can certainly gain weight (synthesize fat) from protein,
if you eat more than your caloric needs.  Thus I would imagine that
what is happening is that the water and/or the oxygen have combined
with the excess food you ate to produce the excess fat.



--
Steven Litvintchouk
MITRE Corporation
202 Burlington Road
Bedford, MA  01730

Fone:  (617)271-7753
ARPA:  sdl@mitre.org
UUCP:  linus!sdl
	"Where does he get those wonderful toys?"
Newsgroups: sci.med.nutrition
From: rbuchanan@vitalink.com (Rick Buchanan)
Subject: Re: Vitamin E and Toxicity
Reply-To: rbuchanan@vitalink.com (Rick Buchanan)
Organization: Vitalink Communications Corp. (Standard Disclaimer of course)
Date: Tue, 26 Jan 1993 18:14:33 GMT

In article <108211@bu.edu>, shishir@acs.bu.edu (Shishir Gundavaram) writes:
> I know that Vitamin E is toxic in large doses (because it is
> fat soluble). The two questions I have are:
> 
> 1) What are the symptoms of toxicity?
> 2) I'm currently taking a 1000 IU (supposedly 3333% of US RDA) blend
>    of d-alpha, and gamma tocepherol in a gel form. Will this lead to
>    toxicity over time?

For what it's worth, I've been taking 2000 - 3200 IU/day for over a 
year now and I've had no ill effects at all.  This has been with
my physician's knowledge and (occasional) supervision.  

I know lots of folks doing 1000/day and none have had any problems.

(None of this should be taken as advice or recommendation.  Your mileage
may vary.)

--- Rick Buchanan (rbuchanan@vitalink.com)

        *** Don't blame me.  I voted Libertarian  ***
Newsgroups: sci.med.nutrition
From: caf@omen.UUCP (Chuck Forsberg WA7KGX)
Subject: Re: Weight gain puzzle
Organization: Omen Technology INC, Portland Rain Forest
Date: Fri, 22 Jan 1993 11:02:47 GMT

In article <1993Jan22.031909.10553@trl.oz.au> jbm@hal.trl.OZ.AU (Jacques Guy) writes:
>hochbrgz@acfcluster.nyu.edu writes:
>
>>The following two items are often encountered:
>>1. A gram of fat contains about 9 calories
>>2. Eating about 3500 extra (non expended) calories results in a weight gain
>>   of 1 pound.
>
>>Suppose I eat 1 pound of fat. 1 kilogram ~= 2.2 lb, so 1 lb ~= 454.54 grams.
>>At 9 calories/gram, 1 pound of fat contain about 4090 calories.
>>If these are all excess calories, a weight gain of 4090/3500 = 1.17 pounds
>>should result.
>
>>Where does the "extra" .17 pounds come from??? Recall that I ate 1 pound -
>>recall also that conservation of mass holds (no thermonuclear reactions
>>are taking place in my stomach to convert energy to mass.) So how does
>>1 ingested pound turn into 1.17 pounds?
>
>First I would say: out of the "about". 
>Second, I would add: there must be another "about" in (2). I do not
>know where the figures therein were taken from, but I do know that
>individuals vary tremendously in their metabolism. When I eat, much
>of the calories are dissipated through a rise in my body temperature.
>I start sweating and I do get hotter.
>The slow rise in my weight over the years (I shall be pushing 50 soon),
>has occurred via water retention, not fat. And water is much heavier
>than fat. It is even to the point that drinking a certain brand of Australian
>beer, which seems to have diuretic properties, has brought a distinct
>reduction in my waistline.

Things aren't so simple in the body.  The energy that is released in a
bomb calorimeter does not necessarily end up as human fat, as experiments
with ethanol demonstrate.

Please read "Effect of diet on human adipose tissue metabolism",
Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 1992, vol 51, pp 409-418.
I hope to have a summary of this in the next Adiposity 101.

-- 
Chuck Forsberg WA7KGX          ...!tektronix!reed!omen!caf 
Author of YMODEM, ZMODEM, Professional-YAM, ZCOMM, and DSZ
  Omen Technology Inc    "The High Reliability Software"
17505-V NW Sauvie IS RD   Portland OR 97231   503-621-3406