赤眼蜂屬

title: 寄生性.
content: To locate host eggs, adult females use chemical and visual signals, such as egg shape and colour. After she finds a suitable egg, an experienced female attempts to determine if the egg has previously been parasitized, using her ovipositor and antennal drumming (tapping on the egg surface). Females also use antennal drumming to determine the size and quality of the target egg, which determines the number of eggs the female will insert. A single female can parasitize up to 10 host eggs a day.
title: 辨识.
content: 本属物种体型细小,构造上亦单一,使物种间的分辨颇困难。As females are all relatively similar, taxonomists rely upon examination of males to tell the different species apart, using features of their antennae and genitalia.  The first description of a "Trichogramma" species was in North America in 1871, by Charles V. Riley. He described the tiny wasps that emerged from eggs of the viceroy butterfly as "Trichogramma minutum". In 生物分类学, original specimens are very important, as they are the basis of reference for subsequent descriptions of species. The original specimens, however, were lost. Riley also described a second species in 1879 as "Trichogramma pretiosum", but these specimens were also lost. To correct these errors, entomologists returned to the areas where Riley originally found the species and obtained specimens of "T. minutum" and "T. pretiosum". These specimens are now preserved properly in the 史密森尼学会. Currently, the number of "Trichogramma" species is over 200, but as of 1960, only some 40 species of "Trichogramma" had been described.
title: 赤眼蜂属物种体内的沃尔巴克氏体.
content: 赤眼蜂属物种体内有沃尔巴克氏体("Wolbachia"),是一种分布广泛的细菌,专门感染昆虫的内脏,特别是生殖系统的器官。这些沃尔巴克氏体在感染了昆虫后,会改变其宿主交配时的成功率。 Through a series of manipulations, "Wolbachia-"infected hosts transmit this intracellular bacterium to uninfected individuals. These manipulations include male killing (increasing ratio of infected females that can reproduce), feminization (males become fertile females), 单性生殖, and. Horizontal transfer of parthenogenesis-inducing "Wolbachia", which has been observed in "Trichogramma" wasps, causes infected females to asexually produce fertile females and nonfunctional males. The effects of this include potential speciation of "Trichogramma", if "Wolbachia" is maintained long enough for genetic divergence to occur and for a new species of asexual wasps to become reproductively isolated.  Transmission of the bacterium through horizontal transfer has been observed within the same species and among different species of "Trichogramma", including "T. kaykai", "T. deion, T. pretiosum," and" T. atopovirilia"; however, limitations to transmission exist. "In vitro" successful horizontal transfer is uncommon within "Trichogramma", which suggests that the density of "Wolbachia" must be relatively high inside of the hosts' ovaries. Cytoplasmic incompatibility of the host and bacterium can also be the source of this unsuccessful transfer in-vitro. These limitations "in vitro" suggest that in nature, horizontal transfer by parthenogenesis-inducing "Wolbachia" may be a difficult and rare phenomenon. However, when looking at the "Wolbachia"-host associations, the "Trichogramma-Wolbachia" form a monophyletic group based on several "Wolbachia"-specific genes, which may be explained by horizontal transfer of "Wolbachia" between different species. Therefore, although interspecific horizontal transfer of "Wolbachia" is limited "in vitro", it is likely to occur quite frequently in nature and is not well understood yet.  The effects of "Wolbachia" in "Trichogramma" have several evolutionary implications. Commonly, uninfected wasps are unable to breed with infected wasps. Many generations of reproductive isolation of these different groups may result in speciation. In addition, some hosts can evolve with a dependency on "Wolbachia" for core reproductive functions, such as 卵子生成, so that eventually an infection is a requirement for successful reproduction. Finally, "Wolbachia" can influence gender determination in its hosts so that more females are successfully born. This results in a reversal in 性选择, where females must compete for male mates, which has evolutionary implications as it exposes different phenotypes to natural selection.
title: Biological control.
content: "Trichogramma" spp. have been used for control of lepidopteran pests for many years. They can be considered the "Drosophila" of the parasitoid world, as they have been used for inundative releases and much understanding today comes from experiments with these wasps.  Entomologists in the early 1900s began to rear "Trichogramma" spp. for biological control. "T. minutum" is one of the most commonly found species in Europe and was first mass reared in 1926 on eggs of "". "T. minutum" has been investigated as a method of biological control of the "Choristoneura fumiferana", a major pest of spruce and fir forests.  Nine species of "Trichogramma" are produced commercially in insectaries around the world, with 30 countries releasing them. "Trichogramma" wasps are used for control on numerous crops and plants; these include cotton, sugarcane, vegetables, sugarbeets, orchards, and forests. Some of the pests controlled include cotton bollworm ('), codling moth ('), lightbrown apple moth ('), and European corn borer (').  "Trichogramma" species vary in their host specificity. This can lead to nontarget hosts being parasitized. This, in turn, can cause problems by reducing the amount of parasitism of the target host, and depending on the rate of parasitism, nontarget effects could be significant on nontarget host populations. Research is being done on the use of "Trichogramma" wasps to control populations of spruce bud moth (")", which damages white spruce trees.
title: Species used.
content: The most commonly used species for biological control are "T. atopovirilia", "T. brevicapillum", "T. deion", "T. exiguum", "T. fuentesi", "T. minutum", "T. nubilale", "T. platneri", "T. pretiosum", and "T. thalense".
title: "T. pretiosum".
content: "T. pretiosum" is the most widely distributed species in North America. It is a more generalized parasitoid, able to parasitise a range of different species. It has been the focus of many research studies and has been successfully reared on 18 genera of Lepidoptera. "T. pretiosum" was introduced into Australia in the 1970s as part of the Ord River Irrigation Area IPM scheme.
title: "T. carverae".
content: "Trichogramma carverae" is mainly used for light brown apple moth and codling moth control, and is predominately used in orchards. In Australia, "T. carverae" is used for biological control of light brown apple moth in vineyards. Though Australia has its own native "Trichogramma" species, not much work has been undertaken to use them commercially for biological control within Australia.  Light brown apple moth is common throughout Australia and is polyphagous on more than 80 native and introduced species. The larvae cause the most damage, especially to grape berries, as their feeding provides sites for bunch rot to occur. Losses in the crops can amount up to $2000/ha in one season. It is very predominant in areas such as the. Insecticide use is not a choice method for most growers, who prefer a more natural means of controlling pests. As a result, "Trichogramma" wasps were considered a good candidate for biological control, even more so as the moth larvae are difficult to control with insecticide. Moreover, light brown apple moths are relatively vulnerable to egg parasitism, with their eggs being laid in masses of 20-50 on the upper surfaces of basal leaves in grapevines.
title: 部分物种.
content: 以下译名参照庞飞雄及陈泰鲁 (1974)使用的名称:

Summary: 赤眼蜂属(学名:)是膜翅目细腰亚目寄生蜂下目之下的小蜂总科赤眼蜂科的成员之一,其物种皆为多食性的微小拟寄生物,寄生于其牠昆虫的虫卵中。赤眼蜂属是赤眼蜂科约80个属的其中一个,在全世界包括超过200个物种。成虫大多小于1毫米,会产卵于宿主卵内,幼虫取食卵黄、化蛹并引发宿主死亡。成虫羽化后咬破寄主卵壳而出。

Trichogramme: Les trichogrammes sont des micro-hyménoptères chalcidiens de la famille des Trichogrammatidae. On en connaît actuellement environ 200 espèces, la grande majorité du genre Trichogramma. Les autres appartiennent au genre Trichogrammatoidea. Leur taille est souvent inférieure au millimètre.