trials is a platform racing video game series developed by redlynx , loosely based on the real-life sport of motorcycle trials .

it involves a motorcycle rider in a 2.5 d world , traversing obstacles whilst heavily influenced by physics .

it was published by ubisoft .

trials ( series )

the notable british trials series was a phenomenally successful collection of books on famous trials published by edinburgh publishers , william . . .
urltoken the nuremberg trials ( history firsthand series ) ( 9780737710755 ) : mitchell g . bard : books
…series of public , or publicized , trials , and in a massive terror operation against the population as a whole . …
the nuremberg trials : the history and legacy of the nazi war crimes trials after wo . . .
but as successful as trials 2 was , we knew we could do more . that ' s why a few months later we released trials 2 : second edition , better known as trials 2 se to its fans . the first bona fide hit in the trials series , trials 2 se raised the bar for competitive motorcycle games everywhere .
the notable british trials series was a phenomenally successful collection of books on famous trials published by edinburgh publishers , william hodge , between 1905 and 1959 . in all a total of . . .
we are pleased to announce that trials is accepting submissions for a new thematic series on the future of pragmatic trials . edited by professor marion campbell ( university of aberdeen , uk ) , this series will consider articles that report on any topic relevant to the role , definition and use of the pragmatic trial design .
we are pleased to announce that trials is accepting submissions for a new thematic series on using big data for randomized trials . edited by dr lars hemkens ( university hospital basel , switzerland ) , this series will consider articles that report on what is currently known about using big data or routinely collected data ( such as electronic health records , registries or administrative databases ) for randomized trials .
while a dlc was expected , the next announcement was totally unexpected . the trials series was born on the pc , and with ' trials evolution - gold edition ' , the series is coming home to the pc . featuring all the content of trials evolution , including multiplayer , user - generated content , and a world class level editor , the gold edition is enhanced and optimized for the pc . but that ' s not all . the gold edition will also include all of the content from trials hd , making trials evolution - gold edition the largest trials game ever attempted , featuring more than 120 tracks in all .
the most recent game in the series , developer redlynx ' s trials evolution , was released in 2012 and is available on xbox 360 and windows pc . for more on that game , be sure to check out our review .
the thursday time trial series depends on the generosity of sponsors to augment the community experience by providing post - ride refreshments and raffle prizes .
trials encompasses all aspects of the performance and findings of randomized controlled trials in health . trials encourages full and transparent reporting of all research . we publish articles on general trial methodology as well as protocols , commentaries and traditional results papers - regardless of outcome or significance of findings .
the long - awaited sequel - named trials 2 , to distinguish at as a clear sequel from the earlier sequence of web games - opened a whole new dimension up for trials fans .
prime members enjoy free two - day shipping and exclusive access to music , movies , tv shows , original audio series , and kindle books .
camp creative concepted and produced a series of animated shorts for history channel ' s online presence , urltoken with cobra creative brought on for design .
one future , two trials ,
referencing the games ' ability to interact with each other .
recounts the nuremburg trials in germany that brought nazi war criminals to justice after world war ii .
in mid - 2011 , we announced trials evolution during e3 . the new game promised all new outdoor environments , curved driving lines , unlimited track sharing , and for the first time ever in the trials series , multiplayer gaming , whether online or side - by - side . that first e3 teaser hinted at a whole new world for trials , and the public responded , clamoring for more information and bombarding us with questions and requests .
in september 2012 , redlynx was at it again , announcing two new trials projects at ubisoft ' s digital days event in paris . the first , origin of pain , is the first dlc for the world renowned hit , trials evolution . featuring 36 new tracks , 100 new editor objects , and introducing a new bmx bike for the first time in the trials series , the origin of pain promises to deliver more of what gamers are clamoring for .
we are pleased to announce that trials is accepting submissions for a new thematic series aimed at building the evidence base for trial management . co - edited by dr roberta littleford ( university of dundee , uk ) and prof shaun treweek ( university of aberdeen , uk ) , this series will include articles that report on what is currently known about effective trial management processes and how to make trial management more evidence - informed .
that does seem to be the consensus . indeed , one of the links above said it would’ve been a great series if it kept up the earlier quality .
in addition to the so - called show trials , a series of closed trials of top soviet military leaders was held in 1937–38 , in which a number of prominent military leaders were eliminated ; the closed trials were accompanied by a massive purge throughout the soviet armed forces . stalin’s liquidation of experienced military leadership during this purge was one of the major factors contributing to the poor performance of soviet forces in the initial phase of the german invasion of the soviet union in june 1941 .
what does the future hold for trials beyond that ? that remains to be seen , but one thing we can say for certain , there will definitely be more games from redlynx named ' trials ' - games that will build on the foundation of the legendary history of trials while breaking new ground into 2013 and beyond .
linked with the ex games and private club series nancy ' s story the ex games , the private club and the love trials are all related . the ex games novellas can be read first # 1 - # 3 , then the private club novellas and then the ex games # 4 - after the ex games and then the love trials novellas . urltoken https : / / www . goodreads . co…
the 2018 ama / natc us national mototrials series got underway this weekend with the opening two rounds of its 10 - round schedule near roswell , new mexico , where nine - time national trials champ pat smage established himself as the man to beat in 2018 after taking a pair of decisive victories . read more
the editors and staff of trials would like to warmly thank our peer reviewers whose comments have helped to shape the journal .
an interesting early sign of the potential of trials came in 2003 , when one of the biggest internet operators in finland contacted us , saying that they might need to rethink what to do with our trials game that they were hosting on their game portal .
held for the purpose of bringing nazi war criminals to justice , the nuremberg trials were a series of 13 trials carried out in nuremberg , germany , between 1945 and 1949 . the defendants , who included nazi party officials and high - ranking military officers along with german industrialists , lawyers and doctors , were indicted on such charges as crimes against peace and crimes against humanity . nazi leader adolf hitler ( 1889 - 1945 ) committed suicide and was never brought to trial . although the legal justifications for the trials and their procedural innovations were controversial at the time , the nuremberg trials are now regarded as a milestone toward the establishment of a permanent international court , and an important precedent for dealing with later instances of genocide and other crimes against humanity .
i read somewhere that after the fifth novel , lange ( who was a philosophy professor ) hired someone else to continue writing the series . that’s when it got the bad reputation . the first five were good adventures .
when it came to create trials hd , we started over almost from scratch . only the basic game ideas and playability was carried over from trials 2 . the 2d bike collision engine of trials 2 was replaced with a proper 3d physics engine . tuning the bike alone took six months . the bike itself required hundreds of iterations , with hundreds of parts and thousands of parameters , until we finally reached a polished state that just felt right .
the earliest trials games were released as freely playable online games , beginning in 2000 and continuing into 2003 with the popular and innovative trials bike basic and pro versions , which were among some of the earliest and most popular free games of selected internet operators in the early years of the 21st century .
along with pictures , this book examines how the war crimes trials against the nazis were organized , who was tried , and what the results were .
furthermore , the game clearly draws inspiration from the real world sport of ' trials ' or ' motorcycle trials ' , in which riders ride specialized , lightweight bikes , surmounting various obstacles and performing daring , acrobatic feats without ' faulting ' or touching a foot to the ground - much as you experience in the game .
those other fellows definitely included rape and sexual torture and domination ( gap series particularly ) and one might infer the authors liked it a bit too much , but norman preached it like an evangelist , both in his fiction and in real life .
unfortunately , i don’t know where i read this . wikipedia doesn’t talk about it . but there was a clear change in tone , which led me ( and presumably many others ) to stop reading what had been one of my favorite series .
two new games in the trials motorbike racing franchise are coming , one to consoles and the other to smartphones , ubisoft revealed at its e3 2013 press conference today .
anyone that ' s been looking for a modern day excitebike need look no further . trials hd is packed with arcade thrills and inventive tests of skill .
trials is published continuously online - only . we encourage you to sign up to receive free email alerts to keep up to date with all of the latest articles by registering here .
the city of nuremberg ( also known as nurnberg ) in the german state of bavaria was selected as the location for the trials because its palace of justice was relatively undamaged by the war and included a large prison area . additionally , nuremberg had been the site of annual nazi propaganda rallies ; holding the postwar trials there marked the symbolic end of hitler’s government , the third reich .
following the trial of major war criminals , there were 12 additional trials held at nuremberg . these proceedings , lasting from december 1946 to april 1949 , are grouped together as the subsequent nuremberg proceedings . they differed from the first trial in that they were conducted before u . s . military tribunals rather than the international tribunal that decided the fate of the major nazi leaders . the reason for the change was that growing differences among the four allied powers had made other joint trials impossible . the subsequent trials were held in the same location at the palace of justice in nuremberg .
so what happened to these early games , these vintage trials experiences ? while many versions can be still found online , we have taken the best experiences of those early days and packaged them into one polished , downloadable pc game and released it for free , which we call trials legends , as a way to thank all our fans old and new , with a piece of living history .
controversially , limited versions of trials 2 se was made available on bittorrent streams , but we were confident that the appeal of the game ' s community features would draw in more players than it deterred .
in 1966 , john frederick lange jr . published tarnsman of gor , the first book in what would become the gorean saga , under the pen name of john norman with ballantine books . the book — and the subsequent series — was “sword and planet” fiction in the vein of edgar rice burroughs’ john carter series and leigh brackett’s eric john stark stories , with a man from earth going to a faraway planet to have swashbuckling adventures with medieval - style weapons . like pre - 1950s pulp works , gor mixed science fiction and fantasy elements with great skill . the books gained a cult following , and norman continued writing sequels as a result .
altogether we have estimated from different sources , that there were 20 - 30 million unique players playing these early versions of trials . considering the online games market of 2000 - 2005 , those are exceptionally robust numbers .
between the years 2003 and 2007 , as a multiplatform publisher and developer , redlynx was focused on mobile and handheld game development , and trials development took a back seat for a time . at the time , we were focused on developing major handheld properties for other publishers . but when 2007 rolled around , we felt the world was ready for more trials , and this time , the pc platform with internet distribution was chosen as the way to go .
however , the gorean saga had an aspect that burroughs’ and brackett’s works lacked : extensive sexual slavery of young women . from the seventh book onwards , this aspect became the dominant theme of the series , over and above the adventurous heroism of its early installments . this became a source of titillation for readers — and a source of trouble in the future .
both as developers and gamers , we feel at the same time humble in front of this sort of praise – and on the hand really proud ' cause it has been systematic hard work that has resulted in trials hd .
the answer was trials . the key game idea , even back then , was not just a motorbike riding over obstacles , but the unique way in which the player controls the rider to guide the bike through acceleration , braking , and leaning . that simple game mechanic - easy to learn , but difficult to master - would become integral to the appeal of the original games , and after many years of tweaking and polishing to perfection , is still a crucial component to trials ' lasting appeal .
there were many legal and procedural difficulties to overcome in setting up the nuremberg trials . first , there was no precedent for an international trial of war criminals . there were earlier instances of prosecution for war crimes , such as the execution of confederate army officer henry wirz ( 1823 - 65 ) for his maltreatment of union prisoners of war during the american civil war ( 1861 - 65 ) ; and the courts - martial held by turkey in 1919 - 20 to punish those responsible for the armenian genocide of 1915 - 16 . however , these were trials conducted according to the laws of a single nation rather than , as in the case of the nuremberg trials , a group of four powers ( france , britain , the soviet union and the u . s . ) with different legal traditions and practices .
however , in the early 90s , donald a . wollheim , the original owner of daw , died . the publisher was then taken over by his daughter elizabeth r . wollheim , more commonly known as betsy wollheim . under betsy , the gor novels were discontinued , reportedly due to poor sales . but according to a 2014 message board post by author mercedes lackey , betsy had long planned to discontinue the series .
2016 marked the 10th anniversary of trials and to coincide with publication of our 3000th article , we put together a page to celebrate the great milestones of the journal , including a timeline , opinions from those in the field , links to our most popular articles , and more .
trials hd hit the xbox live arcade on august 20 , 2009 , and was immediately embraced by fans . a month later , we were happy to report it had surpassed 300 , 000 sales . within little more than a year , it achieved the remarkable milestone of one million sold .
trials 2 se introduced automated game updates , achievements , and the beloved quick restart feature . it also added team play , ghost racing , in - game chat , a global player ranking list and all - time and weekly scores filter - able by team and country . with its global all time score list and online profiles , now you could compare your times to those of your friends from across the street or around the world . it also introduced new camera angles , improved sounds and physics , and - - for the first time in trials history - - the ability to play with a gamepad instead of just a keyboard .
sherco usa’s pat smage grabbed two more wins in the 2018 ama / natc us national mototrials series on the massive and intimidating granite rocks near texas creek , colorado . on saturday , smage finished 54 points ahead of a two - way battle between gasgas north america teammates alex niederer and daniel blanc - gonnet for second place . niederer got the nod by eight points over blanc - gonnet on saturday , with sherco usa’s sam fastle and scorpa usa’s quinn wentzel rounding out the top five . read more
nonetheless , most observers considered the trials a step forward for the establishment of international law . the findings at nuremberg led directly to the united nations genocide convention ( 1948 ) and universal declaration of human rights ( 1948 ) , as well as the geneva convention on the laws and customs of war ( 1949 ) . in addition , the international military tribunal supplied a useful precedent for the trials of japanese war criminals in tokyo ( 1946 - 48 ) ; the 1961 trial of nazi leader adolf eichmann ( 1906 - 62 ) ; and the establishment of tribunals for war crimes committed in the former yugoslavia ( 1993 ) and in rwanda ( 1994 ) .
organized fandom in the 90s made their opinions on gor quite clear : they despised it . remember that even then , publishing was a strongly progressive industry , and much of fandom not only shared these progressive opinions , but networked with those who worked in publishing . in this time , however , there was no kindle store to circumvent the big publishers and the internet culture as we know it today did not exist , so the gor series was left without a home and without anybody to publicly defend it .
tianjing li is an associate professor in the department of epidemiology at johns hopkins bloomberg school of public health ( jhbsph ) . dr li was trained as a physician and subsequently earned her phd in epidemiology ( clinical trials concentration ) and mhs in biostatistics from jhbsph . the primary goal of dr li ' s research is to develop , evaluate , and disseminate efficient methods for comparing healthcare interventions and to provide trustworthy evidence for decision making . her core research interests include methodologies for randomized controlled trials , systematic reviews , network meta - analysis , comparative effectiveness research , and patient - centered outcomes research . dr li serves as the associate director for cochrane united states and the director for research for cochrane eyes and vision us project .
finally , trials evolution was released on april 18 , 2012 . the game garnered almost universal acclaim from game critics , with a 90 score on metacritic , and legions of new and returning fans . it smashed sales records on xbox live arcade , breaking all previous one - day sale records and gaining 500 , 000 players in its first month on the service .
all this took much longer and required a bigger team than the trials 2 games , but we were able to focus on one clear platform and take full advantage of the xbox ' s capabilities and polish the game specifically for that platform . all told , a team of ten people worked hard for twelve months to create the product we all know and love today .
between the game ' s announcement and release , trials evolution was featured in a number of magazine and online previews , featured at several special press events , and was showcased at a number of videogame conferences and trade shows . along the way , there were changes for redlynx too , as the studio was acquired by the major european game publisher ubisoft in november , 2011 .
critics also embraced the game , and it has maintained a metacritic score of 86 since its release , and an even higher 92 rating from independent gamers . fans in the xbox live community also voted it the best downloadable game . the industry responded too , heaping awards on trials hd , including best finnish game , best nordic game , and a nomination for best downloadable game by the xbox live arcade community .
jeremy grimshaw is a senior scientist in the clinical epidemiology program at the ottawa health research institute and professor of medicine , university of ottawa . he holds a tier 1 canadian research chair in health knowledge transfer and uptake . professor grimshaw’s research interests are in implementation and knowledge translation , quality improvement , complex interventions , systematic reviews , cluster randomized trials , quasi - experimental studies and behavioral theories ( and their application to professional behavior ) .
moving from strength to strength , we soon brought trials 2 se to steam ' s digital distribution network , cementing redlynx ' s growing reputation as an up and coming player in the world of high - quality , downloadable digital games . along with steady sales , solid reviews , the game developed a fanatical base of players , who have in total played the game more than nine million times since its release - and are still playing today .
these proceedings included the doctors trial ( december 9 , 1946 - august 20 , 1947 ) , in which 23 defendants were accused of crimes against humanity , including medical experiments on prisoners of war . in the judges trial ( march 5 - december 4 , 1947 ) , 16 lawyers and judges were charged with furthering the nazi plan for racial purity by implementing the eugenics laws of the third reich . other subsequent trials dealt with german industrialists accused of using slave labor and plundering occupied countries ; high - ranking army officers accused of atrocities against prisoners of war ; and ss officers accused of violence against concentration camp inmates . of the 185 people indicted in the subsequent nuremberg trials , 12 defendants received death sentences , 8 others were given life in prison and an additional 77 people received prison terms of varying lengths , according to the ushmm . authorities later reduced a number of the sentences .
the nuremberg trials were controversial even among those who wanted the major criminals punished . harlan stone ( 1872 - 1946 ) , chief justice of the u . s . supreme court at the time , described the proceedings as a “sanctimonious fraud” and a “high - grade lynching party . ” william o . douglas ( 1898 - 1980 ) , then an associate u . s . supreme court justice , said the allies “substituted power for principle” at nuremberg .
by now , the gorean saga’s reputation is well - known among fans of sci - fi and fantasy . its long , extended discourses on the greatness of female sexual slavery are legendary , so much so that according to tv tropes , “a mention of gor is equivalent to trolling” and several large message boards ban its discussion . it is understandable why the organized sci - fi fandom of today would detest gor , but these attacks on the series long predate today’s politicizations . through attacks on the gorean saga during the 90s , we can see the roots of the current shaming campaigns that would later impact sf / f as a whole — and the solution that diminished much of their power .
grade 8 - up following a thorough introduction that provides novice historians with background information , this series entry uses primary - source documents organized in a coherent chronology to demonstrate how the allies set a precedent and brought nazi war criminals to justice . each of the five chapters begins with a narrative preface and contains two to four essays , each with an explanatory introduction . for example ,
preparation for trial
includes articles by supreme court justice robert h . jackson , lead council for the prosecution , and seymour peyser , one of the prosecutors responsible for building the cases . the closing chapter ,
reporting on the trial ,
gives the perspectives of two journalists responsible for covering the yearlong drama . with its important documents , this work will help budding historians and researchers make sense of a complex time and groundbreaking legal action . - mary r . hofmann , rivera middle school , merced , ca copyright 2002 reed business information , inc .
the best - known of the nuremberg trials was the trial of major war criminals , held from november 20 , 1945 , to october 1 , 1946 . the format of the trial was a mix of legal traditions : there were prosecutors and defense attorneys according to british and american law , but the decisions and sentences were imposed by a tribunal ( panel of judges ) rather than a single judge and a jury . the chief american prosecutor was robert h . jackson ( 1892 - 1954 ) , an associate justice of the u . s . supreme court . each of the four allied powers supplied two judges–a main judge and an alternate .
the allies eventually established the laws and procedures for the nuremberg trials with the london charter of the international military tribunal ( imt ) , issued on august 8 , 1945 . among other things , the charter defined three categories of crimes : crimes against peace ( including planning , preparing , starting or waging wars of aggression or wars in violation of international agreements ) , war crimes ( including violations of customs or laws of war , including improper treatment of civilians and prisoners of war ) and crimes against humanity ( including murder , enslavement or deportation of civilians or persecution on political , religious or racial grounds ) . it was determined that civilian officials as well as military officers could be accused of war crimes .
you can check out the trailer that ubisoft used to introduce the games below .
fallout 76’s todd howard : no cross - console play because ‘sony is not as helpful as everyone would like . ’
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when it comes to other media and games that might have had an influence on it , there are literally hundreds of different games on many different platforms that have inspired our team members in different ways .
it turned out that people from all around world were pouring in by the millions , just to play this addictive game , overloading their servers and jamming their connectivity - even though that version was entirely in the finnish language ! since they were primarily serving the finnish market , that was something they didn ' t expect .
all our community features , track high scores , replays , ghost racing , global ranking , and downloadable extra tracks are handled by our game server ,
lead programmer sebastian aaltonen explained , in an interview from 2008 .
if you do not have a legal license serial key the server doesn ' t allow the game to log on . . . you can pirate the game as much as you want , but if you want to be part of the community you have to buy the game .
it ' s wonderfully designed , justifies the price , and may end up being the best thing on xbox live arcade all year .
regarding this success , redlynx ceo tero virtala said ,
to put it mildly , we are thrilled ! we knew the game was going to be good , and we did expect a good response too . but , to be honest , none of us really dared to expect this sort of boom . ”
the first dlc , released in december 2009 , big pack , was also a hit . for the second dlc , big thrills , we wanted to showcase some of the amazing work the community has done with the level editor . we put our heads together with our partners at microsoft and came up with the big thrills track creator challenge . along with the usual great , redlynx created tracks , users were invited to submit their own creations to this special contest , with the top ten tracks being selected for inclusion in the add - on .
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citation impact 1 . 969 - 2 - year impact factor 2 . 203 - 5 - year impact factor 0 . 853 - source normalized impact per paper ( snip ) 1 . 186 - scimago journal rank ( sjr )
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from the colorado organizer : hello , i heard back from colorado state parks and they will not have out of state ohv tags in time for me to bring them to the national . riders will need to stop by a walmart ( sporting goods dept ) , colorado parks and wildlife office , or a sporting goods store to get an out of state ohv tag . they are available anywhere you can get a fishing license . the ohv tags cost $ 25 . 25 . read more
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comment : this is a 2002 x / library softcover . all clean crisp text pages with a nice tight binding . daily shipping .
cowardice at the battle of the little bighorn ? in 1879 the army convened this inquiry with survivors . complete transcript : benteen , reno , and more .
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the essays in this book are poorly put together . there is some good background information however the essays that are consistently on opposite ends of the spectrum present skewed personal biases that can be easily misconstrued as the truth . i purchased this book as a requirement for a class on the world wars and holocaust , as it was my last semester it was hard enough to keep my attention without reading the nuremberg trial . on the other hand if you have trouble getting to sleep i would consider it an excellent investment .
mitchell bard is an excellent scholar and historian . well versed in word war and me history .
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shortly after adolf hitler came to power as chancellor of germany in 1933 , he and his nazi government began implementing policies designed to persecute german - jewish people and other perceived enemies of the nazi state . over the next decade , these policies grew increasingly repressive and violent and resulted , by the end of world war ii ( 1939 - 45 ) , in the systematic , state - sponsored murder of some 6 million european jews ( along with an estimated 4 million to 6 million non - jews ) .
the death sentences imposed in october 1946 were carried out by master sergeant john c . woods ( 1903 - 50 ) , who told a reporter from time magazine that he was proud of his work .
the way i look at this hanging job , somebody has to do it . . . ten men in 103 minutes . that ' s fast work .
in december 1942 , the allied leaders of great britain , the united states and the soviet union “issued the first joint declaration officially noting the mass murder of european jewry and resolving to prosecute those responsible for violence against civilian populations , ” according to the united states holocaust memorial museum ( ushmm ) . joseph stalin ( 1878 - 1953 ) , the soviet leader , initially proposed the execution of 50 , 000 to 100 , 000 german staff officers . british prime minister winston churchill ( 1874 - 1965 ) discussed the possibility of summary execution ( execution without a trial ) of high - ranking nazis , but was persuaded by american leaders that a criminal trial would be more effective . among other advantages , criminal proceedings would require documentation of the crimes charged against the defendants and prevent later accusations that the defendants had been condemned without evidence .
twenty - four individuals were indicted , along with six nazi organizations determined to be criminal ( such as the “gestapo , ” or secret state police ) . one of the indicted men was deemed medically unfit to stand trial , while a second man killed himself before the trial began . hitler and two of his top associates , heinrich himmler ( 1900 - 45 ) and joseph goebbels ( 1897 - 45 ) , had each committed suicide in the spring of 1945 before they could be brought to trial . the defendants were allowed to choose their own lawyers , and the most common defense strategy was that the crimes defined in the london charter were examples of ex post facto law ; that is , they were laws that criminalized actions committed before the laws were drafted . another defense was that the trial was a form of victor’s justice–the allies were applying a harsh standard to crimes committed by germans and leniency to crimes committed by their own soldiers .
as the accused men and judges spoke four different languages , the trial saw the introduction of a technological innovation taken for granted today : instantaneous translation . ibm provided the technology and recruited men and women from international telephone exchanges to provide on - the - spot translations through headphones in english , french , german and russian .
in the end , the international tribunal found all but three of the defendants guilty . twelve were sentenced to death , one in absentia , and the rest were given prison sentences ranging from 10 years to life behind bars . ten of the condemned were executed by hanging on october 16 , 1946 . hermann göring ( 1893 - 1946 ) , hitler’s designated successor and head of the “luftwaffe” ( german air force ) , committed suicide the night before his execution with a cyanide capsule he had hidden in a jar of skin medication .
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in 1974 , with the publication of the eighth book , the gorean saga moved from ballantine books to daw publishing . at first , there was no major change apart from a stronger focus on sexually charged events .
the attacks on norman and on gor culminated in norman’s rejection from a worldcon panel in 2001 . norman had taken his displeasure public , and several members of sf / f fandom weighed in on the matter . norman became keenly aware of organized fandom’s power that day , a power that many authors , even today , could attest to . later in the decade , dark horse comics was pressured to cancel a planned gor omnibus .
thanks to amazon’s kindle devices , john norman had the last laugh . as of today , the entire gorean saga is available in e - book , paperback , and audio formats . there have even been some limited attempts by organized fandom to reconcile with norman : pop - culture site io9 did a long interview with norman and allowed him to state his opinions without being attacked . if not for the changes in the publishing industry , the gorean saga would not have seen the light of day again . this simple story of gor’s rise , fall , and rebirth shows publishing as it used to be — and what is possible with publishing as it is now . the old gatekeepers have truly lost their power in these latter days of the 2010s .
as the legacy publishers leak money and face shrinking fortunes , the power of the gatekeepers wanes . the changes not only allow newer stuff to come to the fore , they rescue older work as well , rendering them impervious to whisper campaigns and public denunciations alike ; actual book content is king . now a contemporary reader can enjoy these books and read them for themselves .
as long as amazon stays accommodating , of course . but even they aren’t invincible .
p . s . : for more information than you ever wanted to know about gor , go here .
the early gor books were true fantasy masterworks on par with zelazny’s amber . the slavery aspect was there , but it wasn’t gratuitously overdone .
the problem with the later books wasn’t simply their excessive focus on sexual slavery . the were boring . booooooring . nobody in his right mind swallowed the writer’s viewpoint on women , though there are thriving roleplaying communities today filled with plenty of women and men who use the setting to explore these “forbidden” themes . like s & m and b & d , these places of fantasy are fine to visit when everything is , ultimately , consensual . and if the literary community doesn’t condemn 50 shades , it can hardly condemn gor .
but norman jumped the shark early , and another 20 + books never redeemed him . too bad . i’d have read them all if they’d been as good as the first six . i plowed and skimmed though many of them , searching for the “good parts”–the adventure . frankly , i wished for an abridged omnibus version that kept the good parts and left out the painfully boring blah - blah .
i read tarnsman of gor , and it was pretty fun . as for norman jumping the shark , i think he was just churning them out for money by that point — hence why they became boring .
yes , i totally agree . the first books were quite excellent as planetary romance . i stopped in the latter books not because i found the topic distasteful ( though smbd ain’t my bag ) but , the long soliloquies on the topic put a drag on the plot which makes it boring . a good planetary romance shouldn’t be more than 120 — 200 pages and closer to the smaller end . adding 100 + pages of padding was just too much . it’s like , norman , we get it already .
that seems to be the consensus : the first six were good , but after the seventh , they go down the tubes .
especially with some of the fawning apologetics that comes from the “crowd” over thomas covenant’s rape of a girl in stephen donaldson’s first book . news flash : same stuff goes on in his gap cycle .
( if i am going to bring up the hard scifi good ol verner vinge should not come out unscathed . yeah vern what you did to that woman in a deepness in the sky ( maybe a fire on the deep . i get em confused ) … . .
in your writing you seemed a bit overly enthusiastic about it there bud . )
george r . r . martin has been dinged for too much rape in his work . don’t know about the others .
remember , though , that organized fandom is not the same as the large numbers of people who buy the books .
good point . i don’t agree with that “subjugate women” view either , but i will certainly defend norman’s right to make the works available .
i liked the early gor novels but as someone stated once the bdsm and slavery aspects became the focus of every story it simply became boring . there were a few of the later novels that were pretty decent , beasts of gor comes to mind , but most beyond the first 7 books were uninteresting .
the idea was to provide viewers with an unexpected , entertaining look at key moments in history .
the concept for these videos , were
chalk talk
- the “talk” is a phone interview with certain historians about a key moment in history . the “chalk” are blackboard style illustrations . the animated blackboard illustrations were intended to be fun , quirky , in some places raw , in other places polished . the audio vo was edited to be short , to the point , and revelatory . each episode has a “who knew” moment .
technically : these videos were illustrated in photoshop and animated in after effects . the video gogh plugin by re : flex created the chalk effects . the ghosting effect was created with this plugin , time distorts and some custom expressions . we used cinema 4d lightly when the script called for a rotating model , but we tried to limit our use of motion graphic cliches and really emulate the look of stop motion chalk animations . we also took a collaborative role in concepting the imagery , transitions , and design to work with the motion and to illuminate camp creative ' s vision .
hey developers . we can meet your desires with our api for all your app - building needs .
and executed or imprisoned . all the evidence presented in court was derived from preliminary examinations of the defendants and from their confessions . it was subsequently established that the accused were innocent , that the cases were fabricated by the


x-ray astronomy detectors are instruments that detect x-rays for use in the study of x-ray astronomy .

x-ray astronomy is an observational branch of astronomy which deals with the study of x-ray emission from celestial objects .

x-radiation is absorbed by the earth 's atmosphere , so instruments to detect x-rays must be taken to high altitude by balloons , sounding rockets , and satellites .

x-ray astronomy is part of space science .

x-ray astronomy detectors have been designed and configured primarily for energy and occasionally for wavelength detection using a variety of techniques usually limited to the technology of the time .

x - ray astronomy detector

overview of x - ray astronomy and x - ray sources : black holes to galaxy clusters .
large - absorber tes x - ray microcalorimeters and the micro - x detector array .
position - sensitive czt detectors for x - ray and gamma - ray astronomy j . matteson
development of arrays of transition edge sensors for application in x - ray astronomy .
a mercuric iodide detector system for x - ray astronomy : i . design considerations and predictions of background and sensitivity - sciencedirect
czt detectors for hard x - ray & gamma ray astronomy : current technologies . ann parson , gsfc
detector systems for the x - ray evolving universe spectroscopy mission ( xeus ) m . bavdaz et al
the operation of scintillation and solid state detectors for gamma - ray astronomy is the same as it is for x - ray astronomy . we ' ve described the basics of these types of detectors on the x - ray detector page . below we describe three types of detectors used uniquely for gamma - ray astronomy : compton scattering detectors , pair telescopes , and air cerenkov detectors .
development of x - ray microcalorimeters for future japanese x - . . | inis
what is x - ray astronomy and what can astronomers learn by studying the universe in x - rays ? visit our science pages to find out .
astro - h will feature an x - ray calorimeter as one of it ' s x - ray detectors .
11 pages , 8 figures , to appear in proc . spie 5898 , uv , x - ray , and gamma - ray space instrumentation for astronomy xiv
how do we measure the energy ( or wavelength ) of an x - ray photon ? we need the x - ray to give all its energy to a detector . that energy will change something in the detector and , by measuring the change , we can determine the energy of the incoming x - ray .
x - ray cameras & gamma - ray detectors ( 0 . 5 - 400 kev )
the quest of x - ray astronomy is to be able to detect a weak source against a fairly strong background . the relative weakness of x - ray sources has prevented detectors such as film from finding a place in cosmic x - ray astronomy . source detection is done on a photon - by - photon basis . in x - ray astronomy , a source that gives just one photon per centimeter per second ( in the 1 - 10 kev range ) at earth is considered a bright cosmic x - ray source .
euv , x - ray , and gamma - ray instrumentation for astronomy and atomic physics ; aug . 7 - 11 , 1989 ; san diego , ca ; united states
photo of the hard x - ray detector before it was installed on the suzaku satellite . ( credit : jaxa / isas and nasa )
the physics of x - ray conversion for phosphors is essentially the same as described for scintillators . also , the key functional elements of any phosphor - based detector are the same as for a scintillator . for astronomy , the similarities end there . while large area single crystals of nai and csi are valued for their stopping power in hard x - ray and gamma - ray astronomy , thin layers of phosphors are used to do high resolution , soft x - ray imaging .
first x - ray pictures of the sun . discovery of 40 extra - solar x - ray sources , including x - ray stars , the crab nebula pulsar , supernova remnants , and the galaxy m87 .
advanced x - ray ccd detectors for the constellation - x and maxim missions george r . ricker , mit
global astronomy : collaboration across cultures is based on the graphene theme by syahir hakim .
advanced x - ray ccd detectors for the constellation - x and maxim missions - george r . ricker , mit
tumay o . tumer , terrence j . o ' neill , kevin c . hurley , hakki ogelman , robert j . paulos , richard charles puetter , eric j . beuville , w . j . hamilton , r proctor ,
new high - resolution gamma - ray burst detector : all - sky x - ray and gamma - ray astronomy monitor ( axgam ) ,
proc . spie 3114 , euv , x - ray , and gamma - ray instrumentation for astronomy viii , ( 15 october 1997 ) ;
2001 w . tucker & k . tucker , revealing the universe : the making of the chandra x - ray observatory , harvard u . press 1998 j . trumper et al . , the invisible sky : rosat and the age of x - ray astronomy , copernicus books 1995 p . charles & f . seward , exploring the x - ray universe , cambridge univ . press 1985 w . tucker & r . giacconi , the x - ray universe , harvard u . press urltoken history of x - ray astronomy field guide einstein observatory historical archive
high resolution detector technologies for an advanced compton telescope . elena aprile , columbia univ .
detection and localization of gamma - ray bursts , and a possible new type of x - ray burst that may be related to gamma - ray bursts .
no matter which observational technique is used to view the x - ray sky , the final outcome of a measurement is determined by the properties of the electronic detector with which the collimated , focused , or diffracted x - ray photons eventually interact .
maxi continues to detect x - ray transient phenomena and rapidly inform the world of its position and brightness . the observation results about 1000 x - ray sources are provided in every day . maxi also provides the latest x - ray catalog .
superconducting transition - edge sensor x - ray microcalorimeters john m . martinis et al
volker dangendorf , amos breskin , rachel chechik , horst w . schmidt - boecking ,
x - ray imaging gas scintillation detector with csi - wire chamber uv - photon readout ,
proc . spie 1235 , instrumentation in astronomy vii , ( 1 july 1990 ) ;
tumay o . tumer , terrence j . o ' neill , kevin c . hurley , hakki ogelman , robert j . paulos , richard charles puetter , eric j . beuville , w . j . hamilton , r proctor ,
new high - resolution gamma - ray burst detector : all - sky x - ray and gamma - ray astronomy monitor ( axgam )
, proc . spie 3114 , euv , x - ray , and gamma - ray instrumentation for astronomy viii , ( 15 october 1997 ) ; doi : 10 . 1117 / 12 . 283786 ; urltoken
ubertini p . et al . ( 1995 ) integral x - ray monitor : a proposal for the hard x - ray imager on - board integral . in : bassani l . , di cocco g . ( eds ) imaging in high energy astronomy . springer , dordrecht
collaboration allows astronomers and engineers to pool resources and expertise to advance our understanding of the universe . nasa and isas have worked together for the past three decades on x - ray astronomy .
with seven different instruments onboard , granat was designed to observe the universe at energies ranging from x - ray to gamma - ray . specific instruments were meant to study gamma - ray bursts and other transient x - ray sources while others were intended to image x - ray sources near the galactic center . one instrument ( watch ) was designed to monitor the sky continuously and alert the other instruments to new or interesting x - ray sources .
x - ray photons have energies that are among the highest for light . when detector material absorbs the energy from an incoming photon , the material heats up just a little . the amount of the temperature difference gives a measure of the energy of the incoming x - ray .
x _ ray science . steven s . murray , harvard - smithsonian center for astrophysics .
gas proportional pixel detectors for x and gamma ray imaging p . deines - jones et al
ginga was the first x - ray astronomy collaboration between agencies in the u . s . and isas , which forged the way for future collaborations with nasa . it operated from 1987 until 1991 .
astrosat is a planned multiwavelength astronomy satellite , with four x - ray instruments and one uv / optical instrument on board . rri is involved in timing calibration and software development for the large area xenon proportional counters ( laxpc ) . rri also contributed significantly towards two other x - ray instruments of astrosat , namely the scanning x - ray sky monitor ( ssm ) and the cadmium - zinc - telluride detector array ( czt ) both of which use the coded aperture mask imaging technique .
we distinguish scintillators from phosphors , at least in x - ray astronomy , by defining bulk crystalline materials such as nai and csi as scintillators , and thin granular layers of rare earth oxysulphides as phosphors .
monitor of all - sky x - ray image ( maxi ) - 04 . 25 . 18
this is the first of two papers describing an extremely sensitive astronomical hard x - ray telescope design based on a mercuric iodide ( hgi 2 ) detector shielded by a bismuth germanate ( bi 4 ge 3 o 12 ) scintillator . in a version suitable for a spacelab mission , this shielded detector is located at the focus of a pyrolytic graphite or lithium fluoride concentrator ( the hard x - ray diffraction telescope , or hxdt ) . the background counting rate of the mercuric iodide detector at balloon altitudes is calculated using a monte carlo simulation of the detector assembly in the radiation environment at 40 km above sea level . in paper ii of this series , these predictions are compared to actual balloon flight measurements of a prototype detector assembly .
aleksander gorgolewski , jaromir barylak , marek stęślicki , żaneta szaforz , jarosław bąkała ,
solpex x - ray polarimeter detector luminescence background calculated using geant4 simulation software ,
proc . spie 10031 , photonics applications in astronomy , communications , industry , and high - energy physics experiments 2016 , 100313v ( 28 september 2016 ) ;
designing x - ray telescopes and detectors poses many challenges to engineers . visit our technology pages to see how x - rays are captured and observed .
position - sensitive czt detectors for x - ray and gamma - ray astronomy - j . matteson , w . heindl , e . kalemci , m . pelling , r . rothschild , t . skelton , ucsd , p . hink , k . slavis , wustl
volker dangendorf , amos breskin , rachel chechik , horst w . schmidt - boecking ,
x - ray imaging gas scintillation detector with csi - wire chamber uv - photon readout
, proc . spie 1235 , instrumentation in astronomy vii , ( 1 july 1990 ) ; doi : 10 . 1117 / 12 . 19153 ; urltoken
scintillators work by converting x - ray energy into visible light . the energy of the incoming x - ray is completely absorbed by the material , exciting a molecule of the detector material . when the molecule de - excites , it emits a pulse of light , this time in the optical region of the electromagnetic spectrum . so , in this way , the incoming x - ray has been converted to optical light .
discovery that wide energy and angular control of x ray and neutron trajectories can be achieved with high efficiency by the use of shaped arrays of hollow capillaries has made possible important new applications in science , medicine , and industry . these include medical diagnostic imaging , medical therapy , analysis of the composition and structure of materials , x - ray microscopy , x - ray astronomy , industrial process and fault analysis , and x - ray lithography . the status and prospects for this remarkable range of possibilities is summarized in this report .
survey used large proportional counters that covered a wide range of x - ray energies . discovered the cygnus superbubble , and gathered detailed information on spectra of active galactic nuclei and the x - ray background .
discovery of scorpius x - 1 , the first cosmic x - ray source and x - ray background , a signal appearing to come from all directions , possibly a truly diffuse emission and possibly due to many sources , too faint to be resolved individually .
the first large x - ray telescope with mirrors . einstein made the first x - ray images of shock waves in supernova remnants , hot gas in galaxies and clusters of galaxies . einstein also located accurately over 7000 x - ray sources , including stellar coronas , x - ray binaries , galaxies and quasars . it made possible a new way to study the mysterious dark matter that is present in galaxies and clusters of galaxies and showed that most of the x - ray background is probably due to discrete sources .
the alkali halides nai and csi , activated by a small amount of either thallium or sodium impurity , have been the scintillators of choice so far in x - ray astronomy . this has been true because these materials can be made into large area crystals , have good x - ray stopping power , and are efficient light producers .
the baseline detector system is a high pressure imaging proportional counter placed behind a coded mask placed at 4 meters from the detector window . the instrument view angle is limited by a square passive collimator with a fov of 6 degrees fwhm .
illustration of a the basic operation of a compton scattering detector . ( credit : nasa ' s imagine the universe )
ezio caroli , giuseppe bertuccio , adriano cola , rui m . curado da silva , ariano donati , waldes dusi , gianni landini , paul siffert , marco sampietro , john buchan stephen ,
hard x - ray polarimetry with a thick cdte position sensitive spectrometer ,
proc . spie 4140 , x - ray and gamma - ray instrumentation for astronomy xi , ( 13 december 2000 ) ;
the 1991 - 2016 archive of the icso proceedings is a resource made freely available to serve the space optics and astronomy communities .
magnified image of an array of x - ray calorimeters . ( credit : nasa / goddard space flight center )
aleksander gorgolewski , jaromir barylak , marek stęślicki , żaneta szaforz , jarosław bąkała ,
solpex x - ray polarimeter detector luminescence background calculated using geant4 simulation software
, proc . spie 10031 , photonics applications in astronomy , communications , industry , and high - energy physics experiments 2016 , 100313v ( 28 september 2016 ) ; doi : 10 . 1117 / 12 . 2249349 ; urltoken
mihara t , kawai n , yoshida a , sakurai i , kamae t , matsuoka m , shirasaki y , sugizaki m , yuan w , tanaka i . performance of the gsc engineering - counter for maxi / iss . x - ray and gamma - ray instrumentation for astronomy xii ; 2002 january 31 173 - 186 .
ezio caroli , giuseppe bertuccio , adriano cola , rui m . curado da silva , ariano donati , waldes dusi , gianni landini , paul siffert , marco sampietro , john buchan stephen ,
hard x - ray polarimetry with a thick cdte position sensitive spectrometer
, proc . spie 4140 , x - ray and gamma - ray instrumentation for astronomy xi , ( 13 december 2000 ) ; doi : 10 . 1117 / 12 . 409157 ; urltoken
asca was launched in 1993 and made over 3000 observations of the x - ray sky in its 8 years of operations .
in 1962 , a team of scientists under the direction of riccardo giacconi at american science and engineering in cambridge , ma . , used a small x - ray detector aboard an aerobee rocket to discover scorpius x - 1 , the first source of x - rays outside our solar system . forty years later , over 100 , 000 x - ray sources have been detected , the most distant of which is 13 billion light years from earth . this extraordinary leap in sensitivity has been due , in large part , to the development of telescopes that can focus x - rays .
a large format array of transition - edge - sensor ( tes ) microcalorimeters is a promising detector for high - resolution spectroscopy in x - ray astronomy . we are developing such a detector for future japanese missions . in this paper , we present the recent progress in our work , particularly in the improvement of the energy resolution and the x - ray absorber fabrication . the energy resolution of our single pixel detector was improved to 25 ev ( fwhm ) at 5 . 9 kev . this is limited by pulse shape variation and excess noise . we describe the characteristics of these two limiting factors , and suggest several possible ways to improve the performance . as for attaching x - ray absorbers with a high coverage fraction , we are proposing an electrodeposition method involving a two - layer lift - off process . we describe the details of this method and show the results of the test sample fabricated on a silicon wafer . ( author )
perhaps the most intriguing advance in x - ray astronomy instrumentation in the past couple decades has been the development of single photon calorimeters , spearheaded by work at nasa ' s goddard space flight center . these devices detect x - rays by the temperature pulses they generate in a small absorber which is cooled to a fraction of a kelvin .
when an x - ray interacts with matter , it can can give all of its energy to an electron ( a process called photo - electric absorption ) , or it can give some of its energy ( a process called compton scattering ) , or it can scatter without losing any energy ( a process called rayleigh scattering ) . the probability associated with each of these kinds of scattering depends on the energy of the x - ray photon , the bound state the electron is in , and the scattering angle . for the x - ray energies of most interest to x - ray astronomy , photo - electric absorption is much more likely than either kind of scattering .
in : euv , x - ray , and gamma - ray instrumentation for astronomy and atomic physics ; proceedings of the meeting , san diego , ca , aug . 7 - 11 , 1989 ( a90 - 50251 23 - 35 ) . bellingham , wa , society of photo - optical instrumentation engineers , 1989 , p . 306 - 315 .
riken symposium on ' development and application of superconductor radiation detector ' . stj workshop ; wako , saitama ( japan ) ; 16 - 17 jan 2002
8 : 00 9 : 00am registration 9 : 00 9 : 30am gamma - ray science ' fiona harrison , cal tech 9 : 30 10 : 00am high resolution detector technologies for an advanced compton telescope ' elena aprile , columbia univ . 10 : 00 10 : 30am czt detectors for hard x - ray & gamma ray astronomy - current technologies - ann parson , gsfc 10 : 30 11 : 00am coffee break 11 : 00 11 : 30am detectors for gev gamma rays - bob hartman , gsfc 11 : 30 12 : 30pm contributed talks 12 : 30 2 : 00pm lunch 2 : 00 2 : 30pm x - ray science ' steven s . murray , harvard - smithsonian center for astrophysics 2 : 30 3 : 00pm x - ray ccds ' mark bautz , mit 3 : 00 3 : 30pm poster review highlights 3 : 30 4 : 00pm coffee break 4 : 00 4 : 30pm x - ray calorimeters ' caroline stahle , gsfc 4 : 30 5 : 30pm contributed talks
two additional science instruments provide detailed information about the x - ray energy , the letg and hetg spectrometers . these are grating arrays which can be flipped into the path of the x - rays just behind the mirrors , where they redirect ( diffract ) the x - rays according to their energy . the x - ray position is measured by hrc or acis , so that the exact energy can be determined . the science instruments have complementary capabilities to record and analyze x - ray images of celestial objects and probe their physical conditions with unprecedented accuracy .
optical thru x - ray single photon imaging spectrometer using superconducting tunnel junctions - d . e . prober et al ( download pdf format )
x - ray fiber optics are bundles of hollow tubes which transmit x rays by multiple grazing incidence reflections . they provide a means of shielding xuv and x - ray instruments used for plasma diagnostics of magnetic confinement devices from the adverse effects of energetic neutrons and neutron induced gamma radiation . we have designed and built x - ray transmitting fiber optic bundles for instruments covering the ranges 60 to 200 ev and 3 to 10 kev . we have measured the performance of such bundles in the laboratory at 280 ev and at 6 . 4 , 8 , an 10 kev and compared it with simple computer models of x - ray fiber transmission .
x - rays interact strongly with electrons . if you ' ve ever had a medical or dental x - ray , you were probably given a lead drape to protect you from the x - rays . lead is very good at blocking x - rays because each lead atom has 82 electrons and the atoms of lead are packed pretty close . lead , then , stops x - rays because it has a large electron density .
how does the xrs instrument measure x - rays ? watch dr . caroline kilbourne describe the instrument in this short clip from
building the coolest x - ray satellite .
( credit : nasa / suzaku )
the surface finishing of x - ray grazing incidence optics is the most demanding area of optical processing . both in terms of metrology and application of optical finishing techniques . this paper discusses the application of specialized metrology and finishing techniques in producing a low x - ray scatter grazing incidence telescope .
x - ray spectroscopy . since the grating spectrometers can measure energy to an accuracy of up to one part in a thousand , they are used in the study of detailed energy spectra , distinguishing individual x - ray lines . this enables the temperature , ionization and chemical composition to be explored .
usually , then , when an x - ray stops in a detector , it has given all of its energy to one electron . that electron can rattle around in the detector and give energy to other electrons . in some materials , these electrons will have enough energy to be freed of their host atoms . in that case , applying an electric field will allow those free electrons to be collected and counted . the number of electrons collected tells you the energy that was deposited .
chandra x - ray center , operated for nasa by the smithsonian astrophysical observatory this site was developed with funding from nasa under contract nas8 - 03060 .
t . r . fisher , j . w . hamilton , j . d . hawley , j . r . kilner , m . r . murphy , g . h . nakano ,
imaging germanium spectrometer with rotational modulation grid collimators ,
proc . spie 1159 , euv , x - ray , and gamma - ray instrumentation for astronomy and atomic physics , ( 27 november 1989 ) ;
intense photostimulated luminescence ( psl ) is observed , for the first time , in x - ray irradiated europium - doped potassium chloride ( kcl : eu ) single crystals . the intensity of psl with a peak at about 420 nm , which is emitted by stimulation with 560 nm light , is proportional to the optical density of the f centers , which are created by x - ray irradiation , over the wide range of the x - ray absorbed dose . this suggests that kcl : eu is one of the most attractive candidates for a two - dimensional x - ray imaging sensor utilizing the psl phenomenon .
a new type of x - ray real time still image detector named ` x ray to visible light prom ( xtv - prom ) ' has been developed . xtv - prom consists of a thin bi 12 sio 20 ( bso ) single crystal plate , transparent insulating layers , and two electrodes on both faces of the crystal plate . one electrode is transparent and the other refracts readout lights and lets in x rays . several tens of kev x rays generate electron - hole pairs in the crystal and an x - ray image is recorded as a charge pattern . a voltage pattern generated from the charge pattern causes the pockels effect and the recorded x - ray image is converted to the visible light image using the effect of the crystal . the recorded image can be erased and the device can be used repeatedly . the xtv - prom with a large active area ( 18 x 18 mm 2 ) and high resolution ( 25 micrometers ) has been made by a new process for polishing bso crystal thinly . the xtv - prom has a good response for bremsstrahlung x rays higher than 30 kev .
bepposax is the first x - ray mission with a scientific payload covering more than three decades of energy - from 0 . 1 to 300 kev , with moderate imaging capability . bepposax has proved to be especially useful for wide band spectra of active galactic nuclei , and for studying gamma - ray bursts by determining their positions with an unprecedented precision and monitoring their x - ray afterglow .
although rxte does not have focusing x - ray mirrors , it has the unique capability to study rapid time variability in the emission of cosmic x - ray sources over a wide band of x - ray energies , and has made valuable contributions to our understanding of the behavior of matter in the vicinity of neutron stars and black holes . extremely rapid variability observed by rxte may be evidence for the dragging of space by strong gravity in the vicinity of black holes .
monitor of all - sky x - ray image ( maxi ) is an x - ray all - sky monitor , to scan almost the entire sky once every 96 minutes for a mission life of more than two years . maxi on iss has been observing the x - ray sky from aug 2009 . the detection sensitivity will be about 20 mcrab ( 5 sigma level ) for one - orbit maxi operation , 2–3 mcrab for one day , and 1 mcrab for one week , reaching a source confusion limit of 0 . 2 mcrab in one - year observation . the systematic survey of the x - ray variabilities to study the nature of active celestial objects is an important objective of maxi . so far , maxi has detected many x - ray transient phenomena and rapidly informed the world of its sky positions and x - ray brightness . in principle . the astronomical data obtained with maxi is now available at the maxi web site .
detector systems for the x - ray evolving universe spectroscopy mission ( xeus ) - m . bavdaz , a . peacock , a . parmar , m . beijersbergen , j . schiemann , space science department of esa , estec , 2200ag noordwijk , netherlands . directorate of manned spaceflight and microgravity esa , estec , 2200ag noordwijk , netherlands
the asca x - ray observatory with low resolution mirrors , and the first large ccd detectors , was especially designed to study the detailed spectra of x - ray sources in supernova remnants , active galactic nuclei and galaxy clusters . found first evidence of the gravitational redshift due to the strong gravitational field around a black hole .
to measure the temperature increase in an absorber due to an x - ray , it is necessary to have a very sensitive thermometer  something that had a physical property that changed drastically for a small change in temperature . that detector should also have a small heat capacity , so its temperature would change a lot for a small change in energy . it ' s also best to have the detector and thermometer work at very low temperatures , because a small temperature change will be much more pronounced in a very cold system .
hard x - ray telescope for space flight use - upendra desai , larry orwig , code 682 gsfc / nasa , lawrence mertz , digiphase technology , palo alto , ca . , carl gaither , cna corporation , washington , dc , walter gibson , center for x - ray optics university at albany , n . y .
in september , 1949 , a team led by herbert friedman of the naval research laboratory detected weak x - ray emission from the solar corona , the hot outer layers of the sun ' s atmosphere . their experiment consisted of a collection of small geiger counters aboard a captured german v - 2 rocket . it took more than a decade before a greatly improved detector discovered x - rays coming from sources beyond the solar system .
the largest x - ray ccd ever build , with a sensitive area of 60 × 60 mm² . the ccd was developed for the xmm - newton satellite mission .
uhuru , the first satellite dedicated to the observation of cosmic x - ray sources , was equipped with a sensitive proportional counter attached to a viewing pipe to locate the sources . it expanded the number of known sources to more than 400 , showed that x - ray stars are neutron stars or black holes accreting matter from companions in binary star systems , and discovered x - rays from hot gas in galaxy clusters .
photos of detector towers for the large area telescope on fermi . on the left is a single tower , which is composed of a stack of interleaved planes of silicon strips and tungsten converters . on the right is a photo showing six towers installed on the detector housing . the lat has 16 of these towers in a 4x4 array . ( credit : nasa / fermi )
this animation shows how the large area telescope on the fermi gamma - ray telescope works . a gamma ray ( purple ) interacts with the detector , creating an electron - positron pair which cascade down the tower . using the paths that the electron and positron take through the telescope , the direction of the original gamma - ray can be determined ( shown in purple ) . ( credit : nasa ' s goddard space flight center conceptual image lab )
t . r . fisher , j . w . hamilton , j . d . hawley , j . r . kilner , m . r . murphy , g . h . nakano ,
imaging germanium spectrometer with rotational modulation grid collimators
, proc . spie 1159 , euv , x - ray , and gamma - ray instrumentation for astronomy and atomic physics , ( 27 november 1989 ) ; doi : 10 . 1117 / 12 . 962566 ; urltoken
the inclusion of a broad band hard x - ray imager is important to the success of the international gamma - ray astrophysics laboratory ( integral ) mission , the next esa blue box m2 mission , due to be launched during april , 2001 . the observatory payload comprises two main instruments , the imager and the spectrometer , and two monitors , the x - ray monitor ( xrm ) and the optical transient camera ( otc ) .
the science and an overview of the soft x - ray spectrometer onboard the stro - h mission are presented . the sxs consists of x - ray focusing mirrors and a microcalorimeter array and is developed by international collaboration lead by jaxa and nasa with european participation . the detector is a 6×6 format microcalorimeter array operated at a cryogenic temperature of 50 mk and covers a 3′×3′ field of view of the x - ray telescope of 5 . 6 m focal length . we expect an energy resolution better than 7 ev ( fwhm , requirement ) with a goal of 4 ev . the effective area of the instrument will be 225 cm 2 at 7 kev ; by a factor of about two larger than that of the x - ray microcalorimeter on board suzaku . one of the main scientific objectives of the sxs is to investigate turbulent and / or macroscopic motions of hot gas in clusters of galaxies .
fully depleted , 300 micron thick ccd image sensors with applications in the x - ray , uv , visible and near - ir regions , s . e . holland et al lbnl
a timing scintillation detector based on a plastic scintillator strip sized 35 × 5 × 1 cm 3 and sipm optical readout has been developed and characterized . for the best uniformity of the detector ' s response to particle hits across its area , a set of sipm optical sensors has been incorporated into the scintillator throughout its volume . time resolution better than 260 ps ( sigma ) has been achieved for each point of the device . uniformity of the detector ' s response is confirmed by amplitude measurements along the strip as well as measurements of the efficiency of scintillation detection , which , on average , is ~ 99 % .
this instrument , as a monitor , will provide fine imaging and simultaneous x - ray flux measurements . the spectral resolution and sensitivity will be optimised to make it a competitive spectroscopic instrument for medium to high energy x - rays . the scientific rational and the experiment configuration are discussed .
the soft x - ray solar polarimeter - spectrometer ( solpex ) experiment is planned to be placed in roscosmos’ multipurpose laboratory module “nauka” on international space station ( iss ) in 2019 . the experiment is design to detect polarization and x - ray spectra of solar flares . due to very high , few percent , linear polarization detection limit , accurate background estimation and modeling is crucial .
all x - ray proportional counters consist of a windowed gas cell , subdivided into a number of low - and high - electric field regions by some arrangement of electrodes . the signals induced on these electrodes by the motions of electrons and ions in the counting gas mixture contain information on the energies , arrival times , and interaction positions of the photons transmitted by the window . at energies less than 50 kev , x - rays interact with gas molecules via the photoelectric effect , with the immediate release of a primary photo - electron , followed by a cascade of auger electrons and / or fluorescent photons . to date , gas proportional counters have been the ' workhorses ' of x - ray astronomy .
rosat expanded the number of known x - ray sources to 125 , 000 and proved to be especially valuable for investigating the multi - million degree gas present in the upper atmospheres of many stars , made the first detection of radiation from the hot surface of a neutron star , and comets . it resolved 70 % of soft x - ray background , and made an extensive catalogue of galaxy clusters .
we present experimental results and designs of large - absorber transition - edge - sensor ( tes ) x - ray microcalorimeters . much of our effort has focused on developing close - packed arrays of 250 - 300 μm - sized pixels suitable for the x - ray microcalorimeter spectrometer ( xms ) on the international x - ray observatory . these efforts have produced devices with the requisite energy resolution of ≲ 2 . 5 ev ( fwhm ) at 6 kev . there are several upcoming applications , however , that require arrays composed of significantly larger pixels . in this contribution we present experimental results from 490 μm - sized pixels that have attained 3 . 5 ev energy resolution at 6 kev . these devices are precursors to the pixels that are being developed for the xms extended array . in addition , we briefly describe detector designs for the micro - x sounding rocket experiment , which also requires an array of large - area tes microcalorimeters .
n2 - we present experimental results and designs of large - absorber transition - edge - sensor ( tes ) x - ray microcalorimeters . much of our effort has focused on developing close - packed arrays of 250 - 300 μm - sized pixels suitable for the x - ray microcalorimeter spectrometer ( xms ) on the international x - ray observatory . these efforts have produced devices with the requisite energy resolution of ≲ 2 . 5 ev ( fwhm ) at 6 kev . there are several upcoming applications , however , that require arrays composed of significantly larger pixels . in this contribution we present experimental results from 490 μm - sized pixels that have attained 3 . 5 ev energy resolution at 6 kev . these devices are precursors to the pixels that are being developed for the xms extended array . in addition , we briefly describe detector designs for the micro - x sounding rocket experiment , which also requires an array of large - area tes microcalorimeters .
ab - we present experimental results and designs of large - absorber transition - edge - sensor ( tes ) x - ray microcalorimeters . much of our effort has focused on developing close - packed arrays of 250 - 300 μm - sized pixels suitable for the x - ray microcalorimeter spectrometer ( xms ) on the international x - ray observatory . these efforts have produced devices with the requisite energy resolution of ≲ 2 . 5 ev ( fwhm ) at 6 kev . there are several upcoming applications , however , that require arrays composed of significantly larger pixels . in this contribution we present experimental results from 490 μm - sized pixels that have attained 3 . 5 ev energy resolution at 6 kev . these devices are precursors to the pixels that are being developed for the xms extended array . in addition , we briefly describe detector designs for the micro - x sounding rocket experiment , which also requires an array of large - area tes microcalorimeters .
better than superman ? an x - ray monitor on the space station examined the entire sky for galactic transient phenomena and discovered new black hole candidates ; reported more than 20 binary x - ray pulsar outbursts ; detected x - ray flares from 12 stars in its first two years , providing a unified picture for star flaring ; and observed for the first time the instant that a massive black hole swallowed a star . the investigation released a catalog for high galactic - latitude sky sources and revealed the existence of a hypernova remnant estimated to be 3 million years old , believed to be the first in our galaxy .
when an x - ray photon heats a solid , it gives its energy to the whole solid . on average , each atom vibrates a little bit more than before the x - ray hit . temperature relates the total energy of a system to its state of disorder , or entropy . the
heat capacity
of a material gives a measure of how much the temperature rises for a given energy input .
gamma - ray detectors can be placed in two broad classes . the first class includes what would typically be called spectrometers or photometers in optical astronomy . these instruments are
light buckets
that focus on a region of the sky containing the target and collect as many photons as possible . these types of detectors typically use scintillators or solid - state detectors to transform the gamma - ray into optical or electronic signals , which are then recorded .
abstract =
we present experimental results and designs of large - absorber transition - edge - sensor ( tes ) x - ray microcalorimeters . much of our effort has focused on developing close - packed arrays of 250 - 300 μm - sized pixels suitable for the x - ray microcalorimeter spectrometer ( xms ) on the international x - ray observatory . these efforts have produced devices with the requisite energy resolution of ≲ 2 . 5 ev ( fwhm ) at 6 kev . there are several upcoming applications , however , that require arrays composed of significantly larger pixels . in this contribution we present experimental results from 490 μm - sized pixels that have attained 3 . 5 ev energy resolution at 6 kev . these devices are precursors to the pixels that are being developed for the xms extended array . in addition , we briefly describe detector designs for the micro - x sounding rocket experiment , which also requires an array of large - area tes microcalorimeters .
,
the x - ray camera of maxi must stop the observation during the sun is in the field of view or iss is in the dense cosmic - particle regions ( e . g . south atlantic anomaly ) . it is necessary to properly control the x - ray cameras . it is important to predict the attitude and position of iss precisely . the data broadcasted on iss is also utilized for the camera control .
and a maximum sensitivity field of view of ~ 5° x5° . the maximum angular resolution was 10 arcmin . its imaging capabilities were derived from the association of a coded mask and a position sensitive detector based on the anger camera principle .
ntd germanium - based microcalorimeters for x - ray and gamma - ray astronomy - eric silver a , simon bandler a , herbert schnopper a , stephen murray a , marco barbera c , norm madden b , don landis b , jeff beeman b , eugene haller b , greg tucker d . a harvard - smithsonian center for astrophysics , 60 garden street , cambridge , ma 02138 , b lawrence berkeley national laboratory , 1 cyclotron road , berkeley , ca 94720 , c osservatorio astronomico di palermo , palermo , italy , d brown university , providence , ri 02912
matsuoka m , kawasaki k , ueno s , tomida h , kohama m , ishikawa m , katayama h , suzuki m , miyakawa t , mihara t , isobe n , tsunemi h , miyata e , negoro h , nakajima m , kawai n , kataoka j , yoshida a , yamaoka k , morii m . an overview of maxi onboard jem - ef of the international space station . uv , x - ray , and gamma - ray space instrumentation for astronomy xv , san diego , ca ; 2007 august 26 668611 . 1 - 668611 . 9 .
the chandra x - ray observatory combines the mirrors with four science instruments to capture and probe the x - rays from astronomical sources . the incoming x - rays are focused by the mirrors to a tiny spot ( about half as wide as a human hair ) on the focal plane , about 30 feet away . the focal plane science instruments , acis and hrc , are well matched to capture the sharp images formed by the mirrors and to provide information about the incoming x - rays : their number , position , energy and time of arrival .
the long - term time variability and random transient events are difficult to study with pointing telescopes , and require dedicated all sky mission . to research exotic phenomena systematically , the latest x - ray astronomical catalog is needed .
pictured above is the monitor of all - sky x - ray image ( maxi ) that is mounted externally on the japanese experiment module ( jem ) onboard the international space station . ( image provided by jaxa . )
by reconstructing the tracks of the charged pair as it passes through the vertical series of trackers , the gamma - ray direction , and therefore its origin on the sky , are calculated . in addition , through the analysis of the scattering of the pair ( which is an energy - dependent phenomenon ) or through the absorption of the pair by a scintillator detector or a calorimeter after they exit the spark chamber , the total energy of the initial gamma - ray is determined .
while a typical gamma - ray detector must be flown with a balloon or on a satellite above the earth ' s atmosphere to avoid absorption of the gamma - ray photon , the air cerenkov telescope makes the atmosphere part of the detector . when gamma rays encounter earth ' s atmosphere , they create an
air shower .
this process involves the original photon undergoing a pair production interaction high up in the atmosphere , creating an electron and positron . these particles then interact , through bremsstrahlung and compton scattering , and give up some of their energy to create energetic photons . these in turn create more electrons , resulting in a cascade of electrons and photons that travel down through the atmosphere until the particles run out of energy .
the monitor of all - sky x - ray image ( maxi ) investigation is designed to continuously monitor , through a systematic survey , x - ray sources and variabilities as the international space station ( iss ) orbits earth . located at equipment exchange unit ( eer ) site 1 on the japanese experiment module - exposed facility ( jef ) , maxi is comprised of a couple highly sensitive x - ray detectors , the gas slit camera ( gsc ) and the solid - state slit camera ( ssc ) . besides the goal of performing a complete sky survey , this research helps to address fundamental astrophysics questions and allows researchers to better understand the current state and evolution of our universe .
another approach to x - ray detection is measuring the heat it deposits in a material . all those excited electrons would rather go back to their original energy , to return to what is called the ground state . through scattering with other electrons or with vibrations in the solid itself , they can lose that extra energy . that energy heats the solid , increasing its temperature . the temperature change gives a measure of the energy of the incoming x - ray .
calculating the background photoelectric effect , compton scattering and bremsstrahlung were taken into account . luminescence background from particles produced in solar flares was simulated using geant4 . additionally , theoretical spectra was modeled in order to simulate full solpex detector response for m5 and x1 solar flare classes .
the chandra advanced ccd imaging spectrometer ( acis ) is one of two focal plane instruments . as the name suggests , this instrument is an array of charged coupled devices ( ccd ' s ) , which are sophisticated versions of the crude ccd ' s used in camcorders . this instrument is especially useful because it can make x - ray images , and at the same time , measure the energy of each incoming x - ray . thus scientists can make pictures of objects using only x - rays produced by a single chemical element , and so compare ( for example ) the appearance of a supernova remnant in light produced by oxygen ions to that of neon or iron ions . it is the instrument of choice for studying temperature variations across x - ray sources such as vast clouds of hot gas in intergalactic space , or chemical variations across clouds left by supernova explosions .
squid multiplexers for large transition edge sensor ( tes ) detector arrays - s . nam , j . chervenak , e . grossman , k . irwin , j . martinis , national institute of standards and technology , h . moseley , r . shafer , goddard space flight center
analytical models are presented describing the x - ray - excited emission of ' ' no - loss ' ' photoelectrons and auger electrons and the energy distribution of emitted secondary electrons . the secondary electron energy distribution is given in terms of the electron kinetic energy e
m . i . t . and as & e collaborated in a joint development of a rocket experiment to measure the position of sco x - 1 with sufficient accuracy to enable identification of its optical counterpart . essential for the experiment was a “modulation collimator , ” which made possible precise position determinations before the advent of focusing x - ray telescopes . it was invented by minoru oda , a frequent visitor to m . i . t . from the university of tokyo . giacconi’s group carried out the experiment in collaboration with oda , hale bradt and others at mit . it located sco x - 1 to within an area of one - thousandth of a square degree . within that area the optical counterpart of sco x - 1 was found - a faint flickering blue star of the 13th magnitude . its x - ray luminosity is more than a thousand times the total luminosity of the sun in all wavelengths .
the explanation of sco x - 1 came from iosif shklovsky , a russian theoretician . he proposed that it is a binary system consisting of an ordinary star and a neutron star in an orbit so close that it draws matter from its companion in a process called accretion . neutron stars have the mass of a typical star like the sun , but crushed by gravitational collapse into a sphere about 10 kilometers in radius . when accreting matter falls onto the surface of a neutron star , the kinetic energy it gained in the fall is converted to heat at 100 million degrees and radiated as x - rays at a power level limited only by the rate of accretion . we know now that all the hundred or so bright x - ray stars in our milky way galaxy are
accretion - powered x - ray binaries
.
background rejection is critical in non - imaging x - ray proportional counters . in all gas counters , there are 3 distinct categories of background rejection techniques : energy selection ( rejecting all events which deposit energies outside the x - ray bandpass ) , rise - time discrimination , and anti - coincidence within a sub - divided gas cell ( a technique which completely replaced the early technique of surrounding the active gas cell with a shield of plastic scintillator ) . energy selection and the anti - coincidence method can , in practice , both reduce the raw background rates by a factor of 100 . a factor of 100 is what is usually required . the rise - time discrimination method becomes less effective as the x - ray energy increases . for 6 kev photons , background reduction factor of 30 has been achieved with this method .
electronic position encoding can be done either digitally or in an analog fashion . a digital encoder associates a preamplifier and counting circuit with each pixel , or resolution element , of the field . an analog system estimates event coordinates from the properties of voltage waveforms at different output electrodes . digital schemes are capable of handling higher count rates , but are more complex systems . in x - ray astronomy , where count rates are typically low and system simplicity is a good thing , the analog readout , in which it is the centroid of the induced charge distribution which is encoded , is more common .
the four instruments are co - aligned and will simultaneously observe the same sky region . the x - ray monitor will provide images with arcminute angular resolution in the 3–80 kev band , with minimum detectable flux of one millicrab at 80 kev for a typical 10 5 second observation .
superconducting transition - edge sensor x - ray microcalorimeters - john m . martinis , n . bergren , s . deiker , g . c . hilton , k . d . irwin , s . w . nam , d . a . rudman and d . a . wollman
the region from about 1 to 30 mev is a difficult part of the gamma - ray astronomy energy range to study , but it can be interesting . in this energy range , astronomers can study nuclear emission lines , some pulsars , active galaxies , solar flares and gamma - ray bursts . this is also the energy range where compton scattering is the dominant physical interaction between light and matter . compton scattering occurs when a photon hits an electron and some of the photon energy is transferred to the charged particle . the compton scatter telescope design uses this interaction as the basis of its detection scheme .
these gratings diffract the intercepted x - rays , changing their direction by amounts that depend sensitively on the x - ray energy , much like a prism separates light into its component colors . one of the focal plane cameras , either hrc or acis , detects the location of the diffracted x - ray , enabling a precise determination of its energy . ( a grating is able to diffract because it has a regularly spaced pattern . for example , music cds act as a type of grating : the grooves diffract , so that when light falls on the shiny side of the cd , a rainbow effect is seen . as the cd is tilted through different angles , different colors come into view . )
spie conferences bring together engineers and scientists to present their latest research and to network with peers . each year spie conferences result in approximately 350 proceedings volumes comprising 16 , 000 + papers and presentation recordings reporting on photonics - driven advancements in areas such as biomedicine , astronomy , defense and security , renewable energy , and more .