lake aircraft was a manufacturer of amphibious aircraft .

its factory was in sanford , maine , usa , and its sales offices were located at laconia / gilford , new hampshire and kissimmee , florida .

the assets of the company were sold in 2004 to an investor which incorporated as " sun lake aircraft " in vero beach , florida .

the assets are now owned by revo inc , owned by armand rivard .

lake aircraft

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before this month’s survey , waid had heard anecdotally that the lady of the lake was aircraft 44 - 62214 , the aircraft that was the first to detect soviet testing .
october 2002 : armand rivard sells lake aircraft and aerofab , inc . to wadi rahim , principal of lanshe aerospace . type certificate now global amphibians . renames company sun lake aircraft and moves manufacturing and sales to fort pierce , florida .
you can . the iconic lake aircraft plus the equipment needed to build it is for sale by revo , inc . , after 35 years of ownership . you’ll get the rights to the faa - certified lake renegade , seafury , and seawolf aircraft .
1979 : armand rivard buys lake aircraft from alson and moves offices to laconia nh and kissimmee fl . type certificate owned by revo .
1946 : thurston forms colonial aircraft corporation , huntington station , long island . ny
rahim heads three companies responsible for the former lake amphibians : sun lake aircraft , formerly lake aircraft , will market and sell the types at its kissimmee , florida base ; manaero , formerly aerofab , will build and support the aircraft at sanford , maine ; and global amphibian , formerly revo , holds intellectual property rights and type certificates . former lake owner armand rivard will continue to supply present owners with wing - modification kits issued under a previous airworthiness directive .
fairbanks — a recent survey of eielson air force base’s lady of the lake confirmed that the aircraft had a noteworthy history in the air before it was abandoned to its gravel pit lake grave .
“the sale of lake aircraft is a rare opportunity to quickly set up manufacturing operations and continue production of the successful line of amphibious airplanes , ” said armand rivard , president of revo inc . , the lake aircraft holding company . “in the worldwide general aviation market , the lake amphibian has no faa - certified competition in production today . ”
1955 , september : colonial aircraft corporation moves to sanford , maine to begin production .
two army plane s fly over crater lake . they claim to be the first planes to fly over the lake .
the lake 250 renegade is the best known of the lake amphibians . a turbocharged model known as the seafury has faster speed , high - altitude capability , and increased hauling capacity . the lake holds eight world records for speed and altitude in its class of aircraft .
one of the never - recovered aircraft identified by lamp was nomad # 3521 , the aircraft that carried leading aircraftman theodore ( ted ) bates to his premature death in december 1940 .
work by about a dozen divers from eielson and fort wainwright confirmed earlier this month that when she was airworthy , the lady of the lake was the specific aircraft that detected evidence of soviet atomic testing in 1949 , the first aircraft to do this .
norwegian amphibian manufacturer equator aircraft has completed its first test flight of the p2 xcursion electric amphib prototype .
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theyre probably less valuable as real airplanes than paving the way for the practical electric aircraft of the distant future .
while this month’s survey helps confirm the identity of the the lady of the lake , the details of how it ended up in the lake remain sketchy .
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because it’s a landmark the aircraft has attracted numerous stories , some of them true , eielson base historian jack waid said .
waid is looking for oral history about the lady of the lake , especially from anyone who may have historical photos of the aircraft or its transfer to the gravel pit . he invites people to call him at
the “paul herron” lake launch is completed by portland boat builder , rudy wilson on wizard island and takes her maiden voyage around the lake . work begins on a second lake launch . all materials , including the engines , are flown in by helicopter .
some design changes were made by strayer which included lengthening the nose to enclose the nose gear when retracted , and adding 2 more feet to each wing , which resulted in 50 pounds more useful load . colonial aircraft corporation under herbert lindblad built the parts for lake aircraft and david thurston went on to other enterprises and designs . strayer built about 24 lake amphibians during 1960 and 1961 and unfortunately went out of business . no aircraft were built in 1962 . strayer was later to work for pepsi , skywriting the word “pepsi” all over the country .
water work on the lake after flying the airplane through canada to alaska . the airplane is a lake amphibian la - 4 / 200 , also known as a buccaneer .
lake winnie genie great ride fun for 3 and over age 48 in . tall fun
the familiar mantra was prevalent around northern michigan in the early 1940s , when a pair of u . s . navy aircraft carriers traversed lake michigan on daily pilot training operations the local folks knew about but didn ' t discuss .
bell and safran have agreed to work together to develop hybrid - electric power systems for bells evtol aircraft concept , the two . . .
oral tradition persists among the old timers that an amphibian air plane landed on the lake and was unable to fly out . it was supposedly packed out in pieces up the lake trail .
rahim aims to ramp up production from one aircraft a year to one a month , once demand supports it .
it won ' t happen straight away . but with a consistent marketing effort and improvements to the aircraft ' s interior , we expect a lot of interest .
efforts to locate and recover the two aircraft that collided were unsuccessful until the end of january 1941 , when nomad # 3512 was found in lake muskoka . the aircraft was partially raised and the body of lac gosling was recovered , but the body of sgt francis was only recovered from the lake later that june . there was no trace of nomad # 3521 or lac bates and f / l campbell , at least not until decades later when members of lamp began their search .
the faa says owners of certain bonanza models can use an exhaust clamp made for cessna aircraft as an alternative means of compliance for . . .
in july 2012 , after two summers of surveying the lake bed , the ontario provincial police ( opp ) underwater recovery unit discovered what they thought may be the aircraft . through multiple recovery dives , the opp was able to confirm that the aircraft was the nomad # 3521 through the discovery of an inscribed cigarette case belonging to f / l campbell and inscribed ring belonging to lac bates .
on friday , december 13 , 1940 , two northrop a - 17 nomad aircraft belonging to no . 1 service flying training school ( 1 sfts ) , operating out of rcaf station camp borden , collided in mid - air over lake muskoka .
the lake connection is a world leader in marketing the lake amphibian . our customers are the focus of our business , and their satisfaction is the reason for our success for the past 35 years .
katherine townsend tapp , 23 , was strolling on the lake’s north shore when she saw the ailing aircraft , a b - 25 . she hurried to the home of sewall oliver , who had a speedboat that could be used in a rescue . nearby , martin jones jr . , 10 , also saw the aircraft descend ; he yelled to his brother that one of the engines was out .
if you have been considering renewing or upgrading your lake , we have a lot of expertise in this area as well . lake central develops and manufactures several updated components and product improvements which can give your aircraft above average performance and utility . overhaul of major components such as engine and propeller are offered as well as avionics upgrading to your specifications .
[ photo : daniel l . berek ] greenwood lake airport , west milford , new jersey , 1992
it took about year to prepare for this month’s dive . waid’s hoping it will lead to further survey work on the aircraft . he has high expectations .
four park employees and two lake researchers helicopter to wizard island and spend three days conducting lake research . jim milestone , jerry mccrea , roger andrascik , kent taylor , mark buktenica and dr . gary larson .
revo purchased the rights to the lake aircraft company in the early ' 70s and manufactured and marketed the airplanes almost continuously since then from its facilities in florida , new hampshire , and maine . the offered assets include the faa type certificate , global manufacturing and marketing rights , component and assembly tooling , dies , jigs , an assortment of spare parts , and engineering drawings for the lake amphibian airplanes . a team of lake experts is available to assist in the transition and continued production .
wadi rahim , the new owner of the lake family of companies , has pledged to restart amphibious aircraft manufacture at the us company following completion of the acquisition last month . product enhancements are also planned , says rahim , in an effort to stimulate sales of the renegade , turbo renegade and the multi - mission sea wolf seaplanes at lake , which had become a parts supplier .
the
lady of the lake
is the last wb - 29 superfortress left at eielson afb which was dropped from the air force inventory in 1955 because of a ground accident . the aircraft was taken to the pond it currently rests in and was used for open water extracation training until it became too dangerous . the aircraft was abandoned where it lays . u . s . air force photo by staff sgt joshua strang ( released )
our facilities are licensed for both u . s . and canadian registered aircraft and we welcome insurance quotes . pick - up and delivery as well as recovery can be arranged .
a six - member research team flies by helicopter to spend five days studying the winter water quality of the lake . july
rahim says :
we intend to build aircraft instead of [ like lake ] leaving the production lines idle . although we will continue to produce spare parts , our main focus will be building civilian models , the renegade and turbo renegade , where we expect the demand , mostly from owner flyers , to be strongest .
the other nomad , # 3512 , carried lac william gosling , another recent graduate and sergeant lionel francis , also an instructor from the raf . the two nomads were part of a 50 - aircraft search party looking for a third missing aircraft , nomad # 3503 , flown by lac clayton hopton ( also from 1 sfts ) . it had failed to return to base on the previous day .
the lake amphibian club is a member of the alliance for aviation across america . click here to find out how you can help .
jim griffin , the museum’s director , says that the b - 25 is being preserved , not restored to pre - crash condition . the decision was based in part on the aircraft’s damage , which the museum judged too extensive to repair . when the bomber hit the lake , for example , the right engine had been torn off .
lake michigan was chosen for the secret training because it ' s the largest body of water within the contiguous united states , said wetzel .
“i have the base papers ( newspapers ) from the time period , and there’s nothing . there’s nothing that talks about this move of a very large aircraft , which is very surprising , ” waid said .
responding to demand from governmental clients for enhanced multipurpose capabilities , lake modified the structure to accommodate greater gross weight , expanded fuel capacity , and additional internal passenger and cargo configurations . designated the seawolf , this lake model is equipped with under - wing hard points for installation of external payloads .
wetzel said between 8 and 12 pilots died during the training and about 100 planes now rest on the lake bottom after crashing during training missions .
an alternate theory was the lady of the lake was a kb - 29 re - fueler with a less interesting service record , he said .
the plane was one of almost 4 , 000 b - 29’s built during and shortly after world war ii . it’s the same type of aircraft as the enola gay , which dropped an american atomic bomb on hiroshima .
sunday ' s article
eielson’s ‘lady of the lake’ had role in cold war
misspelled the name of eielson air force base historian jack waid .
the lady of the lake didn’t crash in the gravel pit lake . the conventional wisdom was it was intentionally placed there for water rescue training . waid estimates it was probably placed sometime between 1954 and 1956 when the wb - 29 became obsolete . but the document trail on that is frustratingly empty .
just before midnight on september 19 , hundreds of onlookers in boats and on land watched , spellbound , as a crane finally hoisted the airplane to the surface . a total of 800 gallons of fuel and water was pumped from the bomber before it was lifted clear of the lake . the aircraft was then dismantled , and the parts were cleaned , inventoried , and photographed .
seigler’s group had sonographers search for the aircraft in the early 1990s , but they had no luck . then in 1992 , a navy unit took on the search as a training exercise . the following year , using side - scan sonar and the accounts of witnesses , including katherine tapp and bryce lever , the divers located the airplane in the 78 - square - mile lake .
all technical information is provided on an as - found basis , as obtained from online and other sources noted . the lake amphibian club ( lac ) makes no claims , recommendations or warranties as to accuracy , safety , advisability , or applicability of any of this information . the lac has made reasonable efforts to accurately transcribe information here , but does not take responsibility for any typographical or other errors that may appear . the reader is advised to take adequate precautions and consult appropriate experts when flying in , repairing , or training in lake aircraft .
we want this website to be open to all ; to spread the word about these wonderful , versatile amphibians that can land just about anywhere , making traveling in small aircraft adventurous , safe , and just plain fun . if you are thinking about becoming a lake amphibian owner , this is the place to start your search . we offer a yearly lakefest flyin and safety seminar , a members - only forum where everything from ads - b to zero gravity is discussed and problems can be solved by knowledgeable lake owners and mechanics , plus fly - in destinations , and more . we also offer a bi - monthly newsletter that is available by both “snail mail” or email and dealing with a variety of subjects and trip reports and maintenance topics by our members , to name just a few . our lake club has always been a “type” club catering to owners and “wannabe” lake owners .
a helicopter flies roof trusses to wizard island for a new research boat house . because of volunteer help , the cost is held to $ 35 , 000 . thirty five men from the medford navy seabee unit and a team of student conservation association volunteers contribute over 2 , 000 hours of work worth $ 33 , 000 . the new boat house will allow year - round lake study and will include an emergency lake shelter . concern is still expressed about the loss of the lake’s clarity .
a new ranger boat is slid down to the lake , west of rim village . the boat was removed by helicopter in 1972 and sold to olympic national park .
a chinook helicopter from the washington army reserve drops a new 12 , 000 pound , $ 150 , 000 , 33 foot , research boat onto the lake from discovery point . the new boat is especially designed for work on crater lake and is unofficially christened “neuston” for an organism that dwells on the surface of the lake . the old research boat in removed . researchers had used old pontoon - style boats for the past eight years , but the vessels would rock heavily during lake swells . the neuston will provide better safety for researchers while giving them a few extra advantages such as radar and a crane . the boat will also be used for search and rescue . june 28
karen and mike riplinger of eugene , or , are rescued by helicopter after being lost for seven days in a snowstorm while attempting to ski around the lake . august 2
1963 : consolidated aeronautics bought type certificate , production resumed 1963 . herb lindblad formed aerofab , inc . which was under contract to produce lake amphibians for m . l . alson , now marketer of lake aircraft , at elkhart , indiana . lycoming 0 - 360 ( 180hp ) . gross weight 2400 lbs . useful 825 lbs . 40 gals fuel . 38′ wingspan . the la - 4 - 180 was produced until 1969 through s / n 446 . note the 200 increase in serial numbers between colonial c - 1 and c - 2 , and between c - 2 and la - 4 .
over the years , a large number of lake owners have brought their aircraft to muskoka for major rebuild and refits . these have included minor repairs to complete re - manufacturing with little more than a serial number plate salvageable . our shops and personnel specialize in this airplane and offer a full range of services unrivaled by any other facility . if you insist on the highest standard of workmanship with no shortcuts , we offer it !
the crew climbed out onto the wings , then inflated a life raft and set it in the water . sewall oliver eventually rescued them all in his speedboat . about seven minutes after impact , the aircraft began sinking . it finally ended up at the bottom of lake murray , at a depth of 150 feet—too deep for the u . s . army air forces to salvage it . it was written off as a loss .
during the park ' s short lived existence , the airport itself changed it ' s name to nairobi airport to correspond with the jungle habitat . the airport went as far as to paint many of it ' s aircraft in black and white zebra stripes .
growing up in columbia decades later , robert seigler heard tales of the sunken bomber and was intrigued . in the 1980s , seigler began researching the crash . along with two partners , john hodge and bill vartorella , seigler formed the lake murray b - 25 rescue project to get the aircraft out of the water . “this really is a hobby gone awry , ” seigler says today of his decades - long campaign . the aircraft’s rarity made it worth the trouble . the b - 25 mitchell , a medium bomber used in both the european and pacific theaters of world war ii , was once plentiful : north american aviation made nearly 10 , 000 . today , some 130 remain , and the one from lake murray is the third oldest . it is one of only four intact c models surviving , and the only b - 25 that still has a bottom gun turret .
at this point a committee was formed to save what was left of the original club and the new lake amphibian club was formed along with this new website , open to all .
the company is owned by team lake llc . a family owned company with marketing offices in gilford , new hampshire and sarasota , florida . at present the company is being auctioned .
one of the two aircraft was # 3521 . lac ted bates , who had graduated from his pilot course and received his wings the previous day , was onboard , along with flight lieutenant peter campbell , a flight instructor on loan from the royal air force ( raf ) .
the production c - 1 skimmer was powered by a lycoming 150 horsepower engine , could sit 3 people , stalled at 50mph and cruised about 110 mph with a 34 foot wingspan . the company built a total of 23 c - 1 skimmers through 1957 while designing a 4 seat , 180 horsepower version . this went into production in 1958 and 1959 and the company built 20 c - 2 skimmers . the primary salesperson involved during this time was john f . strayer , a former test pilot for grumman . at the end of 1959 he bought the manufacturing rights , renamed the company lake aircraft corporation , and renamed the airplane , the lake amphibian .
the film “sun down” starring jean tierney , bruce cabot and harry harey , and produced by walter wranger is filmed on the waters of crater lake . the theme was a gun smuggling ring in east africa . a large amount of lumber was put down at the wineglass for props . a seaplane was used to haul equipment , the actors , and the film crew down to the lake . the plane was moored in fumerole bay for several days . all lake tours were canceled so that the min would be available to transport the movie crew and actors around to various points on the shore . following the filming , paul herron packed much of the lumber out of the lake on his back in order to build household furniture with the salvaged wood .
2004 : delivery of first aircraft , a turbo seafury , s / n 235 , n8553z made in 2004 . rename renegade 250 to renegade 2 . $ 449 , 000 ( 2003 ) and renegade 2t $ 545 , 000 ( 2003 ) , turbo seafury $ 749 , 000 ( 2003 ) .
the belief among everyone up here was that there were german and japanese spies everywhere ,
said wetzel , who has spent months researching the secret naval training on lake michigan during world war ii .
most residents and visitors to eielson air force base know the lady of the lake as a specter of a plane . it’s a b - 29 superfortress built during wwii that’s mostly submerged in a small lake off transmitter road . all that’s visible from the surface is one wing , the lattice front of the fuselage and a portion of the vertical stabilizer . the latter feature is covered in contemporary bullet holes and bumper stickers .
morton clark of grants pass , loses the engine of his waco upf - 7 bi plane trainer while flying over crater lake . the engine dies completely . “it was 2 to 3 minutes before i could get the engine started again , and all the time , my wife and i are circling over the lake wondering how cold the water was . ” the clarks dropped 1500 feet - even with the rim before the engine was restarted .
martin had a sharp eye . after the b - 25 had taken off from the army air base outside columbia , south carolina , on a skip - bombing training mission over the lake’s island targets , its left engine had lost power . the base was a good six miles away , so henry mascall , the bombardier , urged pilot william fallon to land on the lake . the airplane ditched about two miles west of dreher shoals dam .
after the war , the lady of the lake was one of a subset of b - 29s reconfigured as wb - 29s with a joint mission of flying through storms to collect weather data and searching for evidence of soviet nuclear testing .
the carriers , the uss sable ( ix - 81 ) and uss wolverine ( ix - 64 ) , were converted great lakes paddle steamers . they had shorter flights decks , no hangar bays , and required enough lake wind for operations .
at about 10 : 45 a . m . on april 4 , 1943 , bryce lever was looking for fishing worms on the south shore of lake murray in south carolina when he saw an airplane flying low , heading toward the water .
two additional 60 passenger , $ 30 , 000 ( some sources report $ 45 , 000 ) tour boats are added to the ever growing crater lake navy . the two boats , the “ ralph peyton” and the “jim griffin” ( crater lake lodge owners ) were built during the winter by the rudy wilson boat works of portland , oregon and trucked to discovery point . the two lake launches were air lifted , minus their engines , from discovery point parking lot to wizard island by a sikorsky sky crane logging helicopter . the peyton and griffin will replace the aging launches “fisher” and “minn” . on the return trips , the helicopter brings out the ranger’s patrol boat , which was sent to olympic national park , and an o . s . u . research boat . ( the griffin is renamed the “glen happel” in 1983 following the sale of crater lake lodge . ) mrs . kathy peyton dutifully christened the two launches with two bottles of champaign moments before the airlift began .
between 1943 and 1945 , two u . s . navy aircraft carriers stationed at navy pier in chicago functioned as training platform for about 17 , 000 pilots , signal officers and other personnel . former u . s . president george h . w . bush was among the pilots who learned to take off and land on the 500 - foot long carrier decks .
mr . bates had been invited to speak at an information session in april 2008 , during which a group named the lost airmen in muskoka project ( lamp ) explained to members of 16 wing borden , ontario , and other military representatives , their efforts to locate sites and document accidents involving military aircraft that crashed in the muskoka area during the second world war .
s / n 244 , 245 – ( 1960 ) n1001l , n1002l . these two planes retained the short nose of the skimmer but had the longer wingspan of the lake . lycoming 0 - 360 ( 180 hp ) , 40 gals fuel .
several oral sources tell of a plane that buzzed low over rim village and then dove toward the lake near sinnott . the plan was supposedly in such a steep dive , the pilot was unable to pull out and the plan entered the water .
designed by david thurston , the prototype c - 1 skimmer was built in the mid 1940s and first flew in july of 1948 . at the time , thurston was employed by grumman and several aviation specialists were employed to help build the little amphibian . one of these was herbert lindblad , who at the time worked for republic . david had formed the colonial aircraft corporation with the intention of eventually producing the aircraft . the korean war interrupted the flight testing , but finally a type certificate was issued and production started in 1956 after the company moved to sanford , maine . sanford was chosen because of the airport and large empty woolen mills making for a ready - made factory at a fraction of the cost of one on long island .
upon entering the aircraft this month , divers found what waid considers conclusive proof of the plane’s identity . divers recovered a radio - operator’s table that had been written on with wax pencil and preserved below the surface of the water . the writing included a skull and crossbones drawing and names of different crew members . most importantly it included the serial number : 44 - 62214 .
1969 : s / n 410 , n7637l was the only lake built without landing gear – a straight seaplane . 0 - 360 ( 180hp ) , 40 gals fuel , 2400 lb . gross weight . 38′ wingspan . $ 23 , 562 ( 1969 )
nine u . s . army plane s of the 31st bombing squadron circle the lake at 10 : 30 a . m . “this is the largest mass flight over the crater in 6 years . ” the planes then head for medford and a week of bombing training .
only twice in the first decade since the airbus a380 entered service has the double - deck aircraft ended a year with its order backlog higher than that of the previous one . on both occasions middle eastern carrier emirates alone had spared the programme from recording a duck for the year . emirates ordered 32 a380s in mid - 2010 and just eight days before the end of 2013 signed for another 50 of the type .
the pilot of a navy crusader jet parachutes in the lake and is rescued from his small inflatable boat by ranger glen kaye . the jet , after completing a short circle of the rim , goes into a gentle downward glide and destroys itself near timber crater . the exploding jet starts a forest fire . the lake had been covered over by a heavy overcast , when , suddenly looking skyward , the members of ranger kaye’s boat tour group witnessed the parachuting pilot burst through the clouds . being a navy plane , the pilot was well equipped for water landings . the pilot’s wing buddy , buzzed the lake , shortly afterward , making sure that the rescue had been successful . the two crusaders had taken off minutes before from kingsley field in klamath falls , when one of the jet’s fuel lines shook lose , spilling fuel and causing the flame out .
plane wreckage and three skeletal remains are discovered by a hiker near huckleberry campground , one mile west of crater lake national park . the plane had disappeared on february 26 , 1975 , during a snow storm , with a klamath falls high school teacher and two of his students on board . august 7
burt simmons , of 3209 monmoth , pleasonton , california , and former crew member , tells of the landing of sea plane s on crater lake as they practiced hiding from the japanese attack . the sea planes practiced landing on several cascade mountain lakes . the story was kept very quiet for security purposes .
unfortunately , the club started to change dramatically . most notably was the website , where most of the information is now classified for members only , opening the membership up to all amphibian aircraft ( seabees , amphibious floatplanes , etc . ) and eliminating the printed and mailed newsletters . all this was done without consent of the members , many of whom do not frequent the forum often , if at all , leaving them at a loss for any club information .
it was interesting to read that my current aircraft s / n 311 ( photo above ) gets a mention as the prototype buccaneer .
that was good to see ; i had understood that it was a buccaneer prototype , but was never sure . of all the 20 + lakes i have flown , it is one of the best and i still get a great thrill every time i fly it .
- - kevin bowe flying boat endorsements , australia
a sail plane originating from seattle , attempting to set a world’s distance record , narrowly escapes crashing into crater lake , and instead sets down 1 / 4 mile from the rim , near cloud cap . the plane was air - lifted out by helicopter to fort klamath several days later . the pilot had to be rescued by rangers on snowmobiles . the pilot’s wife had been following the sailplane in a chase car out on highway 97 and contacted park officials after learning of her husband’s location by radio . up drafts from mt . rainier had given the sailplane an exceptionally high starting elevation , but a down draft from crater lake brought the plane down .
meanwhile , new financing was found and in 1963 m . l . alson , of elkhart , indiana took over the sales of lake amphibians . alson was responsible for getting brantley helicopters off the ground ( pun intended ) . he was under contract to purchase each lake built by aerofab , inc . , a new company formed by lindblad at sanford , maine . this arrangement was to last for many years . it was not an easy job selling lakes . they were a well - built , nice flying , docile amphibian , but a wee bit on the slow side , and a wee bit lacking in useful load and all along , needed more horsepower .
s / n 121 , n261b , lake prototype . converted from c - 2 . 4 - place amphibian configured as above . wingspan increased to 38′ , nose lengthened to enclose nose gear when retracted . lycoming 0 - 360 a1a ( 180hp ) . gross weight increased to 2400 lbs . 40 gals fuel . 38′ wingspan , length 24′ 11″
jungle habitat was a warner brothers - owned theme park which operated from the summer of 1972 to october of 1976 . the 1000 acre theme park was ( and is ) located off airport road in west milford . the main entrance is situated adjacent to greenwood lake airport . by november 1972 , the park had 500 , 000 paid visitors .
j . c . major , 1218 chateau drive , san jose , california , claims a grumman torpedo bomber tbm crashed into the lake when the plane ’s engine quite while over the water . the navy plane made a water landing and the pilot got out in a raft . since the park was closed during this period , rescue was difficult . december 3
subsequently , seigler’s team spent more than a decade trying to raise money to attempt a salvage . finally , in 2005 , they hired gary larkins , with 68 salvages perhaps the world’s most successful aircraft retriever ( see “gary and the pirates , ” feb . / mar . 1997 ) . starting september 10 , larkins began directing a salvage attempt . a barge was positioned above the airplane , and eight divers in two - man teams dove into the lake several times daily to inspect , clear silt , and secure the airplane . they worked as long as 18 hours at a stretch . at times , visibility was limited to inches . larkins instructed the divers where and how to attach straps around the wings and spreader bars over the wings to distribute the weight for safe lifting . when all those were in place , the barge slowly raised the airplane and towed it to shore , just below the surface .
the legal tussle continues between manufacturer archedyne and armand rivard , despite a court judgement in june ordering rivard to pay $ 750 , 000 in damages and repay the $ 500 , 000 deposit which archedyne paid for its collapsed acquisition of lake . a dispute over the sale of the company last year resulted in archedyne filing court action against rivard on grounds of conspiracy to defraud (
the original club was formed in 1988 and has been administered until 2015 by two husband and wife teams , bill and louise goddard , and then marc and jill rodstein , who recently retired after 15 wonderful years of running a great club with many new ideas . when they retired they turned over the management of the club to another lake owner and club member of many years .
an aerospatiale as 350 helicopter from seattle , ( heading for las vegas ) crashes and sinks in 1 , 500 feet of water between wizard island and the lodge . several dozen park visitors watched while the helicopter skimmed over the smooth surface of the lake and then suddenly plunged into the deep water . speculation is that the pilot , george w . causey , 52 , of enumclaw , wa , became confused by the near perfect reflection as he flew toward the lake reflection thinking it was the sky . there was no indication of engine problems . killed , along with the pilot . was passenger edward o . tulleners of west linn , on his 45th birthday . the helicopter was a seven passenger eurocopter , built by the world’s largest manufacturer of civil helicopters . little was recovered except for some shreds of the rotors and a seat cushion . in june , 1996 , park superintendent al hendricks was quoted as saying , “the technology is there to proceed with recover . what we are struggling with is whether it’s worth it . both families decided the bottom of crater lake would be a pretty good place ( for the crash victims ) to spend eternity . ”
among the most important features of our new lake amphibian club , will be the yearly election of 6 officers for the purpose of administering the club’s operation to prevent the above problem from happening again . we are in the process of registering the club with the irs as a not - for - profit organization , complete with bylaws in hope that the club will continue to exist for many years to come .
in 1976 , frank lembo enterprises ( owners of grenwood lake airport in west milford , new jersey ) bought her for $ 45 , 000 for use as a restaurant & lounge project . the plane was serviced for her final flight and made the journey in 1977 , landing on gla ' s short , 2700 - foot runway . she was placed against the airport ' s main building and anchored in place .
in 1970 alson introduced the 200 - horsepower , lake “buccaneer” about the same time he moved the company to the houston , texas area . sales improved considerably because of the extra horsepower , gross weight , and performance , plus year - round flying capabilities . aftermarket turbochargers became available , also , along with much lighter avionics . “al” alson retired in 1979 after selling the company to armand rivard of laconia , new hampshire .
1956 - 57 : 22 built – s / n 2 - 14 , 16 to 20 , 22 to 25 . lycoming 0 - 320 ( 150hp ) 2 - 3 place amphibian as above under tc1a13 . ( s / n 15 and 21 became c - 2 skimmers ) gross weight 2150 lbs . 700 lb useful load . 40 gals fuel . stc to add extended lake wingtips 1965 . $ 15 , 750 ( 1956 )
two floating styrofoam docks are airlifted by helicopter from discovery point to cleetwood . the foam floats ended up bouncing so badly , the docks are unsafe to use . compounding the problem was the ripping off of huge hunks of styrofoam every time the docks struck a rock . ( styrofoam was seen floating in the lake for years . ) one dock was destroyed in a storm and other one served for a time as an unstable fueling dock .
a new , prefab boat house is flown by helicopter to wizard island , in 15 prebuilt sections , replacing the 1962 boathouse burned three weeks earlier . the boathouse was increased in size without first obtaining permission from the national park service . the helicopter also airlifted out an old lake launch , the “min” , named after minnie price , wife of the lodge owner ( 1921 - 1954 ) . the min was trucked to klamath falls and given to a local troop of sea scouts .
dan jackman ( 899 - 8719 of jacksonville ) reports that he while was stationed in klamath falls when a grumman torpedo plane tbf - vc 88 - 9 = 89 , was reported crashing into the lake . two planes were flying in formation near mt . scott , when one partner turned away and when he looked back , the other pilot was gone . the government kept the crash a secret because they did not want it to get out to the enemy . the pilot did not actually see the plane go into the lake . jackman reported that 2 or 3 planes crashed each week near the army air base in klamath falls . another plane story says that a snj trainer went down late fall of 1944 , while heading north and was never found . the pilot and turret gunner were lost . another time a plane’s engine quite over the park and the plane was guided southeast until it crashed into either agency or klamath lakes . ( dick mccullock , 826 - 7237 and tony gallo 779 - 4611 )
for years lake pilots have said that the amphibian should have 250 horsepower . rivard , lindblad , paul furnee and others designed and introduced the “renegade” in 1984 , with substantial changes . namely , 4 or 6 places , an extended hull and a totally new tail design . performance increased considerably along with the load carrying ability , not to mention its ability to land and take off on much rougher water . a few years later the factory followed with a turbocharged 270 horsepower version which added high altitude use to its attributes .
an aerospatiale super puma helicopter lowers a one - man submarine to the boat dock on wizard island . nps fish biologist , mark buktenica was quoted as saying , “ this is a fantastic opportunity . . . a once - in - a - lifetime chance . ” deep rover , weighing 7 , 200 pounds will spend the next three weeks exploring the depths of crater lake looking geothermal vents , among other things . the three week summer research project will cost $ 225 , 000 . the sub has a top speed of 1 . 5 knots . november 11
1968 - 81 : s / n 311 , n1149l ( prototype ) converted to io - 360 a1b ( 200hp ) in 1968 . production began 1969 with s / n 431 although a few 180hp were built after . the lake buccaneer ( la - 4 - 200 ) was produced through 1981 to s / n 1073 . gross weight increase to 2600 lbs . useful 1135 lbs . 40 gals fuel plus 14 gals added to floats upped gross to 2690 . 38′ wingspan . $ 32 , 950 ( 1970 ) $ 57 , 950 ( 1979 ) $ 82 , 920 ( 1981 )
rivard had been a very successful dealer since 1973 . he closed the houston office and moved the operation to laconia and kissimmee , florida which was beginning to boom , due to the disney complex . sales became a little sluggish in the early 1980s and armand responded with a few changes to the buccaneer . namely , the introduction of the lake ep which included many improvements . the ep had an enclosed rear cowling with an extended propeller shaft and a balanced engine . a cargo door , wing fillets , plus fuel in the floats were now standard equipment , all of which improved performance .
over the years the cost of a new skimmer or lake went from about $ 16 , 000 to over $ 500 , 000 for many reasons . sales of renegades have been very sparse in the last few years , the last one built under contract , in 2006 . armand sold the company in 2003 , only to regain it a year or two later , minus a rather large asset — the factory and hangar at sanford . many parts are still being supplied . to date there have been about 137 renegades produced , with a total of approximately 1050 skimmers and lakes built since 1956 .
two 17 year old teenage boys from michigan are stranded on a cliff , 300 feet below garfield peak while attempting to climb down to the lake . attempts to rescue the boys from above fail because of the danger of knocking loose dangerous rocks . immediate rescue by helicopter was impossible because of the lack of light , but two sleeping bags are tossed to the two stranded hikers in order to make their night more comfortable on their seven foot long ledge . the two are airlifted off the next morning . the boys refuse to pay the rescue bill of several thousand dollars , but try to cash in on their experience when the wire services send their story out national wide . summer
braving the dangers of the high altitude and precipitous cliffs , the first air plane in history lands on the windblown waters of crater lake . the ship , a yellow winged amphibian with crimson fuselage , was piloted by clayton scott of seattle , and mechanic george dahlberg . the plan approached from over the annie spring checking station , circled gracefully around wizard island , and landed easily near the shore of the island , being tossed about by strong winds and waves . soon after it landed , the ship taxied toward the east shore and slowly raised from the water . the plane circled low over the information building while pilot scott tossed out pictures of the plane and of the passengers . the plane barely missed the tree tops .
this week ' s letters brought comments from readers about the trainer refurb market , old vs . new , updated proficiency rules and airline . . .
i was flying southbound in the los angeles basin in mid - july 2017 when i heard a vfr pilot trying to get a shortcut through the los . . .
even if no one died , mistakes of the past cling to the consciousness like a bad odor .
ron carlson did almost everything right but only luck transformed tragedy into an amazing aviation story .
women in aviation international ( wai ) has announced that it is now accepting applications for scholarships to be awarded in 2019 . at . . .
atol avion lost its prototype atol 650 amphibious lsa to an accident during a test flight on tuesday . the two crew members on board were . . .
the basicmed checklist weve been reviewing in the healthy pilot series ticks the usual boxesdizziness , sensitive gut , cancer , . . .
just don ' t expect all of them to behave like the pipers and cessnas you ' re used to .
when a former student dies in an accident , asking what - if is unavoidable .
daher ' s new tbm 930 is equipped with the garmin g3000 , the latest glass panel technology that also includes the most sophisticated . . .
a french helicopter pilot who was beaten and then forced at gunpoint to help pluck a convicted bank robber from a maximum security prison . . .
if you ever owned an airplane , or even just flew one , you always remember the first . maybe it ' s best not to .
pratt & whitney ' s venerable pt - 6 turbine is one of the marvels of aviation . but like everything else in aviation , it requires overhaul . . . .
blackhawk modifications has announced that its subsidiary , vector - hawk aerospace , will be offering the company ' s blackhawk xp67a engine + . . .
the faas suspension of the pafi testing is not encouraging . and the entire process should be more transparent .
last year , levil aviation showed off its wing - mounted portable adahrs called the bom . it kinda looks like its namesake , too . in this . . .
no amount of you tube video will prepare you when your breath is taken away by the sheer audacity of the collection at the u . s . air force . . .
airbus says it will change the name of its newly acquired cseries airliner program and launch a major marketing push that will include . . .
if youre old enough to have been around the block a few times , like me , you might not think too often about how different things . . .
before there could be the lindy hop , there had to be the scintilla shuffle .
a historic world war ii c - 47 that was nearly scrapped is again flying and readying to return to normandy next year . in this avweb video , . . .
this week , announcements have come in about pre - oshkosh warbird displays , leadership changes at sun n fun , new avionics update . . .
before there could be the lindy hop , there had to be the scintilla shuffle . more
the u . s . navy blue angels fly in formation . photo by u . s . navy / mass communication specialist 2nd class timothy schumaker .
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laser diffraction analysis , also known as laser diffraction spectroscopy , is a technology that utilizes diffraction patterns of a laser beam passed through any object ranging from nanometers to millimeters in size to quickly measure geometrical dimensions of a particle .

this process does not depend on volumetric flow rate , the amount of particles that passes through a surface over time .

laser diffraction analysis

ian treviranus , product line manager for horiba scientific ( urltoken ) , discusses fundamental principles and practical considerations of laser diffraction for particle size analysis .
within our laser diffraction systems the primary physical diffraction set - up is realised deploying a parallel laser beam . this yields the purest optical alignment for analysis of extended special arrangements of particle collectives which allows for size characterization beyond limiting assumptions and constraint .
konert m , vandenberghe jef ( 1997 ) comparison of laser grain size analysis with pipette and sieve analysis : a solution for the underestimation of the clay fraction . sedimentology 44 : 523–535 .
laser diffraction is so popularly and extensively used because it offers a number of advantages . these advantages include :
laser diffraction uses mie theory of light scattering to calculate the particle size distribution , assuming a volume equivalent sphere model .
laser diffraction is an important technique for measuring particle size . here we offer a range of facts about this technique :
the helium gas in the laser tube provides the pumping medium to attain the necessary population inversion for laser action .
eshel g , levy gj , mingelgrin u , singer mj ( 2004 ) critical evaluation of the use of laser diffraction for particle - size distribution analysis . soil sci soc am j 68 : 736–743 .
pieri l , bittelli m , pisa pr ( 2006 ) laser diffraction , transmission electron microscopy and image analysis to evaluate a bimodal gaussian model for particle size distribution in soils . geoderma . 135 : 118–132 .
a sophisticated method for determining particle size , laser diffraction is widely used and offers distinct advantages that are beneficial for many industries .
. today , laser diffraction analyzers go beyond simple diffraction effects . general approaches are now based on the mie theory and the measurement of scattering intensity over a wide scattering angular range is employed . additionally , non - laser light sources are often used to complement the main laser source to gain additional characteristic information about submicron - size particles .
diffraction is also known as
edge diffraction
as that is where it occurs . refraction occurs as light changes angle traveling throught the particle .
. . . two types of international standard methods for laser diffraction have established in dry and wet forms ( iso 13320 - 1 , 1999 ) . a manufacturer of laser diffraction also recommends users select the appropriate dispersion method between dry and wet dispersion analysis ( kippax , 2005 ) . one of the key points for laser diffraction particle sizing is that it is important to present well dispersed particles , which should be introduced to the sample cell at a suitable concentration with minimal sample bias . . . .
isotope analysis can help you identify important relationships between hydrocarbons and their sources . we offer high - precision isotopic analysis of oils , gases , kerogens , waters , and a variety of other liquids .
miller ba , schaetzl rj ( 2012 ) precision of soil particle size analysis using laser diffractometry . soil science society of america journal . 76 ( 5 ) : 1719–1727 .
by laser diffraction analysis it is possible to measure particles sizes between 0 . 02 and 2000 µm . the sample is dispersed in either air or a suitable liquid media . the laser passes through the dispersion media and is diffracted by the particles . the diffraction light pattern ( he - ne laser ) is dependent on the particle size . the laser diffraction pattern is measured and correlated to the particle size distribution based on fraunhofer or mie theory . the use of mie theory presupposes knowledge of the light refractive index of the particles and the dispersion media and the imaginary part of the refractive index of the particles . particle analytical can determine these refractive index parameters .
understanding the basic principles of laser diffraction is essential for successful method development . laser diffraction is an ensemble particle - sizing technique , which means it provides a result for the whole sample , rather than building up distributions from data for individual particles , in the way that , for example , image analysis or microscopy does . particles illuminated in a collimated laser - beam scatter light over a range of angles . large particles generate a high scattering intensity at relatively narrow angles to the incident beam , while smaller particles produce a lower intensity signal but at much wider angles . using an array of detectors , laser - diffraction analyzers record the pattern of scattered light produced by the sample .
laser diffraction is a widely used particle sizing technique for materials ranging from hundreds of nanometers up to several millimeters in size . the main reasons for its success are :
find the best system configuration for particle size distribution and particle shape analysis according to your laboratory or process application .
gee gw , bauder jw ( 1979 ) particle - size analysis by hydrometer - simplified method for routine textural analysis and a sensitivity test of measurement parameters . soil sci soc am j . 43 ( 5 ) : 1004–1007 .
method development involves addressing the wider set of practical issues that flow from this underlying explanation of the basic principles of operation . united states pharmacopeia ( usp ) general chapter < 429 > states that laser diffraction involves the measurement of
a representative sample , dispersed at an adequate concentration in a suitable liquid or gas
( 2 ) . this statement neatly highlights three crucial aspects of laser - diffraction analysis : sampling , dispersion , and measurement conditions .
laser diffraction is used for determination of particle size distribution . determination of particle size distribution and understanding how it affects your products and processes can be critical to the success of drug development , as it has large impact on reactivity , dissolution rate , flowability etc . the particle size distribution measured by laser diffraction can further be used for :
wang wp , liu jl , zhang jb , li xp , cheng yn , xin ww , et al . ( 2013 ) evaluation of laser diffraction analysis of particle size distribution of typical soils in china and comparison with the sieve - pipette method . soil sci 178 : 194–204 .
sample measured – this technique allows for the whole of the sample to be measured . as the sample passes through the laser beam , diffraction is measured for all particles .
ryzak m , bieganowski a ( 2011 ) methodological aspects of determining soil particle - size distribution using the laser diffraction method . j plant nutr soil sci . 174 : 624–633 .
the carbon dioxide laser finds many applications in industry , particularly for welding and cutting .
our express lab services provide rapid processing of cuttings samples for source - rock analysis ( sra ) , x - ray diffraction ( xrd ) , and x - ray fluorescence ( xrf ) to quantify key formation characteristics .
was larger when many bins had small differences , as in the ldm analysis which provided a psd with 117 bins . the
articles have been published that purport to demonstrate the difficulties and problems of laser diffraction without any mention that these apparent issues are inherent in all particle sizing techniques . further , no reference has been made to the advantages that laser diffraction offers in terms of repeatability , ease of verification and speed of measurement . this article sets out to redress . . . [ show full abstract ]
the proven helos laser diffraction series offers a powerful technology for particle size analysis of powders , granules , suspensions , emulsions , sprays and other particulate systems from below 0 . 1 µm to 8 , 750 µm . a great variety of dispersing and dosing units provides a flexible adaptation to myriads of industrial and research applications .
the method is founded on the fact that the angle of diffraction is inversely proportional to particle size .
the most common and inexpensive gas laser , the helium - neon laser is usually constructed to operate in the red at 632 . 8 nm . it can also be constructed to produce laser action in the green at 543 . 5 nm and in the infrared at 1523 nm .
gee gw , bauder jw ( 1986 ) particle - size analysis . in : klute a . ( ed . ) methods of soil analysis , part 1 . 2nd edn . agron . monogr . 9 . asa and sssa , madison , wi , pp 383–411 .
the la - 300 uses mie scattering ( laser diffraction ) to measure particle size of suspensions . the speed and ease - of - use of this technique makes it the most popular for many applications .
the la - 960 particle size analyzer represents the tenth generation laser diffraction instrument designed by horiba . hundreds of refinements to the basic design have been included to improve performance and usability . these refinements include :
bah ar , kravchuk o , kirchhof g ( 2009 ) fitting performance of particle - size distribution models on data derived by conventional and laser diffraction techniques . soil sci soc am j 73 : 1101–1107 .
laser diffraction measurements capture information about particle size distribution by measuring scattering intensity as a function of the scattering angle , wavelength and polarization of light based on applicable scattering models . this is an absolute method that doesn’t require calibration . laser diffraction offers a number of advantages , including ease - of - use , fast operation , high reproducibility and broad dynamic size range—spanning almost five orders of magnitude , from nanometers to millimeters .
at the very heart of the laser diffraction technique is the relationship between light and surfaces ( which can be freely interchanged with
particle
for our purposes ) . when light strikes a surface it is either
our full range of sampling and analysis services can help you address your challenges in conventional , unconventional , deepwater , and other types of plays .
. . . traditionally , and quite commonly still today , the determination of the product quality is carried out by off - line measurement after the process . various techniques , such as sieve analysis ( 26 ) , laser diffraction ( 27 , 28 ) , and image analysis ( 29 ) ( 30 ) ( 31 ) , are available for off - line particle size distribution measurement . recently , also spatial filtering technique ( sft ) has been utilized for particle size determination ( 32 ) . . . .
. . . if these properties were less easy to determine , it is unlikely that laser diffraction would ever have achieved such widespread application in the pharmaceutical industry , and the incorrect selection of optical properties is largely inexcusable . it should , however , be noted that the use of incorrect optical properties could never account for some of the large differences reported between laser diffraction and other techniques ( as much as two to three orders of magnitude in some cases [ 2 ] ) . the errors observed are much more likely to be a result of poor sample preparation or the incorrect selection of the range lens within the laser - diffraction system . . . .
the la - 960 uses mie scattering ( laser diffraction ) to measure particle size of suspensions or dry powders . the speed and ease - of - use of this technique makes it the popular choice for most applications .
dry powders – even dry powders can be measured through the technique of laser diffraction . although this may result in a poorer level of dispersion than if a liquid dispersing medium was used , it is an advance that dry powders can be directly measured . in combination with a suspension analysis , it can support the assessment of the amount of agglomerated material in a dry state .
over the past two decades , laser diffraction has replaced conventional methods , such as sieving and sedimentation to size particles smaller than a few millimeters , and has replaced optical and electron microscopy for larger particles ( > 50 µm ) .
we develop , manufacture , sell and support an innovative range of best instruments for particle size and shape analysis in laboratory and process applications for customers worldwide .
the proven helos series – with its classical laser diffraction set - up deploying a parallel beam – offers a powerful technology for particle size analysis of powders , granules , suspensions , emulsions , sprays and numerous other disperse systems from below 0 . 1 µm to 8 , 750 µm . a great variety of dispersing and dosing units provides a flexible adaptation to myriads of industrial and research applications .
] is widely used in studies involving forecasting of biotic populations and system reliability analysis . when used to depict soil psd , the model is modified as follows :
sławinski c , walczak tr , skierucha w ( 2006 ) error analysis of water conductivity coefficient measurement by instantaneous profiles method . int agrophys . 20 : 55–61 .
as a technique of particle size analysis , laser diffraction is widely used and has many advantages . it offers a high level of precision , a fast speed of response , high potential for the repetition of results and a wide measurable particle diameter range . particle size analysers offer a sophisticated way of measuring particle size and enable incredible insight and understanding of the particles that make up materials used in a range of industries .
the instrument consists of a laser ( as a source of coherent intense light that has a fixed wavelength ) , a detector ( typically an array of photo sensitive silicon diodes ) and a means of passing the sample through a laser beam .
laser diffraction measures particle size distributions by measuring the angular variation in intensity of light scattered as a laser beam passes through a dispersed particulate sample . large particles scatter light at small angles relative to the laser beam and small particles scatter light at large angles , as illustrated below . the angular scattering intensity data is then analyzed to calculate the size of the particles responsible for creating the scattering pattern , using the mie theory of light scattering . the particle size is reported as a volume equivalent sphere diameter .
flexibility – laser diffraction offers new possibilities for measuring materials . it is even possible to measure the paint that is sprayed from a nozzle in a paint booth . the pharmaceutical and agricultural industries are two of the many industries that have benefited greatly from such advances .
citation : weipeng w , jianli l , bingzi z , jiabao z , xiaopeng l , yifan y ( 2015 ) critical evaluation of particle size distribution models using soil data obtained with a laser diffraction method . plos one 10 ( 4 ) : e0125048 . urltoken
the carbon dioxide gas laser is capable of continuous output powers above 10 kilowatts . it is also capable of extremely high power pulse operation . it exhibits laser action at several infrared frequencies but none in the visible . operating in a manner similar to the helium - neon laser , it employs an electric discharge for pumping , using a percentage of nitrogen gas as a pumping gas .
our global network of industry - leading laboratories is staffed with knowledgeable engineering and geoscience professionals to provide a comprehensive evaluation of your reservoir rock and fluids . services include routine and special core analysis ; geochemical analysis of rock and fluid samples ; geomechanics studies ; and evaluations to support the development of any asset , from conventional to unconventional , heavy oil , and deepwater resources .
it is well known that laser diffraction systems provide rapid , accurate , and precise measurement of particle size distributions for a wide range of applications . however , optimum results depend on the development of sops that take into account the method of sample collection and dispersion within the instrument .
the microtrac s3500 is the first particle size analyzer that uses three precisely placed red laser diodes to accurately characterize particles like never before . the patented tri - laser system provides accurate , reliable and repeatable particle size analysis for a diverse range of applications by utilizing the proven theory of mie compensation for spherical particles and the proprietary principle of modified mie calculations for non - spherical particles . the s3500 measures particle size from 0 . 02 to 2800 microns .
weatherford laboratories has the experience and technology to help you evaluate your sidewall cores and whole cores . our routine core analysis services include porosity , permeability , and grain density , and more .
rodos is the original by the inventor of dry dispersion . with this breakthrough innovation , sympatec has opened up dry applications to particle measurement technology – as early as 1982 . since then , it has been possible to dry measure powders , fibres and granules appropriate to the product , with both laser diffraction and dynamic image analysis . no other method of dispersing is anywhere near as powerful or achieves such an efficient as well as gentle dispersion from the submicron to millimetre range .
measurement quality is all about the analyzer itself : quality of components , engineering refinement , and a fundamental design which reflects basic principles . the core technologies are all mature , but as with many things higher quality leads to superior performance . a typical laser diffraction optical system will include :
buurman p , pape t , reijneveld ja , de jong f , van gelder e ( 2001 ) laser - diffraction and pipette - method grain sizing of dutch sediments : correlations for fine fractions of marine , fluvial , and loess samples . neth j geosci . 80 : 49–57 .
the co 2 laser is the most efficient laser , capable of operating at more than 30 % efficiency . that ' s a lot more efficient than an ordinary incandescent light bulb at producing visible light ( about 90 % of the output of a lightbulb filament is invisible ) .
so how does laser diffraction work ? at its very most basic , laser diffraction is about the relationship between particle size and the angle and intensity of scattered light . light scatters more intensely and at smaller angles off of large particles than small particles . every analyzer , from the very first commercial prototype to the state of the art la - 960 utilizes this principle . in fact , the analyzer itself does not measure particle size - - it measures the angle and intensity of light scattered from the particles in your sample . that information is then passed to an algorithm designed to use mie scattering theory which transforms the scattered light data into particle size information .
conceived and designed the experiments : ljl wwp . performed the experiments : wwp . analyzed the data : wwp yyf lxp . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : ljl zbz zjb . wrote the paper : wwp ljl .
mytos integrates the core particle size technologies of helos laser diffraction and rodos dry dispersion in a single robust body : a process - proven laser diffraction sensor for dry powders ranging from 0 . 25 μm to 3 , 500 μm . in combination with the sampling system twister a complete in - line integration into the processing pipe is realised . alternatively , mytos may be operated on - line either with twister , mixer , l - probes or existing sampling solutions . integrated at - line operation in automated lab environments is succeeded with vibratory feeder vibri . mytis is first choice for granules or fragile particles for a size range from 0 . 5 to 3 , 500 μm .
arriaga fj , lowery b , mays md ( 2006 ) a fast method for determining soil particle size distribution using a laser instrument . soil sci 171 : 663–674 .
light scattering has long been used to investigate the size of various objects . gustav mie ( he of the mie scattering theory ) studied gold nanoparticles like those in the image below as part of his doctoral thesis . previously confined to custom - built setups in labs , several innovations took laser diffraction from the darkroom to research labs and production floors across the world .
both the hardware and software required to make a particle size measurement have gone through many revisions in order to improve accuracy , precision , reliability , and ease of use . the la - 960 represents the tenth generation of horiba laser diffraction analyzers ; each different and better than the last . read on to discover what important factors go into making this measurement routine and trustworthy .
the laser diffraction instrument applied by particle analytical ( malvern mastersizer 2000 and 3000 ) has a flow - through cell for dispersion of particles in liquid media or a dry dispenser for dispersion of particles in air . wet dispersion presupposes that the particles are insoluble in the liquid . therefore method development is required . we typically offer either a simple non - gmp suitability screening or a full length gmp method development .
for particles smaller than 20 microns refracted light becomes increasingly important to calculate an accurate particle size . the scattered light is at relatively low intensity and wide angle for these smaller particles . the use of a refractive index and the mie scattering theory directly affects accuracy in this size range . all horiba laser diffraction analyzers use the mie scattering solution by default and allow the user to input custom refractive index values .
the argon ion laser can be operated as a continuous gas laser at about 25 different wavelengths in the visible between 408 . 9 and 686 . 1nm , but is best known for its most efficient transitions in the green at 488 nm and 514 . 5 nm . operating at much higher powers than the helium - neon gas laser , it is not uncommon to achieve 30 to 100 watts of continuous power using several transitions . this output is produced in a hot plasma and takes extremely high power , typically 9 to 12 kw , so these are large and expensive devices .
for particles larger than a certain size the vast majority of light is scattered by diffraction . the scattered light is at relatively high intensity and low angle for these larger particles . the
certain size
is determined as a multiple of the wavelength of light used for the measurement and typically approximated at 20 microns . particles larger than this size communicate useful size information through diffraction and not refraction . this means the measurement will not benefit from the use of a refractive index to accurately interpret refracted light .
funding : this study was funded by the national basic research program of china ( 973 program no . 2011cb100506 ) —ljl ; national natural science foundation of china ( contract no . 41171179 ) —ljl . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
a simplified layout of the la - 960 optical bench . 1 : red wavelength laser diode for larger particles , 2 : blue led for smaller particles , 3 : low angle detectors for larger particles , 4 : side and back angle detector arrays and smaller particles .
some industrial particles are non - spherical , but the scattering effects from the corners and edges of these particles are smoothed out due to the tumbling and rotational motion of sample circulation during measurement . this allows for the application of either the mie or fraunhofer theory to systems with one parameter : diameter . this method yields only apparent values , and it’s important to realize the
size
obtained from most particle sizing technologies ( laser diffraction included ) may differ from the real dimension . to date , spherical modeling is the only feasible choice for commercial instruments designed for sizing a wide range of samples , regardless of real particle shape .
in previous work , the relative performance of various methods used to characterize the particle size distribution of powders composed of fine irregularly shaped particles was assessed . it was found that methods employing fraunhofer diffraction theory were inferior with respect to particle counting methods . furthermore , calculated particle size distributions varied considerably between . . . [ show full abstract ]
helium - neon lasers are common in the introductory physics laboratories , but they can still be dangerous ! according to garmire , an unfocused 1 - mw hene laser has a brightness equal to sunshine on a clear day ( 0 . 1 watt / cm 2 ) and is just as dangerous to stare at directly .
modeling the size distribution of soil particles to obtain a continuous particle size distribution ( psd ) curves is useful for understanding essential soil properties such as pore distribution , water retention , hydraulic conductivity , and thermal and adsorption properties [ 1 – 4 ] . however , conventional psd analysis captures only a limited number of particle mass fractions . therefore , to be able to use these discrete experimental psd data to estimate other soil properties , many researchers have used parametric functions to extend the limited scope of psd data .
in this article , deborah huck , phd , product technical specialist , morphological imaging systems ; paul kippax , phd , product group manager , micrometrics ; anne virden , phd , product technical specialist , diffraction , all of malvern instruments , and janne raula , phd , senior research associate ; and professor esko kauppinen , phd , teicos pharma , inc ( espoo , finland ) , explore the value and . . . [ show full abstract ]
in the present study , ph was used to identify outliers . when a set of subsample pairs had a cbd exceeding 1 sd plus the mean cbd of all samples , the precision or repeatability of the psd results were considered insufficient for this type of analysis . in these cases , additional subsamples were measured using the same procedure as for the previous subsamples until every sample had a pair of subsamples with a cbd less than the ph , which meant that some samples had to undergo more than two analyses to obtain an eligible cbd . the samples chosen for additional measurements were only those that continued to have a cbd greater than ph . for those samples which had been measured several times , the mean of the two subsample values with the least cbd was used to represent the psd for each sample .
particle size distribution is a fundamental property of any sediment or soil , and particle size determination can provide important clues to sediment provenance . for forensic work , the particle size distribution of sometimes very small samples requires precise determination using a rapid and reliable method with a high resolution . a protocol has been developed using a coulter™ ls230 laser granulometer , which can analyse particles in the size range 0 . 04 μm–2000μm . the technique is essentially non - destructive , permitting the recovery of critical samples , and has been demonstrated to have high precision for a range of soils , sediments and powders of interest in forensic investigations .
few comparisons have been performed of the fitting performance of psd functions based on ldm data sets . furthermore , the effect of texture on psd model performance has not been fully investigated . therefore , the objectives of this study were to ( 1 ) use a variety of models with different underlying assumptions to test the fit of varying psd functions to laser - derived psd of soils from across china , and ( 2 ) to determine whether soil texture significantly affects model performance . three statistical indices were used to define the best models : the adjusted root - mean - square error ( rmse ) , the adjusted r 2 , and akaike’s information criterion ( aic ) .
aic analysis of models for soils of different clay , silt , and sand contents revealed that the performance of a psd model can be affected by soil texture . results indicated that fred3 , mlog3 , and four lognormal models ( logn2 onlg3 , orlg3 , and shca3 ) performed consistently well for all kinds of soil texture in this study ( fig 8 ) . the fred4 model had the best fit overall , accounting for most of the smallest aic values for all soils with different textures , except for sand and loamy sand soils . other studies have previously established that fred4 is highly suitable for modeling all soil texture classes [ 26 , 8 , 9 ] . the difference in the present results with fred4 , i . e . , the finding that it did not perform well for all soil classes , was probably related to the fact that the ldm underestimated the clay fraction . ande4 performed well for loam and sandy loam soils . jaky1 , logl2 , the two logistic models ( logi2 and logi3 ) , and the three van genuchten models ( vanh2 , vanz2 , and vanz3 ) showed poorer performance for most texture classes . gomp4 also performed poorly for most soil types ; however , for sand and loamy sand , it achieved the second most suitable fit with the psd data , after shca3 . logi4 seemed to be more appropriate for silty loam , clay , clay loam , loam , and silty clay loam . the performance of vang4 was only relatively better in silty loam , clay , clay loam , sand , and sandy loam soils .
dispersion describes the behaviour of clay particles separating from one other in a moist soil . dispersion can cause soil aggregates to breakdown and the dispersed clay to clog soil pores . structural decline and
clays particles are small in size ( less than 0 . 002 mm ) but have a very large surface area . the surface area of all clays is negatively charged . this is because of the complex arrangement of elements ( e . g . aluminium , oxygen , silicon ) that make up the clay structure . positive ions ( cations such as calcium , ca
) present in the soil are electrostatically attracted to the negative clay surface and neutralise the charge in the clay . as all the negative charges on the clay are neutralised , a layer of positive charge surrounds the clay particle . this layer of positive charge is also known as a ' shell ' .
cations floating around in the soil solution as salts , also affect the width of the shell . cations ' attached ' to the clay particle diffuse away from the surface of the clay until the concentration of cations is equal to the concentration of cations in the soil solution . thus , the saltier the soil solution , the thinner the layer of positive charge surrounding the clay particle .
like charges repel one another , however , this can be overcome by close distance nuclear attraction , called van der waal ' s forces . if the shell is thick , the clay particles are going to have trouble coming close enough together for the van der waals ' forces to act and for the particles to flocculate . they will tend to remain as separate ( colloidal ) entities – and the clay will be dispersed .
if the shell is thin , the particles can come close together for attractive van der waal ' s forces to take hold and for the clay particles to flocculate .
are typically highly dispersive for the reasons outline above . sodic soils have a high concentration of exchangeable na
, creating a thick layer of positive charge that may prevent clay particles from flocculating .
the cations ‘attached’ to the clay particle are exchangeable with other cations in the soil solution . which cations ‘attach’ to the clay depends on the concentration and physical size of the cations .
the following two videos illustrate dispersion when susceptible soil aggregates are immersed in water .
the video shows two aggregates of soil immersed in water . both aggregates slake on immersion . however , as time progresses the right hand aggregate disperses completely and all that remains at the 30 minute mark are a few sand grains and a cloud of clay .
the video shows an aggregate of soil resisting slaking ( although there is some release of air bubbles ) and undergoing visual clay dispersion within 30 seconds of immersion .
dispersive clays are relatively mobile within a soil . as they move they tend to clog soil pores and form layers of low permeability . surface sealing , restricted water transport and drainage , reduced macro - porosity , increased swelling , and increased soil erosion are likely outcomes .
flocculated clays tend to be stable and hence result in a relatively resilient soil structure . floccualated clays encourage soils to aggregate , and soils with stable aggregates allow water infiltration and drainage , provide pore spaces for air and water storage , provide housing for soil biology , and are more resistant to erosion .
. if your soil is sodic , soil testing to find out the concentration of exchangeable and soluble salts in your soil is needed . these numbers will provide you with the information to calculate whether treating the soil with gypsum is practical and cost effective for you .
content of your soils will also significantly improve the stability of your soil and its ability to resist dispersion when the soil is moist .
lastly , protecting the surface of your soil by maintaining ground cover will decrease the impact of raindrops and other mechanical disturbances on your soil that breakdown the soil and cause dispersion .
to assess your soil to see if it will disperse , there is a relatively quick and simply test that you can do yourself at home .
practical note : aggregate stability well aggregated soil is important . it has pores between aggregates and within the aggregate . large pores allow for the exchange of oxygen and other gases with the atmosphere , while small pores hold plant available water and dissolved nutrients .
. if your soil is sodic , soil testing to find out the concentration of exchangeable and soluble salts in your soil is needed . these numbers will provide you with the information to calculate whether treating the soil with gypsum is practicable and cost effective for you .
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mie theory requires knowledge of the optical properties ( refractive index and imaginary component ) of both the sample being measured , along with the refractive index of the dispersant . usually the optical properties of the dispersant are relatively easy to find from published data , and many modern instruments will have in - built databases that include common dispersants . for samples where the optical properties are not known , the user can either measure them or estimate them using an iterative approach based upon the goodness of fit between the modeled data and the actual data collected for the sample .
a simplified approach is to use the fraunhofer approximation , which does not require knowledge of the optical properties of the sample . this can provide accurate results for large particles . however it should be used with caution whenever working with samples which might have particles below 50µm or where the particles are relatively transparent .
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one of the excited levels of helium at 20 . 61 ev is very close to a level in neon at 20 . 66 ev , so close in fact that upon collision of a helium and a neon atom , the energy can be transferred from the helium to the neon atom .
this shows the beams from two helium - neon lasers passing through two lenses arranged in the galilean telescope geometry . the beams were made visible with a spray can of artificial smoke .
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these core principles explain much of the relationship between particle size and the angle and intensity of scattered light .
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the author examines the process of method development , with reference to iso 13320 : 2009 and relevant monographs from the united states and european pharmacopoeias .
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lactose is a white , crystalline slightly sweet tasting powder . it is a disaccharide consisting of glucose and galactose and is widely used as an excipient in the pharmaceutical industry . lactose powders are manufactured by selectively modifying the particle size , particle shape and particle size distribution of particles and they have special characteristics in terms of compactability , flow behaviour and granulability .
inspired by capsule technology , the coffee industry is constantly bringing new types of coffee onto the market that continue to stimulate consumption . this increases the requirements for quality control , particularly with respect to the particle size distribution of coffee powder . another challenge is the strong internationalisation of coffee producers , which makes comparability of analyses at different locations necessary . industrial grinding of coffee and frequent changes in variety require a consistent , partially automated control of the particle size distribution to ensure consistent product quality .
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optical setup | iso 13320 , § 5 , fig . 2 for particle size from 0 . 1 µm to approx . 3 . 0 mm
the process begins with a light source that generates a monochromatic beam . after passing through several optical components , the raw beam creates an expanded , collimated beam that illuminates particles in the scattering volume . the particles scatter light , generating unique angular scattering patterns .
these scattering patterns are transformed into a spatial intensity pattern that is detected by a multi - element photo - detector array . a photocurrent is subsequently processed and digitized , creating an intensity flux pattern that is converted into a particle size distribution .
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we can obtain information about the size of a particle using the angle and intensity of scattered light . diffracted and refracted light is useful for this purpose ; absorbed and reflected light works against this purpose and must be taken into account during measurement and size calculation .
acquiring the best possible scattered light data is the basis of any reliable size measurement . the
raw
scattered light data is then passed to the calculation algorithm where it will be transformed into a particle size distribution .
considered a standard method in many industries because of its ability to characterise particles and for reasons of quality control .
huge advances have been made in instrumentation over at least the last two decades .
an absolute method grounded in fundamental scientific principles – in this method it is not necessary for an instrument to be calibrated against a standard . however , validation of equipment is possible to prove that it is performing to a standard that can be traced .
wide and dynamic range – in measuring particle size , good equipment will allow the user to measure particles sized between approximately 0 . 1 and 2000 microns .
liquid suspensions and emulsions – it is possible to use a recirculating cell to measure liquid suspensions and emulsions . this technique promotes a high level of reproducibility and facilitates the use of dispersing agents and surfactants to determine the primary particle size . if it is possible to do so , it is preferable to take measurements in a liquid suspension .
rapid – this technique is so rapid that results can be derived in one minute or less . feedback can therefore quickly be provided to plants and repeat analyses can also be made quickly .
repeatable – this technique is highly repeatable and knowing that the results can be relied upon provides peace of mind .
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soil psd is frequently assumed to follow a lognormal distribution [ 5 , 6 ] , although some soils do have a bimodal psd [ 7 ] . buchan and hwang compared five lognormal models and certain other types of models in terms of their fit to experimental psd data [ 8 , 9 ] . their results showed that the bimodal model gave a marginally better fit , but incorporates a sub - clay mode , and the jaky model gave a good fit to data for many soils , better than the standard lognormal model for 23 soils . the latter included models based on water - retention curves [ 10 – 12 ] , the fragmentation model [ 13 ] , power - law functions based on fractal geometry [ 13 , 14 ] , exponential functions [ 15 ] , gompertz equations [ 16 ] , and a model estimating psd from limited soil texture data [ 17 ] .