the falx cerebelli is a small sickle shaped fold of dura mater , projecting forwards into the posterior cerebellar notch as well as projecting into the vallecula of the cerebellum between the two cerebellar hemispheres .

the name comes from the latin word falx meaning " curved blade or scythe " and cerebellum meaning " brain " .

its base is attached , above , to the under and back part of the tentorium cerebelli ; its posterior margin , to the lower division of the vertical crest on the inner surface of the occipital bone .

the falx cerebelli generally lies somewhere between 2.8 and 4.5 cm in length and is approximately 1 – 2 mm thick .

falx cerebelli

dissection of cranial cavity showing the infra - tentorial space . note three distinct folds of falx cerebelli ( f1 : middle falx , f2 : right falx , f3 : left falx , tc : tentorium cerebelli )
falx cerebelli is between 2 . 8 and 4 . 5 cm in length and
triple falx cerebelli associated with two aberrant venous sinuses in the infra - tentorial compartment of posterior cranial fossa .
a complex dural - venous variation in the posterior cranial fossa : a triplicate falx cerebelli and an . . .
duplicated , fenestrated , small and complete absence are the reported variations of the falx cerebelli . occurrence of triple falx cerebelli associated with two aberrant venous sinuses in the floor of the posterior cranial fossa is seldom reported in the literature .
browder j , kaplan ha , krieger aj . venous lakes in the suboccipital dura mater and falx cerebelli of infants : surgical significance .
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milwaukee , wisconsin : 2006 . a triple dural - venous variation in the posterior cranial fossa : a duplicated plus accessory falx cerebelli and an aberrant venous sinus .
a third , the falx cerebelli , projects downward from the tentorium cerebelli between the two cerebellar hemispheres . the outer portion of the dura mater over the brain serves as a covering , or periosteum , of the inner surfaces of the skull bones .
the falx cerebelli is a small sickle - shaped fold of dura mater situated below the tentorium cerebelli . it projects forward into the posterior cerebellar notch . occipital sinus is situated along its posterior attachment to the internal occipital crest . 1 variations in the morphology of the falx cerebelli are very rare . duplicated , triplicated , fenestrated , small and complete absence are some of the reported variations of the falx cerebelli . 2 - 7 the formations of dural venous sinuses are concurrent with the development of dural folds . hence the duplicated falx cerebelli are usually associated with duplicated occipital sinus and occurrence of such cases has already been reported . 3 the occurrence of triplicated falx cerebelli associated with an aberrant venous sinus in the floor of the posterior cranial fossa has been reported . 3 herein , we report a case of triple falx cerebelli associated with two aberrant venous sinuses in the infra - tentorial compartment of posterior cranial fossa . knowledge of incidence of such rare complex dural - venous variation is important for neurosurgeons and neuroradiologists to avoid iatrogenic injuries during suboccipital approaches and erroneous interpretation during diagnostic and operative procedures in the posterior cranial fossa . 3
the falx cerebelli is a small infolding of the dura in the sagittal plane over the floor of the posterior cranial fossa . it partially separates the two cerebellar hemispheres 1 .
tubbs rs , dockery se , salter g , elton s , blount jp , grabb pa , oakes wj . absence of the falx cerebelli in a chiari ii malformation .
shoja mm , tubbs rs , khaki aa , shokouhi g . a rare variation of the posterior cranial fossa : duplicated falx cerebelli , occipital venous sinus , and internal occipital crest .
folds of the meningeal layer of the dura mater , the falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli , traverse the vertebrate intracranial cavity and thus compartmentalise the brain . the falx cerebelli , another dural fold , is found in the posterior cranial fossa and attaches to the inferior aspect of the tentorium cerebelli and to the internal occipital crest . we present a case of a duplicated falx cerebelli , occipital venous sinus and internal occipital crest that was detected upon routine dissection of a male cadaver . since haemorrhage of a dural venous sinus can be a fatal complication of posterior cranial fossa surgery , knowledge of venous sinus variations in this region may prevent unpredictable complications during intracranial procedures .
closer view of dissection of cranial cavity showing the infra - tentorial space . note three distinct folds of falx cerebelli ( f1 , f2 & f3 ) . the right aberrant venous sinus ( ras ) connected the right sigmoid sinus ( ss ) with the ipsilateral transverse sinus . the left aberrant venous sinus ( las ) connected the left sigmoid sinus ( ss ) with the ipsilateral transverse sinus . ( f1 : middle falx , f2 : right falx , f3 : left falx , tc : tentorium cerebelli , pt : petrous part of the temporal bone )
the main ( middle ) falx divided into two parts near the foramen magnum and there was only one occipital venous sinus in its posterior attachment . it terminated at the confluence of sinuses bilaterally . on each side of the middle falx cerebelli , at the floor of the posterior cranial fossa two aberrant dural venous sinuses were observed . the right aberrant venous sinus connected the right sigmoid sinus to ipsilateral transverse sinus . it travelled along the posterior margin of the right falx cerebelli to enter the ipsilateral transverse sinus . the left aberrant venous sinus connected the left sigmoid sinus to ipsilateral transverse sinus . it travelled along the left side of the left falx cerebelli (
3 . mavridis in , lontos k , anagnostopoulou s . absent falx cerebelli : report of a rare case . anat sci int . 2013 ; 88 ( 3 ) : 181 - 2 .
shoja mm , tubbs rs , loukas m , shokouhi g , oakes wj . a complex dural - venous variation in the posterior cranial fossa : a triplicate falx cerebelli and an aberrant venous sinus .
4 . tubbs rs , dockery se , salter g et - al . absence of the falx cerebelli in a chiari ii malformation . clin anat . 2002 ; 15 ( 3 ) : 193 - 5 .
. . . the variations of the dura mater and its folds are seldom reported in the literature [ 4 , 5 ] . among these are duplication of the hemispheric convexity dura [ 6 ] duplication of the spinal dural sheath [ 7 ] , presence of an accessory falx cerebri [ 8 ] , and duplicated , fenestrated or small falx cerebelli [ 4 , 5 , 9101112 . hassan m and das ac , 1969 [ 13 ] found that the falx cerebelli was double in 76 of 100 cadavers . . . .
the incidence of variations of falx cerebelli was studied in 52 adult cadavers of south indian origin , at kasturba medical college mangalore , after removal of calvaria . in eight ( 15 . 4 % ) cases , we observed duplicated falx cerebelli along with duplicated occipital sinus and internal occipital crest . the length and the distance between each of the falces were measured . the mean length of the . . . [ show full abstract ]
. . . the falx cerebelli , which may be divided inferiorly to create a v - shaped space , the so - called vermian fossa [ 3 ] . the variations of the dura mater and its folds are seldom reported in the literature [ 4 , 5 ] . among these are duplication of the hemispheric convexity dura [ 6 ] duplication of the spinal dural sheath [ 7 ] , presence of an accessory falx cerebri [ 8 ] , and duplicated , fenestrated or small falx cerebelli [ 4 , 5 , 9101112 . . . .
the iss runs parallel to the sss in correspondence to the free margin of the cerebral falx , receiving blood from the middle regions of the brain that drains into the sss through the venous vessels of the cerebral falx .
during regular dissection classes , we came across tripled falx cerebelli in a male cadaver . the main ( middle ) falx cerebelli was large and was attached to the internal occipital crest . it contained the occipital sinus . there were two smaller folds ( right and left ) , one on either side of the falx cerebelli . there were two aberrant venous sinuses ; each one connecting the ipsilateral sigmoid and transverse sinuses with each other . the complex dural - venous variation reported here is seldom reported in the literature . knowledge of such variation is important for neurosurgeons and neuroradiologists as these aberrant folds could cause haemorrhage during suboccipital approaches or may lead to erroneous interpretation during imaging of the posterior cranial fossa .
the dura mater , arachnoid , pia mater , falx and tentorium cerebelli receive their sensitivity from the cranial nerves : essentially — as we shall see — from the trigeminal nerve . others , like the trochlear , make their rather unexpected contributions .
during a regular dissection class for medical undergraduates , we came across a tripled falx cerebelli associated with two aberrant venous sinuses , in the floor of posterior cranial fossa . it was noted in a 55 - year - old male cadaver of south indian origin , which was donated to manipal university , for the purpose of anatomical examination , medical education and research . while exposing the cranial cavity , the calvaria and brain were removed carefully . the tentorium cerebelli was reflected by cutting along its lateral border to expose the infra - tentorial compartment . the falx cerebelli was found to be triplicated ( right , middle and left falces ) (
lies inferior to the tentorium cerebelli . it superior border is attached to the lower aspect of the tentorium . the posterior border contains the
d ' costa s , krishnamurthy a , nayak sr , madhyasta s , prabhu lv , jiji p , ranade av , pai mm , vadgaonkar r , ganesh kumar c , rai r . duplication of falx cerebelli , occipital sinus , and internal occipital crest .
. . . of the dura mater and its folds are seldom reported in the literature [ 21 ] . among these are duplication of the hemispheric convexity dura [ 20 ] , duplication of the spinal dural sheath [ 11 ] , absence or ossification of the falx cerebri [ 4 , 24 ] , presence of an accessory falx cerebri [ 8 ] , incompetent sellar diaphragm [ 3 ] and duplicated , fenestrated or small falx cerebelli [ 6 , 7 , 13 , 14 , 21 , 23 ] . . . .
osteopathy in the cranial field was first described by sutherland in the early part of the twentieth century . sutherland’s model has several key components : the fluctuation of the cerebral spinal fluid ; the motility of the neural tube ; the movement of the falx cerebri , tentorium cerebelli , and
. . . of the dura mater and its folds are seldom reported in the literature [ 21 ] . among these are duplication of the hemispheric convexity dura [ 20 ] , duplication of the spinal dural sheath [ 11 ] , absence or ossification of the falx cerebri [ 4 , 24 ] , presence of an accessory falx cerebri [ 8 ] , incompetent sellar diaphragm [ 3 ] and duplicated , fenestrated or small falx cerebelli [ 6 , 7 , 13 , 14 , 21 , 23 ] . these variations are often asymptomatic and only incidentally found during human dissection . . . .
the falx cerebelli is attached posteriorly in the midline to the internal occipital crest of the occipital bone where it contains the occipital sinus 2 . its anterior edge exists freely between the partially separated cerebellar hemispheres in the posterior cerebellar notch . superiorly it is attached to the tentorium cerebelli 1 . inferiorly , it extends to the posterior edge of the foramen magnum . at this point it sometimes divides into two separate parts which extend anteriorly either side of the foramen magnum 2 - 3 .
, black arrows ) is introduced through the ring and middle fingers and directed into the deep connective tissues of the cerebellar falx . the index fingers monitor c2 .
please cite this paper as : satheesha nayak b , srinivasa rao sirasanagandla , deepthinath r , kumar n . triple falx cerebelli associated with two aberrant venous sinuses in the floor of posterior cranial fossa . amj 2013 , 6 , 8 , 397 - 400 . http / / dx . doi . org / 10 . 4066 / amj . 2013 . 1740
variations of the dural folds and the dural venous sinuses are seldom reported in the extant medical literature . such variations in the posterior cranial fossa may be problematic in various diagnostic and operative procedures of this region . we report our observation of an extremely rare variation of the falx cerebelli and posterior cranial fossa venous sinuses encountered upon dissection of a . . . [ show full abstract ]
the physician places her fingers so that she is contacting the midline of the occiput just inferior to the inion along the sagittal plane of the occiput . this approximates the location of the cerebellar falx (
the falx cerebri is the largest of the folds of dura mater . it attaches anteriorly to the crista galli , and runs posteriorly to fuse with the tentorium cerebelli . in its upper edge , it divides to form the superior sagittal sinus , and its lower edge is where it divides to form the inferior sagittal sinus . the upper edge is attached onto the frontal , parietal and occipital bones in an anterior to posterior direction , respectively . the lower edge of the falx cerebri passes down to separate the left and right cerebral hemispheres from one and other . it typically follows the corpus callosum , linking the two cerebral hemispheres .
as the tissue texture under the ring and middle fingers begins to change , the index fingers can control c2 to establish balanced membranous tension through the cerebellar falx and its dural connections to the upper cervical complex .
membrane that influences the mechanics of the cranial bones ; and the movement of the sacrum . although there continues to be controversy regarding the physiological accuracy of sutherland’s model , it continues to be used throughout most of the world to discuss evaluation , diagnosis and treatment using this approach . sutherland described the cranium as a balanced membranous mechanism because of the relationship of the cranial bones to the intra - articular ligaments , the tentorium cerebelli , the falx cerebri , and the
sands sf , farmer p , alvarez o , et al . fat within the falx : mr demonstration of falcine bony metaplasia with marrow formation . j comput assist tomogr 1987 ; 11 ( 4 ) : 602 - 605 .
develops first as two portions that become a single continuous structure later . it reflects downward between the hemispheres , attaching anteriorly and laterally to points on the skull and posteriorly to another partition , the tentorium cerebelli ( also known simply as the tentorium ) . the
this technique uses a similar approach to a venous sinus spread technique but the intention is directed at the membranous structure , the cerebellar falx . studies have show that fibers from the cerebellar falx are continuous with dural ligaments extending into the upper cervical complex as low as c3 . this technique is used to balance membranous strains in the cranial base that involve these connections . this may need to be performed prior to condylar decompression or base spread . this approach can also be used in older children with cervicogenic cephalgia .
) . it ascends posterosuperiorly , nearly parallel to the internal occipital crest , to reach the attachment of the cerebellar falx . around the level of the external occipital protuberance , the artery bifurcates and anastomoses with the meningeal branches of the occipital and middle meningeal arteries
is located below the tentorium cerebelli on the middle of the occipital bone . this small dural infolding extends into the space between the cerebellar hemispheres , attaching to the occipital crest of the skull and the posterior portion of the tentorium . part of it encloses the occipital venous sinuses . the
is the second largest of the dural folds . it attaches to bony walls of the skull in the temporal , occipital , and parietal regions . the tentorium cerebelli is the infolding found between the cerebral hemispheres above and the cerebellar hemispheres below . it is only found in mammals and birds , being absent in fish , amphibians , and reptiles .
) . the meninges protect the cns , and consist of three layers : the outermost dura mater , the middle arachnoid layer , and the inner pia mater . the dura layer is thick , tough , and composed of hypocellular fibrous tissue that adheres to the skull except where it invaginates into the cranial cavity to form septa ( falx cerebri ,
the dural sinuses are situated between the leaves of the falx and the tentorium and are triangular in section . they drain blood from the cortex , the meninges , and the scalp ( through the calvarian veins ) and deliver it to the internal jugular veins . they are connected with the extracranial veins in the scalp by the emissary veins . this may explain dural involvement after cutaneous contusions or infections (
the tentorium cerebelli supports the occipital lobes above , and separates them from the cerebellum below . the internal concave surface is free and along with the dorsum sellae of the sphenoid bone , forms the boundary of the tentorial notch , occupied primarily by the midbrain . the outer convex border encloses the transverse sinus posteriorly and is attached to the inner aspect of the skull . more anterior , this margin encloses the superior petrosal sinus and is attached to the upper portion of the petrous temporal bone . toward the apex of the petrous temporal bone , the two borders of the tentorium cerebelli cross each other . the free border passes above and is anchored to the anterior clinoid process on either side . the attached border passes below and is then attached onto the posterior clinoid process . when the two borders have crossed each other , the triangular area of dura between them forms the roof of the cavernous sinus . the roof is continuous with the diaphragma sellae .
the lateral sinus connects the torcular herophili with the internal jugular veins on both sides and is formed by two components : the transverse sinus , which lies in the peripheral margin of the tentorium cerebelli , and the sigmoid sinus . the transverse sinuses are frequently of unequal size ; the left one , which receives blood from the sss , is usually larger . atresia or agenesis of the transverse sinus is related to alternative filling of the sigmoid sinus by the vein of labbé . the sigmoid sinus starts at the end of the transverse sinus and reaches the jugular vein ; agenesis and atresia of this sinus are very uncommon .
a long midline incision is used , extending approximately from the spinous process of the third vertebral body up into the occipital region , so that the pericranium and muscle attachments can be elevated on each side without disrupting their continuity . freeing up the muscle layer facilitates closure later . a wide craniotomy is performed to include the lateral sinuses and torcula but without extending to the foramen magnum . generally , using a high - speed air drill to perform a suboccipital craniotomy is preferred so that the bone flap may be replaced at the end of the procedure . a craniotome is used to turn the flap after first exposing each of the dural sinuses to avoid tears . brain relaxation and cerebellar retraction can be facilitated by mannitol , ventricular drainage , or removal of cerebrospinal from the cisterna magna . it is preferable to open the dura on either side of the midline so that the cerebellar falx and accompanying cerebellar sinus can be ligated and divided . the dural opening should extend bilaterally up to the lateral sinus (
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1 . singh i . textbook of anatomy : head and neck central nervous system . jaypee brothers medical pub . isbn : 9350253836 .
2 . last ' s anatomy : regional and applied , 12e ( mrcs study guides ) . churchill livingstone . isbn : 0702033952 .
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the cranial nerves supply the sensitivity of the diploë , which is the spongy part of the cranial bones .
curiously , medical literature is very discreet on the subject of the innervation of sutures .
, who is our reference , provides just one piece of information on the topic : the innervation of the lambdoid sutures . he describes this as being due to a nerve filament from the supra - orbital nerve , a branch of the frontal nerve , which itself issues from the trigeminal nerve .
for us , the most important nerve relating to the cranial sutures is certainly the trigeminal because it sends filaments to the coronal suture : the queen of sutures and first in line for absorbing shocks .
the mucosa of the sinuses is very sensitive and reactive . it is the cranial nerves that provide its sensitivity . and here too , without prejudice , we detect the hand of the trigeminal nerve . with its three branches , it innervates the frontal , sphenoidal , ethmoidal and maxillary sinuses .
the sensitivity of the skin of the face and skull is furnished in large measure , though not exclusively , by the cranial nerves . to give an example , the skin on the skull also receives nerve fibers from the suboccipital nerve of arnold .
it is partly for this reason that we describe its manipulation in this book , even though it does not belong to the cranial nerves .
cranial nerve fibers , combined with those arising from the sympathetic ganglions , deliver arterial sensitivity . some migraine headaches are attributable to the vasodilatation of the arteries of the skull .
the brain is not sensitive in and of itself . intracranial sensitivity is due to the meninges and the vascular system .
the infant is supine or held in the parent’s arms . the physician sits at the infant’s head with her forearms supported . the physician places her hands beneath the infant’s head with a contact very low ( inferior to inion ) on the occiput (
, circle ) . the middle fingers approximate each other and lie just inferior to the ring fingers ( asterisks ) . the index fingers contact the second cervical vertebra medial and posterior to its transverse processes .
once balanced membranous tension is established the position is maintained until there is a softening , a change in tissue texture or a correction of the strain .
the occipital sinus , which is the smallest dural venous sinus , runs along the inner surface of the occipital bone . the occipital sinus is attached to the posterior margin of the
and receives tributaries from the margins of the foramen magnum . it may anastomosis with the sigmoid sinuses and posterior internal vertebral plexus that drain into the torcular herophili . the occipital sinus is an important vascular structure during posterior fossa surgery . variations in the occipital sinus , such as double or oblique occipital sinuses or the absence of the occipital sinus , are observed in rare cases
) . this becomes apparent when examining newborns , especially premature infants . the mobility and deformability of the cranium are remarkable , yet in the majority of cases it will resume a normocephalic appearance within the first 48 hours of life . the ability of the newborn cranium to make such drastic changes is evidence of its responsiveness to the subtle forces acting within the body . if a premature neonate is left in one position and not turned periodically , the infant will develop a flat spot over that area . the ability of the body to self - correct the deformity correlates with the length of time it has been present , and whether or not any external force , however subtle , has acted on the area . another example of the deformability of the living skull is the molding that is often present in newborns . this molding occurs in response to the forces acting on the cranium during birth . although the majority of these adaptations resolve , often a slight asymmetry remains . cadaveric specimens can be examined for evidence of asymmetries in the cranial fossa . these asymmetries develop in response to the position of fluid - filled vessels and the custard - like substance we call the brain . the asymmetries that occur in response to the intrauterine pressures applied to the emerging cranium may also leave an impression . the shape of any given head is the product of genetics and mechanics . the difference in shape between individuals is readily appreciable through palpation .
the mechanics in the cranium , albeit subtle , can be used to ascertain areas of compression and stress within the membranous articular mechanism . this requires a good
understanding of anatomy and a well - developed level of palpatory skill . the motions felt in the cranium are much more subtle than those palpated in the ligamentous mechanism of the spine or sacroiliac joint . whereas in the majority of individuals the sutures remain cartilaginous with adjoining connective tissue ( pritchard ) , the articular surfaces in the cranium are generally serrated or beveled . this means that articular surfaces can only marginally glide or expand and contract in relation to each other . these movements are quite minimal , but they do allow for pliancy of the cranium .
finally , the outermost layer is the dura mater and surrounds the brain . it is comprised of two layers , though it is difficult to differentiate these with the naked eye . it is comprised of two fused layers – and internal meningeal layer and an outer endosteal layer . at points along its course , the dural venous sinuses separate it . the inner meningeal layer is limited internally by flattened cells . the external endosteal layer is also referred to as the endocranium . this endosteal layer is adherent to the skull , especially at the point of the sutures and also at the base of the skull . at the foramina of the skull and the sutures , the endosteal layer is continuous with the pericranium . where the endosteal layer is continuous with the foramina , it provides a sheath for the cranial nerves .
the meningeal layer sends four main areas of folds deeper into the cranial cavity . these are the
and is attached to the occipital bone . the anterior border is free and projects between the hemispheres of the cerebellum .
the diaphragma sellae forms a dural roof for the sella turcica . it covers the hypophysis , and has an opening for the infundibulum . the optic chiasma lies partly or completely above the diaphragma sellae .
) . its origin is usually closer to the dural entrance than to the transverse foramen of the atlas . its initial course is along the upper posterior aspect of the extradural vertebral artery toward the posterolateral edge of foramen magnum , where it enters the intracranial dura ( see
the posterior meningeal artery can be divided into an extracranial and an intracranial portion . the extracranial portion is tortuous , probably as a response to the motility of the neck
and extends from origin to the atlanto - occipital space . the intracranial portion shows a relatively straight configuration
) . this pattern , on angiography , facilitates differentiation of the posterior meningeal artery from the branches of the posterior inferior cerebellar artery . the posterior meningeal artery , seen on 30 % to 40 % of angiograms , is easier to identify on lateral films .
the sss begins at the foramen cecum , before the crista galli , and runs along the curve of the inner table of the skull to reach the torcular herophili , where it converges with the straight sinus . their combined flows drain into the transverse sinus . the sss receives blood from frontal , parietal , and occipital superior regions of the cortex . the sss , and other sinuses , contains the arachnoid villi and granulations in which the absorption of cerebrospinal fluid takes place . there is a direct dependency of cerebrospinal fluid pressure on the intracranial venous pressure , which explains the frequent increase in intracranial pressure in cvst . the dura mater adjacent to the sinus contains important venous plexuses , which represent a potential alternative drainage route when a sinus is occluded ; this explains the “empty - delta” sign , which is visible on computed tomographic ( ct ) scan in occlusion of the sss .
and receives blood from the vein of galen and from the iss . it ends in the torcular herophili or in the left transverse sinus .
are situated on the sphenoid bone , laterally to the sella turcica . their walls contain the cranial nerves iii , iv , v
, the intracavernous tract of the internal carotid artery , and the pericarotid sympathetic plexus are contained in their lumen . they drain the ophthalmic veins , the anterior and middle cranial fossa , and the sphenoparietal sinus ( the medial extension of the superficial sylvian vein ) . blood drains posterolaterally along petrosal sinuses to the lateral sinus and the jugular vein through the inferior petrosal sinus . the two cavernous sinuses are connected by the intracavernous sinus , which lies on the clivus behind the sella turcica : this strict anatomical connection explains their frequent simultaneous involvement (
are four in number , two for each side ( superior and inferior ) . the first one is the anterior continuation of the transverse sinus and corresponds to the oblique insertion of the tentorium on the rocca petrosa , ending in the cavernous sinuses . the second begins at the
inferior part of the intercavernous sinus to end , together with the sigmoid sinus , in the jugular vein .
on the occipital bone , and it drains blood from the dorsal regions of the cerebellum vermis .
the spinal cord and brain are the major coordinating and integrating structures for all physical and mental activities of the body and fortunately are well protected . the brain and spinal cord are covered by layers of tissue called the meninges . within certain layers of these meninges is a cushioning layer of fluid called cerebrospinal fluid . the meninges are composed of three membranes ; moving from the outermost to the innermost covering , they are known as the dura mater ( “tough mother” in latin ) , the arachnoid mater , and the pia mater .
magnum . it consists of two layers that are closely united except where , in certain spots , they separate . in some parts of the dura mater of the brain they separate to form the
) . in other parts of the brain , the inner layer also separates from the outer layer to reflect inward and form partitions , described as complex folds that divide the contents of the cranial cavity into different cerebral subdivisions . these infoldings or
, which forms the roof of the sella turcica , the structure that encloses the pituitary gland . there is a tiny hole in the center of it , allowing the stalk ( or infundibulum ) of the pituitary to pass through . the anterior and posterior intercavernous sinuses are found in their respective edges of the diaphragma sella . these infoldings are illustrated in
when you consider the placement of these sturdy partitions being under and between the cerebral hemispheres as well as over and between the cerebellar hemispheres , it is fairly easy to understand how the dural infoldings brace the brain against rotary displacement .
there is no subdural space between the dura mater and the next layer of the meninges . when there is subdural space identified , it means that tissue damage has occurred to the deepest layer , creating a space .
because there is no normal subdural space , the next meningeal layer can be found immediately below the dura . this second layer is the arachnoid mater . this membrane bridges over the sulci or folds of the brain . in some areas it projects into the venous sinuses to form arachnoid villi . the arachnoid villi aggregate to form the arachnoid granulations . the arachnoid granulations are from where the cerebrospinal fluid diffuses into the bloodstream .
, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid . all cerebral arteries and veins , as well as the cranial nerves , pass through this space . this is why you often hear of subarachnoid hemorrhage or bleed because damage to the brain has resulted in artery or vein tears and blood is released into this subarachnoid space .
closely adheres to the surface of the brain , covering the gyri ( ridges ) and going down into the sulci . the pia mater also fuses with the ependyma ( a cellular membrane lining the ventricles ) to form the choroid plexus of the ventricles .
) . the middle arachnoid layer is very thin and avascular , and closely adheres to the dura mater by specialized fibroblasts . the inner pia mater is a vascular and delicate membrane , continuous with the brain and spinal cord , but is separated from the neural tissue by the subpial space . it is the pia mater which projects into the ventricles as villi and loose connective tissue stroma to form the choroid plexus , which in turn is responsible for the formation of csf .
between the arachnoid layer and the pia mater is the subarachnoid space , which contains csf . the arachnoid gives off projections of filaments into the subarachnoid space . this gives the space a spider - like appearance , consisting of a trabecular meshwork crossed by nerves , small arteries known as rete mirable , and bridging veins which connect the meningeal veins with the deeper intracranial venous system (
) . the subarachnoid space is dilated in certain locations due to the variation in the contour of the brain and skull , forming pockets of csf called cisterns . the largest and most important of the cisterns is the cisterna magna , which surrounds the brainstem and cerebellum at the base of the skull . the cistern magna may be used to obtain csf (
. csf flows from the lateral ventricles into the third ventricle via the foramina of monroe , and then through the cerebral aqueduct into the fourth ventricle . the csf circulates through apertures in the fourth ventricle , the lateral foramina of luschka and the medial foramen of magendie , to the subarachnoid space . once the csf enters the subarachnoid space it flows both cephalad toward the cerebral hemispheres and caudally toward the spinal cord , ultimately being absorbed by the arachnoid villi in the dural sinuses located along the superior sagittal sinus and intracranial venous sinuses and returned to the venous circulation (
) . leakage of csf manifesting as csf rhinorrhea or otorrhea may occur after a basilar skull fracture and indicates that the dura has been torn .
) . the bars are then arranged in a rectangular configuration framing the operative field , facilitating placement of a retractor in the inferior position to depress the cerebellum . a cottonoid tray is fixed to the self - retaining retractor system and held by one of the retractor’s arms .
once the dura is opened , all bridging veins over the dorsal surface of the cerebellum , including the hemispheres and vermis , can be sacrificed to free the cerebellum from the tentorium . the weight of cottonoids and a copper retractor , along with gravitational forces that are exerted in the sitting position , allow sufficient depression of the cerebellum
to establish an unobstructed corridor to the pineal region under the tentorium . at this point , the operating microscope should be brought to the operating table . a microscope capable of varying the objective length from 275 to 400 mm is desirable because the operating distance for the surgeon changes throughout the operation , going from the dorsal surface of the cerebellum to the center of the third ventricle . the use of a freestanding armrest is also helpful in minimizing fatigue .
the arachnoid in the quadrigeminal region and around the incisura is usually thickened and opaque in the presence of tumors and must be opened by microdissection techniques to expose the surface of the tumor . the precentral cerebellar vein , which can be seen extending from the edge of the vermis to galen’s vein , should be cauterized and divided (
) . galen’s great vein and the internal cerebral veins are well above the tumor and are not encountered in these initial maneuvers . laterally , the medial aspect of the temporal lobe and rosenthal’s veins can be seen as they course upward toward the confluence of veins in these regions . in general terms , the trajectory of the operation is toward the velum interpositum . this must be considered when attempting to remove segments of the tumor in the inferior portion of the third ventricle or directly over the quadrigeminal plate in relation to the anterior lobe of the cerebellum . the thickened arachnoid should be opened widely to appreciate the underlying anatomy . using sharp dissection , the arachnoidal opening must be kept close to the anterior surface of the vermis and cerebellar hemisphere to avoid injuring the deep venous system , keeping in mind that the initial trajectory is toward galen’s vein . the anterior portion of the cerebellum is retracted by the inferior self - retaining retractor to expose the posterior surface of the tumor .
because many of these tumors extend well into the third ventricle , even to the region of monro’s foramen , long instruments are required to reach the anterior margins of the tumor . with tumors of firm consistency , a cavitron with a long , curved tip can be helpful for debulking . a long focal length is desirable to accommodate the large instrument and maneuver into the operative field . the most difficult dissection involves the inferior portion of the tumor , where it is adherent to the collicular region of the dorsal midbrain . small dental mirrors and angled instruments may be required to remove this portion of the tumor . similarly , these techniques may be helpful for supratentorial tumor extensions . further exposure can be gained by incising the tentorium if necessary . tumors that are benign or encapsulated can usually be removed completely (
) . with tumors that are incompletely resected , particularly vascular ones such as pineal cell tumors , meticulous hemostasis is crucial . surgicel is the preferred hemostatic agent , and it should be placed carefully so that it does not float and obstruct the aqueduct when the third ventricle fills with cerebrospinal fluid .
at the conclusion of the operation , after decompression of the tumor and the ventricular system , the dura can be closed to support the cerebellum . when a craniotomy has been performed , the bone flap is secured back in place with wires or miniplates . a greater degree of dural and bony closure seems to lower the incidence of postoperative aseptic meningitis .
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a short process of dura mater projecting forward from the internal occipital crest below the tentorium ; it occupies the posterior cerebellar notch and the vallecula , and bifurcates below into two diverging limbs passing to either side of the foramen magnum .
a short process of dura mater projecting forward from the internal occipital crest below the tentorium ; it occupies the posterior cerebellar notch and the vallecula , and bifurcates below into two diverging limbs passing to either side of the foramen magnum . synonym ( s ) : falcula .
a sickle - shaped fold of dura mater in the longitudinal fissure , which separates the two cerebral hemispheres .
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srinivasa rao sirasanagandla department of anatomy , melaka manipal medical college ( manipal campus ) , manipal university , madav nagar , manipal , karnataka state , india . 567104 email : moc . liamg @ tana . hianees
knowledge of incidence of a rare complex dural - venous variation , reported here is important for neurosurgeons and neuroradiologists to avoid iatrogenic injuries during suboccipital approaches and erroneous interpretation during diagnostic and operative procedures in the posterior cranial fossa .
) . the length and width of all the three folds ( right , middle and left falces ) were measured . the distances between the two adjacent falces were also measured at the proximal , middle , and distal thirds . the length of the right , middle and left falces were 38mm , 44mm , and 36mm respectively . the width of the right , middle , and left falces were 3mm , 5mm , and 3mm , respectively . the distances between the right and middle falces were 3 , 5 , and 8mm at the proximal , middle , and distal thirds . the distances between the middle and left falces were 3 , 4 , and 8mm at the proximal , middle , and distal thirds .
schematic picture showing the right and left aberrant venous sinuses , in the floor of the posterior cranial fossa . the right aberrant venous sinus ( ras ) connected the right sigmoid sinus ( rss ) with the right transverse sinus ( rts ) . the left aberrant venous sinus ( las ) connected the left sigmoid sinus ( lss ) with the left transverse sinus ( lts ) . ( os : occipital sinus )
to conclude , the complex dural - venous variation reported in the present case is seldom reported in the literature . awareness of such variation is important for neurosurgeons and neuroradiologists as these could be a potential source of haemorrhage during suboccipital approaches , or may lead to erroneous interpretation during imaging of the posterior cranial fossa .
the authors , satheesha nayak b , srinivasa rao sirasanagandla , deepthinath r , naveen kumar , declare that : this submission is compliant with the requirements of local research ethics committees .
williams pl . 38th international edition . edinburgh : churchill livingstone : 1999 . gray’s anatomy .
naidich tp , pudlowski rm , naidich jb , gornish m , rodriguez fj . computed tomographic signs of the chiari ii malformation . part i : skull and dural partitions .
michaud j , mizrahi em , urich h . agenesis of the vermis with fusion of the cerebellar hemispheres , septooptic dysplasia and associated anomalies . report of a case .
shoja mm , tubbs rs , shokouhi gh , ashrafian a , oakes wj .
abstract presented at the 23rd annual meeting of the american association of clinical anatomists .
lang j . thieme : new york : 1991 . clinical anatomy of the posterior cranial fossa and its foramina ; p . p . 6 .
rollins n , ison c , booth t , chia j . mr venography in the pediatric patient .
okudera t , huang yp , ohta t , yokota a , nakamura y , maehara f , utsunomiya h , uemura k , fukasawa h . development of posterior fossa dural sinuses , emissary veins , and jugular bulb : morphological and radiologic study .
reddy at , hedlund gl , percy ak . enlarged parietal foramina : association with cerebral venous and cortical anomalies .
this chapter will cover several normal anatomic findings and variations of normal cranial computed tomography ( ct ) and magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) , which occasionally are misdiagnosed as abnormalities , particularly by the more junior radiology resident struggling in the trenches during after - hours call . some of these normal variants have at one time or another also confused more senior radiologists , the author included , and it is hoped that this chapter contains useful tidbits for professionals at all levels of training , from the neophyte to the veteran .
these keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .
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shapiro r . radiology of the normal skull . chicago : year book , 1981 .
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steinbach hl , obata wg . the significance of the parietal bones . ajr 1957 ; 78 : 39 - 45 .
moulin g , desi p , chagnaud c , et al . dehiscence of the lamina papyracea of the ethmoid bone : ct findings . ajnr1994 ; 15 : 151 - 153 .
currarino g , weinberg a . os supra petrosum of meckel . ajr 1974 ; 121 : 139 - 141 .
henderson vw , naeser ma , weiner jm , et al . ct criteria of hemispheric asymmetry fail to predict language laterality . neurol 1984 ; 34 : 1086 - 1089 .
daniels dl , haughton vm , williams al , et al . the flocculus in computed tomography . ajnr 1981 ; 2 : 227 - 229 .
mickulis oj , diaz o , egglin tk , et al . variance of the position of the cerebellar tonsils with age : preliminary report . radiology 1992 ; 183 : 725 - 728 .
mirowitz s , sartor k , gado m , et al . focal signal - intensity variations in the posterior internal capsule : normal mr findings and distinction from pathologic findings . radiology 1989 ; 172 : 535 - 539 .
yagashita a , nakano i , oda m , et al . location of the corticospinal tract in the internal capsule at mr imaging . radiology 1994 ; 191 : 455 - 460 .
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pacific royale airways was an indonesian commercial airline which received its government flight license in november 2011 .

it received a formal air operator 's certificate ( aoc ) in may 2012 , and made its first flight on june 11 , 2012 .

it was reported in november 2012 that the airline 's license had been revoked .

pacific royale airways

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below , you can see the all the destinations that pacific royale airways flies to .
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indonesian start - up pacific royale airways has appointed tarun trikha as its new chief executive , effective from 1 august 2012 .
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british airways has removed a shot of virgin atlantic boss sir richard branson from the in - flight version of the james bond movie casino royale .
mr trika says the abacus deal will help pacific royale access travel agencies throughout asia as well as online channels . he expects gdss to initially account for about 60 % of pacific royale’s bookings . the remaining 40 % will come directly from the carrier’s website , although mr trika expects this figure will increase over time as the pacific royale brand starts to gain more traction .
indonesian airways start of operations was 26jan1949 . it was established at the same time as garuda
pacific royale is owned by gunarni gunawan , with a 51 percent , and indian investor tarun trika , with a 49 percent stake .
because pacific royale airways is no longer in operation , flight tickets are not available for this airline . however , you’ll find a large selection of alternative budget - friendly airlines for your flights throughout indonesia and beyond on our website .
pacific royale airways was a budget - friendly indonesian airline , but the airline’s closure doesn’t mean you have to miss out on great ticket deals . you’ll always find the industry’s best flight schedules and ticket prices when shopping on our website .
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pacific royale ceo samudra sukardi says pacific royale initially plans to have one fokker 50 based at both batam and surabaya . a second fokker 50 will be added at each base within a few months after launching services and a one - aircraft fokker 50 base will be added at medan .
pacific royale is also looking at launching service from surabaya to perth , a route which is not currently served by any carrier . mr trika says while pacific royale will focus on surabaya in developing its international network , it expects to operate some international services from a second undecided base .
pacific royale believes it can successfully differentiate by offering a full service product that connects small regional destinations with major cities in indonesia and throughout asia .
pacific royale airways suspended its operations due to maintenance issues in october of 2012 . the airline was unable to fulfill its promise to restore services on oct . 16 , 2012 , which resulted in the revocation of the airline’s flight license one month later .
because pacific royale airways is no longer in operation , ticket refunds can not be provided by this airline . however , you can contact our customer care team 24 hours a day to find out more about individual airline policies and the ticket refunding process .
the british airways edit also obscures the tail fin of a virgin plane that was seen in the original .
new domestic full - service carrier pacific royale airways , which made its debut in june this year , has announced that it would temporarily be halting its operations…the company had stopped operations early in october…he emphasized , however , that financial difficulties were not behind the halt .
pacific royale believes abacus will help it get into the business - to - business market immediately and help raise brand awareness . abacus says the agreement with pacific royale will take effect on 20 - feb - 2012 and give travel agents within the abacus network exclusive access to the carrier’s full range of fares and inventories .
pacific royale , however , will have to fend off competition from some foreign full service carriers if it follows through in its plan to launch international services from surabaya . for example , its planned surabaya - singapore route is now served by silkair and china airlines ( this route is also served by three budget carriers – lion air , indonesia airasia and jetstar asia subsidiary valuair ) . the surabaya - hong kong route , which pacific royale also plans to launch , is now only served by cathay pacific airways .
as its fleet grows , pacific royale plans to become the only airline to offer direct flights between indonesia and india , with a service connecting jakarta and mumbai .
pacific royale airways ( ry , jakarta soekarno - hatta ) has finally received its operating certificate from the indonesian aviation authorities on may 29 and plans to launch regional operations with its two fokker 50 s on june 11 . it will originally operate from two bases at batam and surabaya and serve regional destinations . from batam pacific royale will serve jambi - kerinci - padang and pekanbaru . from surabaya it will operate via semarang to both bandung and pangkalanbun .
pacific royale also has already purchased two fokker 50s and is in the process of purchasing three more of the type . the first fokker 50 is already in indonesia and is currently undergoing modification work while the second aircraft is slated for delivery on 26 - feb . pacific royale will configure its fokker 50s with 48 seats in single - class configuration .
pacific royale airways was founded in 2011 as a commercial airline offering flights throughout indonesia and to numerous international destinations . in 2012 , the airline was given permission to fly 11 international routes and 62 domestic ones . unfortunately , the airline ceased all operations when its license was revoked in late 2012 .
because pacific royale airways is no longer in operation , travelers can not check - in online or in person for any flights with this airline . however , a large number of the alternative airlines available on our site do allow web check - in to help you enjoy a more convenient flying experience .
cyprus airways douglas dc - 9 - 15 n54648 ( msn 45722 ) ory ( jacques guillem ) . image : 941362 .
competition in indonesia is about to intensify further as pacific royale prepares to launch services next month with an initial fleet of two fokker 50s and two a320s based in surabaya and batam . pacific royale is targeting garuda and indonesia’s other full service carriers with a low - density two - class product on its a320s that includes lightweight fibre optics - based in - flight entertainment ( ife ) systems in both cabins . the carrier’s business plan envisions rapid growth including 20 to 25 a320s , which will form the backbone of pacific royale’s fleet , within three years .
pacific royale , led by founder , chairman and part owner tarun trika , used the singapore airshow to sign contracts with several suppliers . lumexis has been contracted to provide its new fibre - to - the - screen ( fits ) ife technology on pacific royale’s a320 fleet . abacus international signed a two - year exclusive distribution agreement with the carrier . garuda indonesia mro subsidiary gmf aeroasia has been awarded a maintenance contract to support pacific royale’s a320 fleet while singapore - based fokker services asia has been awarded a maintenance contract covering the carrier’s fokker 50 fleet .
pacific royale will not have long to establish itself . indonesia’s most popular airline , lion air , plans to launch its own full - service airline , batik air , in march 2013 .
trikha will still remain on the pacific royale board of directors , where he had previously been the chairman . he succeeds samudra sukardi , the former chief executive who announced his resignation last week .
kate shapland the inspiration and vision behind legology urltoken … and gentle . i ask people to recall burt bacharach’s pacific coast highway , of herb alpert’s casino royale , the south of france or …
members american airlines , british airways , iberia , malaysian airlines , s7 airlines and srilankan airlines . it also has commercial agreements airlines outside
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pacific royale plans to base its a320s in batam , medan , surabaya and jakarta terminal 3 . about half of pacific royale’s initial a320 routes will be to or from jakarta and it will compete on the major trunk routes such as jakarta to medan and surabaya , both of which are served by garuda , lion , batavia and sriwijaya with several daily frequencies . but as pacific royale expands it plans to focus mainly on point - to - point domestic routes that bypass jakarta . for example , it plans to operate a320s from its non - jakarta bases to balikpapan , makassar and padang .
also , if anyone’s interested in the routes / times / prices , here they are from pacific royale’s facebook page ( as an aside , they have quite the enthusiastic social media employee ) . urltoken
indonesian regulations require all new airlines operate a fleet of 10 aircraft within the first year of operations , including five owned aircraft . the five fokker 50s ensure pacific royale meets the owned aircraft requirement .
jetblue airways embraer erj 190 - 100 igw n304jb ( msn 19000257 ) ( blueprint ) fll ( tony storck ) . image : 940756 .
in my opinion , pacific royale airways offers the best prices on flights throughout indonesia . unlike many other low - cost carriers , the airline doesn’t collect additional fees for carry - on baggage , seat selection and other services . it’s nice to know that you’ve paid the full price for your flight during the booking process , and you won’t have to come up with even more money when you arrive at the airport . pacific royale is one of the most honest airlines i’ve used , and i plan to fly with them again in the near future .
mr trika says pacific royale is also looking at serving india via singapore using a320s . if the carrier decides against launching non - stop flights to india , it will likely delay its plans for adding a330s . pacific royale is studying some other long - haul markets such as jeddah in saudi arabia but for now all the destinations in its business plan except india can be served non - stop from indonesia with a320s .
you can find out more about pacific royale airways’ company history , previous flight destinations and more on their official website . you may also contact the airline at the address or phone number listed below . physical address : jl . tanah abang ii no . 59 jakarta 10160 , indonesia telephone : 021 - 3505555 fax : 021 - 3503688 official website : urltoken
pacific royale owns two fokker 50 aircraft that operates from batam and surabaya . the third fokker 50 aircraft arrived in indonesia on 1 august , and is being prepared to be placed into service by the end of september .
maybe i’m old - fashioned , but in my opinion it’s a bit weird that pacific royale put its flight / fare / contact details on its facebook page , while on their official website there is still bugger all .
virgin nigeria airways ( lat charter ) boeing 767 - 3y0 er yl - lcz ( msn 25000 ) lgw ( terry wade ) . image : 901223 .
pacific royale launched its first flight on 15 june and serves routes to semarang , pangkalan bun and bandung . in the first two months of operations , its average load factor hit 65 - 70 % , says the carrier .
pacific royale is a full - service airline , so it will be more expensive than their more budget - oriented competitors . the real question is this : will people be willing to pay more for the extra service / comfort ?
pacific royale also plans to operate most of its international services at surabaya , which has relatively few international services given its large size . currently only 13 % of capacity ( seats ) at surabaya is allocated to the international market .
royale airlines embraer emb - 110p1 bandeirante n692ra ( msn 110240 ) msy ( bruce drum ) . image : 104648 .
pacific royale has finalised a deal with a us leasing company covering the carrier’s first two a320s , one of which will be delivered on 22 - feb and be used for the proving flights . both aircraft were manufactured in 2005 and previously operated by air berlin . pacific royale expects to have its third and fourth a320s , which will also be leased second - hand aircraft , delivered in june . the carrier is configuring its a320s with 12 business class and 138 economy class seats .
the carrier’s current fleet plan envisions an a330 - 300 with 42 business class and 250 economy class seats being its 10th aircraft . but pacific royale has not yet committed to leasing an a330 and could end up instead opting for a fifth a320 .
domestic trunk routes in indonesia are generally served by six carriers – airasia indonesia , citilink and lion from the budget end and garuda , batavia and sriwijaya from the full - service end ( merpati primarily operates regional routes ) . two other full - service carriers are also expected to launch services this year on domestic trunk routes – start - up pacific royale airways and lion’s new full - service unit , space jet .
pacific royale airways ( ry , jakarta soekarno - hatta ) has apparently already suspended regional operations with its fleet of three fokker 50 s on september 6 . it has announced that it would currently be restructuring its operations and reviewing its network with the aim of resuming services soon including the addition of a first a320 - 200 . it had launched operations with initially two fokker 50s on june 11 from bases at batam and surabaya .
when i stepped aboard my first flight with pacific royale from surabaya to semarang , i was blown away by the cleanliness of the cabin , the plush seats and overall luxurious feeling of the brand - new airplane . i’m used to flying with much older airlines on my flights to such remote destinations , so i was excited to feel a bit more luxurious experience for the same low price i pay with less glamorous airlines . if you prefer a comfortable seat , more legroom and a spotless cabin , you’ll love pacific royale .
in may 2012 , pacific royale airways won approval to fly 62 domestic routes and 11 international routes . the airline planned to use its fokker - 50s as feeders to link surabaya , batam city , banyuwangi , madiun , pekanbaru , the natuna islands and jambi . its airbus jets were to be used for international routes , such as jakarta - mumbai , surabaya - singapore , surabaya - hong kong , bandung - singapore and bandung - kuala lumpur .
the thailand project , which took the form of a proposed joint venture with thai airways that was initially signed in aug - 2010 , was formally called off in dec - 2011 . thai tiger was initially planning to launch services in early 2011 but repeatedly ran into delays in securing approval from the thai government , prompting thai airways and tiger to eventually scrap the project altogether .
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pacific royale will launch with domestic services but regional international services , primarily from indonesia’s second largest city of surabaya , are planned as part of a second phase which is slated to begin by mid - 2012 . medium to long - haul international services with a330s are also being considered as part of a third phase which could begin as early as late 2012 . while pacific royale will have several routes from jakarta , where it has established its headquarters , it will focus primarily on relatively underserved point - to - point markets which bypass the congested capital .
sierra pacific airlines ( 3rd ) boeing 737 - 5l9 wl n709s ( msn 28722 ) bwi ( tony storck ) . image : 941354 .
pacific royale sees growing demand for a full service product from small regional destinations as indonesia’s economy continues to grow rapidly . garuda , however , does not see a need to serve such destinations , believing there is still a lack of high yielding passengers in indonesia’s smaller cities or towns .
, generally offer low fares and single - class aircraft . pacific royale and lion , with its new space jet unit , see room at the top end of the market , bucking a trend in the rest of the world where just about every new start - up follows the lcc model .
the lumexis deal makes pacific royale the asian launch customer for fits and the first a320 operator to use the technology . flydubai signed up as the launch customer for fits in 2010 and has now been using the seatback ife screen on some of its boeing 737 - 800s for over one year .
in october 2012 , flight operations were stopped due to maintenance reasons . the airline promised that operations would resume on october 16 , 2012 , but the fleet remained grounded the following day . pacific royale ' s flight license was revoked the following month . it is currently listed as
ceased operation in 2012
.
but yesterday at surabaya airport , i saw its plane was parked in the same place in the morning and evening , a long way from any passengers . considering pacific royale only has two planes at the moment ( and they have to increase that to 10 within a year ) , that does not augur well .
the carrier aims to have a large international network by 2015 , when asean open skies takes effect . mr trika believes open skies in southeast asia will lead to increased competition and the “timing is right” to now launch an airline as pacific royale will have three years to develop the market before open skies takes effect .
few airlines even fly to pangkalan bun , so i was excited to see a new option available when searching for flights . i had never head pacific royale airways , but the price was right , so i decided to give the airline a short , and i was definitely pleased with the service . the 1 - hour - long flight seemed like it went by in seconds because of the spacious seats and friendly flight attendants . i’m so happy to have a more comfortable but still affordable option for reaching my friends in pangkalan bun .
mr tika , an indian national , has a 49 % stake in pacific royale , the maximum permitted under indonesian airline ownership regulations . indonesian entrepreneur goenarni goenawan owns the remaining 51 % . mr tika declines to say how much initial capital the two founders are providing . but indonesian regulators , as part of an effort to raise the barrier to entry and avoid an influx of new airlines , now require start - ups have enough funds in the bank to cover the first 12 months of operations with zero percent load factor . mr tika acknowledges this requirement led to a delay in launching pacific royale , which was first established one year ago .
pacific royale’s backers are confident the fast - growing indonesian market can support a new full service carrier given indonesia’s fast economic growth and the country’s expanding middle and upper classes , which according to mr trika expect a full service product even on short flights . the middle and upper classes account for roughly 40 million of the 240 million people living in indonesia .
casino royale made more than $ 450m ( £225m ) at cinemas last year , surpassing the previous best for bond - $ 431m ( £215m ) for die another day in 2002 .
with its a320 routes , pacific royale will mainly compete against garuda , lion and indonesia’s other two main domestic carriers – batavia and sriwijaya . while batavia and sriwijaya follow the full - service model , their fares tend to be low and they generally operate ageing aircraft in single - class configuration . pacific royale aims to position its a320 product , with state - of - the - art ife screens at every seat , above these carriers and capture some of the market now almost entirely catered to by garuda . space jet , however , will also be pursuing this market segment when it launches dual - class 737 - 900er services in 2013 and sriwijaya has similarly been considering going more upmarket by adding a business class .
all five fokker 50s are being acquired from singapore - based fortran aviation and were previously operated by ethiopian airlines . while the ex - ethiopian fokker 50s are among the youngest fokker aircraft in the world ( fokker 50 production ended in 1996 ) , pacific royale expects to replace its turboprop fleet within a few years . the carrier has already had discussions with atr .
there are 48 british airways club world ( business class ) seats on this four - class b777 - 200 , configured across rows ten to 15 in a 2 - 4 - 2 layout ( a - b , d - e - f - g , j - k ) .
in order to meet minimum requirements for commercial flight operations , pacific royale planned to operate a fleet of ten aircraft . the fleet was to include five fokker - 50 turboprop airliners , all bought from ethiopian airlines , and five leased jet airliners – four airbus a320s and one airbus a330 . two fokker - 50s flew at the airline ' s initial launch , with more fokkers and airbuses entering service in the following months .
british airways relaunched services between london to tehran on september 1 , after a gap of four years . there are six flights a week ( daily except sundays ) , departing heathrow at 2110 , landing in tehran at 0525 the next day . it is the only carrier serving the route directly from the uk .
garuda indonesian airways was founded as 1949 , just after independence by renaming klm interinsulair bedrijf . started operations on 31mar1950 . took over many small airlines in the 1950s . nationalised in 1954 . acquired de kroonduif in 1962 , which was a klm subsiduary later was renamed to merpati . international and regional passenger and cargo airline
in addition to serving several international destinations with its a320 fleet , pacific royale envisions acquiring a330s , primarily for mumbai and delhi . but mr trika says he does not yet want to commit to serving india , which currently has no non - stop links with indonesia , and is still studying the indonesia - india market . “we don’t want to experiment just now , ” he says , adding the carrier will first focus on domestic and then regional international services .
pacific royale will follow a full service network carrier model from the beginning with its short turboprop routes feeding its domestic jet routes and , soon thereafter , its international jet routes . the fokker 50 operated routes will provide feed at three regional hubs – surabaya , medan and batam . surabaya is currently indonesia’s third largest airport after jakarta and denpasar ( bali ) , according to capacity figures from innovata . medan is indonesia’s fifth largest airport while batam is the ninth largest .
- [ garuda indonesian airways was founded as 1949 , just after independence by renaming klm interinsulair bedrijf . started operations on 31mar1950 . took over many small airlines in the 1950s . nationalised in 1954 . acquired de kroonduif in 1962 , which was a klm subsiduary later was renamed to merpati . international and regional passenger and cargo airline ]
by not focussing on jakarta , pacific royale will avoid having to compete with garuda on every route . garuda and full service carriers generally have a relatively small market share at surabaya , medan and batam . according to innovata data , garuda currently only accounts for 18 % of total capacity at surabaya , 17 % at medan and 14 % at batam . lion is the largest player in all three markets by a wide margin , with a 55 % share at surabaya , 44 % share at medan and 56 % share at batam ( includes wings - operated capacity ) .
i couldn’t believe my eyes when i saw another option for flights to jambi . i’ve flown the route from batam to jambi countless times and have only had the option of choosing lion air for every trip . i was more than happy to see a new airline , pacific royale , available for my october trip . i was even more excited when i landed at my destination on time and without feeling like i did any flying at all . the airline made everything enjoyable from check - in to landing , and there’s no doubt i’ll be flying with them on my next trip .
indonesia is a huge growth market with tremendous potential for existing and new carriers . but pacific royale will have to overcome stiff competition , particularly from fast - expanding garuda , which has a powerful brand and strong positioning at the top end of the market . garuda is now investing in improving its premium product as well as its full service economy offering as it renews its fleet and upgrades its ife offering . the flag carrier’s long - haul network and upcoming entrance into the skyteam global alliance , which is now expected in 1q2013 , will also give garuda an advantage over any new indonesian carrier with a premium offering .
lion plans to use space jet , which will operate business jets as well as some of the 300 plus boeing 737s lion has on order , to compete primarily against garuda mainline as lion itself focusses on fighting off a rapidly expanding citilink . the impact from the launch of space jet and pacific royale , which is aiming to launch services next month with an initial fleet of five a320s and five fokker turboprops , in theory should be minimal because mandala / tiger will focus on the low end of the market . but in indonesia inevitably all carriers end up competing as economy class fares are typically low across both the budget and full - service sectors .
to date , airbus has recorded a total of 848 firm orders for the a350 xwb from 45 customers worldwide , already making it one of the most successful wide - body aircraft ever . with 287 firm orders for the a350 from carriers in asia - pacific , the region represents over a third of total sales for the type to date .
for those drinking , which i wasn’t , there was a full bar with three types of champagne ( henriot brut souverain nv , de castelnau brut reserve nv and de castelnau brut rose nv ) , g & ts ( with gordon’s or tanqueray and fever tree tonic ) , kir royale cocktails , st austell tribute pale ale and tiger lager among the options .
hevilift aviation indonesia is a carrier specialising in fixed and rotary wing charter operations based out of balikpapan sepinggan ( bpn ) . it was renamed from nyaman air ( established in 1994 and formerly operating as the regional aviation group , hevilift group is now one of the leading aviation charter service companies in the asia - pacific region . it provides specialised equipment and infrastructure for the transportation of oil , gas and mining personnel and equipment in a variety of operational locations )
tiger airways is banking the booming indonesian market can support another new carrier and absorb over the next 14 months at least 10 a320s from the struggling airline group’s surplus fleet . singapore - based tiger has not yet invested a penny into mandala airlines but has a lot at stake as the indonesian carrier plans to resume services in april following a 15 - month hiatus , using tiger’s aircraft and business model . while it only had to pay a token one dollar for its 33 % stake in mandala , tiger along with mandala’s other new investors will be providing a loan to cover re - launch costs and will need to continue pumping in capital until the airline becomes profitable , a potentially challenging proposition given current market conditions in indonesia .
the republic of indonesia is an archipelago of more than 13 , 500 islands located astride the equator in southeast asia . sumatra , the westernmost major island , lies south of burma , while irian jaya on the island of new guinea is the country ' s eastern extreme . the islands command vital sea routes between australia , europe , and the asian mainland and are the principal link between the indian and pacific oceans . indonesia , formerly part of the netherlands east indies , proclaimed its independence on august 17 , 1945 , after more than 300 years of dutch control . the largest and capital city is jakarta
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uds air shepherd program co - founder rob hannaford will speak at the show on 24 july as part of the lindbergh innovation forum .
it is opening new offices in ankara , strengthening the local team which has already been present in istanbul since 2011 .
training manuals and technical manuals are an integral part of the logistic engineering process , says walog training development .
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pt tiket2 indonesia , jl . kaliurang km 7 , 8 no 150 , yogyakarta 55581 , indonesia
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to see details about aircraft , click on to the number in the appropriate column in the table below .
the world ' s best economy class ? on garuda indonesia ga 717 to jakarta .
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we are currently preparing for the arrival of the first airbus 320 in early september , and the second one is expected to arrive by the end of the same month . with the addition of the new airbuses to our fleet , we will expand our network to the destination cities such as jakarta , surabaya , batam , ujung pandang , bandung , padang and balikpapan ,
says trikha .
only twice in the first decade since the airbus a380 entered service has the double - deck aircraft ended a year with its order backlog higher than that of the previous one . on both occasions middle eastern carrier emirates alone had spared the programme from recording a duck for the year . emirates ordered 32 a380s in mid - 2010 and just eight days before the end of 2013 signed for another 50 of the type .
losing four geared turbofan engines to in - flight failures as a result of a botched durability upgrade was not how pratt & whitney wanted 2018 to begin quite the opposite .
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the safety of indonesia’s aviation industry is back in the spotlight following the crash of a trigana air service flight on sunday .
since 2001 , there have been at least 40 air accidents on indonesian soil that resulted in fatalities , according to the website aviation - safety . net . they include indonesia airasia flight 8501 , which crashed into the java sea last december , killing 162 people . by comparison , there have been just six on uk soil during that time – all involving small jets with fewer than six individuals on board .
according to aviation - safety . net , jakarta - based trigana has been involved in 15 accidents during its 23 - year history - although urltoken puts the figure at 19 - including 10 hull losses .
it is one of a remarkable 59 indonesian airlines currently banned from flying in eu airspace . that’s every airline in the country bar garuda indonesia , airfast indonesia , ekspres transportasi antarbenua and indonesia air asia . no other nation has as many carriers banned from operating in europe .
following the indonesia airasia accident , the new york times reported that the country scored just 61 per cent for “airworthiness” in a may 2014 un report , behind lesser - developed neighbours such as laos and myanmar . it added that insurance companies charge indonesian airlines nearly double the global average for premiums because of their poor safety history .
arnold barnett , an mit statistician who specialises in airline safety , told the paper the death rate in plane crashes in indonesia was one per million passengers – 25 times the rate in the united states . “to assert that the disparity is only a coincidence or manifestation of bad luck would be preposterous , ” he said .
those odds are still pretty remote . and those indonesian airlines not banned by the eu ought to be on a par with all those that european regularly fly with . but there is clearly a lingering problem with air safety .
indonesia’s aviation industry has expanded rapidly in the past decade or so , with numerous new low - cost airlines catering to the millions who would now rather travel around the country’s 17 , 000 islands by air rather than ferry . passenger numbers within the region rose by 81 per cent between 2006 and 2013 and according to a report from the international aviation transport association ( iata ) , it will be the sixth largest market for air travel within 20 years . by 2034 , 270 million passengers are expected to fly to or from one of indonesia’s airports each year – 30 million more than uk airports currently handle annually .
but there are doubts that safety standards are keeping up . in the same report , iata said that safety was the biggest concern for the successful development of aviation in the country . “indonesia has had at least one hull loss every year since 2010 , ” it said . “in the international civil aviation organization’s ( icao ) universal safety oversight audit program ( usoap ) , indonesia was assessed as below the global average . the us federation aviation administration downgraded indonesia to category 2 in its international aviation safety assessment program . ”
the faa’s rating indicates that it believes indonesia’s aviation authority is not up to scratch in areas such as pilot training , inspection procedures , technical expertise or record keeping .
december ' s indonesia airasia crash , which occurred shortly after the pilot had requested permission to deviate from the flight path to avoid a storm , led to suggestions from aviation experts that some pilots felt pressured to fly on through extreme weather . had the pilot abandoned the ill - fated journey , he
would have had to answer questions to management , to the accountants , to the bean counters ,
desmond ross , a pilot who lived in indonesia for a decade , told the telegraph at the time . “if you ask the budget airlines they will tell you they don’t cut corners on maintenance and they don’t cut corners on training or anything that has got to do with safety . well , that is what they say and let us hope that it is true . but we know that they are trying to cut corners in just about every other area . ”
the last major accident to occur in indonesia prior to december ' s crash was in 2007 on a flight operated by the now defunct adam air , in which 102 people died . claims later emerged that the airline , once indonesia’s most popular low - cost carrier , had bribed aviation officials , pressured pilots to breach safety rules and used recycled spare parts .
iata also suggested that indonesia was not taking advantage of its resources : “the iata operational safety audit ( iosa ) is a global standard and is at the core of our efforts to improve safety . since 2009 , iosa registered carriers recorded better safety performance than those not on the registry . in 2014 , iosa registered airlines had one accident for every 900 , 000 flights , compared to one accident for every 300 , 000 flights for those not on the registry . but of the 63 indonesian airlines operating scheduled or chartered flights , only garuda is in the iosa registry .
it added : “turning around a safety record is not easy . the best laid plans need to be followed up with concrete actions . where this has been done—in latin america , china , and nigeria for example—we have seen significant and sustainable improvements . setting iosa as one of the standards required for an indonesian air operator ' s certificate is but one of many needed actions . ”
last week ' s accident will no doubt lead to further calls for indonesia ' s airlines and aviation authority to take action on safety .
in a pristine tropical archipelago in a far - flung corner of indonesia , the brand new bawah island . . .
a multi - award - winning haven of peace , privacy and exceptional service , set off the beaten track i . . .
a cluster of private villas ensconced within a series of curling stone pathways flanked by banyan . . .
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was founded in 1989 and is based in surabaya . it declared bankruptcy in 2010
which began commercial operations between jayapura and jakarta on 23jun2003 . it was then renamed to
adam air was founded in 2002 by agung laksono . started operations on 19dec2002 & ceased on 18mar2008
air efata was formed in 2004 and started operation as efata papua airlines in early 2004 . the airline was unable to continue its operations after the aircraft returned to jakarta . after two years of inactivity , air efata recommenced operations on 09jan2006 . ceased operations in feb2007
air maleo was established in early 2010 & operations started mar2010 as a cargo carrier based out of jakarta halim perdanakusuma international ( hlp ) . the indonesian transportation minister suspended the flight permit for failing to meet plane ownership requirements . this suspension took effect on 01aug2015 .
air paradise was established in jun2002 and started operations on 16feb2003 . launched operations from denpasar to melbourne and perth . unfortunately the start was delayed by the terrorist bomb in bali in oct2002 . following a significant downturn of australian visitors the carrier suspended operations on 23nov2005
no further information at this time [ zamrud aviation corp . was formed by the merger of zamrud airlines and aircraft owners ' association in 1969 ]
airmark indonesian aviation was established in 1998 & operates scheduled , regional and domestic , passenger services as well as scheduled express cargo services , ad hoc charter services and relief missions . its main base is halim perdanakusuma international airport , jakarta
indonesian aerospace 212 - 200 | antonov an - 12 | antonov an - 32v | an - 8 | f . 50
the indonesian transportation minister suspended the flight permit of asco nusa air for failing to meet plane ownership requirements . this suspension took effect on 01aug2015
asia avia airlines was established and started operations in 2003 . in 2006 , all flight operations were suspended and the licence was withdrawn
no further information at this time [ air timor first commenced its corporate life as charter airline under the name austasia airlines operating charters between australia and indonesia from 2001 until 2007 . in 2007 it relocated to timor - leste and austasia airlines was also registered in singapore as well as timor - leste . following approval from the timor - leste government austasia airlines commenced its first scheduled charter flights from singapore to dili in aug2008 operating a twice weekly schedule on tuesday and saturday with a wet leased airbus a319 aircraft from silk air . in 2010 austasia airlines lodged its application to become a national company and change its name to air timor s . a . , which was approved by the east timor government ]
auvia air is a cargo airline based in east jakarta , indonesia . it was established and started operations in 2004 and operates cargo services
indonesia airasia was formed in 1999 & started operations on 02jun2000 as awair . on 01dec2005 , it changed its name to indonesia airasia
bali air was founded as nusantara air service ( a subsidiary of the airline bouraq indonesia airlines ) in 1973 with operations starting the sae year . on 21may1974 , the company changed its name officially to bali international air service and then used its aircraft under the brand appearance of bali air on a regional line network and on charter flights . bali air ceased its activities in february 2006 due to financial problems
bae 748 series 2a | bae 748 series 2b | boeing 737 - 200 adv . | fokker f . 27 | fokker f . 28
batavia air operations was formed in 2002 & started operations on 05jan2002 as metro batavia , ceased on 31jan2013 . scheduled and charter , international and domestic services out of jakarta soekamo hatta
batik air was announced as space air , lion air’s planned full service subsidiary in nov2011 . adopted the batik air brand in may2012 & its maiden flight was in may2013
bouraq indonesia airlines was founded by j a sumendap on 01apr1970 . it was named for al - buraq , a flying horse in muslim tradition . it was shut down in 2005 after prolonged financial problems . the last scheduled bouraq flight took place in jul2005 . the airline licence was later revoked in 2007 . regional airline operating flights to eastern parts of the indonesian archipelago
cardig air cargo was initially formed as an aviation services and freight forwarder company . cargo carrier based at jakarta ' s halim airport that started operations in apr2004
boeing 737 - 200 | boeing 737 - 300 | boeing 737 - 400 | b . 737 - 400f
garuda established low - cost domestic subsidiary citilink on 15jul2001 . started operations on 16jul2001
out of its jakarta and manokwari , west papua hubs , dimonim air offers medivac services , sightseeing flights as well as corporate and cargo charters . founded in 2008 , it also operates three cessna ( single turboprop ) 208bs and four kamov ka - 32t and eurocopter as350 helicopters . on february 12 , 2014 the company signed a memorandum of understanding for the purchase of ten more cessna caravan 208s
nil further at this time - [ air efata was formed in 2004 and started operation as efata papua airlines in early 2004 . the airline was unable to continue its operations after the aircraft returned to jakarta . after two years of inactivity , air efata recommenced operations on 09jan2006 . ceased operations in feb2007 ]
enggang air service is a private charter company based at halim perdanakusuma international airport in jakarta . the company provides corporate charters and medivac flights using a combination of cessna and embraer turbo - prop and jet aircraft as well as utilising augusta - westland 109 rotary wing aircraft .
nil further at this time - [ xpress air was formed in 2003 as fly express which began commercial operations between jayapura and jakarta on 23jun2003 . it was then renamed to express air , apparently to represent a more modern and customer - friendly airline . once again , a rebrand to current name occurred in 2012 - scheduled domestic services ]
gatari air service was founded in 1983 & operations started on 04apr1983 . charter and executive services in support of the oil and gas industry