the wingspan is about 25 mm for males and 35 mm for females .

fraus pteromela

fraus pteromela is a moth of the hepialidae family . it is found in most of the southern half of australia .
hectomanes pteromela lower , 1892 ; trans . r . soc . s . austr . 15 : 5 ; tl : s . australia
fraus pteromela ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus sp . photo courtesy of david fischer fraus simulans . victoria . march 31 , 2017 photo courtesy of nick temby©
fraus quadrangula nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 130
fraus serrata nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 137
fraus minima nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 123 ; tl : australia
fraus megacornis nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 125 ; tl : australia
fraus basicornis nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 127 ; tl : australia
fraus tedi nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 129 ; tl : australia
fraus marginispina nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 132 ; tl : australia
fraus latistria nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 138 ; tl : tasmania
fraus linogyna nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 139 ; tl : australia
fraus distispina nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 141 ; tl : australia
fraus mediaspina nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 142 ; tl : australia
fraus biloba nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 143 ; tl : australia
fraus basidispina nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 145 ; tl : australia
fraus furcata nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 148 ; tl : australia
fraus pilosa nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 150 ; tl : australia
fraus griseomaculata nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 161 ; tl : australia
fraus orientalis nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 133 ; tl : new south wales
fraus bilineata ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus serrata ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus ( hepialidae ) ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus minima ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus megacornis ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus basicornis ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus tedi ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus quadrangula ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus marginispina ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus orientalis ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus latistria ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus linogyna ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus distispina ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus mediaspina ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus biloba ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus basidispina ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus nanus ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus furcata ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus pilosa ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus fusca ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus crocea ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus simulans ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus polyspila ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus griseomaculata ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
fraus pelagia ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
adults fly mostly in the autumn and a few species occur in large numbers . larvae of fraus simulans construct vertical silk - lined tunnels in the soil and feed on surface grasses from within silk lined webbing ( grehan , 1989 )
the source code for museums victoria collections is available on github under the mit license .
html public
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curators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .
species catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .
is monophyletic with respect to ( 1 ) elongate elliptical scales with a short , finely serrated apical margin and ( 2 ) patch of hair - scales at the base of the female hindwing ( nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ) .
nielsen , , e . s . and kristensen , n . p . 1989 .
s . e . big desert at 15 . 5 km . w . s . w . of rainbow , victoria , australia , 22 april 2008
paratype . australia : coolgardie , june 5 , 1965 . image courtesy of thomas j . witt©
det . e . s . nielsen , 1983 . new zealand arthropod collection . image : jane hyland ( cmnh )
= ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
= ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )
epiolus nanus herrich - schäffer , [ 1853 ] ; samml . aussereurop . schmett . ( i ) 1 ( 3 ) : pl . 10 , f . 46
hectomanes crocea lucas , 1891 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . ( 2 ) 6 ( 2 ) : 283 ; tl : australia
= ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list ) ; [ aucl ]
hectomanes polyspila meyrick , 1890 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . ( 2 ) 4 ( 4 ) : 1127 ; tl : victoria
hectomanes pelagia turner , 1927 ; pap . proc . r . soc . tasm . 1926 : 164 ; tl : tasmania
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
walker , 1865 list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 31 : 1 - 322 ( [ 1865 ] ) , 32 : 323 - 706 ( 1865 ) , 33 : 707 - 1120 ( 1865 ) , 34 : 1121 - 1534 ( [ 1866 ] ) , 35 : 1535 - 2040 ( 1866 )
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
ebooks best sellers human anatomy : v . 3 : regional and applied 8123911572 pdf by b . d . chaurasia


the secretarybird or secretary bird ( sagittarius serpentarius ) is a very large , mostly terrestrial bird of prey .

endemic to africa , it is usually found in the open grasslands and savannah of the sub-saharan region .

although a member of the order accipitriformes , which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as kites , hawks , vultures , and harriers , it is given its own family , sagittariidae .

it appears on the coats of arms of sudan and south africa .

secretarybird

fuertes’ secretarybird by louis agassiz fuertes is licensed under public domain mark 1 . 0 .
global raptor information network . species account : secretarybird sagittarius serpentarius ( july , 2010 ) urltoken
secretarybird by ian white is licensed under cc by - nc - sa 2 . 0 .
museum specimens indicate historical distributions . the map below shows locations from which museum specimens of secretarybird were collected . you can see more information on the individual museum specimens of secretarybird here .
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secretarybird with a tasty treat by jean & nathalie is licensed under cc by 2 . 0 .
sabap comparison map for the secretarybird , extracted 19 april 2013 . colour coding of qdgcs as per
secretarybird can reach 4 to 5 feet in height and 5 to 9 ½ pounds of weight .
researchers used to believe that name
secretarybird
originates from 19th century when male secretaries wore quills in their wigs ( similar in appearance with crest of secretarybird ) . more likely , name
secretarybird
originates from arabic word
saqu ettair
which means
hunter - bird
.
southern african bird atlas project ( sabap ) comparison map for the secretarybird , extracted 19 april 2013 .
the secretarybird has always been admired by the african people due to its striking appearance and great ally against pests such as snakes and rodents . the secretarybird is also known as the devil horse by many african cultures .
the secretarybird is the national emblem of sudan and is also on the south african coat of arms , representing vigilance and military might . the secretarybird also appears on many postage stamps in over 30 countries in africa .
a third fossil bird from 10 million year - old nebraska rocks has been called the
false secretarybird
since its similarity to the modern secretarybird is believed to be due to convergence rather than a close genetic relationship .
the secretarybird is a nomadic species and will often travel far and wide in search of food and other resources .
want the hassle and frustration of managing your poems , secretarybird is for you . and best of all it is
the secretarybird was supposedly named because it resembles an old - fashioned secretary carrying quill - pens tucked behind her ears .
habitat : secretarybird lives in open grass plains and steppes , also in savannahs with scarce bushes and open spaces between trees .
monster hunter on twitter :
# nationalbirdday fun fact : seregios was inspired by the secretarybird and its stomping attack . urltoken urltoken
a large bird of prey , the secretarybird feeds mainly on large insects and small mammals , which it often stamps on before swallowing whole .
the secretarybird is endemic to sub - saharan africa . it ranges from senegal and somalia all the way to the tip of south africa .
embed this arkive thumbnail link (
portlet
) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =
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arkive species - secretarybird ( sagittarius serpentarius )
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baker n , brouwer j , baker l , sinclair a , harebottle d , et al . . ( 2010 ) the status of the secretarybird
diet : secretarybird feeds mainly on insects ( grasshoppers ) , lizards , small birds and eggs , young hares , rodents , small amphibians and snakes .
although it can fly , the secretarybird prefers to move around on foot and can cover 30 km a day , earning it the title ‘africa’s marching eagle’ .
the secretarybird is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .
the secretary bird or secretarybird is a bird of prey found widely across africa , belonging to the same order as hawks , vultures , kites and harriers .
unlike many other birds of prey , the secretarybird often catches it prey with its bill . but like many owl species , secretarybirds swallow most of their prey whole .
protection / threats / status : secretarybird is officially protected because it kills poisonous snakes , but decline of this species continues , and they don’t breed successfully in captivity .
the secretarybird is the odd man out amongst the raptors . it ' s a grey and black terrestrial eagle , 1 . 3m tall , with a distinctive red face .
kemp , a . c . 1995 . aspects of the breeding and behaviour of the secretarybird sagittarius serpentarius near pretoria , south africa . ostrich , 66 : 61 - 68 .
secretarybird has wingspan of 7 feet . these birds rarely fly even though they are proficient in the air . they fly with the help of warm air currents to preserve energy .
the secretarybird is a charismatic and familiar species , and uses a variety of habitats across its range in sub - saharan africa . it occurs in all nine provinces in south africa .
the secretarybird is easy to identify ; it has long legs , grey - black plumage , crest feathers and orange facial skin . in flight its long elongated central tail feathers are characteristic .
the common name secretarybird is said to derive from the bird’s crest of long feathers which look like the long quill pens that the olden day secretaries had tucked behind their ears or in their wigs .
citation : hofmeyr sd , symes ct , underhill lg ( 2014 ) secretarybird sagittarius serpentarius population trends and ecology : insights from south african citizen science data . plos one 9 ( 5 ) : e96772 . urltoken
it is regularly told in south africa that the common name of the secretarybird is due to the dark quill like feathers , resembling a quill pen behind the ear ( apparently common practice for an 18th century secretary ) .
the secretarybird has a widespread distribution throughout much of sub - saharan africa , from senegal and the gambia in the west across to ethiopia in the east , and extending southwards through the eastern african countries into south africa . a fairly nomadic species , the secretarybird will often travel widely in search of food , or in response to rainfall , fires and other changes in environmental conditions ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 7 ) .
secretarybird is large bird of prey that lives in the sub - saharan africa . secretarybird usually inhabits savannas and open grasslands which enable fast identification of the potential prey . other than that , secretarybirds can be found in semi - deserts , forests and farmlands . secretarybirds are threatened by habitat loss due to increased agriculture and urban development . luckily , number of secretarybirds in the wild is large and they are not on the list of endangered species .
dean wrj , simmons re ( 2005 ) secretarybird . in : hockey par , dean wrj , ryan pg , editors . roberts birds of southern africa . trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund : cape town . pp . 542–543 .
behaviour : secretarybird is largely terrestrial , but it is a very good flier . they hunt for preys in grass , walking or running very fast . secretarybird feeds on snakes , and has a method to catch them . it stamps the snake with its long legs and its short but hard rear talon . it is quite equipped to tackle them . it may kill them by grabbing the victim , and beating it to death on the ground . prey may also be tossed into the air several times to stunt it . secretarybird is not immune to the snake poison , and it has to be sure that its prey is dead before to eat . secretarybirds often hunt in small groups or in pair , and keep contact by hooting .
the secretarybird breeds year - round , but with a distinct peak during the spring and summer months further south . two to three broods are often reared in productive years after good rainfall ( 7 ) . the secretarybird makes a nest out of sticks , creating a large platform on a flat - topped acacia tree or other thorny bush , and lining it with dry grass and other materials . it may also nest in non - thorny or exotic tree species if preferred nesting sites are not available .
a more recent theory on the naming of the secretarybird , is that it is a corruption of the arabic saqu ettair meaning
hunter - bird
, which passed , incorrectly , into french as secrétaire & was subsequently translated into english as secretary .
voice : sounds by xeno - canto secretarybird is a silent bird . but when it is displaying , it utters a hoarse croaking sound , very deep and rapid . it may also make a kind of mewing noise during the night , on the roost - site .
kemp ac ( 1994 ) family sagittariidae ( secretarybird ) . in : del hoyo j , elliott a , sargatal j , editors . handbook of the birds of the world . vol 2 . new world vultures to guineafowl . lynx edicions : barcelona . pp . 206–215 .
below are links to dedicated pages for each secretarybird which has been fitted with a tracking device . basic information about each bird as well as a map indicating the movement of the bird can be found on each page . the pages will be updated on a regular basis .
although usually found in grassland and open savanna scattered with small thorny trees , the secretarybird also inhabits farmland , particularly where cereals are grown , as well as semi - desert habitats and grassy , open clearings in forests and woodlands ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .
we develop a method for inferring changes in abundance from atlas reporting rates , with a measure of statistical significance attached . while the count data provided by the car project are not useful for a species such as the secretarybird , because of its low general abundance and nomadic / wide - ranging behaviour [ 3 ] , the habitat use data provide information about the species ' ecology . together , these analyses provide important insights into the conservation status of the secretarybird in south africa in 2013 , which would not have been possible without the existence of these citizen science data .
although its population is distributed over a vast area covering more than 15 million square kilometres , the secretarybird is generally in decline , and is thought to have completely disappeared from west africa in the last 30 years ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 8 ) . this species is increasingly threatened by the expansion of human populations , and the associated spread of cultivation and urbanisation ( 2 ) ( 8 ) . on a smaller scale , some populations of the secretarybird are at risk from hunting and persecution , with several individuals found poisoned or injured in south africa in recent years ( 5 ) .
the secretarybird is easily distinguished from other raptors and cranes by its grey plumage , the orange facial skin with raptor - like beak and the characteristic stealthy stride it takes as it moves through the grass in search of prey . the shape of the body is very similar to that of an eagle but walks on the legs of a stork or crane . the sexes are alike with the males having a slightly longer crest and tail than the female . a full grown secretarybird can reach a mass of 4kg ( max 4 . 5 ) and a reach an astonishing 1 . 4 meters tall with a wingspan of 191 - 220cm . in flight one would think that this bird could be confused with the similar coloured grey crowned crane , but it can easily be distinguished due to its barred tail feathers . with a tail of around 75cm long the secretarybird is the record holder for the longest tail in africa .
bill is short , strong , hocked and pale grey . secretarybird has a patch of bare facial skin , which extends behind and above eyes , orange - red in colour . eyes are dark - brown , with very long black eyelashes . both sexes are similar , with male slightly larger than female .
flight : secretarybird is a very good flier . it uses thermal currents to ascend and it soars for long distances . when it is threatened , the bird runs with spread wings , but it will take off and fly strongly if necessary . it may rise on thermals up to nearly 4000 metres elevation .
the secretarybird is a very distinctive bird , which is the sole member of the genus sagittarius . it is only found in africa , in the grass plains & steppes south of the sahara . it is the only bird of prey predominantly terrestial habits , they may walk up to 20 miles in a day .
as a grassland specialist , it avoids dense bush and rocky habitats . the secretarybird walks purposefully across the veld at up to 3km / h looking for prey . its long legs are exceptionally strong and it uses them to stamp on small animals or hold them down while it tears at them with its beak .
insects form the bulk of its diet but it will take rodents and other small mammals , snakes and birds such as the laughing dove and sabota lark . shangaan traditional healers value the secretarybird for muthi . a concoction using its ground bones is reputed to bring respect and power , and the ability to overcome ones fears .
boshoff af , allan dg ( 1997 ) secretarybird sagittarius serpentarius in : harrison ja , allan dg , underhill lg , herremans m , tree aj , et al . . . , editors . the atlas of southern african birds . vol . 1 : non - passerines . birdlife south africa : johannesburg . pp . 152–153 .
secretarybird lets you focus on writing your poems , taking on the burden of managing your work ; allowing you to keep track of your poems and how they have been : revised , critiqued , read , entered for competitions and submitted for publication . with a few clicks you can sort , filter , classify and catalogue poems , review versions , track critiques and build collections . on startup you can have secretarybird pick up where you left off with your latest draft , making use of a standard or customised template , sequencing each version automatically . and you can have early warning of upcoming competitions . the application is benign , working alongside your existing dtp and text writing software .
as you may imagine , a bird with such long legs is built to do a lot of walking . and the secretarybird does not disappoint . scientists estimate that secretarybirds walk anywhere from 12 to 18 miles ( 20 - 30 km ) a day ! that would be like walking the length of an american football field 300 times or more .
baker n , brouwer j , baker l , sinclair a , harebottle d , et al . . ( 2010 ) the status of the secretarybird sagittarius serpentarius with special reference to tanzania and declines across the continent . a preliminary report to the uk cites scientific authority ( fauna ) , joint nature conservation committee . iringa : tanzania bird atlas project .
distribution of secretarybird in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( © animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 .
sabap comparison map for the secretarybird , extracted 19 april 2013 . colour coding of qdgcs as per figure 1 . additional data presented here are the reporting rates and z values used to colour - code qdgcs . the upper number in each square is the sabap1 reporting rate , the middle number is the sabap2 reporting rate , and the lower number is z .
it is quite surprising that we know very little about the biology of this species . we know , for example , very little about the secretarybird ' s population size and trends in south africa and other factors such as territory size . juvenile dispersal and general movements are also poorly understood . this information is needed if we are to conserve this threatened species .
reproduction : secretarybird usually mates for life , and they remain very close , even they hunt in different areas . both adults build a platform of sticks and grasses on the top of a low tree or a bush . their nest may reach 8 feet in diameter . they return each year to the same nest , adding some materials , more sticks and grasses .
roberts vii estimates there are approximately 250 secretarybirds in kruger , with each bird covering a daily foraging territory of about 20 square kilometres . they are known to fly far and wide , presumably for better feeding - a secretarybird ringed in the sabi sabi private reserve next to kruger was found four months later in namibia , over 1 500km away . see veld stalker .
a large and distinctive bird of prey , the secretarybird ( sagittarius serpentarius ) is said to take its unusual name from the strange and distinguishing arrangement of feathers on the back of its neck . this long , raised crest of black , spatula - shaped feathers ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) is said to give the secretarybird the appearance of an old - fashioned secretary who would carry quill - pens tucked behind the ears . more recently , the case has been put forward that the name may actually be derived from the arabic saqr - et - tair . saqr means ‘hunter’ or ‘hawk’ and tair means ‘flight’ or ‘bird’ , and the translation to french may have resulted in the common name that is used today ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .
the secretarybird occurs within some protected areas ( 8 ) , and in some places it has benefited from bush clearance and deforestation of woodlands to make way for agriculture ( 5 ) ( 8 ) . the secretarybird is protected under the african convention on the conservation of nature and natural resources , in the hope that the species will be protected by participating states from hunting , killing , capture or collection ( 9 ) . it is also listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , meaning that international trade in the species should be carefully monitored ( 3 ) . these actions will hopefully act to safeguard populations of this unusual and charismatic bird of prey , although much will depend on the rate at which vital habitat across its range is lost to human development .
the secretarybird ( sagittarius serpentarius ) was uplisted from near - threatened to vulnerable . in south africa there is considerable concern about the conservation status of the species . a preliminary analysis of sabap1 and sabap2 data shows a considerable reduction in the areas this species previously occupied . this is probably mostly due to habitat loss and habitat degredation , but other threats such as power lines collisions are aslso taking their toll .
the secretarybird also has long , bare legs , which resemble those of a crane but are much more powerful , and end in small , stubby pink toes . juvenile secretarybirds are very similar to the adult , but are grey - eyed , with more brown in the plumage , a shorter tail and a yellow face , until the first moult ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .
sometimes described as africa’s ‘marching eagle’ , the secretarybird prefers to move around on foot , easily covering between 20 and 30 kilometres a day when hunting for food ( 2 ) . it spends much of its time stalking across the open ground , periodically stopping and stamping the floor to strike prey , which it will usually crush underfoot or repeatedly kick , before swallowing whole ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . the secretarybird’s diet primarily consists of large insects and small mammals , mainly rodents . however , it will feed opportunistically on any animal it comes across on its wandering travels , including hares , mongooses , squirrels , snakes , lizards , amphibians , freshwater crabs , and birds up to the size of guineafowl , as well as their eggs . secretarybirds have also been known to take domestic chickens when foraging in areas close to human habitation ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .
the methods developed here represent an important new approach to the analysis of bird atlas data and habitat use data . these methods are applicable to other species covered by sabap and car , and could easily be adapted for use with similar datasets collected in other parts of the world and for other species . they are , however , exploratory and innovative , and necessarily come with caveats regarding their interpretation . that said , our sabap - related findings have received confirmation through an analysis of reporting rate changes for bird families throughout south africa [ 32 ] . this study modelled bird families in relation to the proportion of qdgcs in their range in which reporting rates had increased between sabap1 and sabap2 . sagittariidae ( a single - species family that includes only the secretarybird ) was fourth lowest in a list of 51 families . this implies that the secretarybird is faring particularly badly in comparison with the majority of other south african bird species .
unique not only for its name , the secretarybird stands out because of its distinct profile , quite unlike that of any other bird . the feathers on the body are generally grey across the back and paler towards the rump and breast , while the belly , thighs and flight feathers are all black . the underwings are white . the eyes are brown and are surrounded by bare facial skin that is a deep orange - red , and the bill is blue - grey .
birdlife south africa has initiated research on the secretarybird in order to understand aspects of its biology which will assist with its conservation . this research includes tracking the movements of secretarybirds using satellite tracking devices . with these devices the movement of individual birds can be determined in great detail . these devices provide accurate locations to within 10m every 15 minutes from sunrise to sunset . not only will it be possible to determine long distance movement patterns , but also habitat use and territory size .
following a courtship that is performed in flight and includes pendulum displays and calling ( 5 ) , the female secretarybird will lay a clutch of one to three eggs , which are incubated for around 42 to 46 days . the nestling period typically lasts between 65 to 106 days , with a post fledging - dependence period of 62 to 105 days . after this time the juvenile secretarybirds will leave the parental territory and range over long distances , displaying characteristic nomadic behaviour as immature birds ( 7 ) .
envision a large majestic bird of prey , sporting a hooked bill like an eagle and an impressive crest and tail of long , black feathers – but one that also walks along the ground on legs like a stork’s and could easily be mistaken for a crane while in flight . put those pieces together , and you’ve got yourself a secretarybird ! found only in the open grasslands and savannas of sub - saharan africa , the secretarybird looks quite unlike any other bird . it hunts on foot for small mammals , lizards , snakes , tortoises , insects , and young birds , and is most notorious for its ability to kill extremely venomous snakes by stomping them to death ! its name is probably derived from the arabic “saqr - et - tair , ” meaning hunter bird . we often see these birds strolling through the grass , and we’ve even spotted a few of their nests on top of the acacia trees . anything that eats venomous snakes is awesome in our opinion , and these birds are definitely awesome !
kemp , a . c . , kirwan , g . m . , christie , d . a . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . secretarybird ( sagittarius serpentarius ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
bird atlas data for south africa suggest that the secretarybird population declined across most of the country , and particularly severely in the kruger national park , between the early 1990s and the late 2000s–early 2010s . although these findings are of concern , this time period is relatively short , and in some less accessible areas coverage for sabap2 had not yet reached desirable levels . a longer data series and broader coverage are required before we would be able to state with confidence that the species population had declined significantly in south africa .
kemp , a . c . , kirwan , g . m . , christie , d . a . & marks , j . s . ( 2016 ) . secretarybird ( sagittarius serpentarius ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 23 august 2016 ) .
unlike the snail kite , which has a very specialized diet , t he secretarybird will eat just about anything it can catch . it preys on small - to medium - sized mammals such as mice , hedgehogs and hares . it eats other birds and their eggs , too ! it will catch amphibians and various invertebrates , including insects , scorpions , millipedes , and crabs . secretarynirds also eat snakes , including several poisonous species , such as puff adders and cobras , and other reptiles , such as lizards and small tortoises .
the tallest raptor in the world , the secretarybird is unmistakeable . it has long , stork - like legs that are feathered from the thigh to the tarsus . it has a robust body covered in gray , white and black feathers , a feathered black crest and a red - orange and yellow patch of skin around its eye and in front of its strong curved beak . though it looks more like a stork than a raptor when it flies , it is distinguishable from any other bird by the two long tail feathers that extend beyond its feet in flight .
the secretarybird is monogamous , living in closely knitted pairs that never stray too far from one another . the mating display includes a ground display where male and female chase each other with wings held up and back ( much like the way they chase prey ) or an aerial display of soaring high with an undulating flight pattern coupled with guttural croaking . mating happens on the ground or on an acacia tree . large flat nests made of sticks are built on top of flat acacia trees ( height : 5 - 7m ) and nests will be visited for almost half a year before the eggs are laid .
like many other wildlife , secretarybird populations are declining throughout much of their range and the species has disappeared entirely in some places . though these birds can spend time in and hunt in some human - created open spaces , habitat loss is still a huge problem for this species . areas that are over - grazed leave little cover for prey animals , so they can be quite empty of wildlife . other areas are being cleared for human settlements and agricultural fields – all places where a secretarbird won ' t find what it needs to survive . these changes in habitat are taking their toll on this lovely bird .
the secretarybird is a long - legged raptor , endemic to africa . it kills its prey ( snakes , lizards ) by stomping . the upper two images of nest - - building in the serengeti are courtesy of michael markussen ( left , 2 - 07 ) and fain zimmerman ( right , 2 - 08 ) . the 2nd , 3rd and right 4th row photos were taken in the serengeti ( 2 - 04 ) . the others were taken in ngorongoro crater ( 9 - 08 ) . click the photo above to see more including a displaying pair , nest - building , incubating , preening and hunting .
description : secretarybird is a very large bird of prey . its plumage is mostly grey , with black primaries , thighs , and a beautiful black crest of about twenty long feathers . tail is grey , barred by two broad black stripes , conspicuous when the bird is flying . tail presents two central feathers , longer than the others . the top of its very long legs is feathered with black . the lower leg is bare and pinkish - grey , covered with scales to protect them while it is walking or when it attacks some snake . toes are short , but very strong , with a powerful talon at the rear .
standing up to 4ft tall , it has very long legs , with black feathered thighs . it has a grey body , black feathers & white wing linings , its tail has two black central streamers . its most distinctive feature are the 20 black crest feathers , resembling quill pens stuck behind its ( invisible ) ears . this combination of features made it resemble a 19 th century clerk or secretary , in those days they were male & often wore tailcoats & knickerbocker trousers & placed their quill pens behind their ears . the head of the secretarybird ( with its yellowish bare patch ) and shape of the beak are very similar to those of the caracara . ( they also have a very long eyelashes , which many modern secretaries would appreciate ) .
during breeding season , secretarybirds perform flight displays . several males perform acrobatic flights , climbing high into the sky , and suddenly dropping down . they soar in wide circles high above the ground , with conspicuous long legs and tail projected behind , and uttering strange groaning . they also execute undulating swoops , downward dives , and both clasp each other talons , like eagles . secretarybird prefers to walk into its range , searching for food . it strides majestically across areas . it can fly very well , but rarely does so , because it hunts on the ground . it is able to walk up to 20 miles in a day . after young fledging , pair continues to roost in the nest at night , and they defend from this nest their territory , about 50 km2 around the nest site .
long - term public participation ( “citizen science” ) projects make it possible for observations made by many different people to be pooled and analysed as a whole [ 6 ] – [ 10 ] . they provide the best opportunity for assessing population trends in species such as the secretarybird . the first and second southern african bird atlas projects ( sabap1 , 1987–1992 , and sabap2 , 2007–present ) offer two snapshots of avian distribution in south africa approximately 15 years apart [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] . the coordinated avifaunal roadcounts ( car ) project ( described below ) , was established in the western cape in 1993 , by 1998 had expanded to cover much of south africa [ 13 ] , and in 2014 was ongoing . we examine the information provided by these datasets for useful insight into the status and ecology of secretarybirds .
secretarybirds feed on snakes , lizards , grasshoppers , mice , birds eggs & the occasional small mammal . it was once thought that snakes were the primary diet ( the latin name translates as
archer of snakes
) , but recent studies indicate that snakes make up only around 2 % of the diet . when feeding on snakes , they ensure are dead prior to eating , as they are not immune to the snakes poison . the secretarybird kills its prey by stamping on it , accurately aiming the rear talon at the skull . occasionally , aided by their height , they will pick the prey up & kill it by dropping it . it is often attracted to bush & grass fires , where it will feed on small animals that failed to avoid the fire . unlike other raptors , they have short stout toes that are unable to grasp .
) . the main exceptions were eastern karoo ( winter ) , north - eastern eastern cape ( winter ) and steenkampsberg ( both seasons ) . the eastern karoo result may seem surprising , because the sign tests indicate that a preference for natural habitats was expressed on a highly significant majority of routes . however , the proportion of available habitats that were transformed was extremely low ( less than 2 % ; unpublished data ) , so a similarly low proportion of birds needed to be seen on transformed land for the jacobs index to indicate that they were expressing a preference for that habitat . the karoo biomes are semi - desert , and in general the land is too dry for cultivation or pastures . where crops or pastures are grown , the land is usually irrigated , which may cause the biomass of potential secretarybird prey species ( rodents , reptiles , small birds , insects ) to increase . if this is the case , it would make sense for secretarybirds to prefer transformed habitats where they are available in the karoo . in fact secretarybirds are thinly distributed in the karoo , preferring grassland and savanna habitats
habitat selection in relation to habitat availability was analysed by comparing the proportions of natural and transformed land available to the proportions of birds seen in each type of land in each precinct . the proportions of natural and transformed land available were calculated using all three nlc maps . all classes of land other than natural vegetation classes and waterbodies were combined to form a single “transformed” land class , and the remaining categories were combined to form a “natural” class ( man - made and natural waterbodies , including wetlands , are not distinguished in the maps ) . a caveat to this analysis is the distinction between transformed , modified , and natural land [ 3 ] . land classified as “transformed” is that on which the vegetation structure has been completely altered , e . g . pastures and cultivated fields . the “natural” habitats mapped in the national land - cover maps are in fact mostly modified habitats , i . e . habitats in which the overall structure and main components of the natural vegetation remain , but in which important changes have been made , e . g . the naturally occurring community of herbivores has been replaced by livestock . in 1989 it was estimated that only 7 % of south africa ' s land surface remained fully natural and undisturbed [ 27 ] . thus in these analyses when we refer to natural habitats , we are in fact mostly referring to modified habitats . however , the extent to which they had been modified and to which they differed functionally from natural habitats , from the perspective of a secretarybird , would be variable .
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
a very large and distinctive terrestrial raptor , which stands c . 1 . 2 m tall ( ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) . it is grey , whitish and black in all plumages , with small bill and head , bare face , relatively long neck , exceptionally long , bare legs , and long graduated tail with greatly elongated central rectrices . it has a distinctive crest of black - tipped spatulate feathers ( ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) .
this species is classified as vulnerable because recent evidence from across its range suggests that its population is experiencing a rapid decline , probably owing to habitat degradation , disturbance , hunting and capture for trade .
. it is variably described as common to rare ( only 10 pairs or less in waza - logone west , cameroon [ j . brouwer
although the species occurs across a vast range , surveyed densities suggest that the total population size does not exceed a five - figure number .
2014 ) . on the basis of this evidence the species is suspected to be undergoing a rapid decline overall .
2014 ) . it ranges from sea - level to 3 , 000 m . juveniles can move a long way after leaving their nest site , but will return to their natal area ( retief and smit - robinson 2014 ) . a variety of prey is consumed , primarily insects and rodents , but also other mammals , lizards , snakes , eggs , young birds and amphibians . breeding occurs throughout the year and the species typically nests in a flat - topped
. disturbance by humans , probably most often herders , is likely to negatively affect breeding . the species is captured and traded in apparently small numbers ; however , it is unknown how many die in captivity and transit . direct hunting and nest - raiding for other uses and indiscriminate poisoning at waterholes are also potential threats . these human - induced threats may compound the effects of severe droughts in some areas ( baker
cites appendix ii . it occurs in a number of national parks and other protected areas across its large range .
initiate a coordinated continent - wide monitoring programme to obtain an up - to - date population estimate and track the species ' s trends . in areas where the species is declining , raise awareness of threats amongst local people , particularly livestock herders . monitor and tackle the capture and trade of the species .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
is found throughout africa south of the sahara , except the extreme deserts of the namib coast and the forested region around the equator in western africa . secretary birds do not occur in the southern areas of guinea , cote d ' ivoire , ghana and nigeria , and are entirely absent from the sub - saharan countries of sierra leone and liberia .
secretary birds prefer open savannahs and grasslands , although they also live in semi - deserts and lightly wooded or scrub areas . in grasslands , secretary birds choose areas where the grass is one meter or less in height so their view is not obstructed . they are common near agricultural areas that offer hunting opportunities . secretary birds are never found in true deserts with extreme aridity , or heavily wooded areas . these birds are found from sea - level to around 3 , 000 m .
( ferguson - lees and christie , 2001 ; hosking , et al . , 1988 ; steyn , 1983 )
secretary birds stand around 0 . 9 to 1 . 2 meters tall and weigh between 2 . 3 to 4 . 27 kg . females tend to be slightly smaller than males . wingspans of females range from 1 . 2 to 1 . 32 m , while those of males range between 1 . 26 to 1 . 35 m .
these large raptors have very distinctive morphology . the plumage is generally gray in color , perhaps with some white feathers . they have black flight feathers on the wings and a crest of black - tipped feathers on the back of the head . the bare face is orange to red in color . they have a relatively small head , a gray - white beak , a long neck , and an eagle - like body . unlike an eagle , however , the bare , pinkish legs are very long and end in stubby toes with blunt claws . the tibial portions of the legs are covered in black plumage that give the bird the appearance that it is wearing shorts . the long tail has especially long central rectrices that are often tipped with black .
( ferguson - lees and christie , 2001 ; hosking , et al . , 1988 ; mackworth - praed and grant , 1980 ; steyn , 1983 )
are similar in appearance to adults with a few exceptions . first , the bare skin on the face is yellow rather than orange or red . second , juveniles show black coloration on the tips of the wing shoulder feathers , as well as brown to black barring on the underwing coverts . lastly , juveniles also tend to have shorter central tail feathers and crests than adults .
with any other bird of prey , mainly due to their very long legs . from a distance secretary birds are mistaken for
secretary birds are monogamous and are thought to pair for life . in courtship , they give a croaking call while displaying in the air and on the ground . aerial displays consist of high soaring and diving performed by a single individual ( usually the male ) , or by the pair when the male will dive toward the female and she will half - turn to present her claws . this courtship behavior is very similar to that of other birds of prey . on the ground , their displays are very crane - like with the two birds dancing around with their wings outstretched . sometimes small groups of secretary birds will all join in this ground display behavior . after courtship displays , mating will usually take place on the ground , although some pairs mate in trees .
may breed throughout the year , although there are peaks in breeding from august to march . both the male and female will construct a large nest on a flat - topped tree ( usually an acacia tree or some other thorny tree ) . the nest is usually a saucer - shaped platform made of sticks and lined with a thick layer of grass , wool , dung , and other such materials . a pair of secretary birds will usually reuse the same nest for many years , adding to the structure each year to create a nest that can range from 1 . 5 to 2 . 5 meters in diameter . a frequently reused nest will be abandoned if the structure becomes too large and heavy to be supported by the tree and seems likely to collapse .
the female lays a clutch of 1 to 3 eggs , with each egg laid two to three days apart . the eggs are chalky - white with reddish - brown streaks and are pyriform in shape . eggs are variable in size and can range from 68 to 92 mm in length and 52 to 61 mm in width . incubation of the eggs begins as soon as the first egg is laid . incubation duties are shared by both the male and female , although more frequently by the female . the male brings food to the nest for the female during this time . in 42 to 46 days , the semi - altricial young hatch . young generally hatch 2 to 3 days apart , but no siblicide has been observed . however , in a clutch of three eggs , the smallest chick usually dies of starvation because it cannot compete with its larger nest mates .
hatchlings are covered in off - white down and have large heads that seem too heavy for their bodies . at two weeks of age , they attain a thick coat of gray down , and in three weeks the crest begins to appear . development is slow in secretary birds and it takes six weeks before the hatchlings can stand on their own . at this stage , they learn to feed themselves from prey brought to the nest . by seven weeks , nestlings are fully feathered . around 60 days , the young begin flexing their wings , often flapping and lifting small distances into the air before dropping back to the nest . in 64 to 106 days , the offspring will fledge . the offspring remain around the nest tree for an additional 62 to 105 days , during which time they are dependent upon the parents for food and training in foraging techniques .
breeding interval secretary birds can raise two broods within ten months under desirable conditions .
both male and female secretary birds invest heavily in the young . both sexes share incubation duties . after the eggs hatch , parental care is constant . both the male and female feed the young via regurgitation , although the female mostly regurgitates food that the male has brought back to the nest for her . after about a month , parental care drops significantly , with the parents only returning to the nest to feed the chicks . after six weeks , the parents stop feeding via regurgitation and bring larger prey items that they give the chicks to eat directly . when the chicks fledge and leave the nest , the parents will teach the chicks how to hunt for prey . once the offspring know how to provide for themselves and are independent , they generally head off on their own , leaving the parents’ territory . however , in some circumstances the parents will still tolerate having the juveniles in their territory and even allow the now - independent offspring to join in their hunts and share the nest tree as a roost . it is important to note that juveniles are not dependent on the parents during this time . they are just temporarily sharing a territory . two months is the average amount of time that independent juveniles are allowed to remain in the parents’ territory before being chased away so that the parents can breed again .
is sometimes solitary , but is more often found in pairs or family groups consisting of up to five individuals . larger aggregations of secretary birds may form near an abundant food source or a watering hole , but these groups do not remain together long . secretary birds become active about two hours after the sun has risen , when the grass is no longer wet with morning dew . these birds spend the day walking around and feeding until late afternoon , at which point they return to their roosts . secretary birds prefer to walk rather than fly , and average about 20 to 30 km a day on foot . when hurried or confronted with a threat they run before taking flight . when they do fly , they fly well and often at great heights .
a pair of secretary birds defends an area that can range from 20 to 500 square kilometers depending on the density of secretary birds and food resources in the area . any conspecifics caught intruding in a pair ' s territory will be chased out forcefully .
is generally sedentary and will remain in its own territory , but they are sometimes nomadic . in most cases , these nomadic tendencies are caused by a search for food .
secretary birds are generally silent . when they do call , they typically give a deep , trisyllabic croaking wail that can be heard for quite some distance . this call , along with a drawn - out growling sound , is used in conjunction with aerial and ground displays during the courtship process . a softer version of the main call is used when feeding young . an occasional whistle is given from time to time . the young have their own calls to solicit food from their parents , which start off as a quiet squealing , then becoming a loud ' chok - a - chok - a - chok - a - chok ' .
is an opportunistic predator with a broad prey base . the majority of the diet is made up of arthropods ( including grasshoppers , beetles , spiders , scorpions , wasps , etc . ) and small mammals ( including mice , rats , hedgehogs , hares , mongooses , etc . ) . other recorded prey of secretary birds includes small and young birds , eggs , amphibians , freshwater crabs , lizards , small tortoises , chameleons and snakes . although this species is famed for killing and eating snakes , these reptiles are not eaten as often as is generally believed . however , the snakes taken as prey are often adders , cobras , and other venomous species .
secretary birds hunt exclusively on the ground , either alone or in pairs ( usually with their mate ) . the birds will set out across a grassy area at a steady pace searching for movement . if a particularly thick tuft of grass is encountered , the bird will stamp on it to flush out any potential prey . once prey is spotted , the bird quickens its pace to take the prey by surprise . if a chase commences , the bird will flap its wings and run after the prey until catching up to it . with small prey , the bird will merely bend down and capture it in its bill . larger prey , especially snakes , are stamped to death with the bird ' s blunt feet . a secretary bird will strike a snake just behind its head to snap its neck or stun it . secretary birds are said to pick up a stunned snake , fly high into the air and drop the snake to its death , but this behavior has not been well documented . once the prey is stunned or killed , the bird will swallow it whole through its large gape . if the prey proves too large , then the bird will tear it apart much like an eagle , using its feet to hold the prey down .


the hartmann 's mountain zebra ( equus zebra hartmannae ) is a subspecies of the mountain zebra found in far south-western angola and western namibia .

hartmann 's mountain zebras prefer to live in small groups of 7-12 individuals .

they are agile climbers and are able to live in arid conditions and steep mountainous country .

it has been argued that hartmann 's mountain zebras should be considered a separate species from the cape mountain zebra , but this is not supported by genetic evidence ( see mountain zebra #taxonomy ) .

consequently , it is no longer considered a subspecies in mammal species of the world . 2005 .

hartmann ' s mountain zebra

no critical habitat rules have been published for the hartmann ' s mountain zebra .
the cape mountain zebra ( equus zebra zebra ) is the smallest living zebra , and differs from hartmann’s mountain zebra ( equus zebra hartmannae ) by its smaller size ( 5 ) ( 8 ) , slightly thicker black stripes ( 6 ) , and minor striping variations on the rump ( 5 ) ( 8 ) .
hartmann’s mountain zebras range from south west africa into extreme southwest angola . they are found in six distinct populations .
the hartmann’s zebra is a good climber on steep , rugged terrain and has evolved very hard and pointed hooves .
cape mountain zebras are endemic to south africa ( 2 ) , while hartmann’s mountain zebras have a fragmented distribution across namibia , angola and south africa ( 9 ) .
the hartmann ' s mountain zebra is a fairly large - sized donkey - like member of the horse family , with a narrow body and narrow , fast - growing hooves . the mountain zebras are the only zebras with a dewlap - a pendulous fold of skin under the throat , which is commonly associated with bovines . there is a grid pattern on the rump which includes a series of short transverse stripes running perpendicular to the dorsal stripe , not found on any other equine . the legs are striped to the hooves , and the belly is white . the stripes are black . the widest stripes are seen on upper hind legs . there are two subspecies of the mountain zebra ( equus zebra ) : the hartmann ' s mountain zebra and the cape mountain zebra ( equus zebra zebra ) . the cape mountain zebra is the smallest of the wild equines ; the hartmann ' s zebra is considerably larger , with a maximum weight of about 340 kgs and a shoulder height of 150 cm . it tends to have narrower , more closely spaced stripes than the cape mountain zebra .
the hartman ' s mountain zebra as a species is classified as endangered , with both e . z . hartmannae and e . z . zebra falling under this same classification .
there is a strong line of thought by some conservationists that the cape mountain zebra and the hartman ' s mountain zebra should be separate species due to the habitat differentiation but genetics proves that the two are very closely linked .
hartmann’s zebra do not have a breeding season as they can breed throughout the year . they can mate from the age of 2 - 6 years old .
20 or more years . the oldest documented mountain zebra in captivity was 29 years old .
hartmann’s zebra are found in namibia , angola & south africa . they prefer habitats that have mountainous slopes and plateaus with sources of water and suitable grazing areas .
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classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . subspecies : the cape mountain zebra ( equus zebra zebra ) is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix i of cites ( 3 ) ; hartmann’s mountain zebra ( equus zebra hartmannae ) is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .
zebras are herbivores , feeding from different grasses , leaves , twigs and even bark . during times of dry weather , hartmann’s zebra can go without water for around 2 days .
two allopatric subspecies of mountain zebra have traditionally been recognized , the nominate race e . z . zebra ( cape mountain zebra ) and e . z . hartmannae ( hartmann ' s mountain zebra ) . groves and ryder ( 2000 ) proposed that the two be treated as distinct species , and groves and bell ( 2004 ) presented morphological evidence for separating the two subspecies as distinct species based on the diagnosability criterion of the phylogenetic species concept . recent genetic analyses indicate that the two populations have a high incidence of mitochondrial haplotype sharing ; the hypothesis that cape and hartmann ' s mountain zebra mitochondrial lineages were reciprocally monophyletic was not supported . however , the presence of private alleles at nuclear loci rendered the two subspecies genetically distinct evolutionary significant units ( moodley and hartley 2005 ) . we continue to recognize mountain zebra as a single species comprising two subspecies following penzhorn ( in press ) .
as intoned by the vernacular name , the hartman ' s mountain zebra is adapted to rugged , broken mountain escarpments , where herds rely on areas with permanent water sources and sufficient variety and quantities of grass fodder to sustain breeding populations .
both subspecies of mountain zebra are predominately diurnal , and are most active in the early morning and late afternoon to sunset ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the herbivorous diet primarily consists of grass but also includes leaves and bark , and individuals of all ages also visit mineral licks , particularly during the summer ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . cape mountain zebra must drink every day , whereas hartmann’s mountain zebra can go two or more days without drinking during the wet season ( 2 ) .
the non - profit organisation etusis foundation has been established in namibia for the conservation of hartmann’s mountain zebra . the foundation conducts research on the subspecies , and focuses on educating farmers and raising public and government awareness about the plight this subspecies faces ( 9 ) .
did you know ? that there are two subspecies of mountain zebras in southern africa ? the cape mountain zebra ( equus zebra zebra ) is the smallest of the extant zebras and the most restricted geographically . it became almost extinct but was saved in situ by the establishment of national parks and wildlife reserves . there are no cape mountain zebras kept in zoos .
hartmann’s mountain zebras are commonly found at play . types of play include chasing , racing , play - fighting , and challenge games . challenge games usually consist of nose - to - nose contact followed by mutual grooming .
hartmann’s mountain zebras live in direct conflict with livestock farmers , with available grazing ground becoming particularly scarce in many parts of namibia where very little rainfall has occurred for several years . as a result , more and more hartmann ' s mountain zebras are being culled , both legally and illegally . furthermore , due to the region’s poor economy and scarce resources , poaching for food has increased rapidly over the last few years , since the zebra offers a relatively large amount of meat . the situation in angola has been exacerbated by war , in which many soldiers and civilians have been in dire need of meat ( 9 ) .
. 2002 ) . in south africa , an estimated 280 animals occur on private properties and in the goegap provincial nature reserve . in the northern cape ; the numbers of hartmann’s mountain zebra in south africa’s eastern cape and western cape comprise nearly one - quarter of the population of the subspecies in south africa , and their removal and replacement with the cape subspecies is a priority ( novellie
justification : listed as vulnerable as the total population is currently estimated at ca . 9 , 000 mature individuals , and could be subject to a decline exceeding 10 % over the course of the coming 27 years , largely driven by annual harvesting of the hartmann ' s mountain zebra population . at present , there is limited information available on the population trend of hartmann ' s mountain zebras , but there is some evidence to suggest that they may well be declining . with the availability of further information on trends from parks and private lands , the species may need reassessment .
mountain zebra are mainly crepuscular – active in the early morning and late afternoon to sunset . grazing and resting occupy most of the daylight hours . mountain zebras usually drink once or twice per day . during cold weather , they shelter in wooded areas or caves , and go to east - facing slopes to warm up in the morning sunshine . hartmann’s mountain zebras live on the edge of the namib desert , and as a result they have to range widely to find surface water .
this evocative icon of africa is an immediately recognisable member of the horse family , characterised by its striking pattern of black and white stripes , which continue through into its short , erect mane ( 2 ) . the mountain zebra is discernable from other zebra species by the thin and relatively close - together vertical black lines on its neck and torso , which are narrower and more numerous than those of burchell’s zebra ( equus burchelli ) , and by the wide , horizontal bands on its haunches , which are broader than both those of grevy’s zebra ( equus grevui ) and burchell’s zebra ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . unlike burchell’s zebra , the mountain zebra also lacks ‘shadow stripes’ , and the stripes do not meet under the belly , which is instead white with a central black stripe ( 2 ) . the most diagnostic features of this species , however , are the ‘grid iron’ pattern of narrow stripes across the rump and the square flap of skin , or dewlap , which exists on this zebra’s throat ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . aptly named , the mountain zebra is a good climber on steep , rugged terrain and has evolved exceptionally hard and pointed hooves compared to other equines ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 7 ) .
adult mountain zebras have a head and body length of 82 to 102 inches .
mountain zebra prefer to live in small groups of 7 - 12 individuals . they are agile climbers , able to live in arid conditions in steep mountainous country .
found on mountainous slopes and plateaus . cape mountain zebras occur up to 2 , 000 metres above sea level , but move to lower elevations in the winter . hartmann’s mountain zebras occupy a more arid region on the edge of the namib desert , where surface water is patchy and herds must wander between the mountains and sand flats in order to find patches of grass ( 2 ) .
. 2002 ) . over 90 % of the current total population of 1 , 389 cape mountain zebras are derived from animals relocated from the mountain zebra national park . the management of the cape mountain zebra metapopulation requires the mixing of at least some animals from the three relict populations ( mznp , gamkaberg , and kamanassie ) , all of which are genetically depauperate , although this has been hampered by the relatively slow growth of the kamanassie population . chadwick and watson ( 2007 ) have proposed facilitating the growth of this population by changing the fire management regime in the habitat preferred by zebra ; acquiring adjacent land ; and the translocation of mountain zebra onto adjacent land .
hartmann’s mountain zebra occur in four key protected areas in namibia : skeleton coast park , etosha national park , namib - naukluft park , and ai - ais - hunsberg park complex . namib - naukluft park is particularly important with a population of around 2 , 300 animals ( 1998 estimate ) . around 25 % of the national population in namibia occurs on conservancies in communal lands with the remainder on commercial livestock and game farms ( novellie
the main predators of zebra include lions , leopards , cheetah , hyena and wild dogs .
although several attempts have been made over many centuries , zebra have never been successfully domesticated .
a mountain zebra has narrow stripes on the neck and torso , which graduate to wider stripes on the rear . the legs are striped all the way down to the hooves . it has a gridiron pattern on the rump , and its white underside has a dark stripe that runs the length of the belly . unlike other zebras , the mountain zebra has a dewlap , or fold of skin , hanging from the throat . the mane is short and erect , with no forelock . the mountain zebra is a good climber and has very hard and pointed hooves compared to other zebras and horses .
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there is no significant difference between the sexes , except that the stallions are heavier at and average of 298 kg , compared to the 276 kg of mares . adult stallions over seven years of age , can weigh as much as 343 kg . adult stallions are 1 . 5 m at the shoulders , with a tail length of 500 mm and ears 280 mm long . in order to cope with the attrition of rocky terrain , the hooves of this species grows extremely fast . the difference between this specie and the cape mountain zebra is mainly only in size , the latter being slightly smaller . there is a trend for the the light stripes of the hartmann ' s zebra to be wider than that of the cape mountain species .
zebras are very popular with the general public , i . e . they are good ambassador species for conservation in their african range states . as the hartmann ' s mountain zebra is rated endangered by iucn , also the maintenance of a reserve population in human care makes sense , in particular as the range is relatively limited and about 98 % of all individuals live in one single country , which makes the population depending of essentially one single government and susceptible to the impact of droughts and changes in agricultural practice .
due to the demand in land for agriculture and grazing land for livestock animals , more and more of the zebra’s habitat is being cleared and they often have to compete for grazing areas with animals such as cattle . this has led to many zebra being hunted , both legally and illegally , so that more land can be used more by farmers .
mountain zebras act in response to the alarm signals of black wildebeest . however , they rarely respond to alarm signals of smaller antelope .
at high temperatures , the striped pattern of the zebra may serve as camouflage , an adaptation to the resultant
waviness
of the air . at a distance of a few hundred yards , the stripes make a zebra appear indistinct .
this polygynous species breeds throughout the year , although regional birth peaks exist ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . females produce a single foal every one to three years , after a gestation of approximately one year ( 5 ) . while most cape mountain zebra young leave their maternal herds of their own choice between 13 and 37 months of age , or about three months after the birth of a sibling , hartmann’s mountain zebra mares try to expel their 14 to 16 month old foals from the herd before the birth of a sibling . young males may wander alone for a while before joining a bachelor group , while females are either taken into another breeding herd or are joined by a bachelor male to form a new breeding herd ( 2 ) . if young females leave their maternal herd before adulthood they join bachelor herds until they are taken into a herd ( 2 ) .
novellie , p . a . , lindeque , m . , lindeque , p . , lloyd , p . and koen , j . ( 2002 ) status and action plan for the mountain zebra ( equus zebra ) . in : moehlman , p . ( ed ) equids : zebras , asses , and horses : status , survey and conservation action plan . iucn , gland , switzerland .
the primary threats to the mountain zebra include competition with domestic livestock , hunting and persecution , habitat loss due to conversion to agriculture ( 2 ) , and the risk of the two subspecies breed with each other leading to a loss of genetic diversity ( 2 ) ( 10 ) .
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in order to stay safe , zebra will give alarm calls if they spot a threat nearby and will run up to 40mph to safety . the stripe patterns of zebra can help to break up their outline which helps to confuse predators , as it makes it harder to pick out individuals when they are running as a group .
mountain zebra form small herds of one adult stallion and 1 to 5 mares with young . breeding herds remain stable over many years and mares usually remain in a herd for life . gestation lasts one year , with one foal born at a time . foals weigh about 55 pounds at birth , and are up and walking within hours . foals are weaned at 10 months .
some populations are protected in national parks . there is a european endangered species programme ( eep ) for this zebra as well as co - operative management of zoo populations world - wide .
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information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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mountain zebra inhabit rugged , broken mountainous and escarpment areas up to around 2 , 000 m with a rich diversity of grass species and perennial water sources ( penzhorn in press ) . they are predominantly grazers , only browsing if forced to do so . the typical social structure is one of small harems comprising an adult stallion and one to three ( maximum five ) mares and their dependent foals ; non - breeding groups consist primarily of bachelors , but sometimes include young fillies ( penzhorn in press ) .
these animals will live in herds of around 6 - 8 individuals and led by a dominant male ( stallion ) and a dominant female ( mare ) . within its first hour of life , a zebra foal will stand up , take their first steps and feed from their mother . zebra foals will suckle from their mother until about 10 months of age ; they will be pushed away by their mothers at around 14 - 16 months , just before the arrival of the next foal .
q : are the zebras black with white stripes , or white with black stripes ? a : if you look closely at the zebra , you will see that the belly does not have stripes , but is white . so zebras are white with black ( or brown ) stripes !
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of
taxonomy ( the study of classification ) is a constantly - evolving field . every year , changes to the
standard
list of ungulates ( covering approximately 250 species ) are proposed as new physical and genetic evidence becomes available : renaming subspecies as distinct species , separating ( or uniting ) genera , or naming species new to science . most taxonomic changes are rather restricted in scale ( usually reorganizing a species or genus ) . rarely , however , entire orders are reviewed and revised : the entire scope of hoofed mammals receives such a treatment in ungulate taxonomy ( groves and grubb , 2011 ) .
ungulate taxonomy turns the classification of hoofed mammals on its head . whereas traditional species lists rely on the biological species concept ( which differentiates species on the basis of
reproductive isolation
, the lack of interbreeding in nature ) , groves and grubb have applied the phylogenetic species concept ( which separates species on the basis of
fixed heritable differences
: measureable characters that are consistently different between taxa ) . this change in approach has had major implication on the number of species : groves and grubb recognize over 450 distinct ungulates . simultaneously , however , the recognition of subspecies has sharply declined : under the phylogenetic species concept , populations that can be differentiated are listed as separate species ; those which cannot be are grouped as a single taxon .
the new approach to ungulate classification is presented below alongside the traditional species list ( note that species fact sheets are accessible from the ungulates of the world page ) . such a radical departure from tradition often encounters great resistance , but the application of the phylogenetic species concept to ungulate taxa is not brand - new : it is generally well - accepted for taxa like babirusas , chevrotains , and musk deer .
groves , c . , and p . grubb . 2011 . ungulate taxonomy . the john hopkins university press , baltimore .
iucn ( international union for conservation of nature and natural resources ) . 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2010 . 1 . available online at the iucn redlist website .
wilson , d . e . , and d . m . reeder [ editors ] . 2005 . mammal species of the world ( 3rd edition ) . johns hopkins university press , 2 , 142 pp . available online at the mammal species of the world website .
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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , ©2005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
there is a trade in the skins of this species . it is only hunted for food at subsistence level .
this errata version of the 2008 assessment was created to correct the distribution map for this species .
( errata version published in 2018 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2008 : e . t7960a129037335 .
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for air transport , container requirement 73 of the iata live animals regulations should be followed .
road transport ( according to the south african standard sans 10331 ) : transport family groups in mass crates . transport individual stallions in separate , individual compartments in a mass crate . if fighting occurs , separate dominant and aggressive stallions and mares and transport them under tranquillization in individual compartments in mass crates . since fighting usually begins when different family groups are captured and transported together , this should be avoided at all costs . if a few selected animals are transported over a short distance , transportation under chemical immobilization should be considered .
this gregarious species lives in breeding herds , consisting of one adult male , one to five adult females and their young ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . all members occupy a position within a social hierarchy ( 2 ) , headed by the dominant adult stallion , which is responsible for defending the herd ( 4 ) . breeding herds inhabit overlapping home ranges , with no evidence of territoriality , and sometimes herds will even join to form larger temporary populations of up to around 30 individuals ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . surplus males live in bachelor groups , from which individuals periodically attempt to establish a new breeding herd with young females or take over an existing herd by displacing the dominant stallion ( 2 ) . nevertheless , breeding herds often remain stable over many years ( up to 20 recorded ) , with mares usually remaining in a herd for life . new stallions may need to go through courtship of up to three years before the mares in a herd will accept their new stud ( 2 ) ( 7 ) .
authenticated ( 02 / 09 / 08 ) by dr . rebecca smith , research biologist . urltoken
diurnal active during the day . endemic a species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or geographic area . genetic diversity the variety of genes within a particular species , population or breed causing differences in morphology , physiology and behaviour . gestation the state of being pregnant ; the period from conception to birth . gregarious tending to form a group with others of the same species by habitually living or moving in flocks or herds rather than alone . herbivorous diet comprises only vegetable matter . polygyny in animals , a pattern of mating in which a male has more than one female partner . re - introduction an attempt to establish a native species back into an area where it previously occurred . subspecies a population usually restricted to a geographical area that differs from other populations of the same species , but not to the extent of being classified as a separate species .
stuart , c . and stuart , t . ( 1997 ) field guide to the larger mammals of africa . struik publishers , cape town .
estes , r . d . ( 1992 ) the behavior guide to african mammals : including hoofed mammals , carnivores , primates . university of california press , california .
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size head and body : 210 - 260cm . tail length : 40 - 55cm . males tend to be bigger than females .
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no two zebras are alike – each has a distinct stripe pattern , just like with human fingerprints .
during the 1950s , numbers of these zebras were estimated at 50 , 000 to 75 , 000 individuals . in 1992 they were estimated at only about 8 , 000 .
a single foal is born after a gestation of 11 . 5 months ( 350 days ) .
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like all equids , this is a grazer which spends the best part of a day feeding . the grazing pattern tends to follow the contours of the terrain , along which the grazing progression tends to be in a zig - zag forward pattern .
this is not a seasonal breeder since foals can be born the year round , although there tends to be a peak during the rainy season . mares foal for the first time at the age of three years . foals weigh about 25 kg at birth . gestation period is about 12 months . foals have a high survival rate , probably since adults in the herd actively defend them against predators . stallions become sexually active at about three years of age .
within a population there are two distinct social groups , namely breeding herds and bachelor groups . breeding groups consist of a single stallion with a number of mares , the latter with a distinct social hierarchy .
this equid is found in the western semi - arid regions of namibia , from where it also ranges into angola . it has a discontinues distribution from the kunene province southwards and somewhat eastwards , as illustrated on the distribution map . presently the population is estimated at 13 000 .