the house finch ( haemorhous mexicanus ) is a bird in the finch family fringillidae .

it is native to western north america , and has been introduced to the eastern half of the continent and hawaii .

this species and the other " american rosefinches " are placed in the genus haemorhous .

house finch

house finch | life histories of north american birds | a . c . bent
house _ finch _ male _ 1 _ 12 - 09 - 12 . jpg
house _ finch _ male _ badeye _ 12 - 09 - 12 . jpg
baby birds - house finch - mom and dad feeding four babies in the nest .
the oldest known house finch lived up to 11 years and 7 months in the wild . most house finches probably live much shorter lives .
purple finch purple finch females have a distinct white eyeline , while males have more extensive red on the breast and flanks .
birds , familiar : house finch , life histories of north american birds , a . c . bent
diet : house finch feeds primarily on grains and seeds , buds and fruits . it may also eat some flowers parts and insects such as beetles larvae and plant lice . house finch is mainly vegetarian .
power dm , human g ( 1976 ) a local occurrence of avian pox in the house finch .
can someone describe the general look of the finch house from to kill a mockingbird using direct . . .
a house finch nest . wikimedia commons photo - see more pictures of nests , eggs , young and adults .
elliott jj , arbib rs ( 1953 ) origin and status of the house finch in the eastern united states .
some ornithologists feel the house finch has vastly curtailed the numbers of house sparrows in new england . we have had several people tell us that when large numbers of house finch are present at the feeding stations , house sparrows seem to leave or at least their numbers become less . in fact the house finches are one of the few birds that are aggressive enough to keep house sparrows out of a birdhouse or evict them . the problem with attracting house finch to a bird house is the opening required is two inches in diameter , so they easily succumb to the larger european starling .
the total house finch population across north america is staggering . scientists estimate between 267 million and 1 . 4 billion individuals .
the coloring of the male house finch can range from deep red to golden yellow , depending on available diet during molting .
speaking of parasites , let’s talk about the complex relationship between house finch feather colour and parasite infection . several studies , including
four years ago i summarized a study on house finch ( carpodacus mexicanus ) adaptability led by alexander badyaev , an evolutionary ecologist , at auburn university in alabama - see - sciencewatch - house finch adaptability : mother knows best ! ( september 2002 ) .
throughout their range , many house finch populations migrate , either short distances latitudinally or altitudinally . before 1945 , populations of house finches in the okanogan valley migrated south , but since 1945 , house finches in this area have been resident .
zahn sn , rothstein si ( 1999 ) recent increase in male house finch plumage variation and its possible relationship to avian pox disease .
the diet of the house finch consists primarily of plant food , although they will eat a few insects and feed them to their young in spring . the house finch ' s natural diet is weed seeds and occasionally fruit . they will regularly extract seed from winter berries .
the house finch currently has a rating of least concern . this is a downgraded rating from a 2000 rating of lower risk . at this time there are no immediate concerns or threats regarding this bird species due to the fact that both the population and the range of this bird are large enough for there to be no concerns regarding decline . the house finch has a range of nearly 8 million square kilometers . the population of the house finch is estimated to be around 21 million individuals . the house finch is native to the united states , mexico and canada .
hill , g . 1993 . house finch ( carpodacus mexicanus ) . pp . 1 - 24 in a poole , f gill , eds .
badyaev av , hill ge ( 2000 ) the evolution of sexual dimorphism in the house finch . i . population divergence in morphological covariance structure .
mycoplasma gallisepticum is an emergent pathogen of wild passerine birds , primarily the american house finch ( carpodacus mexicanus ) in which m . more . . .
initially the house finch was a bird of the west , but because of its rosy breast and very melodic song , people wanted to own one .
this is a baby house finch . i ' m feeding him baby birdie formula . house finches are one of the few birds that will eat themselves to death so we are careful how much we feed them .
the house finch is slightly larger than goldfinches and is streaked with brown on the back and flanks . its short , heavy bill has a curved culmen .
it is highly unlikely . although the disease occurs throughout the range of the eastern house finch , reports of sick birds indicate that only a small percentage of the flock shows signs of infection . even though mg may become established in wild finch populations , the excellent adaptability of the house finch that established it as an eastern breeding bird probably will ensure its continued presence at our feeders and in our towns .
no . house finch eye disease has been present since the early 1990s and biologists think it has reached somewhat of an equilibrium in the eastern house finch population ; only 5 - 10 % of individuals are thought to be infected , and house finch populations seem to be doing well overall . so , you don’t have to stop feeding birds , but there are some precautions you can take if you are concerned about the disease at your feeders ( read on ! ) .
purple finch has bill more pointed , tail shorter and notched . male purple finch darker red , with red on nape , back and flanks . undertail coverts unstreaked . female purple finch with obvious white eyestripe and malar stripe , broader streaks on white breast and flanks , and unstreaked undertail coverts .
house finch nestlings often create a
poop wreath
of fecal sacs around the edge of the nest , as they positon their butts to defecate there after feeding .
if not fed on dandelion seeds , the nestlings are given such food as the old ones usually consume but the writer has never detected any animal food in the crops or stomachs of house finch nestlings . this finch has never been seen feeding from the horse manure of the streets .
the human modification of natural habitats , particularly the increase of seed feeders throughout the east , greatly benefits the house finch populations . only natural island populations appear to be threatened .
in the west , the house finch ranges from southern canada to southern mexico , east to nebraska . it was introduced to the east in the 1940 ' s by cage - bird dealers who sold them as
hollywood finches
and now is widespread throughout the eastern u . s . the house finch is a social bird and can usually be found in small flocks .
at western feeding stations just about any feeder and type of food attracts the house finch including suet , all types of birdseed , most fruits , bakery crumbs and nectar at hummingbird feeders .
hawley dm , hanley d , dhondt aa , lovette ij ( 2006 ) molecular evidence for a founder effect in invasive house finch ( carpodacus mexicanus ) populations experiencing an emergent disease epidemic .
distinguishing the two species is not difficult to the trained eye , but may be confusing to the beginning bird - watcher . the male purple finch is robust , and appears to have an overall raspberry stain , whereas the male house finch is more slender , with its red breast clearly set off from its streaked underparts . the male house finch has faint white wing bars and a conspicuously streaked belly and flank , while the male purple finch has pinkish wing bars and an unstreaked belly and flanks . female house finches have an overall dusky appearance , with the breast streaking blending into a dark background . female purple finches have prominent dark streaking on a whitish belly and a white line above each eye . both male and female purple finches have conspicuous brown patches behind their eyes , while house finches lack this distinctive feature . even though these two birds are closely related , the conjunctivitis - like mycoplasma infection seems to affect mainly the house finch .
the house finch exhibits , in common with many other birds , a fondness for maple sap , sipping it as it oozes from the cut branches of a spring pruned tree . the only objection my friends hereabout have against the house finch is that it eats in the spring , leaf and blossom buds from bushes and trees - - for example , lilac bushes and apple trees .
almost 100 % of the house finches’ diet is plant matter much of which consists of seeds , plant buds , fruits and berries . at backyard bird feeders they feed on black oil sunflower seed , safflower seed including nutra - saff safflower seed , and nyjer thistle seed . although some people feel that the house finch discourages the goldfinch at thistle feeders , we seem to have both feeding together although the house finch is the more dominant of the two species . if you encounter a problem with high numbers of house finch at a feeder there are several things you can try . the house finch seems to be very fond of safflower seed as well as sunflower seed . so it may help to keep your nyjer thistle feeders in a different location than the other feeders . this can create a loose separation between the house finch and goldfinch . you can also shorten the perches on the nyjer feeders to about ½” making it difficult for the larger house finch to hang on . if it is the house sparrow that is dominating your thistle feeder you can shorten the perches to 5 / 8” inch and problem solved . there are also several different “up - side down” nyjer thistle feeders . these were developed to feed strictly goldfinches as the other birds find it difficult to feed in such a manner .
the red , swollen , crusty eyes in this house finch are the result of a highly - contagious infection caused by the bacterium mycoplasma gallisepticum . credit : photo by geoffrey e . hill .
in some parts of california poisoning campaigns have been carried on by orchardists , but the effects , if any , have been local . bergtold ( 1913 ) expressed the fear that the house finch would ultimately be supplanted by the house sparrow in the cities , because of the latter ' s aggressive disposition , superior strength , and longer breeding period . however , the waning of the house sparrow ' s ascendancy in more recent years would seem to lessen that danger , and there is no need to fear for the future of the house finch .
the house finches are an entertaining bird species to have in ones backyard . the male house finch has a lovely , joyful song which everyone enjoys . it can be rapid with a cheery warble or a variety of chirps as though carrying on a conversation with his comrades .
male and female house finch calls are a sharp cheep made often , including while perched and during flight . you may hear a sharper version of this call as the birds flush from the ground .
house finches are important seed predators and dispersers . also , house finches provide a source of food for birds of prey , snakes , and other predators .
5 1 / 2
. sparrow - sized finch with long , only slightly notched tail . bill short , rounded .
cassin’s finch cassin’s finches have paler bellies and streaking that is more crisp and distinct , as well as a straighter culmen .
conducted before and after the epidemic found that red males survived better than yellow males , which drove the eastern house finch populations to become more homogenously red than populations in the rest of the country . in
blood parasites of house finches ( carpodacus mexicanus ) from georgia and new york .
as its name implies , this new condition is limited mostly to house finches .
o’connor tp ( 1996 ) geographic variation in metabolic seasonal acclimatization in house finches .
the adult male cassin ' s has a rose - red or
old rose
colored head . the bright red is restricted to the crown , with a wash , rather than dense color , on the face and breast . in the house finch this bright red includes most of the head and breast . cassin ' s has an unmarked belly , whereas the house finch has brown streakings on the belly and breast .
when brown - headed cowbirds stealthily lay their eggs in house finch nests , their strategy for having other species rear their young fails to work , since house finches are one of the few birds that feed their young almost entirely with seeds , which don’t offer enough protein for the cowbird young .
data on the occurrence and spread of house finch conjunctivitis were provided by the cornell laboratory of ornithology and the pennsylvania game commission . partial funding for this fact sheet was provided by pennsylvania ' s wild resource conservation fund .
a group of house finches are collectively known as a
development
of finches .
, house finches do forage on the ground . when feeding in open areas , house finches prefer to have high perches nearby and / or to feed in large flocks .
mcclure he ( 1989 ) epizootic lesions of house finches in ventura county , california .
the finch family lives on the main residential street in maycomb , next to mrs . rachel haverford ' s home and across the street from miss maudie ' s house . there is a wire fence separating the finch yard from the haverford ' s property , and jem and scout have a treehouse located in their backyard . the finch home sits above ground and has two porches , which are located towards the front and back of the home . throughout the novel , atticus and . . .
the house finch is a common visitor to most backyard feeding stations . their bright red chests and sociable behavior make them a feeder favorite ! they gather together at most feeding stations enjoying your food and each others ' company .
female house sparrow has a streaked back , a bold eyestripe , and an unstreaked breast .
researchers still don ' t know which genetic changes enabled the pathogen to reach epidemic proportions in house finches . but if the house finch strains have lost the genetic machinery that protected them in poultry , then reintroducing the parasites to the bacteriophages of their former hosts could be one way to control the disease , the scientists say .
the oldest known house finch was a female , and at least 11 years , 7 months old when she was recaptured and rereleased during banding operations in new york in 1985 , the same state where she had been banded in 1973 .
a bright red and brown - striped bird of the cities and suburbs , the house finch comes readily to feeders . it also breeds in close association with people , and often chooses a hanging plant in which to put its nest .
the pertinacity with which the house finch clings to a chosen nook about a house when their nests are destroyed is amazing , and is equalled only by the english sparrow . i have known five nests with their contents to be destroyed one after another , and each time the same pair set to work with apparent unconcern to build anew .
what do you use to disinfect your feeders ? i have seen a few infected house finches .
habitat : house finch lives in semi - arid lowlands and slopes up to 6000 feet . it is adapted to urban environment . we can also find it in desert grasslands , savannahs and open coniferous forests , but it requires a source of water .
blood parasites of house finches ( carpodacus mexicanus ) from georgia and new york . - pubmed - ncbi
house finches forage on the ground or in weed patches , in flocks except during the breeding season .
unlike most songbirds which feed their young an insect diet , house finches feed their young regurgitated seeds .
house finches have been known to raise more than two broods in a season but the average two .
rudolph donath of the communicable disease center , department of health , education , and welfare , atlanta , ga . , writes on oct . 17 , 1958 , that the house finch has been found to carry antibodies of western equine and st . louis encephalitis .
any of the conditions listed probably indicates house finch conjunctivitis . although many different bacteria , fungi , viruses , and parasites can cause eye inflammation and disease , lab tests have confirmed that this conjunctivitis outbreak is caused by mycoplasma gallisepticum , a well - known bacterium .
if you see a sick finch , disinfect your feeders . if you wish , you may remove feeders for a few days to encourage sick birds to disperse .
male house finches sing a long , jumbled warbling composed of short notes . the song often ends with an upward or downward slur , and lasts about 3 seconds . males may sing throughout the year . females sometimes give a shorter , simpler version of the song . compared with cassin’s and purple finches , house finch songs sound slower , rougher , and somewhat less fluid . the final slurred note is more often heard in house finches than in the other two species .
the male house finch has a length of about 5 1 / 2 inches , with red on the head , upper breast and flanks . in some regions the color red may be replaced with yellow or orange . this is due to the differences in regional diets .
unlike other finches of the genus carpodacus , house finches do forage on the ground . when feeding in open areas , house finches prefer to have high perches nearby and / or to feed in large flocks .
the native range of house finches lies west of the great plains , which , with its treeless expanses , historically kept house finches from moving eastward . but people caused them to leap - frog the barrier in 1940 , when house finches were sold as cage birds in new york and some were allowed to escape .
house finches are known to be foragers . that is , they will scour their surroundings – on the ground – for suitable food for both the parents and the baby house finches . more than the ground , though , house finches will also hop from tree to tree , bush to bush , to find food .
the finch house is a place scout describes in a peaceful tone , except perhaps when she describes the conflicts between her and calpurnia . the finch home on the main street of maycomb is an extension of their neighborhood , and scout describes it as a
tired old town .
though the finch house does not feel particularly tired or old , there is a sense of sadness and quiet inside the home . scout does not remember her mother , but jem does ; he seems to feel her absence acutely at times . atticus is a loving father , but he is reserved at times and keen to read and sit quietly when he is not working ; he too feels the absence of his wife . though scout does not describe the impact of her mother ' s absence in explicit detail , the subtext of this fact is significant to the feelings and emotions that characterize the finch household .
. - - in relation to the house finch , food is a most important , not to say controversial subject , and it is by all means unwise to arrive at any generalized conclusion . each locality or each set of circumstances should be considered on its merits . bergtold ( 1913 ) sums up as follows his observations on the food of house finches in denver and its environs :
behaviour : house finch forages in groups , often in trees , but also on the ground . red colour of plumage depends of food , derived from carotenoid pigments during moulting period . females prefer red males , because it would be able to find enough food to feed nestlings .
tulman er et al . ,
extensive variation in surface lipoprotein gene content and genomic changes associated with virulence during evolution of a novel north american house finch epizootic strain of mycoplasma gallisepticum .
, microbiology , 2012 may 24 ; 158 ( pt 8 ) : 2073 - 88
range : house finch is resident from southern canada , southward to northern florida and southern mexico . in the east , it lives in urban and suburban areas with buildings and small conifers . in west , we find it in desert , savannahs , riparian areas and open coniferous forests .
several distinctive populations exist within the native range of the house finch , but the evolutionary relationships among these groups needs further study . many populations are poorly described and plasticity in plumage coloration , a character often used to diagnose subspecies , has further muddled the taxonomic status of many populations .
lived up to 11 years and 7 months in the wild . most house finches probably live much shorter lives .
house finches can cause damage to orchards , including crops of peaches , apricots , plums , cherries and nectarines .
male house finches vary in their colouration from red to yellow . ( image : diane pierce , national geographic )
the house finch was originally a bird of the southwestern united states and mexico . in 1940 a small number of finches were turned loose on long island , new york , and they quickly started breeding . they spread across the entire eastern united states and southern canada within the next 50 years .
hill , geoffrey e . 1993 . house finch ( carpodacus mexicanus ) , the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) . ithaca : cornell lab of ornithology ; retrieved from the birds of north america online : urltoken doi : 10 . 2173 / bna . 46
the house finch is closely related to the cassin ' s finch and the purple finch , and in fact , there are places in washington where all three species can be found . all three species are streaked , and the males of all three have red plumage . the house finch , the most common and widespread of the three , typically has a red head , breast , and rump , but does not have red coloring on its brown back or wings . this helps to differentiate it from the other two . female house finches have blurrier streaks and grayer undersides than the other two species . the breast streaks do not converge in a central spot as on many sparrows . they lack clear white stripes on their heads . house finches have longer tails and appear more slender overall , and also have slightly curved bills , in contrast to the straight bills found in the other two species . like most finches , they have notched tails . there is considerable color variation among males , from pale yellow , to orange with bright red , this being the most common . many but not all males reach mature plumage in their first year . the variation in color is related to diet .
badyaev , alexander v . , virginia belloni and geoffrey e . hill . 2012 . house finch ( haemorhous mexicanus ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .
cassin ' s finch has more pointed bill , and tail is shorter and slightly notched . male ' s flanks are reddish and lack brown streaking . female cassin ' s finch with more pronounced facial pattern , distinct blackish streaks on chest and back , and streaked undertail coverts . for more discussion on distinguishing these three species , developed by project feederwatch , go here .
hill , g . 1990 . female house finches prefer colourful males : sexual selection for a condition - dependent trait .
dhondt aa , tessaglia dl , slothower rl ( 1998 ) epidemic mycoplasmal conjunctivitis in house finches from eastern north america .
when nestling house finches defecate , the feces are contained in a membranous sac , as in most birds . the parents eat the fecal sacs of the nestlings for about the first five days . in most songbird species , when the parents stop eating the sacs , they carry the sacs away and dispose of them . but house finch parents do not remove them , and the sacs accumulate around the rim of the nest .
1 . there is a seasonal variation in the weight of the house finch ; the minimum average for adults occurs during november , and is about 93 . 7 % of the maximum , which occurs in february , while there is a tendency for a low average weight all along from may to november .
the vast majority of the house finch ' s diet is vegetable matter - - seeds , buds , berries , and nectar . they feed their young regurgitated seeds . they eat a few small insects , especially aphids , but are primarily seed - and fruit - eaters at all times of the year .
reproduction : house finch nests in bushes , thickets , natural cavities or on buildings . nest is a well - made open cup , made of grass , leaves , rootlets , fine twigs , string , wool and feathers , and lined with the same materials but finer . nest is built by female .
you can find house finches by looking around settled habitats , such as city parks , urban centers , residential backyards , farms , and forest edges . gregarious and social , house finches are found in noisy groups that are hard to miss if present . look for house finches feeding on the ground or at bird feeders , or perching high in nearby trees .
house finch : resident from southeastern canada to mexico . introduced to eastern north america , where it is now widespread in cities and residential areas . in the west , preferred habitats include chaparral , deserts , orchards , and suburban areas . now widely distributed throughout much of the u . s . and mexico .
hill , g . 1993 . house finch ( carpodacus mexicanus ) . pp . 1 - 24 in a poole , f gill , eds . the birds of north america , no . 46 . philadelphia : the academy of natural sciences , washington , d . c . : the american ornithologists ' union .
house finches have had population fluctuations as a result of conjunctivitis and pox infections rather than predation . a finch that has this disease can be recognized by its swollen , runny , or crusty eyes . mycoplasmal conjunctivitis often results in death . this disease can be reduced by making sure to keep bird feeders clean .
house finches consume mostly vegetable matter , such as seeds and berries . they will also come to bird feeders for seeds .
the best way to attract house finches to your backyard is to offer black oil sunflower seed and a source of water .
belthoff jr , gauthreaux sa ( 1991 ) partial migration and differential winter distribution of house finches in the eastern united states .
wootton jt ( 1986 ) clutch - size differences in western and introduced eastern populations of house finches : patterns and hypotheses .
3 . there is a daily variation in the weight of the house finch , with a decidedly uniform increase for adult birds during the morning , breaking away from a smooth curve in the afternoon , but reaching a maximum during the latter period . the average daily fluctuation for the adults amounts to about 3 . 5 % .
the red of a male house finch comes from pigments contained in its food during molt ( birds can’t make bright red or yellow colors directly ) . so the more pigment in the food , the redder the male . this is why people sometimes see orange or yellowish male house finches . females prefer to mate with the reddest male they can find , perhaps raising the chances they get a capable mate who can do his part in feeding the nestlings .
new research about feeder birds and house finch eye disease ( mycoplasmal conjunctivitis ) reveals an interesting link between behavior and disease transmission . previous evidence suggested that the bacterium was spread by birds that had the most social connections . a research team from virginia tech outfitted wild flocks of house finches with transmitter chips that recorded their feeder behavior and discovered that the birds that visited feeders with the greatest frequency were the most likely to contract and spread the eye disease .
after they become independent , young house finches form large flocks . these young finches will be able to breed the next spring .
dhondt aa et al . ( 2005 ) dynamics of a novel pathogen in an avian host : mycoplasmal conjunctivitis in house finches .
if you notice house finches at your bird feeder with crusty , watery , or infected - looking eyes , you are not alone . a new condition called house finch conjunctivitis , first discovered during the winter of 1993 - 94 , is spreading through the eastern united states . symptoms of the disease , which mainly affects house finches , include scabby , swollen , runny , cloudy - looking , or glassy eyes , mucous oozing from the nostrils , and an upper respiratory infection . some sick birds recover , whereas others become blind and die of starvation or fall prey to cats and hawks .
hill , g . e . 1993 . house finch ( carpodacus mexicanus ) . in the birds of north america , no . 46 ( a . poole , and f . gill , eds . ) . the academy of natural sciences , philadelphia , pa , and the american ornithologists ' union , washington , d . c .
a house finch’s nest is a cup made of fine stems , leaves , rootlets , thin twigs , string , wool , and feathers , with similar , but finer materials for the lining . overall width of the nest is 3 - 7 inches , with the inside cup 1 - 3 inches across and up to 2 inches deep .
identifying the male and female house from other carpodacus finches requires care . the male house differs from the male purple finch not only by having a smaller , more curved bill , but also by lacking a distinct eyebrow , having a brown cap and auricular patch , and being heavily streaked on belly . told from male cassin’s finch by brown cap and eyebrow and curved bill . other tell - tale differences between the species include the cassin’s pink cheek and pinkish tone on its back , and on female and immature cassin’s , the much finer and crisp streaks on its belly . the male common rosefinch is more rose - pink overall and lacks distinct streaking on its belly . the female finches are more problematic . the female house has a very plain face , unlike the purple and cassin’s , which both show distinct eyebrows . the female house tends to have browner underparts than the 2 as well , with blurry streaks below . also note the house’s smaller , more curved bill . the female common rosefinch looks similar , but she is drabber , with less distinct streaking below .
the red or yellow color of a male house finch comes from pigments that it gets in its food during molt . the more pigment in the food , the redder the male . females prefer to mate with the reddest male they can find , perhaps assuring that they get a capable male who can find enough food to feed the nestlings .
house finches will nest in manmade nest boxes . visit our nest box dimensions chart to find out the correct dimensions for this bird .
the foregoing statements apply to both sexes and all ages . female or young house finches have brown streakings on a buff background on the breast , cassin ' s has darker brown streaking , or elongated dots , on a white background , and thus appears to be the more distinctly streaked bird . the house finch shows a uniform tone over the whole head ; the cassin ' s shows distinct areas of light and dark . ear , or cheek patches , and malar stripes are darker .
house finches have benefited greatly from human development . although fairly common throughout the west including oregon when pioneers arrived , they did not move into the willamette valley until the 1940s . house finches introduced to new york city in the 1940s have now spread throughout eastern north america .
house finches are found in open desert , desert grassland , chaparral , oak savannah , riparian areas , and open coniferous forests in the western united states . in their new range in the eastern united states , house finches are rarely found far from urban and suburban areas .
house finches are familiar birds of human - created habitats including buildings , lawns , small conifers , and urban centers . in rural areas , you can also find house finches around barns and stables . in their native range in the west , house finches live in natural habitats including dry desert , desert grassland , chaparral , oak savannah , streamsides , and open coniferous forests at elevations below 6 , 000 feet .
house finches use vocalizations and body signals to communicate . house finch calls are made up of
kweat
or
weet
sounds , and are used often as a way to remain in contact with a mate . the song of house finches is described as an ecstatic warble , but is not as rich as the song of purple finches . most singing by males occurs during the first few hours after sunrise and the last few hours before sunset . males sing to guard the female as she builds the nest . they also sing during courtship feeding and while the eggs are being incubated and the young are in the nest . females sing during courtship feeding or mating . house finches also communicate using visual cues , such as plumage coloration and stance of the body .
house finches were introduced to oahu from san francisco sometime before 1870 . they had become abundant on all the major hawaiian islands by 1901 .
house finches drink by scooping water into their bill and tilting their head back . finches typically need to drink at least once per day .
by choosing redheads over blonds , female house finches are selecting mates that can better resist and respond to a parasite infection and making sure that those beneficial disease - fighting traits are passed on to her offspring . whoever said redheads are unlucky clearly didn’t know about male house finches !
the house finch was originally a bird of the western united states and mexico . in 1940 a small number of finches were turned loose on long island , new york , after failed attempts to sell them as cage birds ( “hollywood finches” ) . they quickly started breeding and spread across almost all of the eastern united states and southern canada within the next 50 years .
are important seed predators and dispersers . also , house finches provide a source of food for birds of prey , snakes , and other predators .
house finches are common throughout their range . there are about 21 , 000 , 000 house finches in the world . finches and many other species of birds are protected by the united states migratory bird treaty act . this means that they may not be captured or kept without a permit .
house finch’s calls include whistled “wheat” or a “weet” sound , used to contact between mates . song consists chiefly of varied three - note phrases and includes strident notes . song usually ends with a nasal “wheer” . it is a high pitched song . male sings during courtship display , at nest , during incubation and nestling period . female sings during courtship , feeding and mating .
house finches nest in a variety of deciduous and coniferous trees as well as on cactus and rock ledges . they also nest in or on buildings , using sites like vents , ledges , street lamps , ivy , and hanging planters . occasionally house finches use the abandoned nests of other birds .
house finches may be confused with purple finches . purple finches have a more reddish color on their upper parts and are not streaked on their abdomens .
i have seen no house finches at all in 2017 , when normally my feeder is full of them . this is in fairfax county , va .
house finches often are confused with purple finches , although the birds ' habitat requirements are different . house finches live in a variety of habitats , especially in urban areas , and nest in both evergreens and manufactured structures . purple finches are found in coniferous or mixed woodlands , parks , and orchards .
hawley dm , sydenstricker kv , kollias gv , dhondt aa ( 2005 ) genetic diversity predicts pathogen resistance and cell - mediated immunocompetence in house finches .
spears l , cavitt jf ( 2003 ) the prevalence and effect of avian pox on body condition and plumage coloration in northern populations of house finches .
the aptly named crossbills have curious curved bills with crossed tips . although it looks more like a bill deformity than a useful tool , this specialized bill shape is perfect for extracting seeds from pine cones . males of the house , cassin ' s , and purple finch species can sometimes develop yellow or orange rather than red plumage depending upon the amount of carotenoids present in their food sources .
clement , p . ( 2018 ) . house finch ( haemorhous mexicanus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
after they become independent , juvenile house finches form large flocks that congregate at food sources . these young finches will be able to breed the next spring .
the most thorough study of the house finch ' s diet was made by f . e . l . beal ( 1907 ) , who examined the contents of 1206 stomachs and found them to consist in the aggregate of weed seed 86 . 2 percent , fruit 10 . 5 percent , animal matter 2 . 4 percent , miscellaneous 0 . 9 percent . excerpts from beal ' s report follow :
house finch is active during the day . it is a gregarious bird , living in loose flocks , not territorial during breeding season , but in winter , groups may number up to 100 individuals . they roost close to each other . during the courtship display , male sings , following the female with fluttering wings . male ascends to 20 to 30 metres , and then , it glides to a perch singing a loud song . this display is named “butterfly flight” . it also engages courtship feeding , and it guards its mate . in groups , house finches establish hierarchies , and females are typically dominant over males . when house finches are feeding in flocks , many individuals watch for predators , while the others feed .
reports of house finch conjunctivitis symptoms among other common feeder birds such as chickadees , titmice , and sparrows have surfaced , but these cases are rare and have not been tested in the laboratory . studies at the cornell laboratory of ornithology concluded that other songbirds are rarely affected by this new strain of mg . humans and other mammals will not catch conjunctivitis from contact with sick birds because mg is an exclusively avian disease .
a highly social bird , the house finch is rarely seen alone outside of the breeding season , and may form flocks as large as several hundred birds . house finches feed mainly on the ground or at feeders or fruiting trees . at rest , they commonly perch on the highest point available in a tree , and flocks often perch on power lines . during courtship , males sometimes feed females in a display that begins with the female gently pecking at his bill and fluttering her wings . the male simulates regurgitating food to the female several times before actually feeding her . back to top
two instances of western robins and house finches using the same nests have come to our attention during the past three years . in may , 1934 , we were informed that house finches were feeding young robins in a nest on a front porch in east denver , colorado . on investigation we found four half - grown robins , two newly hatched finches and four finch eggs . there were two female finches apparently with the same mate , and the three finches and the two adult robins fed the young regularly . unfortunately , however , the large robins smothered their small nest mates . we did not determine whether the four remaining eggs hatched . all three adult house finches fed the young robins in the nest , and after the young had left the nest .
hill , g . 1990 . female house finches prefer colourful males : sexual selection for a condition - dependent trait . animal behaviour , 40 : 563 - 572 .
in most areas , house finches stay in the same area year - round . however , some populations in the eastern united states migrate to warmer areas in winter .
i live in northern california , and have noticed two house finches with closed crusty eyes . i found this sight / blog and i will start cleaning my feeders !
when thousands of wild house finches started dropping dead from a mysterious eye infection in the washington , dc , area in the winter of 1994 , scientists were puzzled .
mycoplasma gallisepticum is an emergent pathogen of wild passerine birds , primarily the american house finch ( carpodacus mexicanus ) in which m . gallisepticum was first described in 1994 and has subsequently spread in an epizootic across the us . this project was aimed at characterizing hfmg genomic changes , those occurring as hfmg evolves across the epizootic and in response to new environmental and host pressures , and those associated with evolving phenotypes . less . . .
house finches in california , hawaii , and eastern north america have been reasonably well studied , but little is known about the endemic mexican and island populations . this is an abundant bird ; estimates suggest between 267 , 720 , 000 and 1 , 440 , 720 , 000 individual house finches for the continental u . s . and canada .
house finches are a welcome visitor to backyard bird feeders . they provide much pleasure to those who welcome their song and presence as an announcement of the arrival of spring .
house finch male has bright red head , forehead , eyebrow , throat , chest and rump . this colour can vary to orange or occasionally yellow . crown , rear head and back are brown streaked with darker brown . it has brown wings and square tail . belly and undertail coverts are white , streaked with broad brown stripes . eyes are black . the horn - coloured bill is short and conical . legs and feet are dark brown .
the finches live in the town of maycomb on the main street in town . the house has a comfortable porch with chairs and a rocker . there is shrubbery at the edge of the porch . wisteria vines crawl along side the porch . the house has a front and a backyard . there is also a porch swing . off to the side of the house is a wood pile that the children play in sometimes . jem , scout , and atticus each have their own room and there is a guest room for aunt alexandra . there is a dining room , a parlor , and a kitchen . the house is probably not very feminine since atticus has lived there for many years without female companionship .
researchers do not know how house finch conjunctivitis is spread from one individual to another , which makes it difficult to provide specific recommendations for reducing the risk of disease . in poultry , the infection can be spread through the air . if this also is true for finches , little can be done to reduce disease transmission except to avoid practices such as bird feeding that bring together large numbers of finches in a small area . if infected house finches are frequenting your feeder , you could stop feeding . this actually could increase the occurrence of mg , however , because sick finches will travel to other areas , taking the disease with them .
house finches are particularly susceptible to a bacterial eye disease that can cause blindness , something they can catch at busy bird feeders that aren’t kept clean and occasionally sterilized with bleach solution .
unlike most seed eating birds that feed their nestlings insects , house finches only feed their young vegetable matter . as a result , a cowbird nestling parasitizing a hofi nest usually dies .
although well - meaning individuals might want to take in and try to cure diseased finches , this practice is not recommended . it is illegal to possess wild birds without proper pennsylvania game commission permits , and wildlife rehabilitators have had only limited success in treating house finch conjunctivitis . studies have shown that some birds can recover on their own , so it is better to leave sick finches alone and focus instead on preventing further spread of the disease through the previously mentioned practices .
took some pics at my feeder yesterday and noticed one finch with what appeared to be only one eye . not sure if it is pox or conjunctivitis . found this article yesterday also and i will start a sanitation program for my feeders . location : western puget sound , washington state .
. - - the abundance of the house finch is evidence that it has no enemies serious enough to hold it in check where food , water , and shelter are available . its habit of nesting around buildings protects it from many wild predators , though domestic cats take their toll of any nestlings that leave the nest before they are in full command of their wings . for some unexplained reason there are very few records of parasitism by cowbirds , despite the fact that the nests are not very well concealed .
so tame and confiding have these pretty finches become that i am persuaded that the larger proportion of their nests are built not in trees and bushes as formerly , but in all sorts of odd nooks and crannies about the house and barn ; and even when they are compelled by the lack of facilities to resort to bushes and shrubbery , they choose those as close to the house as possible .
the house finch , more familiarly known as the linnet , is a species whose repute varies according to the interests and point of view of those who regard it . to the average city dweller , its domestic tastes , cheerful song , amiable manner , and the bright coloring of the male make it a pleasing adjunct to the dooryard or window sill ; but a grower of the softer varieties of fruit who watches flocks of these birds descend like locusts upon his ripening crop finds difficulty in appreciating their esthetic values . * * *
similar species : the purple finch is a winter resident , so in missouri you will probably not see it from may through september . male purple finches are usually more purplish , and both sexes have a light eyebrow line and a noticeably notched tail . the call is a dry , one - syllable “tick” or “pick . ”
house finches feed their nestlings exclusively plant foods , a fairly rare occurrence in the bird world . many birds that are vegetarians as adults still find animal foods to keep their fast - growing young supplied with protein .


abalistes stellatus is a member of the triggerfish family that occurs along the coasts of the indian ocean , the red sea , the persian gulf , and along the western edge of the pacific ocean .

abalistes stellatus

citation : - abalistes stellatus . malaysia biodiversity information system ( mybis ) . urltoken downloaded on 10 july 2018 .
there are no known species - specific conservation measures in place for abalistes stellatus . however , there are several marine protected areas within its distribution , including the jubail marine wildlife sanctuary , where abalistes stellatus has been recorded ( krupp and müller 1994 ) .
a starry triggerfish , abalistes stellatus , at lizard island , great barrier reef , queensland . source : anne hoggett / lizard island filed guide , urltoken license : cc by attribution
abalistes stellatus is rather common in the persian gulf and often observed in markets ( kuronuma and abe 1972 ) . oceanographic data suggests that a rescue effect through the strait of hormuz is negligible .
synonymy trated as a synonym of abalistes stellaris in fishbase , not by eschmeyer . [ details ]
abalistes stellatus is taken incidentally by bottom trawls and utilized for human consumption ( hutchins 1984 ) , however , this is not thought to be a major threat at this time ( k . matsuura pers . comm . 2014 ) .
balistes stellatus anonymous 1798 , allgemeine literatur - zeitung , berlin 3 ( 287 ) : 682 . type locality : mauritius .
( of balistes stellatus anonymous , 1798 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
matsuura , keiichi , and tetsuo yoshino , 2004 : a new triggerfish of the genus abalistes ( tetraodontiformes : balistidae ) from the western pacific . records of the australian museum , vol . 56 . 189 - 194 .
the similar hairfin triggerfish , abalistes filamentosus has filamentous upper and lower caudal - fin rays , 3–4 longitudinal grooves on the cheek , and lacks the yellow or pale blue spots and yellow reticulations on the body of the starry triggerfish .
a greyish to greenish - brown triggerfish becoming whitish below , with four large white blotches along the back ( the last on the caudal peduncle ) , pale yellowish - brown spots on the body , and sometimes a white streak on the upper midside . video of starry triggerfish ( abalistes stellatus ) , coral trout ( plectropomus leopardus ) , and yellowtail fusiliers ( caesio cuning ) at a baited remote underwater video camera ( bruv ) in the blue zone , at karamea bank , queensland .
. two similar specific names , stellaris and stellatus , have been used for this triggerfish by many authors . based on reviews of the descriptions made by lacepède in 1798 by anonymous in an article in the allgemeine literatur - zeitung ( general literature newspaper ) , matsuura and yoshino ( 2004 ) conclude that
pufferfishes found in a fish landing place 60 km north of nha trang in southern vietnam ( a ) and a fish market in sabah , malaysia ( b ) : a many small pufferfishes of lagocephalus and a large specimen of l . inermis in the center ; b large specimens of arothron hispidus , a . reticularis , and a . stellatus
representatives of the 10 extant families of tetraodontiformes . a triacanthodidae , triacanthodes anomalus ; b triacanthidae , triacanthus biaculeatus ; c balistidae , abalistes filamentosus ; d monacanthidae , thamnaconus hypargyreus ; e aracanidae , kentrocapros aculeatus ; f ostraciidae , ostracion immaculatus ; g triodontidae triodon macropterus ; h tetraodonitidae , arothron mappa ; i diodontidae , diodon liturosus ; j molidae , masturus lanceolatus . photographs of a and e provided by bsku ; b , d , f , h , and i by kaum ; c and g by nsmt ; j by hideki sugiyama
greek , a = without + greek , ballo = to throw ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 7 - 350 m ( ref . 58488 ) . tropical ; 30°n - 38°s , 32°e - 179°w ( ref . 56007 )
indo - west pacific : red sea and persian gulf to south africa ( also reported from west africa ) , east to the western pacific .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 60 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 11441 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 3 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 25 - 27 ; anal soft rays : 24 - 25 . body grey brown to olivaceous dorsally with very small pale spots , becoming whitish ventrally with brownish yellow spots many of which anastomose into a reticulum ; 3 large oval white spots along the back and a small one dorsally on caudal peduncle ; a broad white streak often on side of body posterior to upper end of gill opening . an oblique groove before the eye . behind gill opening are large osseous scales . greatest body depth 2 - 2 . 5 sl . first dorsal spine 1 . 6 - 1 . 9 hl ; 3rd dorsal spine about 1 / 3 length of first spine . front of soft dorsal and anal fins not elevated ; caudal fin double emarginate , lobes longer with growth . depressed caudal peduncle , width greater than least depth , very slender and tapering , much longer than deep ( ref . 11441 ) .
inhabits mud and silt sand bottoms ( ref . 11441 , 48637 ) . adults on deep coastal slopes and usually seen swimming high above the bottom , sometimes found in estuaries . juveniles in sheltered coastal bays and estuaries with outcrops of rubble or debris on open substrates ( ref . 48637 ) .
randall , j . e . , 1995 . coastal fishes of oman . university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 439 p . ( ref . 11441 )
) : 18 . 5 - 28 . 1 , mean 25 ( based on 856 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 6250 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 02570 ( 0 . 01243 - 0 . 05316 ) , b = 2 . 94 ( 2 . 77 - 3 . 11 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 45 of 100 ) .
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inhabits coastal areas , usually found on sand , sponge , and weed bottoms to depths of 100 m ( hutchins 1984 ) . juveniles are found in estuarine areas ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) .
1997 ) . the recorded maximum total length ( tl ) is 60 cm ( hutchins 1984 ) .
is taken incidentally by bottom trawls and marketed fresh and dried salted ( hutchins 1984 ) . often observed in persian gulf markets ( kuronuma and abe 1972 ) .
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dorsal fin iii + 25 - 27 ; anal fin 24 - 25 . an oblique groove before the eye ; large bony scales behind gill opening ; greatest body depth 2 - 2 . 5 sl . caudal peduncle depressed , width greater than least depth , very slender and tapering , much longer than deep first dorsal spine 1 . 6 - 1 . 9 hl ; 3rd dorsal spine about 1 / 3 length of first spine . front of soft dorsal and anal fins not elevated ; caudal fin double emarginate , lobes longer with growth .
the marine fishes of north - western australia . a field guide for anglers and divers
. perth , wa : western australian museum vi 201 pp . , 70 pls .
anonymous 1798 . review of tome i of ` histoire naturelle des poissons ' by lacépède ( 1798 ) .
hutchins , b . 2004 . fishes of the dampier archipelago , western australia .
johnson , j . w . 1999 . annotated checklist of the fishes of moreton bay , queensland , australia .
johnson , j . w . 2010 . fishes of the moreton bay marine park and adjacent continental shelf waters , queensland , australia . pp . 299 - 353 in davie , p . j . f . & phillips , j . a . proceedings of the thirteenth international marine biological workshop , the marine fauna and flora of moreton bay .
jordan , d . s . & seale , a . 1906 . the fishes of samoa . description of the species found in the archipelago , with a provisional checklist of the fishes of oceania . b
. sydney , nsw , australia : new holland publishers xvii , 434 pp .
larson , h . k . , williams , r . s . & hammer , m . p . 2013 . an annotated checklist of the fishes of the northern territory , australia .
matsuura , k . 1980 . a revision of the japanese balistoid fishes . i . family balistidae .
matsuura , k . 2014 . taxonomy and systematics of tetraodontiform fishes : a review focusing primarily on progress in the period 1980 to 2014 . review for ipfc9 special issue .
. the iucn red list of threatened species 2015 : e . t193587a56996805 . downloaded on 09 march 2018 .
reef and shore fishes of the south pacific . new caledonia to tahiti and the pitcairn islands .
richardson , j . 1846 . description of six fish taken by the officers of the beagle on the coasts of australia . 484 - 497 pls 1 - 4 in stokes , j . l . ( ed . )
russell , b . c . 1983 . annotated checklist of the coral reef fishes in the capricorn - bunker group , great barrier reef , australia .
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eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
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eschmeyer , w . n . ( ed ) . catalog of fishes . urltoken electronic version accessed 03 - nov - 2014
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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inhabits mud and silt sand bottoms ( ref . 11441 , 48637 ) . adults on deep coastal slopes and usually seen swimming high above the bottom , sometimes found in estuaries . juveniles in sheltered coastal bays and estuaries with outcrops of rubble or debris on open substrates ( ref . 48637 ) .
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mcculloch , a . r . 1929 ,
a check - list of the fishes recorded from australia . part iii
, records of the australian museum , vol . 5 , pp . 329–436
richardson , j . 1846 ,
description of six fish taken by the officers of the beagle on the coasts of australia
, ed . stokes , j . l . ( ed . ) , discoveries in australia , vol . 1 , pp . 484 - 497 pls 1 - 4 , t . & w . boone , london
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 994a75d7 - e293 - 42fb - be3f - 7895efc3a056
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f27d4ace - 8e5d - 4686 - aa37 - 5cdf517559aa
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 354058
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a starry triggerfish ( ams i . 44703 - 004 ) collected at palfrey island , queensland , 5 sep 2008 .
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scales of starry triggerfish enlarged above pectoral - fin base and just behind gill opening to form a flexible tympanum ; terminal mouth and depressed and wider caudal peduncle . it has grayish brown to olivaceous on back with small pale blue or yellow spots dorsally and large yellow spots ventrally and 3 large white blotches on back . this species occurring in sand , sponge and weed bottoms . it feeds on marine invertebrates .
yoshida , t , motomura , h , musikasinthorn , p & matsuura , , k ( 2013 ) . fishes of northern gulf of thailand , volume 8 . national museum of nature and science , tsukuba . research institute for humanity and nature , kyoto . kagoshima university museum , kagoshima . , japan . pp . 239 .
matsunuma , m . , motomura , h . , matsuura , k . , shazili , n . a . m . & ambak , m . a . ( 2011 ) . fishes of terengganu : east coast of malay peninsula , malaysia . national museum of nature and science , universiti malaysia terengganu and kagoshima universiti museum , malaysia . pp . ix + 251 .
acknowledgements : - ms . aida salihah binti abu bakar , ms . nurfadzilah bt azmi , ms . nurfarhana hizan binti hijas , nursyafiqa madzlen , siti zubaidah binti abdul latif & mr . yasser mohamed arifin
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chinese academy of fishery sciences ( 2003 ) chinese aquatic germplasm resources database . : urltoken
eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version .
froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .
khalaf , m . a . and a . m . disi ( 1997 ) fishes of the gulf of aqaba . : marine science station , aqaba , jordan . 252 p .
kinch , j . ( 1999 ) economics and environment in island melanesia : a general overview of resource use and livelihoods on brooker island in the calvados chain of the louisiade archipelago , milne bay province , papua new guinea . : a report prepared for conservation international , port moresby , national capital district , papua new guinea .
kuiter , r . h . and t . tonozuka ( 2001 ) pictorial guide to indonesian reef fishes . part 3 . jawfishes - sunfishes , opistognathidae - molidae . : zoonetics , australia . p . 623 - 893 .
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . < em > china science press . < / em > 1267 pp .
myers , r . f . ( 1999 ) micronesian reef fishes : a comprehensive guide to the coral reef fishes of micronesia , 3rd revised and expanded edition . : coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 330 p .
oceana philippines international ( 2016 ) atong tañon , atong ampingan : fisheries challenges in the tañon strait protected seascape . : manila : oceana philippines , 48 p . urltoken [ accessed 27 / 09 / 16 ] .
randall , j . e . ( 1995 ) coastal fishes of oman . : university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 439 p .
randall , j . e . , g . r . allen and r . c . steene ( 1990 ) fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . : university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 506 p .
stobbs , r . e . ( 1990 ) comorian fish names with a preliminary list of malagasy common names . : investigational report no . 35
thaman , r . r . , t . fong and a . balawa ( 2008 ) ilava ni navakavu : finfishes of vanua navakavu , viti levu , fiji islands . : sprh - fio biodiversity and ethnobiodiversity report no . 4 , the university of the south pacific , suva , fiji islands .
wu , h . l . , k . - t . shao and c . f . lai ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) latin - chinese dictionary of fishes names . : the sueichan press , taiwan . 1028 p .
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this article was published as an online first article on the online publication date shown on this page . the article should be cited by using the doi number .
tetraodontiform fishes are distributed in tropical to temperate seas and freshwaters of the world . they show a remarkable diversity in shape , size , and way of life ( fig .
) . because of their peculiar morphological characters , tetraodontiforms have long attracted the attention of ichthyologists and biologists .
) provided their interpretations of the phylogenetic relationships of tetraodontiforms based on myology and osteology , respectively .
) published an excellent monograph on the superfamily triacanthoidea including the triacanthodidae and triacanthidae . he recognized 19 triacanthodid species in 11 genera ( table
) , their taxonomic features are not repeated here , except for new information that provides a better understanding of taxa .
many species of the triacanthodidae are known from the tropical and warm regions of the indo - pacific . however , five species are distributed in the western atlantic :
with a color photograph based on specimens collected from off surinam . mceachran and fechhelm (
from the gulf of mexico and off greater new england , respectively . tyler et al . (
to the northeast coast of the usa off massachusetts , whereas this species had previously only been known from the florida keys , bahamas , bermuda , gulf of mexico , caribbean , and south to brazil , with the new northern occurence perhaps associated with warming currents along the east coast of north america .
in contrast to the atlantic spikefishes , many papers on indo - pacific spikefishes were published after 1980 . matsuura (
based on 13 specimens collected from the western indian ocean . this species is characterized by relatively large nasal organs compared to other species of
based on 25 specimens collected from the marquesas islands . in addition to these contributions , papers and books on taxonomic and zoogeographical studies of spikefishes were published by authors from various countries including australia , china , japan , korea , russia , taiwan , ukraine , and the usa .
with detailed descriptions and color photographs of fresh specimens collected from the kyushu - palau ridge . matsuura (
, these are the first records for the species from new caledonia . chen et al . (
) were based on specimens deposited at museums and institutions in taiwan and the usa . larson et al . (
has a narrower pelvis , a shorter postorbital length , a less distinctly supraterminal mouth , and a more concave snout profile . because the holotype of
) concluded that the most reliable character separating the two species is the degree of concavity of the snout . the depth of the snout in the middle of its length is 10 . 8−13 . 4 % sl ( average 12 . 0 ) in
) confirmed this difference in three specimens ( 86 . 2−93 . 0 mm sl ) of
) provided keys to the genera and species of spikefishes known from south and east africa . he recognized 11 species in this region :
) studied coastal fishes of the arabian sea based on specimens collected by research vessels of russia and ukraine from 1967 to 1991 . they also examined specimens collected by the german
, which are deposited at the zoological museum of hamburg university . the two authors recorded
( previously known only from the holotype , 52 . 2 mm sl from the andaman sea and a non - type specimen , 66 . 0 mm sl from off somalia in the western indian ocean ) , but did not provide descriptions of the two species . the specimens they studied are deposited at the national museum of natural history , national academy of sciences , ukraine , the zoological museum of the russian academy of sciences , and the zoological museum of moscow state university . in addition to these , venkataramanujam et al . (
this brief historical review clearly shows that there are many collection lacunae with respect to the distribution and diversity of spikefishes in the world oceans . new caledonia is one example of how collection efforts could provide us with better understanding of spikefish diversity . when matsuura and fourmanoir (
from new caledonia , only two type specimens were available for their study . long - term deep - water surveys by orstom around new caledonia added six species of spikefishes including 16 specimens of
) . many regions of the world oceans need to be surveyed , but the most promising areas would be waters in french polynesia and the indian ocean coast of sumatra and java in indonesia . japanese and indonesian fisheries agencies have recently implemented a joint survey along the indian ocean coast of sumatra and java . their surveys have resulted in many interesting spikefishes , including two undescribed species and several rarely collected species , which will be published elsewhere ( matsuura and kawai in preparation ) .
) reported that four specimens from the gulf of thailand near paknam have differences in eye size and the width of the interorbital space . two of these specimens ( 111 . 5 mm sl and 113 . 9 mm sl ) have exceptionally large eyes ( 10 . 4 % sl ) and the other two ( 105 . 6 mm sl and 107 . 9 mm sl ) have a normal eye size ( 7 . 8 and 8 . 5 % sl ) . the two large - eye specimens have eyes that are also larger than those of any other specimens of equivalent size . the large - eye specimens have a wider interorbital space ( 10 . 2−10 . 5 % sl vs . 6 . 3−10 . 0 % sl in many other specimens ) . tyler (
based on color notes or color photographs of fresh specimens , but neither was available for the other species . matsuura (
collected from phuket in the andaman sea : body silvery white with light brown tinge on dorsal half of body ; first dorsal spine silvery white with a black membrane between the first and third dorsal spines ; second dorsal , anal , and pectoral fins with light yellowish rays ; caudal fin dark yellow . matsuura (
collected from the northern gulf of thailand : body silvery white with several irregular golden brownish markings on head and body ; basal half of first dorsal spine silvery white and proximal half black with yellowish orange first dorsal fin membrane ; second dorsal , anal , and pectoral fins with light yellowish rays ; caudal fin dusky yellow .
) . after his monograph appeared , many publications on fish faunas , field guides and checklists have provided additional information on triplespine distributions ( e . g . , matsuura
) reported a 60 - mm sl specimen of this species from freshwater in indonesia .
) diagnosed and illustrated the 20 species of 10 genera found in japanese waters . his latter paper covered many of the 25 species that were known from the indo - pacific before 1980 . prior to this publication two papers reviewed triggerfishes in the eastern pacific ( berry and baldwin
. these were important contributions about the taxonomy of triggerfishes up to and including 1980 . a brief historical review of triggerfish taxonomy follows .
) published a review of the balistidae , one of his series of taxonomic studies of tetraodontiform fishes . he recognized 13 genera in the balistidae and provided a platform for triggerfish taxonomy . although de beaufort and briggs (
) reviewed triggerfishes of the eastern pacific with comments on fraser - brunner’s classification . they pointed out that fraser - brunner (
on trivial differences of squamation and the anterior few soft rays of the dorsal fin . berry and baldwin (
( i . e . , triggerfishes of other genera not occurring in the western atlantic ) . just after his review of the western atlantic triggerfishes , moore (
) also accepted these 11 genera in his phylogenetic study on tetraodontiform fishes . the osteologically based phylogenies of balistoids given by matsuura (
as a new species , based on a small juvenile washed up on a beach at the mouth of the van stadens river , south africa .
on the basis of two specimens collected off the northeast coast of kume - jima in the ryukyu islands , at depths of 120−150 m , which is quite deep for triggerfishes . matsuura and yoshino (
, which recognizes 37 species of triggerfishes in 11 genera . in addition to the above contributions , many checklists and illustrated books on shallow - water fishes also provided taxonomic and zoogeographical information of the balistidae and other tetraodontiforms ( böhlke and chaplin
has 28−30 dorsal rays and 24−26 anal rays . however , berry and baldwin (
from japan that dorsal rays range from 27 to 30 and anal rays from 24 to 27 . randall (
) comprised only 50 words with fin ray counts “d . 1 ? , a . 26 , p . 13 . ” because the poor original description fits several species of the balistidae , it is impossible to verify that
in a phylogenetic tree of the balistidae based on molecular analysis . their molecular analysis suggests that
) represent a single clade . these species should be revisited with detailed morphological examinations .
east africa , mozambique channel , comores and mascarenes , north to southern japan , ogasawara islands and hawaiian islands , south to new caledonia , lord howe island , rapa and ducie ( pitcairn group ) . east to central america
there are no comprehensive reviews of the monacanthidae , although in 1988 barry hutchins provided taxonomic , morphological , and phylogenetic data for all monacanthid species in the world in his doctoral dissertation . some parts of his dissertation were published , however , the taxonomic accounts of many species and genera and the phylogenetic analysis of the genera remain unpublished . hutchins published a series of articles on the monacanthidae between 1977 and 2002 . his first article on australian filefishes recognized 28 genera in australia ( hutchins
) published a review paper on the monacanthidae ( his aluteridae ) , recognizing 22 genera . although de beaufort and briggs (
lack long spines or long setae on the mid - side of the body . randall (
) provided brief accounts and color photographs of 26 monacanthids found in japanese waters . hutchins and matsuura (
and recognized four species with comments on their ability to inflate the abdomen . hutchins (
) provided a key and brief taxonomic accounts for 16 species of filefishes found along south africa . hutchins (
, a detailed study of diagnostic characters , including encasing scales of the posterior end of the pelvis , is needed . hutchins suggested in his dissertation that
remain . as in the case of triggerfishes , many checklists and illustrated guidebooks have provided much useful information on the taxonomy , distribution , and biology of filefishes ( see the section on the balistidae ) .
trunkfishes of the family aracanidae occur in shallow to relatively deep waters in depths from 5 m to 300 m . the species of
the aracanidae and ostraciidae have been placed in separate families by some authors ( e . g . , winterbottom
) , but they have also been treated as two subfamilies of the family ostraciidae by others ( e . g . , winterbottom and tyler
) . all the above authors recognized the two groups as closely related phylogenetic clades ( sister groups ) , but placed them at different taxonomic ranks . santini and tyler (
) studied fossils and extant members of the tetraodontiformes extensively and recognized familial groupings for the aracanidae and ostraciidae . recently , santini et al . (
) investigated the phylogenetic relationships of the aracanidae and ostraciidae based on molecular analysis of many taxa ( nine species of five genera of aracanidae and 17 species of six genera of ostraciidae ) . they demonstrated that the species examined in their studies ( santini and tyler
) published his article on indian zoology , he used two different spellings for a species of trunkfish . at the beginning of the article , a section titled “directions for arranging the plates” provided the name of animals in the plates where he presented the name of the trunkfish as “many spined coffin fish .
. ” plate 98 provided a good illustration of the species showing appropriate characters to identify the species . it is the type species of the subgenus by monotypy . however , in 1838 john e . gray published another paper in which he described three species ,
” indicating his intention to establish the group at the subgeneric level . although the name
thus creating a nomenclatural problem . if one follows the priority rule of the code ( iczn
should be preserved under article 33 . 3 . 1 of the code , making the spelling of the family group name aracanidae preserved under article 35 . 4 . 1 .
) provided brief reviews of the family , his accounts of genera and species were cursory as they were based on few specimens and did not provide adequate characteristics for the species treated . kuiter (
is unique in having a fusiform body and the caudal peduncle nearly completely covered by discrete bony plates . in addition to australian genera of aracanidae , detailed descriptions and illustrations of all four known species of
kentrocapros eco ( nmnz p . 903 , 102 mm tl , from pahia , bay of islands , new zealand ; a lateral view ; b dorsal view ) and an undescribed species of kentrocapros ( c nsmt - p 43344 , 104 mm sl ) collected from new zealand
as discussed above , no major taxonomic problems remain in the aracanidae . however , there still remains a need to clarify the nomenclature of some species of anoplocapros as well as the intraspecific variation of morphological characters related to ontogenetic development of kentrocapros .
eastern atlantic from st . helena , ascension and azores islands , ghana and angola
, he differentiated it from other ostraciid genera by the degree of the development of the dorsal ridge , the convexity of the dorsal surface of the carapace , and the projection of the snout anterior to the mouth . however , the two characters involving the carapace do not clearly differentiate
, protrudes anteriorly beyond the mouth in adults but not juveniles . in addition , large adults of
have a snout protruding to some extent beyond the mouth . these factors led matsuura (
in their own genus in his key and brief accounts of ostraciids found in the western central pacific . klassen (
because the latter has priority over the former . however , it seems premature to accept his proposal because there are species - level taxonomic problems in several species of
) provided keys and accounts accompanied by illustrations to boxfishes found in the western atlantic . they recognized five species ,
are nested in a single clade on the basis of his extensive osteological analysis ; i agree with this .
on the basis of a specimen from queensland , australia . however , there seems little doubt that it is actually
from australia may suggest that the specimen was transferred by ballast water from a ship or released from an aquarium . as with the balistidae , many checklists and illustrated guidebooks have provided a great deal of information on the taxonomy , distribution , and biology of boxfishes ( see the section on the balistidae ) . on the basis of the above overview , i recognize 22 species in the ostraciidae ( table
holotype of acanthostracion bucephalus ( ams ib . 6355 ) collected from queensland , australia . photograph provided by mark mcgrouther
two forms of tetrosomus reipublicae collected from the ryukyu islands ( a , b ) and kochi , japan ( c ) . a deep body with no blue lines ( bsku 29663 ) ; b , c slender body with wavy blue lines ( b bsku 29697 ; c bsku 59588 )
is rare in museum collections and poorly known . it is a deep - water species collected at depths of 50−377 m ( kyushin et al .
in detail , only 20 specimens were available for his study : five from the indian ocean ( mauritius , reunion and india ) and 15 from the west pacific ( indonesia , philippines and japan ) . due to the poor condition of two specimens , tyler (
) used 18 specimens to determine whether the first dorsal fin , composed of one or two spines , is present or absent . his examination revealed 12 specimens from the west pacific to have a first dorsal fin , and five indian ocean specimens and a specimen from the west pacific to lack a first dorsal fin ( table
) . however , he did not find other differences between the indian ocean specimens and those from the west pacific . this led him to recognize the two groups as being conspecific . i have recently had the opportunity of examining 28 specimens of
) also provided frequency distributions of fin - ray counts . my examination of 28 specimens produced almost the same frequency distributions of fin - ray counts as those of tyler (
) showed that a specimen ( 448 . 3 mm sl ) collected from the volcano islands , south of the ogasawara islands , had a single spine
frequency distributions of fin - ray counts in triodon macropterus . counts of fin rays of damaged or abnormal fins are excluded . counts of pectoral - fin rays were obtained from fins on both sides
was reported ( with color photographs ) from several areas in the indo - west pacific : the chagos archipelago ( kyushin et al .
to have the following coloration : body yellowish brown dorsally , becoming white ventrally ; ventral flap yellow in the ventral four - fifths and white in the proximal one - fifth ; a large black ocellus with a narrow white edge in the proximal part of the ventral flap ; second dorsal , anal , pectoral , and caudal fins yellow or yellowish brown ; when present , membrane of first dorsal fin black ( fig .
( 20 mm sl ) , collected at wallis and futuna at a depth of 245−440 m . they provided detailed characters and the visceral anatomy of the early juvenile that differs from adults in having a huge head ( 45 % sl vs 28 . 5−32 . 7 % sl in adults ) , no ventral flap , and different scale structure . juveniles also differ from adults in having a very large distended stomach .
) . because pufferfishes possess very few external characters useful for taxonomy and specimens are easily distorted when they are fixed in formalin and preserved in ethanol , it is often not easy for ichthyologists to recognize species limits and classify them into natural groups . consequently , they have been poorly studied and taxonomic confusion remains . although the tetraodontidae has never been comprehensively reviewed , the taxonomy of pufferfishes has progressed since fraser - brunner’s (
, based on osteological characters of the skull , the lateral - line system on the head and body , a skin fold on the ventrolateral side of the body , and spinule distributions on the body . although fraser - brunner (
) provided keys and accounts of pufferfishes in the seas around japan . subsequently , abe (
is the appropriate generic name for warmwater pufferfishes found mainly around japan , korea , and china . as with other tetraodontiform families , de beaufort and briggs (
marine pufferfishes occurring in warm and tropical regions of the world were studied by many authors from the 1970s to present . allen and randall (
and described seven new species , bringing the total number of species to 22 . since allen and randall’s (
from the gambier archipelago in french polynesia . in addition , randall et al . (
from the west coast of africa . the above studies bring the total number of species of
in the atlantic and provided a key to the species , along with detailed accounts of all atlantic species . walker and bussing (
) . the former is endemic to the atlantic and the latter is distributed in tropical and other warm seas of the world . abe and tabeta (
) based on an examination of the holotype and many specimens from the red sea . although the genus
has not been comprehensively reviewed , an ongoing study by the author has revealed 11 valid species in the genus . this study will be published elsewhere .
, many species found along the coast of china were not included in his articles . cheng et al . (
from brackish waters of modaomen zhuhai , guangdong . these chinese and japanese authors increased the number of
species making it the second largest genus in the tetraodontidae , with 25 species . however , taxonomic problems still remain in
as a new genus and species based on a single specimen collected at norfolk island .
is externally distinguished from other pufferfishes by its nasal apparatus in the form of an open , flat , and relatively unornamented disk . heemstra and smith (
in the period from 1980 to 1989 , graham s . hardy published a series of papers on the taxonomy of pufferfishes that are distributed mainly in the southern hemisphere . hardy (
from south africa revealed them to be conspecific , making the former a junior synonym of the latter . matsuura (
is unique in building large spawning nests , called “mystery circles” by local scuba divers . thus , the above studies of
) discussed nomenclatural issues of the tetraodontidae found in southeast asia in detail . he established the new genus
, but differentiated from other pufferfishes by their unique color pattern and a very elongate premaxillary pedicel that creates a greatly enlarged open space between their dorsomedial edges . thus , the generic name
as a new species from the mekong basin of thailand . because of its publication date , july 2013 , the authors were unaware of kottelat’s (
have a sufficient number of character differences to warrant being placed in separate genera . the type species of
. however , this is likely to cause confusion not only in pufferfish taxonomy , but also in the fisheries of east asia where pufferfishes are treated as important and expensive fishes ( e . g . , several species of
cost about us $ 100 per kilogram at fish markets ) . in addition , because pufferfishes have fatal poison in their viscera , scientific names are very important for food security management in east asia . as suggested by kottelat (
) , on the basis of the holotype from penang and two additional specimens from the west pacific . matsuura (
as a new species from the tropical region of the indo - west pacific . matsuura (
with a key to species and accounts of all members of the genus including two undescribed species .
as indicated above , there has been a great deal of progress in taxonomy of the tetraodontidae during the past several decades , especially in the period from the mid - 1970s to the present . however , there remain taxonomic problems in genera such as
where many species await description and detailed morphological and molecular comparisons to classify them into appropriate groups . the taxonomy of pufferfishes in southeast asia is important not only for the understanding of fish diversity of the region , but also for the welfare and food management for humans . dao et al . (
) reported that the number of victims of food poisoning by eating pufferfishes reached 737 , with 127 mortalities from 1999 to 2003 . due to the lack of knowledge about pufferfishes and their toxicity , pufferfishes are still found in southeast asian fish markets ( fig .
) , although local and state governments in countries around the south china sea have prohibited the sale of pufferfishes for food .
) provided a list of synonyms and keys for all species of the diodontidae . keys to regional species were also provided by leis (
, western indian ocean ; 2001 , eastern indian ocean and western central pacific ; 2003 , western atlantic ) . accounts and color photographs for species of the eastern pacific were provided by allen and robertson (
reach more than 3 m in length and two tons in weight , it is difficult to preserve specimens of adults in museums . it is also difficult for ichthyologists to obtain measurements and counts on large adult ocean sunfishes in the field , and specimens of
have also been rarely collected . since ichthyologists have few opportunities to study an adequate number of adult specimens of ocean sunfishes , authors have been unable to agree how many species in the family , some believing a single species exists in each genus , and others recognizing two species each in
) published a list of nominal species in the molidae . bass et al (
is found in all oceans . however , they were unable to differentiate among specimens of
from the west pacific ( taiwan ) and the western atlantic ( florida ) . yoshita et al . (
around japan . they took measurements and counted 99 specimens of young and adults ( maximum size 332 cm tl , fig .
) . they showed convincingly that there are two species with clear morphological differences : a well - developed head bump ( head bump height 12 . 1 % tl ) in group a vs . with no distinct head bump ( head bump height 7 . 8 % tl ) in group b , number of clavus fin rays 14−17 in group a vs 10−13 in group b , number of clavus ossicles 8−15 in group a vs . 8−9 in group b , and edge of clavus not wavy in group a vs . wavy in group b . yoshita et al . (
must await the availability of more specimens from other regions of the world’s oceans for study by both morphological and molecular methods .
) pioneered the classification of tetraodontiform fishes by placing them in the order plectognathi based on his detailed anatomical studies . since cuvier’s (
) , yseult le danois tried to destroy the order tetraodontiformes . she stated that the triacanthoids and balisoitds are of acanthurid origin and that the other plectognaths ( her orbiculati ) are not even of percoid derivation , being related to the isospondylous fishes , and that
is related to the ostracioids rather than the tetraodontids . however , her statements were based on erroneous observations and interpretations of the osteological and myological characters of tetraodontiforms ( tyler
) supported the monophyly of tetraodontiformes by adding to the already substantial list of synapomorphies . in addition , wiley and johnson (
) analyzed relationships of tetraodontiformes using cladistic methods . he recognized three major clades : ( 1 ) triacanthodidae + triacanthidae , ( 2 ) ( balistidae + monacanthidae ) + ( aracanidae + ostraciidae ) , and ( 3 ) triodontidae + [ ( tetraodontidae + diodontidae ) + molidae ] ( fig .
) . the first clade , including the triacanthodidae and triacanthidae , was considered to be the sister group of all other tetraodontiforms . tyler (
) studied tetraodontiforms extensively and provided a huge number of osteological descriptions , comparative diagnoses , and illustrations for all extant families , major representatives of extant genera , and most of the known fossil taxa of the tetraodontiformes . tyler (
) , except for placing the superfamily triacanthoidea ( triacanthodidae + triacanthidae ) as the basal sister group to the two superfamilies , the balistoidea ( balistidae and monacanthidae ) and the ostracioidea ( aracanidae and ostraciidae ) .
phylogenetic relationships of the extant families of tetraodontiformes inferred from cladistic analyses of morphological characters .
) proposed on the basis of his osteological analysis that zeoids have a sister - group relationship with tetraodontiforms and the two groups are sister to the caproids . leis (
) used characters of eggs and larvae to investigate tetraodontiform relationships . although no aracanid and triodontid larvae were available for his study , leis (
) placed the ostraciidae in an unresolved trichotomy , ostraciidae + diodontidae + molidae , and placed the three families as a sister clade to the tetraodontidae ( fig .
b ) . this was the first time that the ostraciidae was placed in the gymnodonts ( triodontidae , tetraodontidae , diodontidae , and molidae ) . winterbottom and tyler (
) also provided many synapomorphies involving osteological and myological characters that supported a sister - group relationship of balistoids and ostracioids . klassen (
james c . tyler and other authors published many papers on fossil tetraodontiforms ( e . g . , tyler and patterson
) used osteological data on fossil and extant tetraodontiform fishes accumulated by previous contributions to generate a new classification of all known families represented by fossil and extant forms . for extant families , santini and tyler (
) placed the triacanthodidae as a sister group to all other families of the tetraodontiformes ( fig .
) . they arranged the other families into two suborders , the balistoidei and tetraodontoidei . the former is composed of the triacanthidae + [ ( balistidae + monacanthidae ) + ( aracanidae + ostraciidae ) ] . the latter suborder is composed of the triodontidae + [ ( tetraodontidae + diodontidae ) + molidae ] . this classification is similar to those of winterbottom (
) analyzed molecular data for 100 species of higher teleosteans . their study was the first to hypothesize close relationships among lophiiforms , tetraodontiforms , and caproids . they retrieved phylogenetic topologies placing caproids as a sister group with tetraodontiforms and the two groups as sister to lophiiforms . however , they used few taxa : one species of caproidae , two species of tetraodontiformes , and six species of lophiiformes . yamanoue et al . (
) analyzed more species of the three groups and provided a robust phylogenetic topology that placed the caproidei as sister to the lophiiformes , and the two groups as a clade that is sister to the tetraodontiformes .
) studied the lateral - line system and its innervations of nine species of tetraodontiforms ( representing all families examined except for the molidae ) and a single species each from the lophiidae , zeidae , caproidae , and siganidae . their analysis supported a close relationship of the tetraodontiformes with the lophiidae , but not with the zeidae , caproidae , or siganidae . recently , chanet et al . (
) presented synapomorphies of tetraodontiforms and lophiiforms involving soft anatomical characters : rounded and anteriorly disposed kidneys , a compact thyroid included in a blood sinus , an abbreviated spinal cord , an asymmetric liver , and clusters of supramedullary neurons in the rostral part of the spinal cord . baldwin (