the cloud forest stream frog ( ptychohyla euthysanota ) is a species of frog in the family hylidae found in el salvador , guatemala , mexico , and possibly honduras .

its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , and rivers .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

cloud forest stream frog

a glass frog , photographed in the monteverde cloud forest in coast rica by cabin attendant and photographer nic reusens .
the aptly - named glass frog was photographed in the monteverde cloud forest in costa rica by cabin attendant and photographer nic reusens .
it may look like the common red - eyed tree frog , but the red - eyed stream frog is possibly the rarest frog in costa rica . courtesy of the smithsonian tropical research institute
by far our most impressive find was the rufous - eyed stream frog , which sports typical “tropical frog” characteristics like bright coloration , slick skin , and large toe pads for gripping to trees .
the rainforests are called cloud forests because the area is almost always covered in clouds .
the study discusses the rediscovery of the orange or yellow and black harlequin frog species , known as the clown frog or halloween frog , which was declared extinct – then rediscovered – in costa rica twice , most recently in 2008 .
it inhabits pine - oak and cloud forest , and is found in , or on , low vegetation along mountain streams . it breeds in streams and some populations have been found surviving in coffee plantations .
the green - eyed frog used to be common in monteverde . courtesy of robert pushendorf
he ' s croaked it ! unlucky frog fried to death after being . . .
not to be confused with the similarly looking red - eyed tree frog , which is quite common in costa rica , the red - eyed stream frog began vanishing in the late 1980s . by 1990 a number of local populations were rendered extinct . in march , a previously unknown population was found in talamanca .
ninety percent of harlequin frog species are threatened with extinction , and other amphibian species also have seen declines .
the “halloween” frog has been declared extinct and then subsequently rediscovered twice in costa rica . courtesy of brian gratwicke
we’ll be sad to leave this lively marsh , and all of palo verde , but new adventures at the monteverde cloud forest await us . ( we will be without internet during our stay at monteverde , but be sure to look for updates later this month ! )
less than three steps onto the trail we spot one of the iconic creatures of the tropical rain forest habitat : the strawberry poison dart frog . about the size of a thumbprint , these aposematically colored frogs advertise their toxicity to predators , making them easy to spot amid the collage of greens and brown that composes the forest floor .
nic spent 20 days in the beautiful tropical forest and became fascinated by the little amphibians and their translucent bodies .
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the result of the pictures were these fascinating images of the insides of the frog with organs and even its tiny bones all visible .
in 1987 , more than 1 , 500 of the toads roamed the monteverde cloud forest , but that year , an unusually warm dry season nearly wiped out the population . once a costa rican symbol , the bright orange golden toad has not been seen since 1989 . despite the recent discoveries , scientists do not expect the golden toad to return .
step 3 ) contrary to intuition , do not try to sneak up on the frog . most will cease to call when they hear footsteps approaching even from a decent distance , so taking brisk strides in the direction of the call will get you closer to the frog before it stops calling .
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the subspecies ptychohyla euthysanota euthysanota lives in cloud forests while the other subspecies ( p . e . macrotympanum ) lives in broadleaf forests and pine forests . both subspecies are highly associated with mountain streams . reproduction occurs by direct development .
once common in monteverde and tapantí , this frog was last seen in costa rica in 1989 and in panama in 1993 , before being rediscovered in 2007 in costa rica . in costa rica , the frog disappeared primarily due to the chytrid fungus , but in panama populations have been severely affected by habitat loss from logging .
looking for frogs in the cloud forest is not an easy task . many frogs exhibit incredible mimicry of leaves , bark , and various substrates . the easiest way to find them is by looking for movement when and where you step . if you’re up for more of a challenge , look closely on and under each leaf you pass , and sooner or later one of those brownish blobs that you thought was a clump of wet moss or dirt will turn out to be a frog , sitting perfectly immobile as it waits for unsuspecting prey to crawl or fly by .
first to welcome us to the dry forest are a group of white - faced capuchins , which we quickly learn are a common sight around the station and up in the forest’s canopy . not only do we have the company of the capuchins , but in the early morning , the loud , echoing calls of male howler monkeys are heard no matter where you are . these throaty , growl - like calls that awaken the forest sound somewhere in - between a lion’s roar and a very hungry stomach .
what does this mean for frogs ? cicadas and other sources of noise are ubiquitous in the forest , and a frog that calls to attract females only in periods of silence will likely suffer reduced reproductive success . studying how natural acoustic interference affects animal communication can help us predict the effects of added anthropogenic noise as forested areas become more developed .
the green - eyed frog was very common in the mountains of costa rica but had completely disappeared by 1990 . in 2002 , one of the frogs was spotted in monteverde . biologists found larvae of the frog in 2003 , which they saved . more viable populations have been found in monteverde , pérez zeledón and juan castro blanco national park .
using a pane of glass he photographed a wild glass frog using a twin diffused flash to capture the natural effect of the little creatures body before returning it to the jungle .
step 2 ) when you hear a call ( ch - ch - ch - ch… . ) gauge how close you think you are to the frog ( walking with quiet feet in the direction of the sound with help with this ) . if it’s more than about five meters off the trail , forget about it—the frog will stop calling well before it comes into view . but if it’s nearer than that , proceed to step 3 .
these tactics worked pretty well for catching male frogs , but we also needed some females to provoke the males to call in the lab . since females don’t provide calls to follow in the forest , we had to rely on sight and a bit of luck to find females hopping along the forest floor . males and females are easily distinguished by examining the gular ( throat ) region , which is dark grayish - blue on males and red or asymmetrically patterned on females .
not only are night hikes great for spotting frogs and toads , but you are able to see things that you would never consider looking for during the day . on the walk back to the station , our professor stopped and instructed everyone to turn off their flashlights and look around . for a few minutes we struggled to see into the dark forest , no one daring to move an inch for fear of toppling into the stream below the trail . suddenly someone spotted specks of light on the ground . it looked as if as if a bunch of lightening bugs had been crushed over top of a leaf—in fact , we were looking at a bioluminescent fungus . the fungus - covered leaf passed from one person to the next , a mass of sparkling , yellow - green jewels suspended in blackness .
on an early - morning hike to beat the heat , we crossed paths with another poison - dart frog , this one of the green and black variety . as it hops about in and under the leaf litter , i’m reminded of its plastic toy replica i played with as a kid . a bit further along , this glasswing butterfly flutters out of the forest edge , disappearing and reappearing before our eyes . when it finally lands on a leaf , we see that its wings are completely transparent . it seems like tropical creatures have much more creative ways of evading predation than prey in the temperate zone , whether they are flaunting their unpalatability or making their predators dizzy with confusion .
one thing that any nature enthusiast can attest to is that in nature , the closer you look , the more you see . you can find life in the most seemingly inhospitable places , colors and patterns in the blandest - looking creatures , and—in the dry forest of palo verde—movement just below the soil surface by invisible insect architects known as antlions .
when we emerged from the forest back at the station , we were greeted with another fantastic bioluminescent display as dozens of click beetles circled the trees . we watched for a while , letting them come up close to our faces and then dart away quickly , until the chilly rain began to make us numb and we retreated into our warm beds with the image of the beetles still dancing in our minds .
this frog began disappearing in 1988 and was first presumed extinct in 1996 , according to the amphibia - reptilia study . two of the frogs were spotted in 2005 in the central pacific town of quepos , but were not seen again the following year . then , in 2008 , a small population was found in talamanca , in south - eastern costa rica . the population has fluctuated from five to 40 since 2011 .
we explored the reef for hours , gliding over the bustling community below while trying to avoid being pricked by a sea urchin or smashing our fins into the fragile corals . underwater , we become detached observers , a stark contrast to the sense of oneness you get from walking through a forest . but , as in tropical forests , diversity abounds in the coral reef as organisms are highly specialized for their distinct niches in these astounding “rainforests of the sea . ”
the short boat ride through this surreal habitat at the interface of land and sea was just what we needed after a long , complicated journey over the border from costa rica to panama , involving crossing on foot over a very dicey wooden bridge with tremendous gaps between planks that revealed the crocodile - filled river below . but our habitat of study at the field station on the island of bocas del toro was not the mangrove forest ; rather , it was the adjoining coral reef .
our time in costa rica is wrapping up , but not before a culminating event to showcase what we’ve accomplished . after completing our independent research projects , we held a poster symposium for a visiting group of students from the universidad estatal a distancia . as the students had interests in ecology but were pursuing degrees in a wide variety of disciplines , we got the chance to practice communicating science to a broad audience . putting our spanish skills to the test , we presented our findings to the students and then led them into the forest to explain our field sites and data collection .
la selva biological station is the epitome of a tropical rainforest ( although by holdridge life zone classification it is actually a tropical wet forest , experiencing a wet and a wetter season as opposed to a full year of downpours ) and is ots’s most popular field station for researchers . located at the junction of two rivers in the province of herendia , la selva ( literally “the jungle” ) is home to the widest diversity of wildlife we’ve experienced in all of our time in costa rica . walking down any of the various trails that surround the station , crossing the famous hanging bridge , or even just sitting on a bench in one of the open areas on campus , you’re bound to see some amazing creatures .
entering the mangrove forest is like dipping into a strange dream where you’re not quite sure which way is up and your surroundings seem other - worldly . seated on the boat and looking up , the leafy branches of mangrove trees have come together to form a whimsical archway that blocks the outside climate—whether rain or sun—from penetrating . tall , gangly prop roots stretch out like stilts from the bases of the small trees and dangle underwater ; emerging from the water and scuttling up the roots are crabs , a parallel to the scampering insects and lizards of terrestrial forests . mollusks foul some of the roots , indicating the height reached by the water at high tide . the place is undoubtedly aquatic , but looking straight up you could fool yourself into believing there is solid ground and soil supporting the foliose trees .
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justification : listed as near threatened because its extent of occurrence is probably not much greater than 20 , 000km2 , and the extent and quality of its habitat are declining , thus making the species close to qualifying for vulnerable .
this species ranges from south - eastern oaxaca , mexico , southward to guatemala and eastern el salvador ( from 500 - 2200m asl ) . it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest .
it is common in guatemala and abundant in chiapas , mexico . its population status is unknown in el salvador .
a major threat to this species is alteration of the original habitats and microhabitats due to smallholder agricultural activity and logging . chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat to this species , particularly for high - altitude populations . declines due to chytridiomycosis amongst species of this genus have already been detected in guatemala ( mendelson , et al . 2004 ) .
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classification from species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013 selected by c . michael hogan - see more .
jennifer hammock added an association between
southern pacific dry forests habitat
and
choeronycteris mexicana
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jennifer hammock added an association between
southern pacific dry forests habitat
and
pecari tajacu ( linnaeus , 1758 )
.
jennifer hammock added an association between
southern pacific dry forests habitat
and
pappogeomys bulleri
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jennifer hammock added an association between
southern pacific dry forests habitat
and
nasua narica
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jennifer hammock added an association between
southern pacific dry forests habitat
and
noctilio leporinus
.
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justification : listed as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000km2 , its range is severely fragmented and there is a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals due to the effects of chytridiomycosis .
this species is known from the pacific slopes of guerrero and oaxaca , mexico , at elevations between 700 and 2 , 000m asl . it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest .
the main threat is habitat loss mainly as a result of deforestation and the planting of coffee and other non - timber plantations . larvae have been found in southern mexico with keratinised mouthparts , indicative of chytridiomycosis .
the range of this species does not include any protected areas , and the protection of the original forested areas in guerrero and oaxaca is urgently needed . further research and survey work is needed to determine the extent to which chytrid poses a threat ; there may beed a need to establish a captive assurance colony of this species . this species is protected by mexican law under the
special protection
category ( pr ) .
georgina santos - barrera , luis canseco - márquez , joseph mendelson iii . 2006 .
monteverde is home to plenty of birds and mammals , but in all the wetness they tend to be less active and difficult to spot . instead , a different taxon is more comfortable in this moist environment : amphibians . since many amphibians are nocturnal predators , the best way to see them is by going on a night hike ! huddled in raincoats , our class ventured out into the woods with our flashlights guiding the way .
we encountered several species of ground toads on our walk ; the males are rather flat and round and look like a wet conglomerate of sandy pebbles until you get a closer look . the females are several times larger and much easier to spot from a distance .
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before we could perform any experiments , we had to catch our test subjects . strawberry poison dart frogs are active throughout the day , but calling activity is highest from about 7 - 9 : 30 a . m . their bright red aposematic ( warning ) coloration makes them easily visible against the drab shades of brown that compose the leaf litter , but unless you’re up close their small size ( less than an inch long ) often makes them undetectable by the human eye . instead of going by sight , we relied on sound to guide us to the frogs . after just two days of practice in the field , we had our method down :
step 4 ) get as close as you can before the call stops . scan the area , taking care to check perching hotspots , such as tree roots , logs , and tops of leaves ( exposed places where a female would be likely to see him ) . nine times out of ten , a little strawberry - red dot will catch your eye .
step 5 ) lunge . these frogs move in quick , jerky hops that make them hard to follow or corner . so roll up your sleeves , keep your eye on the prize , and grab !
after testing over 60 frogs , we ended up with a pretty nifty result . frogs lowered their call rates ( speed of the ch - ch ’s ) during cicada noise compared to pre - playback , indicating a decrease in calling investment when faced with interference noise . interestingly , males neither increased nor decreased their call volume from pre - playback to during the cicada noise , suggesting that males always call at their maximum volume and maintain it even during masking noise . this could mean that energy expenditure is mediated more by how fast the calls come rather than how loud they are ; in other words , calling loudly is not as big an investment as calling rapidly .
hanging bridge ( above ) and , on the other side , sendero tres rios ( three rivers trail ; below ) at la selva biological station .
our first class at la selva consisted of no textbooks or powerpoint presentations , but simply a nature tour through the trails in order to begin to learn the landscape . peccaries were the first to greet us at the trail’s entrance . while strange and exciting at first , these “pets” of the station would come to elicit no more than a sideways glance within just a few days .
during our hike , we encountered some old favorites from our days at las cruces , including the crested guan , chestnut - mandibled toucan , and cherri’s tanager . new to the list was the collared aracari , considerably smaller than the other toucans we’ve seen and sporting rich flame - colored feathers and bill . these guys have become a fairly regular sighting in the open areas on campus or in trees towering over the hanging bridge , but every time they’re as surprisingly stunning as the first .
rounding out our tour was one of la selva’s notably precious rarities—the eyelash pit viper . this venomous snake that could fit in the palm of your hand when neatly coiled gets its name from the two small scales that protrude vertically above each eye .
the structure of the station is expertly done , creating spaces that are conducive to seeing animals up close without being in their way . sitting at breakfast in the open - air dining room , you can watch as kiskadee parents gather dragonflies , berries , and whatever else they can find to feed their chicks in the nest tucked against the side of the building . both parents make trips to the nest , never letting more than five minutes or so pass without providing another snack for their offspring . the constant peeping from the little ones reminds the parents that no matter how much they get fed , they still have room for more .
while crossing the hanging bridge to get to class , this rufous - tailed jacamar zipped just over our heads and landed on the top of a tree , which is nearly at eye - level when standing on the bridge . after a moment’s rest it flew up again so quickly that it nearly vanished from sight , and in one swift movement returned with a butterfly flattened within its beak . we watched as it literally tore the insect to shreds through a combination of thrashing its head and making quick snapping motions with its beak .
crossing the bridge once more in the late afternoon to get home to our comfy cabins , i see something large and hairy crawling along the bridge cable . a sloth ? but wait , it’s moving , and not in slow - motion . getting closer , its form becomes clear : a howler monkey ! and she’s with her baby , too . the pair sits less than five feet above my head , tails wrapped around the cable for support and relaxed gestalt suggesting that they barely notice me at all .
walking around la selva , ecological questions come naturally . why do leaf - cutter ants travel so far from their nests and to the top of the canopy to gather leaves ? what drives variation in the amount of blue and red coloration in strawberry poison dart frogs ? what do all of the different oropendola calls mean to the other birds ? how did so many types of drip - tips on plant leaves evolve ? and why is it that the tropics have so much biodiversity ?
the first striking thing about the coral reef is that it comes out of nowhere . bobbing up and down on the waves in the mid - morning drizzle , we couldn’t see to any depth in the turbid water . you wouldn’t think there was anything besides sand beneath the surface , but as soon as we stuck our heads underwater , a vibrant community of fishes , corals , and other marine invertebrates greeted us . through my snorkel i squealed with delight , taking a hundred mental pictures a second and whipping around in all directions , not sure what to investigate first .
with no trails to follow , as we so comfortably have in terrestrial forests , i decided to pick a fish ( a yellow butterflyfish with black stripes stood out ) and follow it . we swam over large yellow brain corals , past bright red tunicates puffing sandy squirts of water , between bunches of threatening - looking sea urchins wriggling their sharp spines . it was interesting to see how everything in the habitat seemed to use each other : brittle stars wrapped themselves around coral , and fish munched algae off of the reef or dashed into anemones to hide . the coral growing on the roots of the mangroves provided a seamless transition between the two habitats .
book cover of “the rainbow fish” by marcus pfister . ok , maybe they’re not identica l , but there’s a resemblance .
it turns out that the species’ actual name is the stoplight parrotfish ( initial phase ) . the “stoplight” aspect became apparent after witnessing the species’ magnificent ability to change color in order to hide . farther down the reef i had to do a double - take in order to distinguish one mottled brownish - tan fish taking the color and texture of the coral it was hiding under . i watched as , in an instant , it darted away while simultaneously morphing into a lighter hue with the scaly texture you would normally expect for a fish . this lighter morph was the very same “rainbow fish” i’d spotted earlier .
when tackling costa rica’s jungles or navigating its bustling cities start to wear you down , you find that all you really need to become perfectly content are a few days at the beach . although we had merely planned to indulge in jacó beach’s warm pacific ocean waters and slow , gentle waves , our encounters with intriguing intertidal life from the sky to the sand proved that in costa rica , natural wonders present themselves even when you’re not on the lookout .
walking along the fine , gray sand , you’re stepping over a myriad of life . as the foamy ripples of a crashing wave subside back into the ocean , the sand is puckered with tiny snails hurriedly burrowing into the moist layers of the substrate . when the remnants of the next wave lick the shore , the snails resurface , use their fleshy muscles to propel themselves forward in a way that is reminiscent of a sea lion using its flippers on land , and then—after this running start—slip into a smooth , gliding crawl . viewed from above , they look like tugboats traveling between city ports on a map of the world’s oceans .
shifting our gaze from the sand into the lapping waves , we notice zig - zagging darts of movement that could only be fish swimming in dangerously shallow waters . from the distance , pelicans soar inland , looking for a meal . while they’re still at least a hundred meters in the air from the water’s surface , however , something else plunges from out of the sky , swoops low on the water , and snatches the hefty fish with ease . this bird had wings too narrow and a bill too short to be a pelican , but we couldn’t quite make out what it was until it gained altitude directly over our heads . all at once we saw the kinked wings , forked tail , and white chest against an all - black body—unmistakably , it was the magnificent frigatebird .
over the next couple of days we would see these large waterbirds soaring overhead , but interestingly all of them appeared to be females ( males have a distinctive red throat pouch ) .
another avian friend that likes to scan the beach every few minutes is the scarlet macaw , flying in pairs or small groups from one treetop to another . once you know the particular squaaak ! to listen for , you can’t miss them . often we would watch them overhead until they faded into the mountains , but one morning we were lucky enough to follow their flight to a tree right on the beach . apparently ravenous , the pair spent at least twenty minutes feasting on seeds while we gazed , enamored , from below .
for costa rica , and almost every other country in latin america , la semana santa ( holy week ) is the most important week of the year . it begins on palm sunday and culminates one week later with the holiest day of the year in catholicism : easter sunday . each country has a slightly different way of celebrating , but certain traditions are widespread , including the procession through the city streets on good friday .
at 9 : 30am we were on our way to the metropolitan cathedral of san jose when we encountered a street staged with people in costume . about twelve men staggered in lines of two or three were dressed in ancient roman centurion garments , gold - colored armor , and helmets fringed with palm - like fronds . we joined the crowd on the sidewalk , pacing the block to find a good viewing spot . behind the centurions was a line of priests , and further back we could see the life - size figure of jesus carrying an ornate cross set on a platform heavily adorned with crimson flowers .
everyone in the procession remained still and waiting ; people on the sidewalk were chatting quietly and watching the street expectantly . suddenly , the marching band at the tail end of the group began to play—a slow , solemn melody—as four assistants hoisted the platform onto their shoulders , stepping in synchrony so that the jesus figure swayed from side to side , giving the illusion of walking . on this cue , the rest of the procession began to walk forward in a rhythmic sequence of steps , with a drum major keeping the beat . the first step was up and to the left , then up to the right , then straight , and a rest on the fourth beat before repeating the sequence .
veronica joins the procession , bearing a cloth depicting the face of jesus three times .
the parade of personages continued in this way , with the cast of each station joining in the procession as it went . a little before 12 : 00 we rounded the corner to the cathedral . the final station was performed just outside its gates , and once concluded the platform supporting the jesus figure was carried inside as the band played for the last time .
by this point , the small crowd of people we first encountered on the sidewalk had grown into a mass congregation that filled the central plaza and surrounding streets . the main event had ended , and although the mood was still solemn , the gathering resembled a large community get - together as people engaged in friendly conversation and reunited with neighbors . groups took up benches in the park , found their way into the cathedral , or strolled pensively down the sidewalks on this reflective holiday .
this kind of intraspecific aggression is common , quick , and mostly results in no physical harm , so what’s the motive behind it ? the dry season is a tough time for these insect and aquatic invertebrate eaters—their food supply is shrinking and their population is becoming denser as everyone crowds around the water holes . could these two factors—food availability and density—play a role in triggering aggression ? this is the question that i along with two fellow classmates pursued for our four - day independent research project at palo verde national park .
first , let’s get up to speed on a little jacana biology . during the wet ( breeding ) season , it’s clear to see why jacanas might act aggressively toward each other . exhibiting a polyandrous mating system , the females hold large megaterritories and two to four males hold smaller territories within that of their breeding female . females defend their territory against other females , and males exclude other males . once chicks hatch , both males and females ( but much moreso males ) defend their offspring against predators . in short , territoriality and chick defense describe aggression during the wet season , but it’s still unclear as to why jacanas exhibit aggressive behavior during the dry season .
for our project , we observed 74 jacanas over four days , going out to the marsh for three hours each morning and afternoon . in the field , we would select a jacana arbitrarily to be our focal bird for that trial , and each trial lasted 10 minutes . next , we assigned roles : one person to be the data recorder , one peck rate monitor , and one distance measurer . to measure perceived habitat quality , the peck rate monitor glued their eyes to binoculars and counted the number of times the focal bird pecked at the water / substrate over 30 seconds . this measurement was taken once every minute for the duration of the 10 - minute trial , and it gave us an idea of how much that bird valued the habitat—lots of pecks implied there was a high chance of getting food , and few pecks meant that there wasn’t much there to peck at . to measure density , the distance measurer counted the number of other jacanas within a 3 - meter radius of our focal bird , and also estimated the distance from the focal bird to the nearest jacana . after 10 minutes , we moved on to another focal bird and rotated jobs .
note that the distance measurer had to estimate distances visually , as it would be highly disruptive to tromp out there and drag a tape measurer from bird to bird . this meant that the three of us had to undergo “distance training . ” in the grassy airstrip adjacent to the marsh , one person would set up two flags and measure the distance between them using a tape measurer without the other two looking . then , standing at a range of 5 - 20m back ( to emulate different scenarios in the field ) , the other two people would guess the distance to the nearest 0 . 1m . by no surprise , we were all rather horrendous at first ( especially when the flags were set up vertically , with one in a plane directly behind the other ) , but after many repeated trials , all of us were able to estimate the distance correctly on average to within 20cm !
after four days of observing jacanas , we got some interesting results . perceived habitat quality did not seem to influence likelihood of aggression , but density was more informative . the average density immediately preceding an aggressive encounter was higher than the average density overall ( for all birds at all times during their 10 - minute trials ) . this suggests that crowding might be a trigger for aggression . however , if the end goal of aggression were to increase an individual jacana’s “personal space , ” we would expect its subordinate to be farther away after the aggressive encounter . instead , we found that the distance between two birds engaging in aggression decreased just as often as it increased . therefore , jacanas might not be concerned with crowding per se , but rather they defend a particular foraging site ( whether or not it presently has food ) . in other words , perhaps it doesn’t matter how close your neighbor is to you , so long as he is outside the bounds of where you want to look for food .
throughout the course of the study , we got the chance to become acquainted with the neighborhood at the marsh . spoonbills and jabirus frequented the deeper edges of the water while the ducks tended to hang around the shallower areas , along with our jacanas .
one of our favorite characters at the marsh was the not - so - friendly neighborhood caiman . every once in a while , we’d see something log - like moving through the marsh just a little too quickly and with a few too uniform ridges to be a log . then it would stop , raise its head straight out of the water , and make several chomps at the air before slowly submerging itself back underwater . we all jeered at this attempt at ferocity , given that the caiman’s mouth looked barely large enough to fit a small sparrow , let alone any of these waterbirds . however , we did once find it feeding rather clumsily on what appeared to be a duck carcass ( whether the caiman actually killed the duck or found it dead already is unclear ) .
and the white - faced capuchins made lovely company , whether they were playing , jumping through the trees , or , quite often , taking a late - morning snooze .
antlions are not actually ants ( and they’re certainly not lions ) ; rather , they are insects in the order neuroptera , related to lacewings and dobsonflies . this morning , we set out to study the antlion larvae which burrow underground and turn ordinary soil into a sudden death trap . while you very rarely get a look at the antlion itself , you can clearly see evidence of where it’s hiding .
look for small ( ~ 1 . 5 in . diameter ) funnel - shaped holes in the ground , then stick your nose right up close , wait a beat or two , and see tiny bits of dirt or rock launch themselves out from the base of the funnel . these silent predators sense vibrations of termites , ants , and other prey near their hole , and then knock them down into the funnel by bombing them with clumps of soil . once the prey is deep enough down the hole , the antlion uses its mouthparts to quickly grab its meal and pull it under the soil . viewed from above , it looks like the victim is being dragged against its every effort into the underworld .
one upside to the often long recovery times is that when the antlion finally does start digging again , it comes as an exciting surprise . there , in the midst of completely still soil , a grain of sediment suddenly wiggles . then the 3 - square millimeters around it start to pulse , as if something is about to burst from the ground . instead , that tiny bit of ground starts to sink , and you see the tracks made by the antlion’s tunneling . the antlion digs in spirals to form its funnel , flinging dirt in a firework - like display .
the results from our short study were interesting : antlions tended to build smaller traps than their original after the first disturbance , but repeated disturbances had no further effect on their rebuilt trap sizes . furthermore , feeding termites to the antlions had no effect on their ability to recover . in terms of ecology , this implies a trade - off between energy expended and potential food gain—larger traps take more time and energy , but the larger size increases your range for catching ants . it also seems like a single termite meal isn’t enough to override the stress of a disturbance and convince the antlion that this location is worth investing in a large trap .
above all , this little experiment opened our eyes to the hidden activities of the soil , showing that you can find action , suspense , and intrigue right under your toes .
coming from the rainy , chilly highlands of cuericí , the climate of palo verde is a stark contrast . down here at sea level we’ve got daily high temperatures in the 80s and 90s f , and that’s with tropical sun ( i . e . sunlight coming in at a near - perpendicular angle to the earth ) . at this time of year , palo verde is sporting a dry heat—the kind that makes your hair start to dry while you’re still in the shower , and turns popsicles into puddles in a matter of seconds .
the first thing you notice is that the individual birds like to clump by species . the small jacanas have claimed the shallowest part of the marsh , closest to shore . using their long , narrow bills , they pick at bits of floating vegetation or at the water surface and occasionally come up with a wormy - looking creature . further out in the marsh you’ll find the black - necked stilts , taller than the jacanas and with even narrower , needle - like bills . instead of just scraping the surface like the jacanas , a stilt shoves its whole bill and part of its head down into the water , rustles around for a second , and then comes up with a dripping face but no apparent prey ( as it turns out , the stilts feed on aquatic invertebrates or fish , so it likely swallowed its meal while underwater . ) .
the whistling ducks are grouped together on the small islands of vegetation interspersed here and there , or slowly paddling through the marsh . every now and then the they’ll do the typical duck half - flip underwater , shimmy their tail feathers , and resurface . look a meter or two farther out and you’ll find the roseate spoonbills , tall and flamingo - pink . their feeding method is the most intriguing to watch—with their aptly - named bill slightly opened , they sweep it side to side just under the water’s surface . every now and then they find something tasty , stop mid - sweep , nibble at their prey in a flurry of splashes , and then continue on with their sweeping .
the marsh is so calm and peaceful that you would never guess what is lurking a few kilometers down the road at the source of this wetland’s water , the río tempisque . sun - bathing along the banks of the river or floating downstream as driftwood look - alikes are none other than crocodiles ! from the river’s dock you can get a nice look at these incredible reptiles—just be sure not to sit on the edge with your legs dangling…
climate change , habitat destruction , the illegal pet trade and the spread of a severe and incurable fungus have been killing off amphibian species in droves in costa rica since the late 1980s . many once - abundant species are now extinct , but according to a study released this month in the journal amphibia - reptilia , there may be hope .
the species is among several types of harlequin frogs that have re - emerged in costa rica since 2005 and scientists believe this could be the beginning of a slew of amphibian rediscoveries following massive population declines .
holdridge’s toad was rediscovered in 2009 after going unsighted for 22 years . courtesy of the university of kansas
the international union for the conservation of nature ( iucn ) declared holdridge’s toad extinct in 2008 because it had not been sighted since 1987 . scientists believe that chytrid fungus was the primary cause of extinction . it was rediscovered in 2009 near barva volcano in costa rica’s central valley .
the isthmohyla rivularis is so rare it doesn’t even have a common name . courtesy of wikimedia commons
the extinction of the golden toad was met with sadness and outrage in costa rica and the world . the toad has since become a symbol for naturalists pointing to the impending threats from climate change .
see famous costa rican musician manuel obregón perform his “requiem for the golden toad . ”
beware ! have your tissues ready at 4 : 22 for some sloth sadness .
an eight - hour recycling drive in la sabana , san jose , collected more than 400 , 000 plastic bottles this sunday . the drive , spearheaded…
we’re here to help ! contact us if you need more flexible licensing options .
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first discovered in 1872 , glass frogs live in the humid mountain forests of central and south america .
glass frogs are mostly active at night , which makes them very difficult to spot for predators .
during the breeding season they live along rivers and streams where they lay their eggs on leaves that overhang the water .
nic , 37 , who is half spanish and half swedish and lives in madrid , said his day job allowed him to follow his passion for photographing nature around the world .
he said : ' while the general background coloration of most glass frogs is primarily lime green , the abdominal skin of some members of this family is translucent .
' the internal viscera , including the heart , liver , and gastrointestinal tract are visible through this translucent skin , hence the common name .
' glass frogs are difficult to find and collect , due not only to their small size and color , but also because of the extreme areas they sometimes inhabit .
' glass frogs are often found along streams that are nearly impossible to walk along , let alone collect specimens .
' with new areas constantly being explored in tropical america , more species are sure to be discovered and described .
' the frogs typically range in size from 20 to 30 millimetres , but some species , like centrolene geckoideum from the pacific andean slopes of colombia and ecuador , reach larger sizes . '
nic said he used a canon 5d mark iii to get the images with a 100mm l macro lens .
he said : ' i had to place her over a clean glass surface , and fire with my twin diffused flash at high speed to get the dark background in order to illustrate the see - thru effect .
' luckily i had the help of a local to hold the glass for me while i focused . '
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world ' s first floating nation begins selling its own ' vayron ' cryptocurrency ahead of 2022 launch in the . . .
being rich and successful really is in your dna : being dealt the right genes determines whether you get on . . .


urophora stylata is a species of tephritid or fruit flies in the genus urophora of the family tephritidae .

the host plant for the larvae is usually a thistle of genus cirsium or carduus .

urophora stylata

urophora stylata is a species of gall fly in the genus urophora and is a biocontrol agent of the thistles in genus cirsium or carduus . urophora stylata was released into new zealand to attack thistles . it prefers the scotch thistle cirsium vulgare but occasionally attacks the flower heads of the californian thistle but does not produce a gall .
the u . stylata populations released in bc orginated in the swiss jura and upper rhine valley , germany .
urophora stylata is somewhat smaller than a house fly . the body is light grey in colour with a light brown to yellow scutellum ( located on the back behind the head ) . the wings are clear with each wing having an
iv
marking .
u . stylata have been found at all the initial treated sites and at substantial distances from known release locations . when sites were monitored in 2002 and 2003 many sites had no plants or few plants remaining . rarely have bull thistle infestations been found without u . stylata attack . in one bc study , the average seed reduction was about 60 % . the larvae of both u . stylata and rhinocyllus conicus have been found occupying the same bull thistle seedhead .
female flies lay eggs on developing flower buds . after one week the larvae hatch and burrow into the centre of the seed head and devour the developing seed and induce gall tissue production . galls are an abnormal swelling or deformation of plant tissue caused by insects , mites , microorganisms or injury . the urophora stylata gall feels like a hard walnut - sized stone in the centre of the flower head . the larvae are pale coloured and are 3 to 5 mm long . five to over twenty larvae can be found in each gall .
in 1973 , the first u . stylata releases were made on vancouver island and into the fraser valley . the flies easily established and field collections began shortly after . mass redistribution of the flies continued until 1996 when the demand for bull thistle control appeared to subside . in 2001 there was a renewed interest to redistribute the agent . the last recorded assisted redistribution effort occurred in 2006 .
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a distinctive species with a unique wing pattern . the scutellum and sides of the thorax are a pale creamy colour and the eyes can appear orangey - green .
the female lays her eggs in the flower heads of thistles , usually spear thistle , causing them to swell and damage seeds . they are sometimes used in weed control against thistles .
fairly frequent in the southern half of britain , but very few records from scotland .
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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
eggs hatch in 5 - 8 days . third instar larvae overwinter in galls and pupate in june . adults live about two months .
contributed by john f . carr on 9 january , 2010 - 3 : 52pm additional contributions by beatriz moisset , v belov last updated 17 august , 2016 - 6 : 45pm
disclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .
contributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright © 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .
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norrbom , a . l . , l . e . carroll , f . c . thompson , i . m . white and a . freidberg / f . c . thompson , ed .
fruit fly expert identification system and systematic information database . myia , vol . 9
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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23 - 06 - 10 , southern limburg , nl last update : 13 . 09 . 10 10 : 03 added by : ben hamers dimensions : 400 x 600 pixels filesize : 49 . 87kb comments : 0 rating : none number of views : 1576
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help again can any1 give me the full title of kulon . allat . kozlem thx
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if you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 02edc26f - 28c8 - 489f - 9978 - 25b3c0f7c5a6
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 9d27f71c - 7348 - 481d - aa71 - cba79f703b84
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : cc5bd9c3 - 4416 - 4789 - 8bda - 942f23b9cb3e
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f1c3084b - 2a56 - 4268 - 89bf - 5d59f6e4394b
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : fb052a98 - c2bd - 4285 - ab1f - 041b400b1881
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7ea6344f - af1c - 4447 - a714 - f616eca109c1
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 320139
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the atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .
flies , caddisflies , craneflies , damselflies dragonflies , gnats , mayflies . midges , mosquitoes
fly ( red eyed , small ) ) probably in the family : sapromyzidae .
insects ( ants , beetles , bugs , cicadas , cockroaches , centipedes , crickets , grasshoppers , lacewings , ladybirds , mantis , millipedes , scale , shield bugs , stick insects , wetas , weevils , etc . ) .
reptiles ( frogs , geckos , skinks , snakes , lizards , turtles ) .
trees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names a to f with photo .
trees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names g to l with photo .
trees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names m to q with photo .
trees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names r to z with photo .
trees ( new zealand ) hebes and their hybrids & cultivars ( photos ) .
weeds & escapee plants : a to f ( common names with photo ) .
weeds & escapee plants : g to l ( common names with photo ) .
weeds & escapee plants : m to q ( common names and photo ) .
weeds & escapee plants : r to z ( common names with photo ) .
scotch thistle gall fly , bull thistle gall fly , bull thistle seed head gall fly .
galled flower heads , containing developing larvae , are present at the beginning of summer and persists through winter . the presence of larvae in the developing seed head can reduce seed production by up 60 % .
adults emerge from the previous year ' s seed heads in late spring to mid - summer .
photo of a female fly . it notable for its long ovipositor relative to its body size . thanks to wikipedia for text and information : urltoken
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the white , 0 . 7 x 0 . 2mm eggs incubate for 5 - 8 days .
larvae presence in flowerheads causes decreased seed production . the gall formation strains plant nutrients , causing fewer flowerheads and reduces plant vigour . seeds directly above the gall become enlarged and non - viable and most seeds beyond the gall also fail to develop . studies indicate 60 - 90 % of seedheads are attacked , where 90 % of the seed is reduced .
galled heads can be collected from the field from late - august to november . attacked heads are easily detected by their misshapen indentations and when squeezed they are hard , whereas vacant seedheads are soft . redistribute collections on the ground at new locations in the fall , winter or early the following spring . clipped seedheads can also be held overwinter at 4°c , keeping refrigerated galls moist while not allowing them to become moudly . the following spring , the galls can be scattered at the new site , allowing adults to exit and disperse on their own . new colonies can develop from 20 - 50 galled seedheads .
competing rhinocyllus conicus also attacks bull thistle . the beneficial contribution the two make together outweighs competition . no longevity study has been completed .