the white-tailed jackrabbit ( lepus townsendii ) , also known as the prairie hare and the white jack , is a species of hare found in western north america .

like all hares and rabbits , it is a member of the family leporidae of order lagomorpha .

it is a solitary individual except where several males court a female in the breeding season .

litters of four to five young are born in a form , a shallow depression in the ground , hidden among vegetation .

this jackrabbit has two described subspecies : l. townsendii townsendii occurring west of the rocky mountains and l. townsendii campanius occurring east of the rocky mountains .

white - tailed jackrabbit

in sympatry with lepus californicus - black - tailed jackrabbit , the white - tailed jackrabbit appears to be more selective over the plant species it consumes . ( b430 . w2 )
the white - tailed jackrabbit is thought to be extinct in missouri and possibly also nebraska and kansas ( 1 ) .
the white - tailed jackrabbit is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
the white - tailed jackrabbit is classified as secure in the current general status of alberta wild species report . see :
an additional threat to the white - tailed jackrabbit is competition with the black - tailed jackrabbit . this more common species has spread with the expansion of agriculture as it has a generalist diet and can exploit habitats degraded by grazing livestock . where both the white - tailed and black - tailed jackrabbits occur , the white - tailed jackrabbit tends to be displaced as it is less efficient at foraging in degraded habitats ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .
habitat : the white - tailed jackrabbit is typically found in open grasslands , forests , pastures , and fields . [ 2 ]
female black - tailed jackrabbit do not prepare an elaborate nest . they give birth in shallow excavations called
a few populations of white - tailed jackrabbits are present in wisconsin . ( b430 . w2 )
courtship behavior is similar to that of the black - tailed jackrabbit [ lepus californicus - black - tailed jackrabbit ] , except that the jumping behavior is more pronounced .
( b605 . 4 . w4 )
the summer pelage of the white - tailed jackrabbit is yellowish to grayish - brown on the upperparts and white or pale gray on the underparts . the throat is darker .
( b430 . w2 )
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the white - tailed jackrabbit has not been the target of any known conservation measures . it is recommended that further research is conducted into this speciesâ€™ biology and populations , as well as its relationship with the black - tailed jackrabbit , so that informed conservation measures may be made in future . it is also recommended that the white - tailed jackrabbit be removed from the list of vermin in the state of wyoming ( 1 ) .
the white - tailed jackrabbit is most commonly found in open prairie and plains , but also occurs in montane shrublands among pine forests and alpine tundra . it has been recorded up to elevations of over 4 , 000 metres in colorado ( 1 ) ( 4 ) . where the white - tailed jackrabbit is in competition with the black - tailed jackrabbit ( lepus californicus ) , it tends to move to higher elevations ( 2 ) .
in mountainous habitats , white - tailed jackrabbits predominate on the slopes and ridges and black - tailed jackrabbits are more common on the valley floors .
( b430 . w2 )
this species is slightly larger than lepus californicus - black - tailed jackrabbit . ( b430 . w2 , b605 . 4 . w4 )
breeding season the breeding season of white - tailed jackrabbits lasts from february to july with a peak from march to june .
in some areas , the white - tailed jackrabbit is considered an agricultural pest , particularly of alfalfa , corn , soybeans and winter wheat , and has been persecuted as a result ( 7 ) .
it is distinguished from lepus californicus - black - tailed jackrabbit by the white , not black , dorsal side to the tail - as indicated by the common name . ( j469 . 288 . w1 )
white - tailed jackrabbits are a large population and are considered a “least concern” species by the iucn red list of threatened species .
white - tailed jackrabbits ( or lepus townsendii ) are grassland species that have migrated to urban centres as their prairie habitat shrinks .
, foxes , and wild cats . the black - tailed jackrabbit has no prey . this is because the species only feeds on plant material .
description : the white - tailed jackrabbit’s coat color varies with season and habitat . the back ranges from yellowish to grayish brown in color while the underside is white or grey . the throat and face are darker with coarser hair . its tail is white with a buffy dorsal stripe . their ears are rimmed in white and tipped in black . two distinguishing features are their large ears and hind legs . [ 2 ]
diet : white - tailed jackrabbits are strict herbivores . they want grasses , forbs , and shrubs in varying amounts . [ 2 ]
similar species : the white - tailed jackrabbit is the least social of all hares . [ 2 ] they can also be distinguished from other hares due to their prominent flanges projecting from the sides . [ 1 ]
montana has four true rabbits—pygmy rabbit , desert cottontail , mountain cottontail , and eastern cottontail—and three hares—white - tailed jackrabbit , black - tailed jackrabbit , and snowshoe hare . the whitetail is yellowish - gray , has a distinct white tail , and turns all white in winter except for its ear tips , which remain black . the blacktail is gray to blackish , has a black tail , and does not change color in winter .
the white - tailed jackrabbit really isn ' t a rabbit at all , but a hare ! confused ? well , the main difference is that baby hares are born well furred with their eyes open , and can move around shortly after birth , whereas rabbit babies are born blind , hairless , and helpless . in minnesota , our two hare species are the white - tailed jackrabbit and snowshoe hare , and our only rabbit species is the cottontail .
who are these creatures sharing our city with us ? that question has taken dr . john wood and his students into the streets and parks of edmonton many a wintry night . their quest : the white - tailed jackrabbit .
in oregon , open flats and ryegrass fields , rather than sagebrush used by lepus californicus - black - tailed jackrabbit . ( j469 . 288 . w1 )
a large hare of north america , the white - tailed jackrabbit ( lepus townsendii ) is most easily recognised by its long , antennae - like ears , which are grey on the outside , white and brown on the inside , and have conspicuous black tips . this species is the only jackrabbit that has two annual moults . during the summer , the thin , coarse coat is dark brown to greyish - brown on the upperparts and white or pale grey on the underparts . in northern parts of its range , where snowfall is regular , the white - tailed jackrabbit becomes all white during winter with some grey around the eyes and throat . however , in southern parts of its range , it only develops white sides . the tail , which gives this hare its common name , it white all year round , with a dusky stripe on the upper side ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .
white - tailed jackrabbits live in grasslands and shrublands throughout montana except in the far northwest . they are most common in open grassland plains east of the continental divide . ( in montana , black - tailed jackrabbits live only in the state’s far southwestern corner . ) though information on white - tailed jackrabbits is scarce , the population appears to be doing fine .
color : in summer , the jackrabbit is brown gray , with a white belly , feet , and tail . in winter , the fur changes to white , with somewhat darker ears . in more southern climates , jackrabbits do not change color .
white - tailed jackrabbits are abundant through most of their range and have no special conservation status . they are considered
least concern
by the iucn . the subspecies
early authors maintained that white - tailed jackrabbits adjusted well to agricultural development , but decline of numbers now seems general .
( b605 . 4 . w4 )
white tail . this sometimes has a dusky dorsal stripe . ( b430 . w2 )
in winter , the jackrabbit browses on the buds , bark and branches of shrubs and small trees .
the white - tailed jackrabbit is a favorite prey of animals such as foxes , coyotes , cougars , badgers , bobcats , snakes , eagles , and owls . they avoid predators by lying perfectly still . they are also proficient swimmers , which helps them to escape predators . [ 2 ]
white - tailed jackrabbits are strict herbivores . they feed on grasses , forbs , and shrubs in varying amounts . in the summer months , when many succulent plants are readily found ,
white - tailed jackrabbits are an important prey source for medium to large sized predators in the ecosystems in which they live . they also impact vegetation community composition through their grazing activities .
built for speed , with a slender , lean body and well developed , long hind limbs , the white - tailed jackrabbit is capable of bursts of speed of up to 40 miles per hour . this athletic mammal is even able to jump higher than 3 . 6 metres ( 3 ) .
this species has greyish - brown upperparts and white underparts . the tail is also white , though has a dusky or buff stripe on the top . ( b605 . 4 . w4 )
dr . wood compares the joy of studying the white - tailed jackrabbit to being bartholomew cubbins with his 500 hats . “every time you take one off , there’s another one . you never get to essence , you’re always discovering something new—and the closer you look , the more fascinating it is . ”
like the pronghorn , whose open grassland range it shares , the white - tailed jackrabbit relies on eyesight and speed to avoid coyotes , bobcats , foxes , golden eagles , and other predators . a frightened jackrabbit can cover 30 feet in one leap and reach speeds of up to 35 mph in short bursts . as it bounds along , it regularly jumps 3 to 4 feet high , apparently to get a better view of its pursuer . when captured by a predator , a jackrabbit fights back by kicking with its powerful hind legs .
white - tailed jackrabbits prefer open grasslands but thrive in pastures and fields . this species can also be found in forested areas up to high alpine tundra , from 40 to 4300 meters elevation .
activity : white - tailed jackrabbits are nocturnal . they generally feed from sunset to sunrise and rest in shallow forms during the day . they do not hibernate in the winter . [ 2 ]
the white - tailed jackrabbit , or
jack ,
is the largest member of the rabbit and hare family , weighing from six to ten pounds . the long - legged jackrabbit is best recognized by its unusual style of running . when surprised , it will usually bound off with a gait resembling that of a kangaroo . but when frightened , it will drop low to the ground and accelerate to an amazingly fast speed . it is rarely seen because it is active mainly at night , and turns white in winter .
range : the white - tailed jackrabbit’s range within the united states including : washington , oregon , california , nevada , idaho , montana , wyoming , utah , colorado , new mexico , nebraska , kansas , north and south dakota , minnesota , wisconsin , iowa , missouri , and illinois . [ 3 ]
while the population status of the white - tailed jackrabbit is currently unclear , declines have been observed in many areas . in yellowstone national park , where this species was once considered abundant , there have been no sightings since the 1990s , while in grand teton national park , there have only been three sightings since 1978 ( 1 ) . the white - tailed jackrabbit has also not been seen in british colombia since 1980 ( 3 ) . the reasons behind these declines are unknown , but it is possibly due to a combination of severe weather , disease , predation , habitat destruction and habitat degradation by livestock ( 1 ) .
this jackrabbit finds it difficult to run in snow more than 25 cm deep . ( j469 . 288 . w1 )
black - tailed jackrabbits are not listed as threatened or endangered . the white - tailed jackrabbit , lepus townsendii is listed as a species of special concern by several states including california . habitat availability is threatened to some extent by development and in some areas populations are dwindling . their large numbers in orchards , agricultural fields , and rangelands can do considerable damage and ranchers and farmers often need to cull the populations .
in summer , the white - tailed jackrabbit feeds on grasses , forbs and cultivated crops . at other times of the year , this species browses on twigs , buds and bark . it is mostly active at dusk and dawn , resting in shallow depressions at the base of bushes during the day ( 1 ) .
the white - tailed jackrabbit is distributed in west - central north america from the prairies of southern saskatchewan and alberta to the rocky mountains of northern new mexico , and from lake michigan in wisconsin to east of the cascade mountains of washington and the sierra nevada mountains of california .
( b430 . w2 )
among the most solitary of hares , the white - tailed jackrabbit is usually found alone , and only briefly interacts with other hares during the breeding season ( 2 ) . breeding takes place from late february to mid - july , when groups of males chase females . this involves dashes , jumps and circling sprints and ends in a brief copulation . female white - tailed jackrabbits may produce between 1 and 4 litters a year , usually of 4 or 5 young , after a gestation period of 30 to 43 days . the young have some ability to move around within half an hour of birth and begin foraging on their own at two weeks of age . the young are then weaned at one month old and are completely independent at two months ( 3 ) . the white - tailed jackrabbit is thought to live for up to five years ( 1 ) .
braun , c . e . and r . g . streeter . 1968 . observations on the occurrence of white - tailed jackrabbits in the alpine zone . j . mammal . 49 : 160 - 161 .
white - tailed jackrabbits were a significant food source for early settlers of north america and continue to be a year round game animal . their pelts were once highly prized and widely used in the commercial fur industry .
a widespread species , the white - tailed jackrabbit is found across much of southern canada and the central united states . its range stretches from the great plains in saskatchewan , south to the rocky mountains in extreme northern new mexico , and east of the cascade mountains in oregon , to lake michigan in wisconsin ( 1 ) ( 6 ) .
although the black - tailed part of the black - tailed rabbit’s name is correct in that its tail is black , the rabbit part is not . these animals are hares , not rabbits . several factors distinguish hares from rabbits . hares have a leaner body and longer ears and legs , usually do not build nests , and their young are born well - furred with their eyes wide open . three species of hares are native to california , the snowshoe , black - tailed , and white - tailed . the latter two are commonly called jackrabbits . black - tailed are the most abundant and widespread of all the jacks and the only one found in desert habitats .
the white - tailed jackrabbit is the least social of all hares . in terms of communication , the species generally make no vocal noises , but screams if caught or injured . they have acute hearing and a sharp sense of smell . they also have good vision and whiskers that allow them to navigate to find food . these senses help them perceive their environment .
the tail remains white throughout the year , though some may have a buffy dorsal stripe . ( b430 . w2 )
size : white - tailed jackrabbits weigh 6 . 61 to 8 . 81 lbs ( 3 to 4 kg ) , and range from 22 to 25 . 6 inches ( 558 - 650 mm ) in total length . [ 1 ]
white - tailed jackrabbits are often viewed as a threat by farmers as they can destroy crops , eat hay stores , and girdle trees ( chapman et al . , 1982 ) . because of low population densities and grassland preferences , the impact of
white - tailed jackrabbits are classed as a
game species
in minnesota , and during the autumn and early winter hunting season , several thousand are killed each year for their meat . but predators take several times more jacks than do hunters .
white - tailed jackrabbits are one of the world’s largest hares , second only to the alaskan hare . they are 2 feet long from their nose to their 3 - to 4 - inch - long stubby tail , and weigh 6 to 10 pounds . because of the animals’ large ears , early settlers called them “jackass rabbits , ” later shortened to jackrabbit . its large ears allow a jackrabbit to hear exceptionally well . also , the ears are filled with blood vessels that release body heat in summer , keeping the animal cool when temperatures rise .
lepus townsendii is greyish brown ( lepus townsendii townsendii or yellowish ( lepus townsendii campanius ) dorsally ( white in winter in northern areas and high altitudes ) with a pale grey or white underside , black ear tips and a white tail which may have a slender buffy or dusky dorsal stripe ; when present this stripe does not extend up the back ( j469 . 288 . w1 )
assess abundance , distribution , and trends . improve understanding of jackrabbit ecology , including habitat associations and selection . develop methods to census this nocturnal species .
white - tailed jackrabbits live at a remarkably broad range of elevations , from 40 m to 4 , 300 m , and where they are in competition with black - tailed jackrabbits , they tend to move toward higher elevations . they are slightly larger than black - tails , but seem to be more selective in their dietary choices , putting them at a disadvantage where the two
trump spent the weekend discussing his options and will announce his pick at 9 p . m . monday from the white house .
male black - tailed jackrabbit reach sexual maturity at about 7 months of age . females usually breed in the spring of their second year , although females born in spring or early summer may breed in their first year . ovulation is induced by copulation . the breeding season is variable depending upon latitude and environmental factors . in the northern part of its range in idaho , black - tailed jackrabbit breeds from february through may . in utah , black - tailed jackrabbit breed from january through july , with over 75 % of females pregnant by april . the kansas breeding season extends from january to august . breeding in warm climates continues nearly year - round . two peak breeding seasons corresponding to rainfall patterns and growth of young vegetation occur in california , arizona , and new mexico . in arizona , for example , breeding peaks during winter ( january–march ) rains and again during june monsoons .
white - tailed jackrabbits are found throughout west - central canada and the united states with an elevation span of 40 to 4 , 300 m . they range from the great plains of saskatchewan and alberta east to extreme southwest ontario down into wisconsin and across the continent to the rocky mountains with a southern limit in central california ( wilson and ruff , 1999 ) . there has been a noted range reduction from the south east over the past half - century , notably in kansas , due to habitat alteration from increased agriculture and competition from the sympatric black - tailed jackrabbit (
white - tailed jackrabbits have a number of other distinct morphological characters which reflect adaptation to their environment and ecology . enormous ears equipped with generous blood flow are used for heat dissipation in the warmer portions of the range , while they also provide an excellent means of predator detection .
there is little current information regarding population status in california , but evidence polnts to a serious decline . overgrazing by livestock has been cited as a principal factor ( dalquest 1948 ) , as wel ! as cultivation and other development . may now be absent from large portions of its previous range , as in lasser co . where the last records are 20 yr old . california species of special concern ( williams 1986 ) . also called white - tailed jackrabbit .
due to the creation of suitable habitats for this species , it has been extending its range eastwards and northwards . yet its range has been reduced in the southeast due to the changes in habitat which have left the area more suitable for the sympatric lepus californicus - black - tailed jackrabbit . ( b430 . w2 )
reproduction : the white - tailed jackrabbit’s breeding season extends from february to july with a peak from march to june . gestation typically lasts 42 days . their litter size ranges from 1 to 11 , but averages at 4 - 5 . females may have one to four litters per year , however a maximum of one litter is produced in northern climates . the young are fully weaned at one month , and sexually mature after 7 - 8 months . [ 2 ]
three to five males may pursue one female concurrently during mating season , leading to aggresive charging among them . the courting behaviour of white - tailed jackrabbits consists of a series of aggresive charges and jumps . circling between male and female lasts from 5 - 20 minutes and is followed by copulation .
in summer , the coat is a grizzled brownish grey . in winter , the coat changes to pure white , except for black - tipped ears .
during the day , a white - tailed jackrabbit rests in a “form , ” a shallow pit in the earth under grass clumps or shrubs . it hides there all day , ears flat on its back . jackrabbits begin foraging in the low light of evening , hopping across open areas or following trails made by other jackrabbits through sagebrush . foraging continues all night , especially when the moon is out . in early morning jackrabbits return to resting forms to wait out the day .
white - tailed jackrabbits may be hunted , but not trapped , without a licence throughout the province , at all times of the year . see details in the alberta guide to hunting regulations . to view the guide online or to order a printed copy , visit the my wild alberta website at :
varies with season and habitat . the upper parts range from yellowish to grayish brown in colour , with white or grey on the underside . the throat and face are somewhat darker with coarser hair . in the northern extent of the range where there is significant snow fall during the year , a pure white colouration is attained with the possibilty of a buffy tint on the face , ears , feet and back . a slight change may be noted in the more southern range where only the sides of the animal become white while the back retains a more buffy - grey tinge . an early to late spring moult reverses this process . as the common name indicates , the tail is always white which may possess a buffy dorsal stripe . ears of this jackrabbit are rimmed in white and tipped in black year round . the juvenile pelage is similar but paler in colour with more under fur and less developed course guard hairs ( kim , 1987 ) .
contrary to their name , the black - tailed rabbits are actually hares , and only their tails are colored black . black - tailed rabbits are the most plentiful , while being the only hares found in desert habitats . what separates hares from rabbits are factors such as the body , ears , legs , and their young . the bodies of hares tend to be leaner , and they have longers ears and legs as well . while rabbits build nests , hares do not , and their young are born well - furred with wide open eyes . black - tailed rabbits are the plentiful , while being the only jackrabbit found in desert habitats .
the jackrabbit ' s breeding prowess is well known . females can give birth to several litters a year , each with one to six young . the young mature quickly and require little maternal care .
in arid regions , white - tailed jackrabbits excrete a nearly dry feces as a means of water conservation ( chapman et al . , 1982 ) . heat is dissipated through large ears and voluntary hyperthermia has been observed with the internal body temperature rising to over 41°c at the hottest point in the day ( forsyth , 1999 ) .
while we’re hunting late - season pheasants , my dog often flushes what at first look like small , white deer . the creatures burst from sagebrush or brushy ravines and race across the landscape . as a pup , simon tried to catch them , but after a dozen failed attempts he gave up and now runs half - heartedly for only a few hundred yards . the white - tailed jackrabbits , which can outrun any dog except a greyhound , slow down too , bounding along just ahead of him .
brownish - gray in summer and white in winter , the jackrabbit lives in open areas and seldom is found near wooded windbreaks , except in the most severe winter weather . it is a prairie hare which is more abundant in wide open grasslands of the west . although both were once numerous , grasslands and jackrabbits have given way to intensive farming in minnesota ' s western counties .
sometimes in the southern regions the sides of the body and rump may go white while the back becomes pale buffy - grey in winter . ( j469 . 288 . w1 )
even minus the bags , edmonton’s white - tailed jackrabbit population has escalated in the decades since , growing from less than 500 to nearly 3 , 000 before settling at about 2 , 600 . urban gardens and greenspaces provide ample food in an environment largely free of predators , dr . wood notes . “they do breed like bunnies . so just lower the predation rate slightly and the population will grow . ” in fact , the classic “prairie cycle , ” in which populations of small mammals expand and then contract as predator numbers rise , no longer seems to apply .
booming jackrabbit populations can cause problems for farmers , especially in light of the animals ' healthy appetite . jackrabbits are often killed for crop protection , but in general their populations are stable and not in need of protection .
the black - tailed jackrabbit is illustrated on the wave’s mosaic tile mural , rios de la vida ( rivers of life ) . the fountain , mural , and accompanying graphics illustrate the story of our los angeles and san gabriel rivers . although not on exhibit in the aquarium , this land mammal is included in our website animal database to expand on the information touched on in the wave fountain exhibit .
( dark buff peppered with black ) , and its undersides and the insides of its legs are creamy white . the ears are black - tipped on the outer surface , and unpigmented inside . the
instead , white - tailed jackrabbits ( or lepus townsendii ) are grassland species that have migrated to urban centres as their prairie habitat shrinks . adding to the potential for confusion , they are hares , not rabbits . adults live in above - ground depressions or “forms” rather than in burrows , and the young ( or leveret ) are born eyes - open and fully furred . who knew ?
likely prey for coyotes , bobcats , and larger raptors . the black - tailed hare is a more opportunistic feeder and has been displacing l . townsendii , particularly in areas altered by humans .
) are also imporant parts the diet ( kim , 1987 and chapman et al . , 1982 ) . this species has been known to winter in barns and feed extensively on the hay found inside ( banfield , 1974 ) . white - tailed jackrabbits are generally voracious eaters and captive specimens have been known to eat as much as . 5 kg of plant matter daily ( kim , 1987 ) .
behaviour the black - tailed jack rabbit does not migrate or hibernate during winter and uses the same habitat of 0 . 4 to 1 . 2 square miles ( 1 to 3 square km ) year round . the black - tailed jackrabbit can run at speeds of up to 30 miles an hour and it can jump a distance of about 20 feet . when it is trying to evade predators like coyotes , foxes , bobcats , badgers and weasels , it moves in a zig - zag pattern . it flashes the white underside of its tail when threatened by a predator . this warns other jackrabbits or danger and can also confuse the predator . it can also swim by dog - paddling with all four of its feet . it is most active at night . it usually spends the day resting in a scraped out hollow in the shade .
mammal . the white - tailed jackrabbit is actually a hare , not a rabbit . baby jackrabbits can run immediately after being born . adults can leap 3 meters ( 10 feet ) at a time at speeds of 64 kilometers ( 40 miles ) per hour . jackrabbits are nocturnal , feeding mainly from sunset to sunrise . during the day , they hide in shallow depressions called “forms” that may be covered with plants . in winter , jackrabbits may burrow in snowbanks , or lie in depressions with only their eyes , flattened ears , and backs visible above the snow . jackrabbits are strong swimmers . if cornered , they will dog - paddle with all four feet .
the gestation period ranges from 41 to 47 days . more litters are born in warm climates : the number of litters born each year ranges from two per year in idaho to seven in arizona . litter sizes are largest in the northern portions of black - tailed jackrabbit ' s range and decrease toward the south . average litter size has been reported at 4 . 9 in idaho , 3 . 8 in utah , and 2 . 2 in arizona .
like most mammals , white - tailed jackrabbits are nocturnal , feeding mainly from sunset to sunrise . during the day they rest in shallow forms which are dug into the earth 10 - 20 cm in depth and are usually under some form of plant cover . elaborate and well travelled trails may be observed that connect forms between often visited feeding sites . in winter snow , forms are replaced by cave - like structures joined with many connecting tunnels .
black - tailed jackrabbits are a common hare that inhabit american deserts , scrublands , and other open spaces , including farms . they can consume very large quantities of grasses and plants—including desert species such as sagebrush and cacti .
though large groups of white - tailed jackrabbits have been observed during extreme winter cold or in areas of abundant food , they are the least social of all hares ( kim , 1987 ) . only during the breeding season do small groups of 3 to 4 individuals form for courting behaviours . nests are built by females and lined with fur . though they are similar in shape to forms , nests are usually under dense cover . ( kim , 1987 ) .
populations of black - tailed jackrabbits undergo drastic fluctuations with numbers peaking every six to ten years . in some years more than 90 percent of western populations die from tularemia , which may or may not be related to the population changes .
surface of the tail is grey to white , and the black dorsal surface of the tail continues up the spine for a few inches to form a short , black stripe . the females are larger than males , with no other significant differences .
black - tailed jackrabbits are not listed as threatened or endangered . habitat availability is threatened to some extent by development and in some areas populations are dwindling . their large numbers in orchards , agricultural fields , and rangelands can do considerable damage and ranchers and farmers often need to cull the populations . populations of black - tailed jackrabbits undergo drastic fluctuations with numbers peaking every six to ten years . in some years more than 90 percent of western populations die from tularemia , which may or may not be related to the population changes .
in the northern of mountainous parts of its range , there is a winter molt to a thick white pelage with tinges of buff . in southern localities or at lower elevations , there may be no color change or only a partial change .
( b430 . w2 )
that are no more than a few centimeters deep . females may line forms with hair prior to giving birth , but some drop litters in existing depressions on the ground with no further preparation . young are borne fully furred with eyes open , and are mobile within minutes of birth . females do not protect or even stay with the young except during nursing . ages of weaning and dispersal are unclear since the young are well camouflaged and rarely observed in the field . captive black - tailed jackrabbit are fully weaned by 8 weeks . the young stay together for at least a week after leaving the form .
traffic is the major hazard for the urban hare , who can sprint as fast as 70 km an hour . for the tiny leveret awaiting their mother’s brief appearances to nurse , birds post the greatest danger . dr . wood has filmed an adult jackrabbit in a lifeand - death chase to save her baby from a diving owl .
in most areas of its range , this species turns completely white in the winter , though the ear tips remain black . however , on the plains of british columbia , kansas , nebraska and some regions of colorado , the winter coats are only slightly paler than their summer coats . (
jackrabbits are technically hares , not rabbits , though both look similar and belong to the same family , leporidae . hares are generally larger and faster than rabbits and have longer ears and feet . in addition , hares are solitary animals ( except during breeding season ) , while rabbits live in social groups . another difference is that rabbits are born blind , hairless , and helpless , while newborn hares have hair , can see , and are able to move about . both rabbits and hares have short tails and breed prolifically . white - tailed jackrabbits bear up to four litters of four or five young each year .
the breeding season of white - tailed jackrabbits lasts from february to july with a peak from march to june . ovulation is induced , requiring copulation or suitable stimulation . ( chapman et al . , 1982 ) . one to four litters with from 1 to 11 ( averaging 4 to 5 ) young are born each year . a maximum of one litter is produced in more nothern climates . the gestation period is commonly reported as 42 days but this length varies , possibly due to altitude and habitat ( kim , 1987 ) . this species exhibits breeding synchrony with male spermatogenesis and a postpartum estrus that facilitates conception soon after birth of young ( kim , 1987 ) .
jackrabbits are actually hares , not rabbits . hares are larger than rabbits , and they typically have taller hind legs and longer ears . jackrabbits were named for their ears , which initially caused some people to refer to them as “jackass rabbits . ” the writer mark twain brought this name to fame by using it in his book of western adventure , roughing it . the name was later shortened to jackrabbit .
the preferred habitats of black - tailed jackrabbits are valleys and flat , open country such as desert brushlands , meadows , prairies , farmlands , and dunes . they like the areas to be dry and with short grass . they use many different types of vegetation and are often found in agricultural areas where they can impact fruit and grain crops . jackrabbits often inhabit pastures that have been grazed by livestock .
black - tailed jackrabbits spend most of their day resting in shallow , body - sized depressions that they scratch in the ground at the base of shrubs or clumps of shaded tall grass to get protection from the summer’s hot sun and winter’s chilling winds . they maintain trails between their resting and feeding areas . although usually most active from dusk to late in the night , no matter the time of day , they always seem to be on guard and alert for potential predators in the area . remaining still , they may move their ears to catch sounds . attacked by a predator , they defend themselves by kicking with their hind feet , biting , and shrieking loudly . they alert other jackrabbits in the area to potential danger by flashing the white underside of their tail and thumping their hind feet to give a danger signal .
black - tailed jackrabbits eat their own droppings to obtain the vitamins and fatty acids necessary to their well - being . unlike most other mammals , they produce two types of pellets , one of which , cecotropes , is re - digested . cecotropes are produced in a portion of the animal’s digestive track called the cecum and are eaten as they emerge from the anus . bacteria and fungi in the hare’s cecum are the source of the essential nutrients the jackrabbits cannot produce but need and acquire as a result of the second digestion .
the largest of the north american hare species , adult black - tailed jackrabbits have a total length of about 50 - 60 cm ( 20 - 24 in ) from nose to rear . the length of their tail is 6 - 9 cm ( 2 - 3 . 5 in ) , ears , 10 - 15 cm ( 3 . 9 - 5 . 9 in ) , and hind feet about 14 cm ( 5 . 5 in ) . they weigh 2 . 4 - 3 . 9 kg ( 5 . 2 - 8 . 6 lb ) . females are slightly larger than males .
jackrabbits are strict herbivores whose diet varies depending on the time of the year and their habitat . in summer months they eat cacti , sagebrush , mesquite , alfalfa , clover , other grasses , and herbaceous vegetation . in fall and winter when this food is not available , their staple diet is dried vegetation and the young bark of woody plants . they forage for food from dawn and through the night , consuming large quantities relative to their size . . black - tailed jackrabbits do not require much water and obtain nearly all they need from the plant material they consume . those living in the desert obtain most of their moisture from water - retaining plants such as cacti .
first , and resorting to shrubs during the winter months . they are among the most solitary of hares and usually interact only briefly during the breeding season , when small groups may be seen . a female may produce 1 - 4 litters , usually of 4 or 5 young , each year .
bachman , j . , 1839 . additional remarks on the genus lepus , with corrections of a former paper , and descriptions of other species of quadrupeds found in north america , p . 90 . journal of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , 8 : 75 - 105 .
mammal species of the world ( opens in a new window ) . mammalian species , american society of mammalogists ' species account ( opens in a new window ) .
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gestation the state of being pregnant ; the period from conception to birth . montane of mountains , or growing in mountains . tundra treeless , grassy plains characteristic of arctic and sub - arctic regions . they are very cold and have little rainfall .
whitaker jr , j . o . and hamilton jr , w . j . ( 1998 ) mammals of the eastern united states . cornell university press , ithaca .
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relationships between this order and rodentia have been disputed for over a century . its early history was discussed by simpson ( 1945 ) , while landry ( 1999 ) provided an overview of more recent literature on the subject , discussing many synapomorphies , mostly morphological , that support the concept of a cohort glires including both orders . molecular sequence data also support the concept ( huchon et al . , 1999 ) .
) . an accompanying range increase to the north has been observed over time ( kim , 1987 ) .
have large hind legs which facilitate high jumps and quick escapes from predators ( forsyth , 1999 ) . the dental formula is 2 / 1 0 / 0 3 / 2 3 / 3 = 28 with huge upper insicors for nipping plants ( chapman et al . , 1982 )
though females are slightly larger in size , there is no other apparent sexual dimorphism ( kim , 1987 ) .
at birth the young weigh approximately 90 - 100 grams , have open eyes , full fur , and limited mobility within half an hour . the young begin to forage at approximately 2 weeks of age and are fulled weaned at one month . sexually maturity is reached by 7 or 8 months though there is little evidence of reproduction until the spring following their birth .
( chapman , et al . , 1982 ; lim , 1987 ; wilson and ruff , 1999 )
breeding interval from 1 to 4 litters are born each year , depending on environmental conditions .
nurse and care for their young for about 1 month . females often create nests for the protection of their young from dried grass , leaves , and hair . young are born fully furred and are capable of some level of mobility shortly after birth .
can run up to 55 km / hr and bound 5m into the air .
( chapman , et al . , 1982 ; forsyth , 1999 ; lim , 1987 )
are poorly studied but believed to be approximately 2 to 3 km in diameter never straying far from forms and known trails .
these animals generally make no vocalizations , but will scream if caught or injured ( banfield , 1974 ) . they are likely to rely extensively on their acute hearing and sense of smell to perceive their environment , but also have good vision and whiskers that help them in navigating and finding food . like most mammals , they probably also rely extensively on chemical cues for communicating reproductive condition .
is a favorite prey item of animals such as red fox , grey fox , coyote , bobcat , cougar , badger , snakes , owls , eagles , and many species of hawks . the general method of predator avoidance is to lie perfectly still in the form , relying on their cryptic coloration to avoid detection , with large ears pointed slightly up for predator detection . jackrabbits may attempt to slink off silently but will bound away with surprising speed and height when surprised . zig - zag patterns as well as proficient swimming have been observed in predator escapes .
is considered a mammal of special concern in california , where populations have declined dramatically , probably as a result of competition with livestock and overgrazing by livestock .
is slightly larger and some subtle pelage variation is observed ( kim , 1987 ) .
acquired its name from j . k . townsend , who collected the type specimen ( kim , 1987 ) .
living in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
having markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .
in deserts low ( less than 30 cm per year ) and unpredictable rainfall results in landscapes dominated by plants and animals adapted to aridity . vegetation is typically sparse , though spectacular blooms may occur following rain . deserts can be cold or warm and daily temperates typically fluctuate . in dune areas vegetation is also sparse and conditions are dry . this is because sand does not hold water well so little is available to plants . in dunes near seas and oceans this is compounded by the influence of salt in the air and soil . salt limits the ability of plants to take up water through their roots .
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .
forest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
this terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains , either without vegetation or covered by low , tundra - like vegetation .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males , each of which also pairs with several different females .
that region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .
a terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .
a grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .
a terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5° n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .
american society of mammalogists , 2009 .
mammals of california
( on - line ) . american society of mammalogists , state lists . accessed july 27 , 2009 at urltoken .
chapman , j . , j . dunn , r . marsh . 1982 . lepus townsendii . pp . 124 - 137 in j chapman , g feldhamer , eds .
to cite this page : gosline , a . 2001 .
lepus townsendii
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .


the amazonian marsh rat ( holochilus sciureus ) , also known as the common marsh rat , or simply the marsh rat , is a rodent species from south america .

amazonian marsh rat

by : chandler stonecipher  amazonian manatee  amazonian sac - winged bat  marsh deer  toco toucan  spider monkey  white - faced tree rat  parrot .
by : chandler stonecipher  amazonian manatee  amazonian sac - winged bat  marsh deer  toco toucan  spider monkey  white - faced tree rat  parrot . - ppt download
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by : chandler stonecipher  amazonian manatee  amazonian sac - winged bat  marsh deer  toco toucan  spider monkey  white - faced tree rat  parrot .
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by : chandler stonecipher  amazonian manatee  amazonian sac - winged bat  marsh deer  toco toucan  spider monkey  white - faced tree rat  parrot .
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hershkovitz , p ( 1987 ) : first south american record of coues’ marsh rice rat , oryzomys couesi . journal of mammalogy 68 , 152 - 154 .
hartmann m ( 2001 ) active sensing capabilities of the rat whisker system . auton robots 11 : 249–254 .
marsh cw , greer ag . forest land - use in sabah , malaysia - an introduction to danum valley .
wyatt jl , silman mr . distance - dependence in two amazonian palms : effects of spatial and temporal variation in seed predator communities .
rosas , fcw ( 1994 ) : biology , conservation and status of the amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis . mammal review 24 , 49 - 59 .
beck h , gaines ms , hines je , nichols jd . comparative dynamics of small mammal populations in treefall gaps and surrounding understorey within amazonian rainforest .
terborgh j , losos e , riley mp , riley mb . predation by vertebrates and invertebrates on the seeds of 5 canopy tree species of an amazonian forest .
hershkovitz , p ( 1971 ) : a new rice rat of the oryzomys palustris group ( cricetinae , muridae ) from northwestern colombia , with remarks on distribution . journal of mammalogy 52 , 700 - 709 .
pacheco , v , and ugarte - núñez , j ( 2011 ) : new records of stolzmann’s fish - eating rat ichthyomys stolzmanni ( cricetidae , sigmodontinae ) in peru : a rare species becoming a nuisance . mammalian biology – zeitschrift für säugetierkunde 76 , 657 - 661 .
citation : marshall cd , wieskotten s , hanke w , hanke fd , marsh a , kot b , et al . ( 2014 ) feeding kinematics , suction , and hydraulic jetting performance of harbor seals ( phoca vitulina ) . plos one 9 ( 1 ) : e86710 . urltoken
marshall cd , maeda h , iwata m , furuta m , asano a , rosas f , et al . ( 2003 ) orofacial morphology and feeding behaviour of the dugong , amazonian , west african and antillean manatees ( mammalia : sirenia ) : functional morphology of the muscular – vibrissal complex . j zool 259 : 1–16 .
this species is broadly distributed , it reaches the orinoco and amazon river basins : venezuela ( including an isolated locality in the maracaibo basin , northwest of the andes ; see linares , 1998 ) , the guianas , northern and central brazil , and amazonian regions of colombia , ecuador , peru , and bolivia ( musser and carleton , 2005 ) . it also occurs in suriname ( weksler pers . comm . ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : this species is listed as least concern in because of its wide distribution , presumed large population , occurrence in a number of protected areas , tolerance to some degree of habitat modification , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .
during a survey along the rio juruá of the western amazon of brazil , the species was found in grass patches along the river margins and agricultural areas close to rivers ( patton et al . 2000 ) . some female specimens examined from august to november were either pregnant or lactating ; young were also observed during these months ( patton et al . 2000 ) .
this errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .
( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t10220a115096276 .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
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mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]
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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , ©2005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of
information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
a uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all
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wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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brazil . brazil and taiwan south america french guyana suriname guyana venezuela colombia peru bolivia paraguay argentina uruguay countries bordering .
quiz - - poland . which one cities is the capital ? a gniezno b kraków c warszawa .
a small introduction on… brazil . where is it ? brazil has 10 neighbouring countries ! ! to the east coast , there is the atlantic ocean the capital of brazil .
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brazil researched via : student name : deshaun newton date : 3 / 25 / 11 .
brazil the capital of brazil is brasilia ! o capiltal do brasil é brasília ! brazil .
brazil by wylly simons michael david about brazil  brazil is the 5 th biggest country in the world .  the amazon rainforest is very fun but full of .
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brazil’s flag . about brazil ( 一 ) brazil is the largest country in latin america . it spreads across almost half ( 47 . 3 % ) of south america , and occupies .
chapter 13 cultures of south america section 3 . countries of northern south america were colonized from different european countries . because of this ,
pele “o rey” the king of football . background he is considered by many people as the greatest football player of all time . pele was born in brazil . he .
baseball , basketball , crew , football , hockey , lacrosse , soccer , etc . baseball , basketball , crew , football , hockey , lacrosse , soccer , etc . lots of funding .
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by hannah o and sarah world cup facts the fifa world cup was first held in 1930 , when fifa president jules rimet decided to stage an international football .
brazil .  coastal areas are more densely populated  the amazon basin area has very low population density .
brazil . people largest population in south america largest population in south america 5 th most populous country in the world 5 th most populous country .
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( iucn , 2013 ; perrin , 2013 ; reeves et al . , 2002 ; rosas , 1994 )
( committee on taxonomy , 2014 ; domning , 1981 ; iucn , 2013 ; perrin , 2013 ; reeves et al . , 2002 )
( iucn , 2013 ; perrin , 2013 ; reeves et al . , 2002 )
( halley & rosell , 2003 ; iucn , 2013 ; macdonald , 2006 ; rosell et al . , 2005 )
( iucn , 2013 ; veron et al . , 2008 ; wilson , 2005 )
( bonvicino et al . , 2005 ; iucn , 2013 ; wilson , 2005 )
( iucn , 2013 ; percequillo et al . , 2005 ; wilson , 2005 )
( hershkovitz , 1987 ; kirkpatrick & cartwright , 1975 ; platt et al . , 2000 ; reid , 1997 ; wilson , 2005 )
( iucn , 2013 ; santos - moreno et al . , 2003 ; wilson , 2005 )
( bonvicino et al . , 2013 ; d’elía & pardiñas , 2004 ; wilson , 2005 )
( aloise et al . , 2005 ; churchﬁeld , 2007 ; duff & lawson , 2004 ; iucn , 2013 )
( duff & lawson , 2004 ; iucn , 2013 ; krystufek et al . , 2000 )
( churchﬁeld , 2007 ; iucn , 2013 ; o’neill et al . , 2005 ; veron et al . , 2008 )
( churchﬁeld , 2007 ; iucn , 2013 ; veron et al . , 2008 )
( hussain et al . , 2011 ; iucn , 2013 ; pocock , 1941 )
( iucn , 2013 ; márcia barbosa et al . , 2003 ; wilson , 2005 )
( iucn , 2013 ; latifiana & pickles , 2013 ; poole , 2003 ; wright et al . , 2008 )
( acharya & lamsal , 2010 ; hwang & larivière , 2005 ; iucn , 2013 ; rais et al . , 2009 )
( committee on taxonomy , 2014 ; iucn , 2013 ; perrin , 2013 ; reeves et al . , 2002 )
( iucn , 2013 ; palo & väinölä , 2006 ; perrin , 2013 ; reeves et al . , 2002 )
( cheyne et al . , 2010 ; iucn , 2013 ; veron et al . , 2006 ; veron et al . , 2008 )
( borobia et al . , 1991 ; iucn , 2013 ; perrin , 2013 ; reeves et al . , 2002 )
( iucn , 2013 ; perrin , 2013 ; shostell & ruiz - garcia , 2010 ; tavera et al . , 2010 )
table 1 . regional distribution of aquatic and semi - aquatic mammals . where applicable , endemism has been noted and refers to geographical constraint and relative range limitation of species within a specific region . species are listed taxonomically down to order , and then alphabetically through family , genus and species . where scientific names are in bold , regional distributions of subspecies have been included in a separate subspecies table , available at urltoken .
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bonvicino , cr , fernandes , fa , maria c . viana , teixeira , br , and d’andrea , ps ( 2013 ) : scapteromys aquaticus ( rodentia : sigmodontinae ) in brazil with comments on karyotype and phylogenetics relationships . zoologica 30 , 242 - 247 .
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cheyne , sm , husson , sj , and macdonald , dw ( 2010 ) : first otter civet cynogale bennettii photographed in sabangau peatswamp forest , indonesian borneo . small carnivore conservation 42 , 25 - 26 .
churchﬁeld , s ( 2007 ) : habitat use by water shrews , the smallest of amphibious . in n . dunstone , and m . l . gorman ( eds ) : behaviour and ecology of riparian mammals , vol . 71 . cambridge university press , new york , usa , pp . 49 - 69 .
committee on taxonomy ( 2014 ) : list of marine mammal species and subspecies . society for marine mammalogy . urltoken .
d’elía , g , and pardiñas , ufj ( 2004 ) : systematics of argentinean , paraguayan , and uruguayan swamp rats of the genus scapteromys ( rodentia , cricetidae , sigmodontinae ) . journal of mammalogy 85 , 897 - 910 .
de oliveira , tg ( 2009 ) : distribution , habitat utilization and conservation of the vulnerable bush dog speothos venaticus in northern brazil . oryx 43 , 247 - 253 .
dematteo , ke , and loiselle , ba ( 2008 ) : new data on the status and distribution of the bush dog ( speothos venaticus ) : evaluating its quality of protection and directing research efforts . biological conservation 141 , 2494 - 2505 .
desclaux , e , abbassi , m , marquet , j - c , chaline , j , and kolfschoten , tv ( 2000 ) : distribution and evolution of arvicola lacépède , 1799 ( mammalia , rodentia ) in france and liguria ( italy ) during the middle and the upper pleistocene . acta zoologica cracoviensia 43 , 107 - 125 .
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copyright : © 2014 marshall et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : this work was supported by a texas a & m university international research travel assistance grant to cdm , a volkswagenstiftung grant to gd , a daad german academic student exchange scholarship ( deutscher akademischer austausch dienst , daad ) , the cologne zoo , the texas a & m university department of marine biology , the university of rostock institute of biosciences , and the university of bochum department of biology . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
competing interests : the primary author , christopher d . marshall , is an academic editor with plos one . however , christopher d . marshall confirms that none of the authors have any competing interests , and christopher d . marshall confirms that his position as an academic editor with plos one does not alter the authors adherence to all the plos one policies on sharing data and materials .
this study was conducted at the cologne zoo ( cologne , germany ) and at the marine science center at the university of rostock ( rostock , germany ) . eight adult male harbor seals participated in this study ( see table 1 for details regarding subjects ) ; the seals were well trained and were eager to participate in these novel tasks . all work was approved by texas a & m university’s institute of animal care and use committee animal use protocol # 2010–67 , and was conducted in accordance with the european communities council directive of 24 november 1986 ( 86 / 609 / eec ) . all work at the marine science center at the cologne zoo and at the university of rostock was approved by both institutes .
a . feeding platform in place in the enclosure . b . harbor seal feeding from feeding apparatus .
maximum gape and gape angle during feeding events was compared to the mean maximum biological gape and gape angle for all animals in the study . each subject was digitally photographed while opening their mouth to their widest extent at the command of a trainer . maximal biological gape and gape angle was measured from scaled digital photographs using imagej ( national institutes of health , bethesda , md , usa ) .
as characterized in bearded seals [ 23 ] , four feeding phases were differentiated : ( i ) preparatory , ( ii ) jaw opening , ( iii ) gular depression , and ( iv ) jaw closing were observed regardless of the feeding mode . phase i began at the onset of jaw opening and ended when gape increased by greater than 0 . 2 cm field −1 ( 1 field = 60 hz ) and the jaws rapidly opened . phase ii began when gape increased by ≥0 . 2 cm field −1 and persisted until maximum gape . phase iii began when gular depression increased by ≥0 . 2 cm field −1 . this phase overlapped with phases ii and iv , persisted the longest in duration , and concluded when gular depression returned to its original position , which was often at the end of the feeding event . phase iv began at maximum gape and concluded when the jaws closed . the timing of maximum gular depression during suction feeding events always followed maximum gape or coincided with maximum gape . little to no gular depression was observed during biting feeding events , whether seals were feeding in - water or on - land . the mean durations for phases i–iv were , 0 . 02±0 . 001 s , 0 . 08±0 . 04 s , 0 . 16±0 . 10 s , and 0 . 11±0 . 07 s , respectively .
a . frame from video during in - water suction feeding trial with overlaid spatial model stick figure . b . plot of gape ( cm ) for a single suction feeding trial . c . plot of gular depression ( cm ) for a single suction feeding trial . d . plot of maximum gape angle ( degrees ) for a single suction feeding trial . e . plot of gape angle velocity ( degrees / s ; opening and closing ) for a single suction feeding trial . f . frame from video during on - land biting feeding trial with overlaid spatial model stick figure . g . plot of gape ( cm ) for a single biting feeding trial . h . plot of maximum gape angle ( degrees ) for a single biting feeding trial . i . plot of gular depression ( cm ) for a single biting feeding trial . j . plot of gape angle velocity ( degrees / s ; opening and closing ) for a single biting feeding trial .
principal component ( pc ) analysis on correlations of log - transformed data demonstrated that the first 3 pc axes characterized 78 % of the variation of harbor seal feeding kinematics ( pc1 = 49 . 986 % , pc2 = 18 . 949 % , pc3 = 9 . 072 % ; table 3 ) . high loadings on pc axis 1 identified most kinematic variables , with the exception of maximum gular depression and time to maximum gular depression . pc axis 2 identified all timing kinematic variables with the exception of time to maximum gape angle closing velocity . in addition pc axis 2 had a high loadings \ for maximum gular depression . pc axis 3 had high loadings for only maximum gular depression and time to maximum gular depression , indicating distinct differences in suction vs . biting feeding events . pearson’s correlation analysis further supported the difference between suction and biting feeding kinematics and is summarized in table 4 . as shown by the pc analysis , the pearson’s correlation analysis demonstrated that most , but not all , kinematic variables were positively correlated . however , gular depression and time to gular depression were distinct in that they were negatively correlated with most kinematic variables .
harbor seals in this study used the large lateral mystacial vibrissae for exploration of the large scale features of the feeding apparatus , but then shifted to using the small medially located mystacial vibrissae for more refined and discrete tactile exploration . in particular , these small medially located mystacial vibrissae were used to locate the center of each cylinder and to protrude into each cylinder to touch recessed food items , if possible . our observation that harbor seals use different regions of the mystacial vibrissae during feeding supports the results of more focused active touch performance studies [ 67 ] , [ 68 ] in which harbor seals used the smaller medial mystacial vibrissae for detailed size discrimination , but within a different context . this active touch exploratory pattern is likely a typical pattern of how harbor seals explore new objects in their environment . such exploratory behavior and use of different regions and size of mystacial vibrissae has also been observed in california sea lions [ 69 ] , manatees and dugongs [ 45 ] , [ 47 ] , walruses [ 70 ] , and rodents [ 71 ] – [ 73 ] and likely represents a generalized mammalian pattern of tactile exploration .
we would like to thank lars miersch for assistance in building the feeding apparatus , kim peter and the seal trainers at the marine science center ( rostock , germany ) for their assistance in conducting the feeding trials , as well as michael bradley and meghan walker for their assistance in pressure data analysis .
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yann hautier , 1 , * philippe saner , 1 christopher philipson , 1 robert bagchi , 1 robert c . ong , 2 and andy hector 1
conceived and designed the experiments : yh ps cp rb ah . performed the experiments : yh ps . analyzed the data : yh ps cp ah . wrote the paper : yh ps cp rb rco ah .
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the janzen - connell hypothesis proposes that seed and seedling enemies play a major role in maintaining high levels of tree diversity in tropical forests . however , human disturbance may alter guilds of seed predators including their body size distribution . these changes have the potential to affect seedling survival in logged forest and may alter forest composition and diversity .
we manipulated seed density in plots beneath con - and heterospecific adult trees within a logged forest and excluded vertebrate predators of different body sizes using cages . we show that small and large - bodied predators differed in their effect on con - and heterospecific seedling mortality . in combination small and large - bodied predators dramatically decreased both con - and heterospecific seedling survival . in contrast , when larger - bodied predators were excluded small - bodied predators reduced conspecific seed survival leaving seeds coming from the distant tree of a different species .
our results suggest that seed survival is affected differently by vertebrate predators according to their body size . therefore , changes in the body size structure of the seed predator community in logged forests may change patterns of seed mortality and potentially affect recruitment and community composition .
human - induced changes to tropical ecosystems are manifold and a major threat to biodiversity . currently , less than half of the original forests of south - east asia remains and the levels of biodiversity are predicted to decrease by 42 % during this century [ 1 ] . in the state of sabah , malaysia , our study area , local wildlife populations are depressed by hunting and are becoming depleted or extinct [ 2 ] . understanding to what extent such changes to natural wildlife populations may affect forest dynamics with regard to seed dispersal and seedling survival is an important requirement for the management of tropical forests .
, the differences in responses of small versus large predators to logging and hunting have the potential to affect seedling survival in fundamental ways and ultimately influence dipterocarp composition and diversity . vertebrate effects on dipterocarp seedling survival may change in relative importance with changes in the abundance of predators of different body sizes
. we focused on the seed - to - seedling transition . we show that small - bodied predators selectively predated seeds of the maternal tree , an effect that was cancelled out when large - bodied predators had access to the seeds .
seeds of each pair of trees ( 5 pairs ) were placed between 1 and 5 m around each tree at high density ( 24 seeds , 12 seeds from the maternal tree ( conspecific ) and 12 seeds from a distant tree of a different species ( heterospecific ) and at low density ( 2 seeds , 1 con - and 1 hetero - specific ) . the experimental design consists in three exclosure treatments ( 1×1 m large ×0 . 5 m tall ) : ( 1 ) none , fenced exclosure cage excluding both large and small vertebrate predators , ( 2 ) small , fenced exclosure cage excluding only large vertebrate predators and ( 3 ) all , open control allowing both small and large vertebrate predators .