the south american pilchard ( sardinops sagax ) is a sardine of the family clupeidae , the only member of the genus sardinops .

it is found in the indo-pacific and east pacific oceans .

its length is up to 40 cm ( 16 in ) .

it has other names , some of which more appropriately refer to subspecies , including blue pilchard , australian pilchard ( s. s. neopilchardus ) , blue-bait , californian pilchard ( s. s. caeruleus ) , chilean sardine ( s. s. sagax ) , japanese pilchard ( s. s. melanostictus ) , pacific sardine , and southern african pilchard ( s. s. ocellatus ) .

south american pilchard

south american pilchard sardinops sagax - / animals / aquatic / fish / p / south _ american _ pilchard _ _ sardinops _ sagax . png . html
home » sardinops sagax ssp . sagax ( australian pilchard , blue - bait , blue pilchard , californian pilchard , california pilchard , california sardine , chilean pilchard , chilean sardine , japanese pilchard , mulies , pacific american sardine , pacific sardine , picton herring , pilchard , sardina , smig , south american pilchard , spotlined sardine )
also known as spotlined sardine , smig , sardina , pilchard , picton herring , pacific sardine , pacific american sardine , mulies , japanese pilchard , chilean sardine , california sardine , chilean pilchard , california pilchard , blue pilchard , blue - bait , australian pilchard , south american pilchard and many other different names in different parts of the world .
sardine , chilean pilchard , south american pilchard . vector illustration with refined details and optimized stroke that allows the image to be used in small sizes .
the south american pilchard fish is a commercially important fish species . the south australian sardine fishery targets this fish and it is the highest yielding single species fishery in
the south american pilchard fish oviparous fish species , with pelagic eggs and larvae . they are pretty long lived fish species with up to 25 years of average lifespan . however , review full breed profile of the south american pilchard fish in the table below .
“south american pilchard—northern ( cold ) stock : fish source scores . ” fish source . sustainable fisheries partnership , 2016 . web .
the south american pilchard fish is mainly used for making fishmeal . but it is also used for human consumption and eaten fried and broiled .
the south american pilchard fish is a sardine which is the only member of the genus sardinops . it is mainly found in the indo - pacific and east pacific oceans . it is also called by many other names such as spotlined sardine , smig , sardina , pilchard , picton herring , pacific sardine , pacific american sardine , mulies , japanese pilchard , chilean sardine , california sardine , chilean pilchard , california pilchard , blue pilchard , blue - bait , australian pilchard , south american pilchard and many other different names in different parts of the world .
the south american pilchard fish are mainly feed on planktonic crustaceans . the young fish feed on zooplankton such as copepod , and the adults are feed on phytoplankton .
pacific sardine ( sardinops sagax ) also known as the california pilchard or australian or south - american pilchard , blue sardine , chilean sardine or japanese pilchard . it lives throughout the indo - pacific basin and its length varies from 12–40 cm .
total landings of south african small pelagic fish , 1950–2000 , showing the contributions of anchovy , pilchard , and round herring .
currently the south american pilchard fish has no major threats , and is widely distributed . and currently it is listed as least concern . generally it occurs in several marine protected areas . however , read some more information about this
the south american pilchard fish are oviparous fish species . some individuals spawn in their first year in the gulf of california , but most in their second year . they breed in spring in australia . generally the females can lay between 10 , 000 and 45 , 000 eggs per spawning depending on their size .
the pilchard bycatch taken when anchovy is targeted comprises juvenile fish , and must therefore depend on the size of pilchard recruitment – the fixed ratio ( used to calculate the january / february pilchard bycatch allowance linked to anchovy ) is adjusted to reflect this 1 .
there is a newer version of this dataset available . take a look at total fishery production - south - east pacific .
the south australian industry has launched a new management plan to keep the $ 20 million fishery sustainable , which includes catching more fish .
unpublished report , sea fisheries research institute , south africa , wg / jan98 / pel / 3 : 4 pp . + 8 figures
proportion of the first anchovy tac used to calculate the first pilchard tab ( set at 0 . 1 )
the body of the south american pilchard fish is cylindrical and elongate . their belly is rounded with ventral scutes . their back is of blue green color , flanks are white , with 1 to 3 series of dark spots along the middle . average body length of this fish is around 20 cm , with a maximum recorded body length of 39 . 5 cm . maximum recorded live body weight of this fish is 486 grams . photo and info from
the typical annual cycle of events for management of the pilchard and anchovy fisheries in south africa . successive tacs and tabs are essentially revisions of their forerunners ( i . e . the second tac / b is a revision of the first , etc . ) . tabs incorporate pilchard bycatch with both anchovy and round herring . ( note that because the additional sub - season is separate from the normal season for anchovy , the tac / bs actually applied in the sub - season are : anchovy 3 rd tac less anchovy 2 nd tac , and pilchard 3 rd tab less pilchard 2 nd tab . )
juvenile pilchard and anchovy , which appear first in mixed shoals of fish of similar size when they recruit to the fishery , tend to separate later in the season , because the anchovy growth rate starts to slow before that of pilchard .
the earlier mps used only the survey - based pilchard recruit estimate to adjust the fixed ratio , but later mps incorporated the pilchard : anchovy ratio , as estimated from both the recruit survey and the industry ' s catches in may .
november acoustic survey estimates ( barange , 1998 , 1999 ; coetzee , 2001 ) of spawner biomass for pilchard and anchovy , together with values of the pilchard bycatch when anchovy are targeted , expressed as a percentage of the corresponding anchovy catch .
. these modifications essentially mean that , for β choices reflecting a desired low pilchard catch to allow for high anchovy catches , the minimum pilchard tac is reduced proportional to β once β drops below 0 . 1 . a similar adjustment is made to α
( panel a ) increases pilchard catches , but reduces anchovy catch on average . however , reducing δ from 0 . 85 to 0 . 7 for a greater buffer against poor anchovy recruitment ( panel d ) appears to have little effect on average catches , except for improving anchovy catches when an option reflecting low pilchard catches is selected . decreasing the maximum downward adjustment constraint for pilchard
the south australian sardine fishery is a significant fishery in australian waters . the fishery consistently harvests the highest volume single species yields in comparison to any other australian fishery .
in terms of average catch with that for ten other mp candidates . for the same value of β , increasing the maximum pilchard tac constraint
atlantic sardine ( sardina pilchardus pilchardus ) also called sardine of brittany or pilchard ( especially when canned ) : bigger , it measures 20–25 cm .
naturally , these general objectives are in conflict , so trade - off choices are needed . in particular , it is not possible simultaneously to maximize the average directed pilchard and anchovy tacs to be expected , because of the juvenile pilchard bycatch with anchovy . a plot of average directed pilchard against average anchovy catches expected under a candidate mp is referenced below as a “trade - off” curve ( see , for example , figures 5–8 ) .
even though the additional sub - season was predicated on the basis of near - pure anchovy catches , a modest pilchard tab was nevertheless set for the additional sub - season ( a fixed amount of 2000 t ) in order to facilitate harvesting of the additional anchovy tac . the anchovy tac and associated pilchard tab for the additional sub - season were clearly separated from the normal season , with observer coverage mandatory in the additional sub - season , to offset any incentive to discard catches with high levels of bycatch . the additional sub - season applied only to anchovy and any associated pilchard bycatch , whereas the pilchard - directed fishery and the pilchard bycatch associated with catches of round herring applied to the whole year . figure 4 illustrates this typical annual cycle of events for the management of pilchard and anchovy , including this relatively recent modification of the additional sub - season for anchovy .
calculation of the pilchard bycatch allowance ( associated with the anchovy tac ) includes a component related to round herring ( a fixed tonnage of pilchard is set aside for this ) , and another linked to the size of the anchovy tac . the latter is a fixed proportion of this anchovy tac , and is revised following the recruit survey because :
the harvest from the south australian sardine fishery supplies diverse markets . currently 94 % of the harvest is used as a high quality feed in tuna ranching operations located off port lincoln , south australia . the remaining 6 % of the catch is supplies a growing human consumption demand , as well as a recreational fishing bait market and premium brands of pet food . the sardine is a versatile species suitable for a range of products and applications .
conceptual map of the distribution and movement of pilchard and anchovy ( after coetzee , 2001 ) , showing also the location of processing facilities and field stations used to sample landings .
one of the consequences of the introduction of the trade - off concept in omp99 was that , if a viable pilchard fishery was to be guaranteed , limitations on juvenile pilchard bycatch , necessary to protect the directed pilchard fishery , would lead to smaller anchovy catches than that resource could actually sustain . in order to address this concern , the concept of a sub - season later in the year to target “clean” anchovy shoals was introduced . there are a few reasons why such an additional sub - season provides a practical basis to enhance anchovy catches .
figure 6 is a plot of the m 1 trade - off curve along with that associated with omp99 . the data updates and additional features now incorporated ( m 1 ) lead to a considerable improvement in the average catches possible from the fishery . the bars around the β = 0 . 1 point on the m 1 curve emphasize the considerable variation in annual catches associated with such mps . figure 7 illustrates the improvement in performance in terms of average catches over that of omp99 as successive changes were introduced when developing the mps presented in this paper . the additional sub - season allows further utilization of anchovy . it may lead to less anchovy , and hence less pilchard bycatch , being taken in the normal season , which allows for higher pilchard - directed catches , and thus improved utilization of the pilchard resource . a further general improvement in the utilization of both species is evident when account is taken of implementation error ( allowing for the possibility that the pilchard tab may not be fully utilized ) . the consequence of this is either to allow for more pilchard - directed catch ( because in many years , not all the pilchard tab will be used ) , or alternatively to take more anchovy catch ( hence using a greater proportion of the pilchard tab on average ) .
pilchard and anchovy form the mainstay of the south african pelagic fishery , and together with round herring ( etrumeus whiteheadi ) have accounted for more than 90 % of the mass of all small pelagic fish landed annually since the mid - 1970s ( figure 1 ) . the rapid rise of the pilchard fishery in the mid - to late 1950s , targeting mainly adult fish for canning , was followed by a collapse by the mid - 1960s , and a move to anchovy through the introduction of nets with smaller mesh ( crawford et al . , 1980 ) . the anchovy fishery targeted mainly juveniles , which were processed in reduction plants ( to provide fishmeal , oil , and fertilizer ) . pilchard and anchovy are the only small pelagic species currently managed by a tac , with separate tacs set for each .
j . a . a . de oliveira , d . s . butterworth ; developing and refining a joint management procedure for the multispecies south african pelagic fishery , ices journal of marine science , volume 61 , issue 8 , 1 january 2004 , pages 1432–1442 , urltoken
by volume . and the industry commenced in south australia in 1991 with an annual catch quota of 1 , 000 tones . the fishery’s annual quota was set at 36 , 000 tonnes in 2003 . and the annual quota had increased to 36 , 000 tonnes by 2014 .
increases ( reflecting better utilization of the anchovy resource , which is possible because bycatch of juvenile pilchard is limited to a maximum of 2000 t in the additional sub - season ) . therefore , even though β , α
, the trade - off curves are mainly determined by the pilchard risk constraint coming into operation , except for the vertical segment on the right side , which is a reflection of the anchovy risk threshold coming into play .
pilchard–anchovy ( denoted p or a , respectively ) trade - off curves were constructed by varying β from 0 to 0 . 6 in steps of 0 . 01 . for each value of β , the procedure was tuned by alternately varying α
we thank south africa ' s department of environmental affairs and tourism , marine and coastal management , for their support of the first author while he was employed there , specifically including making freely available all the data on which this paper is based , and two anonymous reviewers for valued comments on an earlier draft .
this trend of increasing separation is evidenced by an examination of pilchard bycatch : anchovy ratios in the commercial catches , which show that , by august , these ratios have typically reduced to half their levels in may ( de oliveira , 2003 ) .
improvements in the performance of omp99 in terms of average catch as various changes were successively introduced when developing the mps presented in this paper . curve ( a ) is the curve associated with omp99 ; curve ( b ) incorporates new / updated data and consequent bootstrap parameter distributions used in testing ; curve ( c ) incorporates the additional anchovy sub - season ; and curve ( d ) incorporates the fact that the pilchard bycatch declines between may and august , so the pilchard tab may not be fully utilized . ( note ,
omp99 has since been refined and implemented as omp02 in 2002 . refinements were necessary to permit the enhanced utilization of both resources ( as demonstrated below ) . the associated analyses took account of a further 3 years of data , an additional within - season adjustment of the anchovy tac ( although implemented in practice , this had not formally been incorporated into omp99 ) , implementation error ( necessary to address the fact that the pilchard tab had not always been filled in practice , allowance for which could admit larger tacs for the directed pilchard fishery – the development of the omp99 formulae had assumed that the pilchard tab was always fully caught ) , and the introduction of a scheme whereby rights - holders in the pelagic fishery could each select their own preferred pilchard–anchovy trade - off . this paper provides a brief background to the pelagic fishery , and a description of omp02 , which explains the refinements introduced to allow enhanced utilization of both resources . particular focus is given to the construction of trade - off curves , with details of some of the problems encountered and how they were addressed .
the south australian sardine industry is utilises a method of fishing known as purse seining . sardines are a schooling species , that when located the net ( purse seine ) is deployed around the school of fish and the catch is pumped on board into refrigerated holds , at below zero temperatures , to ensure the quality of the catch is maximized .
management of pilchard and anchovy relies heavily on the results of two acoustic surveys held annually , one in november to survey the adult stocks , and one in may / june to survey recruitment for the year ( hampton , 1987 , 1992 ) . prior to the implementation of omp99 , the typical management cycle for pilchard and anchovy would commence with tacs and tabs set at the start of the fishing season ( january / february ) , on the basis of the results of the preceding november survey ( provisional tac / bs were set before this , but they were minima , corresponding to fractions of the previous year ' s tacs and not based on any new data , and were over - ridden by the january / february tac / bs ) . the pilchard tac remained in force ( without alteration ) for the remainder of the fishing season ( officially ending in october , though usually extended to december ) , but the anchovy tac was revised within the year for the following reasons :
subspecies sardinops sagax sagax is not universally recognized . a recent genetic analysis ( grant et al . 1998 ) of the status of sardinops populations indicates that there are three subspecies : s . s . ocellatus from south africa , australia and new zealand , s . s . sagax from the southeastern and northeastern pacific , and s . s . melanostictus from the northwest pacific . other authors consider each subspecies as a valid species .
the value of output generated directly in south australia and the eyre and western region by sardine fishing enterprises summed to $ 21 . 0 million in 2012 / 13 . flow - ons to other sectors of the state economy added another $ 31 . 6 million in output ( $ 14 . 7 million in the regional economy ) . the total output impact in sa ( direct plus indirect ) was estimated to be $ 58 . 8 million in 2012 / 13 ( $ 40 . 1 million in the regional economy ) .
the management features described in the previous section and summarized in figure 4 necessarily dictate the structure and form of mps for the south african pelagic fishery . the tac / b equations and constraints given in table 1 constitute the set of rules for omp02 . the simulation - testing framework ( for details of this application , see de oliveira , 2003 ) forms a key part of the development of a mp , and allows the performance of alternative mps to be compared on the basis of summary performance statistics ( described in table 2 ) .
management procedure rules in the form of tac / b equations and constraints . definitions of all symbols are provided in table 2 . note that “exceptional circumstances” provisions exist , so the tac and associated constraint calculations are adjusted downwards if the november survey results for pilchard or anchovy ( when calculating first - stage tacs ) , or if the projected survey result for anchovy ( when calculating second - and third - stage tacs for anchovy ) are below certain threshold levels ( 150 000 t for the pilchard survey result , and 400 000 t for both the actual and projected anchovy survey results ) . de oliveira ( 2003 ) provides more details of the meta - rules for “exceptional circumstances” , which have been omitted from the equations below for simplicity . adjustments in tacs during the year , if applicable , may only be upwards , not downwards , because by the time the 2 nd tac is set , the 1 st tac could have been fully caught .
this framework essentially consists of an operating model to simulate the “true” dynamics of the resource , an assessment procedure used to estimate the parameters of this operating model , the mp rules ( which include the tac / b equations and constraints ) , and the summary performance statistics . in this case , 500 simulations of 20 - year projection periods were carried out , each simulation representing a plausible “state of nature” ( computationally , for each simulation , parameters of the operating model take on values from a single realization of the joint probability distribution given by the assessment procedure ) . data typical of the type required by the mp rules in practice ( and subject to the same error structure ) were generated from the operating model and passed to the mp rules , which advised the tacs and passed them back to the operating model . at this stage , implementation error can be taken into account . for example , in this case the operating model generated future juvenile pilchard : anchovy catch ratios , to simulate the pilchard bycatch actually taken , which could turn out to be less than the tab .
neritic ( ref . 11230 ) . a coastal species that forms large schools ( ref . 188 ) . occur at temperatures ranging from 16° to 23°c in summer and from 10° to 18°c in winter . feed mainly on planktonic crustaceans . young fish feed on zooplankton such as copepod and adults on phytoplankton ( ref . 39882 ) . oviparous , with pelagic eggs , and pelagic larvae ( ref . 265 ) . possibly can live up to 25 years ( ref . 265 ) . in the california region , pilchards make northward migrations early in summer and travel back south again in autumn . with each year of life , the migration becomes farther ( ref . 6885 ) . marketed fresh , frozen or canned . utilized mainly for fish meal ; but also eaten fried and broiled ( ref . 9988 ) . main source of landing : ne pacific : mexico ( ref . 4931 ) .
in the us , the pacific sardine is currently a limited entry fishery with a total allowable catch ( quotas ) , however the limited entry permit covers all pelagic finfish , not just sardines . there are 65 permit holders , but it is unclear how many boats target which species ( pfmc 2011 ) . sardines are typically caught with purse seines , though some vessels are transitioning to drum seines ( pfmc 2011 ) . the historical hubs are still in southern california and monterey bay , but astoria has recently supported a major fishery . about 85 % of the catch is processed and shipped to china , japan and south korea ( caopc 2013 ) . the other 15 % typically composes the bait fishery . bycatch is negligible ( less than 1 % ) , though there may be impacts on california sea lions that have come to rely on sardines as an important food source ( hill et al . 2015 ) .
a further feature that also formed part of omp02 , but was beyond the scope of this paper to consider , was a change in the way the trade - off decision ( i . e . the point on the m 1 trade - off curve eventually selected and implemented as omp02 ) was made : from “externally” ( as was done in the past for the fishery as a whole by the responsible government minister ) to “internally” ( separately by each individual rights - holder , based on their own preferences ) . in a highly divergent industry , with some participants having sole interests in either canning ( pilchard ) or reduction ( anchovy ) operations , this was seen as a powerful tool to accommodate such differing interests in the two resources .
, so points on the trade - off curve are determined by either the pilchard or the anchovy ( or both ) depletion risk constraints being met . the specific choices of 0 . 1 and 0 . 3 duplicated levels considered appropriate in the formulation of previous omps . the associated abundance threshold for anchovy was , however , moved lower ( from 0 . 2 k to 0 . 15 k ) to allow for the fact that the extent of natural fluctuations in anchovy abundance had been estimated to be higher than previously believed ( which meant in turn that the resource is robust to fluctuations down to lower levels of abundance than had previously been thought ) . the effect of this tuning is that , as β is increased ( moving from the bottom right to the top left of the trade - off curves in
comparing the omp99 pilchard–anchovy trade - off curve with the base - case mp ( m 1 ) curve . the solid diamonds are points on each curve associated with β = 0 . 1 , and the open squares with β = 0 . 15 . the bars around the β = 0 . 1 point on the m 1 curve are to indicate that 50 and 90 % of all simulated tac values fall within the inner and outer limits , respectively . points on each curve are obtained by varying β from 0 ( bottom right ) to 0 . 6 ( top left ) in steps of 0 . 01 . ( note , however , that the curves intersect the vertical axis long before β = 0 . 6 , the exact value of β for which this happens varying from procedure to procedure . )
for the purpose of this paper , management procedures can differ in the choice of constraint values and δ , and also in the choice of the control parameters α ns , α ads , and β ( table 1 ) . the former ( constraints and δ ) reflect different pilchard–anchovy trade - off curves , whereas the latter correspond to different points on the same trade - off curve ( see later discussion , and figure 8 ) . therefore , one can speak of the m 1 trade - off curve , which refers to the suite of management procedures with the same choice of constraints and δ as m 1 , or one can refer to m 1 as the point on the m 1 curve with the particular choice of control parameters associated with m 1 . the choice of constraint values and δ associated with the m 1 curve are shown in table 2 . where other candidate management procedures ( or curves ) are compared with m 1 ( or the m 1 curve ) , only the constraint whose value has changed is shown , in figure 8 and table 3 .
table 3 repeats the results of figure 8 , showing the values for all summary performance statistics , but only for β = 0 . 1375 , which was the value of β used for omp99 . these results are shown to provide some indication of the values of the summary statistics not shown in figure 8 . of particular interest is that , under β = 0 . 1375 , smaller anchovy catches are obtained on average in the normal season ( lasting roughly 8 months ) than when there is also an additional season ( lasting no longer than 4 months ) , for almost all mp variants . decreasing the maximum percentage by which the pilchard tac may drop from one year to the next ( variant 3 ) also has a severe impact on anchovy catches and associated interannual variability in the normal season . however , all depletion statistics are fairly insensitive to the different mp variants considered . after joint consideration of such results by scientists and industry ( including results from the robustness tests , which are not presented here ) , m 1 was considered to reflect the best choice of operational constraints .
the total employment impact in sa was estimated to be 171 fte jobs ( 105 fte jobs regionally ) .
sardines might be one of the smallest fish caught , but the industry is the largest single species commercial fishery by volume in australia , and it ' s getting bigger .
ninety - five per cent of the sardine catch is fed to port lincoln ' s southern blue fin tuna farms , but the industry wants to harness the human consumption potential by increasing demand , both domestically and in india and china .
sa sardine industry association executive officer paul watson says the quota has been increased from 34 , 000 to 38 , 000 tonnes .
the spawning biomass estimate seems like the highest egg count that we ' ve seen in the fishery in the time that the daily egg production model surveys have been conducted .
mr watson says pelagic , or small fish , fisheries do a have a history of fluctuating up and down with stock numbers .
in 2004 - 2005 , it had a peak catch of 57 , 000 tonnes .
to date , it ' s been quite stable and with this management plan industry and government are confident that the harvest strategy and harvest rates are sufficiently conservative to ensure the long - term sustainability of the stock .
the industry has already come a long way . when it started in 1991 , the catch was 1 , 000 tonnes .
sa fisheries minister leon bignell says the management plan includes harvest strategies , stock assesment , compliance and regulations for the next five years .
reduced catches and a fall in the price of sardines have impacted on the industry during the past few years .
however , with co - operation between primary industries and regions sa and the industry , the development of this new management plan is set to deliver sustainable growth for the our sardine fishers .
scientists and commercial fishermen say australia ' s rollout of a carp virus is being rushed through , risking relationships with international trading partners .
the late harry m . miller ' s work in the cattle arena contributed to the legendary music promoter ' s reputation in rural australia .
it ' s the iron ore mine that has spent more time under water than in production . now there ' s new hope for wa ' s cockatoo island mine .
coles will no longer sell controversial allowrie branded honey , which contains 70 per cent imported product from countries including china , argentina and mexico .
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latin and greek , sarda = sardine ; name related to the island of sardinia + greek , ops = appearance ( ref . 45335 )
from the latin word ' sagax ' which means of quick perception , acute , or alert ( ref . 6885 )
marine ; pelagic - neritic ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 0 - 200 m ( ref . 188 ) . subtropical ; 9°c - 21°c ( ref . 6390 ) ; 61°n - 47°s , 145°w - 180°e ( ref . 36641 )
indo - pacific : southern africa to the eastern pacific ( ref . 27267 ) . three lineages were confirmed through cluster and parsimony analyses of haplotypic divergences : southern africa ( ocellatus ) and australia ( neopilchardus ) ; chile ( sagax ) and california ( caeruleus ) ; and , japan ( melanostictus ) ( ref . 36641 ) .
maturity : l m 9 . 0 range ? - ? cm max length : 39 . 5 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9291 ) ; common length : 20 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 188 ) ; max . published weight : 486 . 00 g ( ref . 6885 ) ; max . reported age : 25 years ( ref . 188 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 13 - 21 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 12 - 23 ; vertebrae : 48 - 54 . body cylindrical and elongate ; ventral part of operculum with clear cut bony striae radiating downwards ; belly rounded with ventral scutes ; back blue green ; flanks white , with 1 to 3 series of dark spots along the middle ( ref . 55763 ) . the radiating bony striae on the operculum distinguish this species from all other clupeids in the area . the radiating bony striae on the operculum distinguish this fish from all other clupeids in the area . in new zealand the species appears to grow larger ( 21 . 3 cm standard length ; cf . 19 . 7 cm ) , has slightly larger eggs and a higher mean number of vertebrae ( 50 . 52 ; cf . 49 to 50 . 08 in various samples ) ( ref . 859 ) .
oviparous ( ref . 265 ) . in the gulf of california , some individuals spawn in their first year , but most in their second ( ref . 188 ) . in australia ( as s . neopilchardus ) , this species breeds in spring and summer in southern part of range , and in summer and autumn in northern part , apparently related to seasonal movement of the limiting 14°c and 21°c isotherms , then autumn to early spring ( ref . 6390 ) . it was believed that individual australian pilchards only spawn once or twice in a season ( ref . 26422 , 26424 ) , but research on related species suggests that they may spawn a number of times ( ref . 6882 ) . batch fecundities range from about 10 , 000 eggs in 13 cm long females to about 45 , 000 eggs in females of about 18 cm ( ref . 26420 ) .
whitehead , p . j . p . , 1985 . fao species catalogue . vol . 7 . clupeoid fishes of the world ( suborder clupeoidei ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the herrings , sardines , pilchards , sprats , shads , anchovies and wolf - herrings . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 7 / 1 ) : 1 - 303 . rome : fao . ( ref . 188 )
) : 9 . 5 - 25 . 2 , mean 17 . 9 ( based on 938 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00871 ( 0 . 00713 - 0 . 01064 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 3 . 01 - 3 . 11 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 8 ±0 . 1 se ; based on diet studies .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 45 ; tm = 2 ; tmax = 13 - 25 ; fec = 10 , 000 ) .
prior r = 0 . 56 , 2 sd range = 0 . 3 - 1 . 07 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 58 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 32 , based on : 1 m , 3 k , 9 tgen , 1 tmax , 4 fec records
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 34 of 100 ) .
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justification : this subspecies has a wide distribution in the eastern pacific , has no major threats , and occurs in several marine protected areas . therefore , it is listed as least concern . however , further studies are needed to determine current population trends as some catch statistics indicate that it may be declining .
this subspecies is found from primarily in temperate waters throughout the entire eastern pacific ( parrish et al . 1989 ) .
there are no known conservation measures for this subspecies . however , its distribution includes a number of marine protected areas in the central tropical eastern pacific region .
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catches of fish , crustaceans , molluscs and other aquatic organisms by species and fishing area for eu and associated countries ( in live weight equivalent of the landings ) .
the concepts and definitions used in the compilation of catch statistics are those laid down by the coordinating working party on fishery statistics ( cwp ) , of which eurostat is one of the member organizations . these concepts and definitions have been in force since the late 1950 ' s and are applied uniformly worldwide by the cwp and by the national authorities reporting to its member organizations . therefore , though the quality of the data varies from country to country ( being in many cases a function of the general characteristics of the national fishing industry ) , there is a high degree of comparability between countries and over time .
the data refer to the catch of freshwater , brackish water and marine species of fish , crustaceans , molluscs and other aquatic animals and plants , killed , caught , trapped or collected for all commercial , industrial , recreational and subsistence purposes .
in view of the importance of recreational fishing regarding some stocks and for certain countries , as well as the difficulty of distinguishing between recreational and subsistence fishing , the data should include the catches from recreational fisheries as well . however , it is recognised that certain countries are unable to supply the data for recreational fisheries .
the catches are expressed in the live weight equivalent of the landings . as such they exclude all quantities caught but not landed ( for example : discarded fish , fish consumed on board ) . the unit used is generally the metric ton . data for marine mammals ( e . g . whales ) and certain other animals ( e . g . crocodiles ) are expressed in the number caught .
the nominal catch data are normally derived from the landed quantities of the fishery products . for this purpose , the landed weight is converted to the live weight equivalent ( nominal catch ) by the application of factors .
species : all species for which catches are reported to international organizations are included in the eurostat ' s database . they are identified by the internationally assigned three letter identifier ( e . g . cod = atlantic cod , ple = european plaice ) according to the fao asfis ( aquatic sciences and fishery information system ) list of species for fishery statistics purposes .
fishing areas / regions : the catches are sub - divided by the area in which they occur .
the methodologies vary from country to country depending on the nature of their fishing industries . basic documentation used in collecting the data from eu fisheries are fishing log - books , landings declarations and sales notes used in the management of catch quota and market management systems within the common fisheries policy . the methodologies used by eea member countries have been described in the eurostat publication
fisheries : the collection and compilation of fish catch and landing statistics in member countries of the european economic area
. those used by the new member states are described in a working document
fisheries : the collection and compilation of fishery statistics in european union candidate countries
( c ) harum . koh , some rights reserved ( cc by - sa ) , uploaded by harum . koh , urltoken
you can copy this taxon into another guide . if you are one of the editors of this guide it should copy everything , but if you ' re not , it will only copy the licensed content .
it was sardinia , the mediterranean island , which gave its name to the sardine in the 13 th century . however , long before this , it was already widely fished , as it was always abundant and easy to catch . the phoenicians preserved it in salt and it was pressed to extract the oil , which was used as a fuel to make light .
alongside herring , with which it was often confused , sardines fed whole populations for many centuries .
the idea of sardines in cans was dreamt up in 1820 by joseph colin of nantes . inspired by the invention of sterilization ( nicolas appert ) ten years previously , he had the great idea of putting sardines in a tin can , thereby sterilizing them . at the time this was a luxury product , but then canned sardines gradually became more accessible during the 20 th century , especially after world war i , when they were given to soldiers to meet their protein needs .
perhaps because of their fairly strong flavor and smell , or perhaps because they were , and still are , a cheap fish , or maybe because they are difficult to work with , sardines have never really found a place in michelin - starred kitchens .
a very fragile fish , sardines must have an intact stomach , no trace of blood on the head , a shiny firm body , and a pleasant sea smell .
an open belly means that it has been handled carelessly , and / or that it is no longer fresh .
in france , canned sardines are classified into three categories : extra ( 1 st category ) , choix ( 2 nd category ) and 3 rd category . there is a wide range of options : in oil ( olive or another type ) , in tomato sauce , with herbs , lemon , mustard , or spices , etc . the various added ingredients must be shown on the label . the date of canning is also given and , for some , the vintage ( millésime ) .
they are also sold frozen , either whole ( usually from china ) or in double fillets with their skin .
the scales are removed from sardines , except when they are small and are going to be broiled : the scales protect their particularly vulnerable flesh , which cooks very quickly .
they are cleaned ( and the gills are removed at the same time ) and served whole or filleted .
the head is removed by pulling on the backbone : the two fillets remain attached by the tail and can be folded on top of one another .
sardines can be breaded and deep fried , shallow fried , made into a gratin , or cooked en papillote . they can be cooked in an escabeche or stuffed , added to a fish soup or tagine , or marinated raw when extremely fresh . in japan , they are used to make sashimi and tsumire ( dumplings ) .
canned sardines can be used to make rillettes or a stuffing for baby tomatoes or raw zucchini .
fresh sardines will keep for up to 24 hours in the refrigerator or cold room between 2 and 4°c in their ice .
canned sardines are stored at room temperature : sardines in oil must be turned over from time to time .
the sardine is an oily fish . its fat mainly comprises unsaturated fatty acids ( mono and polyunsaturated ) . it therefore contains omega 3 , especially when canned in oil .
mediterranean sardine ( sardina pilchardus sardina ) . the smallest and the least oily . the smallest ones , called italian sardines , are generally 12–15 cm long , but they can sometimes grow up to 20 cm .
22 march 2015 ( desdemona despair ) – you may have noticed the ongoing mass - starvation event among california sea lions . ( “ why are california sea lion pups starving ? ” ; “ sick sea lions flood shelters in california – pups wash ashore all along the coast amid what scientists say are strains on the ocean ” )
the sea lions are starving because humans have fished out one of their main forage fish , sardines . desdemona wanted to check the claim that “any fishing on sardines right now is overfishing” , so des downloaded the latest data from the united nations food and agricultural organization ( fao ) . fao maintains a huge trove of data on world food production , including annual catches of many fish . fao tracks four sardinops species :
fao doesn’t aggregate the data , but it was an easy matter to compute the total catch and graph it . and indeed , it’s clear that as of 2012 , sardinops populations worldwide have crashed . the peak catch was in 1985 , at 11 , 690 , 299 tons , and the annual catch has since plummeted to less than 800 , 000 tons per year .
this is a classic resource depletion curve that follows logistic growth and decline ( hubbert curve ) . it confirms that the sardinops resource is depleted , and “any fishing on sardines right now is overfishing” .
you can get the data and related graphs here : sardine ( sardinops ) landings fao . xlsx .
in our first installment in a series of fisheries “classics” we discuss the pacific sardine ( sardinops sagax ) . the us west coast sardine fishery made headlines last year when the pacific fishery management council completely closed the commercial fishing seasons for washington , oregon and california . the sardine fishery has been quite important in understanding the biology of exploited fishes and is justly deserving of being our first “classic” fisheries story .
pacific sardines once supported the largest fishery in the california current , off the west coast of north america from canada to baja california . the fishery developed at the beginning of the great depression as pacific sardines were processed for food and oil as well as for fish meal used by the expanding poultry industry . at its peak , the fishery yielded 600 , 000mt annually ( maccall 2015 ) . cannery row , in monterey , ca ( made famous by john steinbeck’s novel of the same name ) was named for the sardine processors that lined the main street .
in the 1950s , the stock collapsed—culminating in a california - legislated moratorium on commercial sardine harvests from 1967 - 1986 , closing even the small bait fishery ( figure 1 ) . this collapse initiated the first assertions from the scientific community that overfishing was the root cause of the problem ( maccall 2011 ) . by 1972 fishing effort in the california current had shifted to northern anchovies ( engraulis mordax ) , which had become abundant .
through the 1980’s and 1990’s pacific sardine abundance began to recover . this period was marked by a notable el niño year in 1992 when pacific sardines were dispersed as far north as british columbia where they had not been seen in over 40 years ( maccall 2015 ) . in the early 2000’s pacific sardine biomass levels reached 1 million mt , but with a series of poor recruitments declined to the low levels reported last year .
see figures 2 , 3 , 4a and 4b for biomass , catch and total allowable catch ( tac ) , and fishing mortality rate of pacific sardines .
figure 1 . california sardine landings during the early years of the california cooperative oceanic fisheries investigations ( calcofi ) ( maccall 2011 ) .
figure 2 . pacific sardine ( sardinops sagax ) biomass ( hill 2015 ) .
figure 3 . pacific sardine ( sardinops sagax ) northern stock total allowable catch and landings for the us ( hill 2015 ) .
figure 4 . pacific sardine ( sardinops sagax ) northern stock fishing mortality rate ( fishsource . com 2016 ) .
in 1965 garth murphy conducted a comprehensive study of sardine demography in the california current and concluded that intense fishing effort was the primary cause for the stock’s collapse ( maccall 2011 ) . it was precipitated by poor recruitment in the early 1950’s , but overfishing was considered the main catalyst . murphy also suggested that the surging populations of northern anchovy had ecologically replaced pacific sardines ( maccall 2011 ) . specific environmental influences were not identified .
figure 5 . a depiction of pacific sardine scale deposition rates taken from the santa barbara basin and adapted as originally presented in baumgartner et al . ( 1992 ) . this data illustrates the 50 to 100 year cyclical boom and bust nature of pacific sardines in the california current system .
while populations did increase according to baumgartner et al’s 50 - year theory in the 1990’s , they were still well below the high levels of the 1940’s . similar to patterns of fluctuations seen in the santa barbara sediments , pacific sardine biomass dropped sharply from 1 million mt in 2006 to an estimated 97 , 000 mt in 2015 , causing the abrupt closing of the commercial fishery , in accordance with the biomass - dependent harvest plan
figure 6 . pacific sardine science and management timeline . adapted from a personal interview with alec maccall ( 2015 ) .
baumgartner , t . r . , a . soutar , and v . ferreira - bartrina . 1992 . reconstruction of the history of pacific sardine and northern anchovy populations over the past two millenia from sediments of the santa barbara basin , california . calcofi reports 33 : 24–40 .


trithemis kirbyi , also known as the orange-winged dropwing , scarlet rock glider , or kirby 's dropwing , is a species of dragonfly in the family libellulidae .

trithemis kirbyi

clausnitzer , v . 2005 . trithemis kirbyi . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 10 august 2007 .
trithemis kirbyi , the orange - winged dropwing or kirby ' s dropwing , is a species of dragonfly in the family libellulidae .
holusa , o . 2008 . trithemis kirbyi auf sardinien : erstnachweis für europa ( odonata : libellulidae ) . libellula 27 : 111 - 115 .
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chelmick , d . and pickess , b . p . 2008 . trithemis kirbyi selys in southern spain ( anisoptera : libellulidae ) . notulae odonatologicae 7 : 4 - 5 .
the former splitting into a nominotypical form and a subspecies trithemis kirbyi ardens ( gerstäcker , 1891 ) is currently challenged because of different opinions on biogeographic interpretation in the distribution of phenotypes .
trithemis kirbyi is a wide ranging african species , also occuring in the arabian peninsular and indian peninsular . in northern africa , the species is present in morocco , algeria , tunisia , chad and egypt . it is likely also to be present in niger , mauritania , libyan arab jamahiriya , mali and sudan .
trithemis kirbyi is widespread from africa ( except in rainforest areas ) to india . the species ' range is extending to the north and it recently began to spread in southern europe ( southern spain , sardinia ) . surprisingly , it doesn ' t occur in the levant and large parts of the middle - east .
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justification : trithemis kirkbyi is a wide - ranging species in northern africa , with no sign of population decline . assessed as least concern in the region .
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trithemis kirbyi is widespread in africa and the indian subcontinent and reaches the southern mediterranean coast . recently the species has been found in sardinia in 2003 ( holuša 2008 ) and in southern spain in 2008 ( chelmick and pickess 2008 ) . in the province of malaga , it was found breeding in 2008 ( cano - villegas and conesa garcia 2009 ) . it is not unlikely that this is a prelude to an expansion of its range to southern europe as it has happened with other african species like trithemis annulata and brachytremis leucosticta .
pinhey , e . 1970 . monographic study of the genus trithemis brauer ( odonata : libellulidae ) . memoirs of the entomological society of southern africa 11 : 1 - 159 .
trithemis kirbyi is widespread from africa ( except in rainforest areas ) to india . the range is extending to the north and it recently began to spread in southern europe ( southern spain , sardinia ) . surprisingly , it does not occur in the levant and large parts of the middle east . in the arabian peninsula , trithemis kirbyi is widespread on the western and eastern margins , where it remains confined to the southern half of the peninsula . one hundred and twenty five records are available from 88 distinct localities in 65 sites over 1 , 300 , 000 km² . thirty - eight percent of the records dates from 1990 onwards but only nine percent are from 2000 onwards . recently , new records are available from 2009 , 2010 and 2011 ( samraoui pers . obs . , schneider pers . obs . ) .
trithemis kirbyi is an opportunistic species which rapidly colonizes all kinds of freshwater habitats . the larvae develop inperennial andtemporarydesert watersthanks to a short larval period ( less than 50 days ) . itis the most common species in all kinds of desert freshwater . adults are found atpools , ponds , swimming pools and water tanks as well asalong wadis , brooks , streams andrivers . they settle on boulders and rocks or perch ontwigs ofreeds and rush .
giere , s . and hadrys , h . ( 2006 ) polymorphic microsatellite loci to study population dynamics in a dragonfly , the libellulid trithemis arteriosa . molecular ecology notes , 6 : 933 - 935 .
trithemis kirbyi is an opportunistic species which rapidly colonies all kinds of freshwater habitats . the larvae develop in perennial and temporary desert waters thanks to a short larval period ( less than 50 days ) . it is the most common species in all kinds of desert freshwater . adults are found at pools , ponds , swimming pools and water tanks , as well as along wadis , brooks , streams and rivers . they settle on boulders and rocks or perch on twigs of reeds and rush .
pinhey , e . c . g . ( 1970 ) . monographic study of the genus trithemis brauer ( odonata : libellulidae ) . memoirs entomological society southern africa , 11 , 1 - 159 . [ pdf file ]
one of africa’s most common and widely distributed dragonflies , the male red - veined dropwing ( trithemis arteriosa ) has a slender red abdomen and is named after the bright red veins running across its wings ( 2 ) .
cano - villegas , f . j . and conesa - garcia , m . a . 2009 . expansion de trihemis kirbyi ( selys , 1891 ) ( odonata : libelluidae ) en la provincial de malaga ( s . peninsula iberica ) . boletin de la sea 44 .
the violet dropwing ( trithemis annulata ) is a distinctive dragonfly that is well known for its striking violet colouration , from which it gets its common name . the male of this species appears purple , but this is due to a bright red base colour on the abdomen and thorax , which is overlaid with a blue , powdery bloom ( ‘pruinescence’ ) on the surface , creating the vibrant violet colouration ( 2 ) .
in contrast , the female violet dropwing is not quite as vivid as the male . instead , the female has a yellow - brown body , a large yellow patch at the base of the hindwing , and no red in the wing veins ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the female violet dropwing can be distinguished from other female trithemis species by its stouter abdomen and by the black marks on top of the eighth and ninth abdomen segments . juvenile male violet dropwings first adopt a yellowish colour similar to the female , then later turn orange and red and finally the vibrant violet colour on reaching maturity ( 2 ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : this ubiquitous and nomadic species is widespread with no known major threats . it is therefore assessed as least concern .
this species was always common in large parts of its african and arabian range and increased during the last 50 years in the maghreb . it recently ( in 2008 ) crossed the straight of gibraltar to settle in spain and the mediterranean to reach sardinia . european subpopulations are still low but will probably increase during the next decades due to climate change .
this species is not under threat at the global scale , although pollution and over use of water by humans may cause it to decline locally .
1 . forest - > 1 . 6 . forest - subtropical / tropical moist lowland suitability : suitable 2 . savanna - > 2 . 1 . savanna - dry suitability : suitable 3 . shrubland - > 3 . 5 . shrubland - subtropical / tropical dry suitability : suitable 3 . shrubland - > 3 . 6 . shrubland - subtropical / tropical moist suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 1 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent rivers / streams / creeks ( includes waterfalls ) suitability : suitable major importance : yes 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 2 . wetlands ( inland ) - seasonal / intermittent / irregular rivers / streams / creeks suitability : suitable major importance : yes 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent freshwater lakes ( over 8ha ) suitability : suitable major importance : yes 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 6 . wetlands ( inland ) - seasonal / intermittent freshwater lakes ( over 8ha ) suitability : suitable major importance : yes 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 7 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent freshwater marshes / pools ( under 8ha ) suitability : suitable major importance : yes 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 8 . wetlands ( inland ) - seasonal / intermittent freshwater marshes / pools ( under 8ha ) suitability : suitable major importance : yes 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 9 . wetlands ( inland ) - freshwater springs and oases suitability : suitable major importance : yes 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 12 . wetlands ( inland ) - geothermal wetlands suitability : suitable major importance : yes 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 13 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent inland deltas suitability : suitable major importance : no 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 18 . wetlands ( inland ) - karst and other subterranean hydrological systems ( inland ) suitability : marginal
al - safadi , m . m . 1990 . dragonflies ( odonata ) of the yemen arab republic . fauna of saudi arabia 11 : 18 - 30 .
al - safadi , m . m . 1995 . a pilot study of lake ma ' rib , yemen . hydrobiologia 315 : 203 - 209 .
boudot , j . p . , kalkman , v . j . , azpilicueta amorín , m . , bogdanović , t . , cordero rivera , a . , degabriele , g . , dommanget , j . l . , ferreira , s . , garrigós , b . , jović , m . , kotarac , m . , lopau , w . , marinov , m . , mihoković , n . , riservato , e . , samraoui , b . and schneider , w . 2009 . atlas of the odonata of the mediterranean and north africa . libellula supplement 9 : 256 pp .
carfì , s . , romano , v . and terzani , f . 1995 . some dragonflies from the north of the republic of yemen . bolletino de la società entomologica italiana 126 : 195 - 199 .
dumont , h . j . and al - safadi , m . m . 1991 . additions to the dragonfly fauna of yemen . notulae odonatologicae 3 : 114 - 117 .
dumont , h . j . and al - safadi , m . m . 1993 . further additions to the dragonfly fauna of the republic of yemen ( odonata ) . opuscula zoologica fluminensia . 109 : 1–8 .
durand , e . and renoult , j - p . 2012 . [ addition à l ' odonatofaune de l ' adrar mauritanien ] . poiretia 4 : 7 - 16 . url [ urltoken
feulner , g . r . 2006 . field reports . diverse dragonflies . gazelle , newsletter of the dubai natural history group 21 : 6 - 7 .
fraser , f . c . 1956 . faune de madagascar i . insectes odonates anisoptères . publications de l´institut de recherche scientifique tananarive - tsimbazaza . , tananarive .
iucn . 2006 . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 05 june ) .
iucn . 2016 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2016 - 3 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 07 december 2016 ) .
krupp , f . , apel , m . , hamoud , a . , schneider , w . and zajonz , u . 2006 . zoological survey in the red sea coastal zone of yemen . fauna of arabia 21 : 11 - 32 .
lambret , p . and boudot , j . - p . 2009 . nesciothemis farinosa ( förster , 1898 ) et orthetrum ransonnetii ( brauer , 1868 ) nouveaux pour l ' arabie saoudite et autres observations d ' odonates sur les reliefs côtiers de la mer rouge . martinia , 25 : 153 - 155 .
longfield , c . 1947 . the odonata of south angola . arquivos do museu bocage , lisboa 16 : 1 - 31 .
longfield , c . 1955 . the odonata of north angola . part i . publicações culturais companhia de diamantes de angola 27 : 11 - 64 .
longfield , c . 1959 . the odonata of north angola . part ii . publicações culturais companhia de diamantes de angola 45 : 15 - 41 .
martens , a . jödicke , r . and suhling , f . 2003 . annotated checklist of the odonata of namibia . cimbebasia 18 : 139 - 160 .
pinhey , e . 1961 . a collection of odonata from dundo , angola . with the descriptions of two new species of gomphids . publiçacões culturais companhia de diamantes de angola lisboa 56 : 71 - 76 .
pinhey , e . 1961 . some dragonflies ( odonata ) from angola ; and descriptions of three new species of the family gomphidae . publiçacões culturais companhia de diamantes de angola lisboa 56 : 81 - 86 .
pinhey , e . 1964 . dragonflies ( odonata ) of the angola - congo borders of rhodesia . publiçacões culturais companhia de diamantes de angola lisboa 63 : 97 - 129 .
pinhey , e . 1965 . odonata from luanda and the lucala river , angola . revista de biologia , lisboa 5 : 159 - 164 .
pinhey , e . 1967 . odonata of ngamiland . arnoldia 15 : 1 - 17 .
pinhey , e . 1970 . a new approach to african orthetrum ( odonata ) . occasional papers of the national museum of southern rhodesia ( b ) 4 : 261 - 321 .
pinhey , e . 1975 . a collection of odonata from angola . arnoldia 23 : 1 - 16 .
pinhey , e . 1976 . dragonflies ( odonata ) of botswana , with ecological notes . occasional papers of the national museums and monuments of rhodesia , series b 5 : 524 - 601 .
pinhey , e . 1981 . checklist of the odonata of mozambique . occasional papers of the national museums and monuments of rhodesia , series b 6 : 557 - 631 .
pinhey , e . 1984 . a check - list of the odonata of zimbabwe and zambia . smithersia 3 : 1 - 64 .
pinhey , e . 1984 . a survey of the dragonflies ( odonata ) of south africa . part 1 . journal of the entomological society of south africa 47 : 147 - 188 .
pinhey , e . 1985 . a survey of the dragonflies ( odonata ) of south africa . part 2 . anisoptera . journal of the entomological society of south africa 48 : 1 - 48 .
ris , f . 1931 . odonata aus süd - angola . revue suisse de zoologie 38 : 97 - 112 .
samways , m . j . 1999 . diversity and conservation status of south african dragonflies ( odonata ) . odonatologica 28 : 13 - 62 .
samways , m . j . 2002 . a strategy for national red listing invertebrates based on experiences with odonata in south africa . african entomology 10 : 43 - 52 .
samways , m . j . 2008 . dragonflies and damselflies of south africa . pensoft , sofia - moscou .
schneider , w . 1988 . dragonflies ( odonata ) of the wahiba sands and adjacent areas , eastern oman . journal of oman studies special report 3 : 377–388 .
schneider , w . and dumont , h . j . 1997 . the dragonflies and damselflies ( insecta : odonata ) of oman . an updated and annotated checklist . fauna of saudi arabia 16 : 89 - 110 .
schneider , w . and krupp , f . 1993 . dragonfly records from saudi arabia , with an annotated checklist of the species from the arabian peninsula ( insecta : odonata ) . fauna of saudi arabia 13 : 63 - 78 .
subramanian , k . a . 2005 . dragonflies and damselflies of peninsular india – a field guide . project lifescape . indian academy of sciences , bangalore , india .
suhling , f . and martens , a . 2007 . dragonflies and damselflies of namibia . gamsberg macmillan publishers , windhoek .
suhling , f . , sahlén , g . , martens , a . , marais , e . and schütte , c . 2006 . dragonfly assemblages in arid tropical environments : a case study from western namibia . biodiversity and conservation 15 : 311 - 332 .
tarboton , w . and tarboton , m . 2002 . a field guide to the dragonflies of south africa . tarboton and tarboton , nylstroom .
tariq chauldry , m . 2010 . systematics of dragonflies ( anisoptera : odonata ) of pakistan . department of entomology , arid agriculture university , faculty of crop and food sciences .
waterston , a . r . 1980 . insects of saudi arabia . odonata . fauna of saudi arabia 2 : 57–70 .
waterston , a . r . 1984 . insects of southern arabia . odonata from the yemens and saudi arabia . fauna of saudi arabia 6 : 451–472
waterston , a . r . and pittaway , a . r . 1991 ( 1989 ) . the odonata or dragonflies of oman and neighbouring territories . journal of oman studies 10 : 131 - 168 .
wilson , k . d . p . 2008 . a brief trip to united arab emirates and northern oman . agrion , newsletter of the worldwide dragonfly association 12 : 56 - 57 .
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joshi , s . , p . koparde , p . dawn , p . roy , and k . kunte ( eds . ) .
copyright © 2018 , all rights reserved . national centre for biological sciences ( ncbs ) holds copyright for all the original material and compilations on this website , although contributing writers and photographers may hold copyright for their material as cited . material from this website can be used freely for educational , basic research and conservation purposes , provided that this website is acknowledged and properly cited as the source . contact us to obtain prior permission for any other use , including for large data downloads and collaborative research .
de knijf , g . , ferreira , s . & riservato , e .
justification : european regional assessment : not applicable ( na ) eu 27 assessment : not applicable ( na ) the species has only recently been found breeding in one spanish province . this presence is less than 1 % of its global range and it is therefore assessed as not applicable .
the species is not uncommon within its range in the maghreb and often fairly abundant when found . it is likely that the same will be true for europe if the species proofs to become a stable part of the european fauna .
the species has only recently been found reproducing within europe . outside europe , the species breeds in open , largely unshaded streams and runnels with a bare , stony or rocky bottom . the species is often found in open , arid landscapes but is also often present near settlements where it breeds in concrete ditches , and drink water basins for cattle and fountains .
information on the orange - winged dropwing is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
environment agency - abu dhabi is a principal sponsor of arkive . ead is working to protect and conserve the environment as well as promoting sustainable development in the emirate of abu dhabi .
classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
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a species that is spreading north from africa into spain and colonising relatively rapidly . the distribution maps in dijkstra / lewington , published 2006 , do not show it in spain but it is now [ 2016 ] at least as far up as valencia .
i was keen to find these on my september 2015 spanish trip and had targeted a reserve just above valencia called the marjal dels moros . as it turned out , i found my first male on my local river in jalón . i was then lucky enough to find a female at the marjal de gandia .
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the violet colouration of the male violet dropwing is actually caused by a bluish , powdery bloom overlaying a bright red background colour .
like other dropwings , the violet dropwing is named for its habit of lowering its wings when it lands .
the violet dropwing is one of the most abundant dragonfly species in tropical africa , and is extending its range into europe .
the violet dropwing is a small - to medium - sized dragonfly , and has a distinctly broad abdomen ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . like many other dropwing species , the violet dropwing immediately lowers its wings on landing , a behaviour which gives this group of dragonflies their common name ( 5 ) .
the male violet dropwing has a distinctive bright red face , red eyes , and red wing veins , and there is an amber patch at the base of each hindwing ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the abdomen has fine purple dashes along the top , with small black stripes on the top of the eighth and ninth abdomen segments ( 4 ) .
like other dragonflies , the violet dropwing begins its life as an egg laid in a water body by the female . after hatching , it spends the first stages of life as an aquatic larva , or nymph , which breathes through internal gills ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . the larva remains in the water as it passes through a number of developmental stages , undergoing a series of moults as it grows larger . eventually , the larva emerges from the water and moults into the adult form ( 6 ) . the adult violet dropwing then spends some time maturing until it is fully mature and capable of reproduction ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .
in most dragonfly species , the adult male perches near the waterside waiting for a female , and may defend a territory . during mating , the male holds the female by the head using specialised appendages , known as ‘claspers’ , at the end of the abdomen . male dragonflies have secondary reproductive organs towards the front of the abdomen , from which the female receives the sperm . while being held by the male , the female dragonfly bends the tip of her abdomen forwards to receive the sperm packet , creating a shape known as a mating ‘wheel’ ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .
many male dragonflies keep hold of or guard the female until the eggs are laid , to ensure no other males can mate with her ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . as in other members of the libellulidae family , the female violet dropwing is likely to scatter the eggs over the surface of the water by dipping her abdomen into the water while flying over it ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .
the violet dropwing larva is an opportunistic predator , catching prey by shooting out its enlarged and modified mouthparts ( 3 ) ( 6 ) , which are armed with hooks on the end ( 6 ) . the adult violet dropwing is also an opportunistic and effective predator , using its acute vision to detect prey , and its outstretched , bristly legs as a ‘basket’ to capture insects in flight ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .
in the violet dropwing , adults are usually seen between november and may in south africa ( 4 ) , between may and october in parts of northern africa , and from april to october in turkey ( 2 ) . in the sahara , adults of this species may be seen year - round , and in europe they are thought to be active in all summer months ( 2 ) .
originally of african origin , the violet dropwing also occurs in the mediterranean region , and is expanding its range in southern europe ( 2 ) . the violet dropwing inhabits tropical africa , where it is one of the most abundant dragonfly species ( 2 ) , and is also found in the middle east , parts of southern asia , and on islands in the indian ocean ( 1 ) , including madagascar ( 1 ) ( 4 ) .
the violet dropwing can inhabit a range of vegetation types , as long as a suitable area of freshwater is available ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . it is typically found near still or slow - moving water , including pools , marshes and slow - moving stretches of rivers , where there are bushes or trees nearby ( 4 ) . at the edges of its range , the violet dropwing prefers warm spots such as shallow gravel pits , open lakes or lagoons ( 2 ) .
male violet dropwings tend to perch prominently on twigs , reeds or rocks in the sun , close to water ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , and then move to the trees in the evening or when the sun is hidden behind clouds ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .
the violet dropwing is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
there are not currently believed to be any significant threats to the violet dropwing , due to its widespread distribution and increasing population ( 1 ) ( 7 ) . however , this species may potentially be affected by some of the general threats faced by dragonflies , including intensive agriculture and large - scale land conversion , the destruction and modification of water bodies , over - extraction of water for irrigation , and water pollution ( 4 ) ( 7 ) . other potential threats include global warming , which may cause water bodies to dry up during increasingly hot and dry periods ( 7 ) .
there are no specific conservation measures currently known to be in place for the violet dropwing . however , other conservation efforts , not directly aimed at this species , may potentially benefit its populations . for example , conservation efforts for dragonflies in europe include research , population monitoring , appropriate legislation and the protection of key habitat sites ( 7 ) .
moore , n . w . ( 1997 ) dragonflies : status survey and conservation action plan . iucn / ssc odonata specialist group , iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . available at : urltoken
kalkman , v . j . , boudot , j - p . , bernard , r . , conze , k . j . , de knijf , g . , dyatlova , e . , ferreira , s . , jović , m . , ott , j . , riservato , e . and sahlén , g . ( 2010 ) european red list of dragonflies . publications office of the european union , luxembourg . available at : urltoken
abdomen in arthropods ( crustaceans , insects and arachnids ) the abdomen is the hind region of the body , which is usually segmented to a degree ( but not visibly in most spiders ) . in crustacea ( such as crabs ) , some of the limbs attach to the abdomen ; in insects the limbs are attached to the thorax ( the part of the body nearest to the head ) and not the abdomen . larva stage in an animal’s lifecycle after it hatches from the egg . larvae are typically very different in appearance to adults ; they are able to feed and move around but usually are unable to reproduce . moult in insects , a stage of growth whereby the hard outer layer of the body ( the exoskeleton ) is shed and the body becomes larger . nymph stage of insect development , similar in appearance to the adult but sexually immature and without wings . the adult form is reached via a series of moults and the wings develop externally as the nymph grows . territory an area occupied and defended by an animal , a pair of animals or a colony . thorax part of the body located between the head and the abdomen in animals . in insects , the three segments between the head and the abdomen , each of which has a pair of legs .
dijkstra k - d . b . ( 2006 ) field guide to the dragonflies of britain and europe . british wildlife publishing , dorset , uk .
picker , m . , griffiths , c . and weaving , a . ( 2004 ) field guide to insects of south africa . struik publishers , cape town .
samways , m . j . ( 2008 ) dragonflies and damselflies of south africa . pensoft publishers , bulgaria .
silsby , j . ( 2001 ) dragonflies of the world . csiro publishing , collingwood , australia .
o ' toole , c . ( 2002 ) the new encyclopedia of insects and their allies . oxford university press , oxford .
it is found in algeria , angola , benin , botswana , burkina faso , chad , comoros , the democratic republic of the congo , ivory coast , egypt , ethiopia , gambia , ghana , guinea , kenya , liberia , madagascar , malawi , morocco , mozambique , namibia , nigeria , senegal , somalia , south africa , sudan , tanzania , togo , uganda , western sahara , zambia , zimbabwe , and possibly burundi . it is also present in southern europe , the arabian peninsula , the indian ocean islands and south asia up to india .
the adult male abdomen measures 21 - 24mm and hind wing 24 - 27mm . female abdomen measures 23mm and hind wing 26 - 30mm . male is a medium sized scarlet dragonfly with a broad reddish amber patch on the base of transparent wings . female is similar to male , but duller in color . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical streams and rivers . breads in marshes , ponds and lakes . prefers to perch on exposed rocks , dry areas , and boulders in riverbeds .
schneider , w . , ferreira , s . , kalkman , v . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment workshop , oct . 2007 ) & allen , d . ( iucn freshwater biodiversity unit )
common in large parts of its african range , less so in northern africa .
small hard - bottomed water bodies , rocky stream beds , irrigation canals , water tanks etc .
dijkstra , k . - d . b . & suhling , f . ( ssc odonata specialist group ) , & allen , d . ( iucn freshwater biodiversity unit )
justification : the species is assessed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .
global distribution : the species is widespread in africa except deep in rainforest areas , extends to middle east and india . northeastern africa distribution : the species has been recorded from kenya , ethiopia , egypt , sudan , somalia and eritrea . for chad , uganda and djibouti , assumed .
range description : widespread in africa except rain forest areas , southern europe , middle east , indian ocean islands , southern asia . in east africa the species is common and widespread in kenya , tanzania , uganda , and malawi . its occurrence in burundi is assumed . countries : native : algeria angola benin botswana burkina faso chad comoros congo , the democratic republic of the côte d ' ivoire egypt ethiopia gambia ghana guinea kenya liberia madagascar malawi morocco mozambique namibia nigeria senegal somalia south africa sudan tanzania , united republic of togo uganda western sahara zambia zimbabwe presence uncertain : burundi
habitat and ecology : streams , rivers and pools in savanna , woodland or bush . systems : terrestrial ; freshwater list of habitats : 1 , 1 . 6 , 2 , 2 . 1 , 2 . 2 , 3 , 3 . 5 , 3 . 6 , 5 , 5 . 1 , 5 . 18
this ubiquitous and nomadic species is widespread with no known major widespread threats ; thus doesn ' t qualify for listing in a threatened category . it is therefore assessed as least concern .
red list category & criteria : least concern ver 3 . 1 year assessed : 2006 assessor / s : clausnitzer , v . reviewer / s : clausnitzer , v . , dijkstra , k . - d . b . & suhling , f . ( odonata red list authority ) justification : assessed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category . conservation actions : no information is avaliable
the species was always common in large parts of its african and arabian range and increased during the last 50 years in the maghreb , then recently ( 2008 ) crossed the straight of gibraltar to settle in spain and the mediterranean to reach sardinia . european populations are still low but will probably increase during the next decades due to global warming .
the species is not threatened at the global scale , althoughpollutionand over use ofwater by humans may cause the species to decline locally .
major threat ( s ) : there are no major threats affecting this species .
it is found in algeria , angola , benin , botswana , burkina faso , chad , comoros , the democratic republic of the congo , ivory coast , egypt , ethiopia , gambia , ghana , guinea , kenya , liberia , madagascar , malawi , morocco , mozambique , namibia , nigeria , senegal , somalia , south africa , sudan , tanzania , togo , uganda , western sahara , zambia , zimbabwe , and possibly burundi . it is also present in southern europe , the middle east , the indian ocean islands and south asia - india .
the adult measures 3 . 2 - 3 . 6 cm in length , and reaches a 5 . 8 cm wingspan .
no diagnosis of this species close to t . bifida and t . legrandi is presently available . please refer to those species and the references provided .
streams shaded by forest . mostly with a gravelly but often also sandy bottom , probably especially calmer sections ( like pools ) with submerged roots and / or coarse detritus . from 0 to 700 m above sea level .
map citation : clausnitzer , v . , k . - d . b . dijkstra , r . koch , j . - p . boudot , w . r . t . darwall , j . kipping , b . samraoui , m . j . samways , j . p . simaika & f . suhling , 2012 . focus on african freshwaters : hotspots of dragonfly diversity and conservation concern . frontiers in ecology and the environment 10 : 129 - 134 .
female ; liberia , grand gedeh county , putu iron ore mining concession © dijkstra , k . - d . b . & a . dayeker
male ; liberia , grand gedeh county , putu iron ore mining concession © dijkstra , k . - d . b . & a . dayeker
male ; sierra leone , eastern province , gola forest © dijkstra , k . - d . b . & a . dayeker
male ; liberia , nimba county , west nimba proposed forest reserve © dijkstra , k . - d . b . & m . darpay
adult , male ; angola , uige province , loge valley © dijkstra , k . - d . b .
ris , f . ( 1912 ) . libellulinen 6 . fasc . xiv in collections zoologiques du baron edm . de selys longchamps . brussels : institut royal des sciences naturelles de belgique , 14 , 701 - 836
pinhey , e . c . g . ( 1961 ) . dragonflies ( odonata ) of central africa . occasional papers rhodes - livingstone museum , 14 , 1 - 97 . [ pdf file ]
pinhey , e . c . g . ( 1966 ) . check - list of dragonflies ( odonata ) from malawi , with description of a new teinobasis kirby . arnoldia , 2 , 1 - 24 . [ pdf file ]
citation : dijkstra , k . - d . b ( editor ) . african dragonflies and damselflies online . urltoken [ 2018 - 07 - 09 ] .
african dragonflies and damselflies online is a collaboration between consent ( stellenbosch ) and adu ( cape town ) funded by the jrs biodiversity foundation . addo brings all available knowledge together of africa ' s 770 known species of odonata . read more . . .
by combining conservation ecology and entomology , our department at stellenbosch university brings together a considerable body of teaching and research expertise in the rapidly growing important field of conservation in agricultural and development landscapes . read more . . .
the adu aims to contribute to the understanding of biodiversity and its conservation . we achieve this through programmes that involve citizen scientists , long - term monitoring , research and innovative statistical modelling . read more . . .
the female and immature red - veined dropwing , have a yellowish - russet abdomen with a pale streak between the wings ( 2 ) . as with other dropwing species , the wings are held downwards and forwards when at rest ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .
both the male and female red - veined dropwing have orange flecks at the base of the wings and large crimson eyes . the distinctive lower mouthparts are yellow with a central bronze stripe . black splashes run along the sides of the abdomen , increasing in size up to the tip , which is entirely black ( 2 ) . the oval larvae or ‘ nymphs ’ of the red - veined dropwing are hairless with a spiny abdomen covered in dark brown speckles ( 3 ) .
red - veined dropwing nymphs are ferocious predators ( 7 ) , feeding on small invertebrates ( 8 ) . dragonfly nymphs are aquatic and after completing a number of developmental stages , they emerge from the water and moult into an adult dragonfly . the newly emerged dragonfly matures and gains its unique colouring before breeding ( 2 ) .
the flight period for adult red - veined dropwings is throughout the year , although they are more commonly seen during the summer months , perched prominently on vegetation at the waters edge ( 2 ) . perching is thought to help the red - veined dropwing locate and catch prey and allows the male red - veined dropwing to lookout for female mates and intruders ( 3 ) ( 9 ) .
male red - veined dropwings are very territorial , and can battle with other males of the same species for around 20 minutes . the defender often flies tightly around the intruder , known as ‘spinning’ , and attempts to force the intruder to fly upwards . these conflicts often cause severe wing damage and wing condition deteriorates with age ( 9 ) .
widespread and common in africa , the red - veined dropwing is particularly abundant in southern africa ( 2 ) ( 5 ) and can also be found across southern europe and parts of the middle east ( 1 ) .
the red - veined dropwing can be found in most aquatic habitats including swamps , marshes , reedy pools , streams , slow - moving rivers and , in arid regions , salt pans ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . breeding is known to take place in temporary pools where aquatic larvae have been found buried up to 30 centimetres in the water bed ( 6 ) .
the red - veined dropwing is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
the red - veined dropwing is currently an abundant and widespread species and is not considered to be under threat ( 1 ) .
as a common and widespread species , there are no conservation measures in place for the red - veined dropwing ( 1 ) . however , the red - veined dropwing is sensitive to changes in water quality and can be used as an indicator species for permanent water sources ( 5 ) .
simaica , j . p . ( 2008 ) conservation biogeography of south african dragonflies ( odonata ) . department of conservation ecology and entomology , stellenbosch university . available at : urltoken
abdomen in arthropods ( crustaceans , insects and arachnids ) the abdomen is the hind region of the body , which is usually segmented to a degree ( but not visibly in most spiders ) . in crustacea ( such as crabs ) , some of the limbs attach to the abdomen ; in insects the limbs are attached to the thorax ( the part of the body nearest to the head ) and not the abdomen . indicator species any species that provides a guide to the condition of its habitat . invertebrates animals with no backbone , such as insects , crustaceans , worms , molluscs , spiders , cnidarians ( jellyfish , corals , sea anemones ) and echinoderms . larvae the stage in an animal’s lifecycle after it hatches from the egg . larvae are typically very different in appearance to adults ; they are able to feed and move around but usually are unable to reproduce . moult in insects , a stage of growth whereby the hard outer layer of the body ( the exoskeleton ) is shed and the body becomes larger . nymph stage of insect development , similar in appearance to the adult but sexually immature and without wings . the adult form is reached via a series of moults , and the wings develop externally as the nymph grows . territorial describes an animal , a pair of animals or a group that occupies and defends an area .
samways , m . j . ( 2008 ) the dragonflies and damselflies of south africa . pensoft publishers , bulgaria .
picker , m . , griffiths , c . and weaving , a . ( 2004 ) field guide to insects of south africa . struik publishers , cape town , south africa .
grunwell , m . j . ( 2010 ) dragonflies and damselflies in the state of qatar . journal of the qatar natural history group . 3 : 2 - 15 . available at : urltoken
bitzer , r . j . ( 2003 ) odonates of the middle east and their potential as biological indicators for restoring the mesopotamian marshlands of southern iraq . report for the eden again project to restore the mesopotamian marshlands , department of entomology , iowa state university , iowa . available at : urltoken
jacana media ( 2004 ) lowveld and kruger guide . jacana media , johannesburg , south africa .
tudge , c . ( 2000 ) the variety of life . oxford university press , united kingdom .
tarboton , w . and tarboton , m . ( 2009 ) red - veined dropwings : how long do they live ? agrion newsletter of the worldwide dragonfly association . 13 ( 2 ) : 48 - 49 .
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