bradypodicola hahneli is a sloth moth in the family pyralidae that lives exclusively in the fur of the pale-throated three-toed sloth ( bradypus tridactylus ) , a three-toed sloth found in south america .

it is the only species of the bradypodicola genus .

while the other sloth moth , cryptoses choloepi , has a continuously convex front of its head , bradypodicola hahneli has a concave shape of the front of its head .

the three-toed sloth ’s fur forms a micro-ecozone inhabited by green algae and hundreds of insects .

the fur provides a home and protection for the moth which feeds on the algae .

it also deposits its eggs in the droppings of the sloth , where they pupate and hatch , the newly hatched moths flying off to look for another sloth to live on .

bradypodicola

genus : bradypodicola spuler , 1906 . biol . zbl . 26 : 691 . [ bhl ]
type - species : bradypodicola hahneli spuler , 1906 . biol . zbl . 26 : 691 , text - figs 1 - 7 . [ bhl ]
the topics included in this review include adults of arcyophora sp . feeding on the eyes of oxen in zimbabwe ; the blood - sucking noctuid calyptra eustrigata ( hmps . ) in south - eastern asia ; and the pyralids cryptoses , bradypodicola and bradypophila on sloths in central and south america ( where the association may be a phoretic one )
note : this is a “classic” interesting thing of the day article from over 10 years ago . it has not been edited recently , so it may contain broken links , outdated information , or other infelicities . we plan to eventually update or retire most classic articles , as time permits .
there are times—quite a few of them , for better or worse—when i’m confronted with evidence that something i’ve believed ( or assumed ) to be the case for years is simply wrong . these occasions can be a source of embarrassment , such as the time a few years ago when a friend pointed out to me that i always misspelled the word “embarrassed . ” being someone who takes the use of language seriously , this came as quite a blow to me . most of the time , however , i greet epiphanies of mistaken assumptions with equanimity , if not pleasure . i love to learn , and most learning requires a certain amount of unlearning .
i had several such experiences in rapid succession while visiting a wildlife sanctuary in costa rica . aviarios del caribe , located near cahuita on the caribbean coast , is a sloth rehabilitation center . sloths that are injured or orphaned are brought here and cared for , and then—if they’re able to fend for themselves—released back into the rain forest . a volunteer had patiently explained many of the differences between two - toed and three - toed sloths , about which more later . but as i was watching a baby two - toed sloth , i noticed with some puzzlement that it actually had three toes on each foot . clearly there was an interesting story here , but that was just the beginning of the strange and wonderful things i was to discover about sloths .
first , let’s talk about those toes . sloth expert judy arroyo explained to me that all sloths actually have three “toes”—that is , three digits on their hind limbs , if you want to think of them as feet . the difference is in the “fingers”—the digits on the fore limbs . two - toed sloths have two ; three - toed sloths have three . so why weren’t they called “two - fingered” and “three - fingered” ? apparently it was a problem of translation . according to arroyo , the spanish word used to describe the sloths’ digits can mean either finger or toe , and the english word choice turned out to be a bit misleading .
whether you call them fingers or toes , sloths use them to great advantage . they’re hooked and very strong , which makes them handy for climbing or—more frequently—hanging upside - down for extended periods of time high in the trees . sloths sleep up to 18 hours per day , and when awake , spend most of their time munching on leaves . they move ( very slowly , of course ) from tree to tree every day or two , and descend to the ground only about once a week to urinate and defecate .
two - toed and three - toed sloths share many traits in common , but i was surprised to discover how many differences there were . the two - toed sloth ( choloepus hoffmani ) has light brown fur and is nocturnal . the three - toed sloth ( bradypus variegatus ) has , as its name suggests , variegated fur . it’s active during the day , so it’s the one you’re most likely to see on a rain forest hike . males have distinctive markings on their backs that identify them uniquely , in much the same way as fingerprints . and the extra bones in the three - toed sloth’s neck enable it to turn its head almost 360° .
what i find most interesting about the three - toed sloth is the symbiotic relationship it has with other organisms . one effect of the sloth’s languid pace of life is that it can’t be bothered to groom itself . this turns out to be beneficial to several varieties of algae and mold that grow inside the sloth’s hollow hairs . the algae effectively turn the sloth green , giving it excellent camouflage among the leaves . the camouflage is crucial to the sloth’s survival , because its inability to move quickly makes it an easy target for the harpy eagle .
but the symbiosis doesn’t end there . the algae in the sloth’s fur provides food for a great many insects . ( i should point out , incidentally , that sloths have extremely long fur , making them appear much larger than they really are . ) beetles have been found by the hundreds living on a single sloth . another insect that calls the sloth home is a type of moth— bradipodicola hahneli ( or “sloth moth” to most people ) . the sloth’s fur provides both food and protection for the moth . not only does it feed on the algae , but it also deposits its eggs in the sloth’s droppings , where they pupate and hatch , and then fly off to look for another sloth to live on .
sloths are not known as particularly social creatures , but they do spend enough time with the opposite sex to reproduce . one of the studies underway at aviarios del caribe when i was there involved the mating habits of three - toed sloths . we saw a video in which a female sloth named buttercup let out a blood - curdling mating call that sounded like a woman shrieking . immediately , males from as far away as 700 meters began rushing toward the sound . by “rushing , ” i mean crawling at the breakneck speed of about 200 meters per day . but for a sloth , this single - minded , deliberate movement—on the ground , no less , in plain view of predators—is definitely rushing . ah , the things we do for love .
females usually give birth once a year , and with gestation periods of about six months , that means they spend about half their adult lives pregnant . when a sloth reaches six months of age , it’s old enough to be left on its own . before that time , however , if a youngster falls from a tree , the mother will not attempt to rescue it ; the risk of attack by a bird or jaguar is too great .
young sloths separated from their mothers in this way are the main wards of the sloth rehabilitation center i visited . other residents were injured by contact with an electrical line , or orphaned when an eagle attacked the mother . staff members and volunteers nurse the sloths back to health , and participate in a variety of scientific studies and conservation projects . buttercup was the center’s first resident , and has been there for about 13 years . she serves as a living mascot , helping to promote awareness and research of her species .
sloths’ slow , graceful movements have been compared to those of a t’ai chi master . i agree with that assessment—and coincidentally it was for a t’ai chi retreat that i went to costa rica in the first place . but sloths have also been called “ugly , ” and here i must disagree . up close , sloths are actually quite cute , and the shape of their faces gives the impression of a permanent smile . in the wild , of course , the menagerie of plants and critters growing in the fur can be off - putting , but a well - groomed sloth is—and i’m speaking from experience here—downright cuddly .
sloths share their name with one of the so - called “deadly sins” because their slow metabolism gives them the appearance of laziness . but slow and lazy are two different things . the grace , balance , and gentleness of the sloth—not to mention its hospitality toward the other creatures that depend on it—are traits i could aspire to emulate . — joe kissell
if you’re ever in costa rica , aviarios del caribe is well worth a visit . besides being a wildlife sanctuary , it’s also a bed & breakfast . owners judy and luis arroyo will tell you everything you want to know about sloths , and you can also take a canoe ride into the rain forest to see a wide variety of other wildlife . janet younger wrote this article for the travelwise web site about her stay at aviarios del caribe ; her experiences were very similar to my own .
christopher baker’s article mammals on urltoken compares sloths to t’ai chi masters but claims they’re ugly . i beg to differ—i’ve met some very handsome sloths ( and t’ai chi masters , for that matter ) .
the sloth club is an organization that promotes some positive sloth - like traits : slowness , simplicity , nonviolence , and ecological consciousness .
hear ye ! hear ye ! don ' t shoot the messenger , although you may be tempted to because he ' s apparently yelling bad news in the middle of a crowded street .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
one of the minor downsides of our biology and taxonomy of insects module on the msc course is , that we do have to review a lot of families within some of the groups , lepidoptera being a prime example . current estimates range from 250 000 to 500 000 species in 124 families ( kristensen et al . , 2007 ) . going through the basic biology of each family can be pretty dry stuff , even if i have a personal anecdote or two to help lighten information overload . i am , for example , able to wax lyrical for several minutes about small ermine moths and their incredible silk - production activities , but even after more than 40 years of playing around with insects i don’t have a personal story for every family of lepidoptera 🙂 so i am always on the lookout for an extra interesting or mind - blowing fact to help leaven the student’s knowledge diet .
the earliest record of a moth associated with a sloth that i have been able to find is in 1877 ( westwood , 1877 ) which merely records that the unidentified moth was “parasitic on the three - toed sloth” . in 1908 a mr august busck on a visit to panama saw a two - toed sloth , choloepus hoffmanni fall from a tree and noticed several moths flying out of the sloth’s fur . he caught these and on his return to the united states presented them to dr harrison dyar ( dyar , 1908a ) . if the name seems familiar to you that is because harrison dyar is better known in connection with dyar’s law , the observation that larval growth in arthropods is predictable and follows a geometric progression ( dyar , 1890 ) . the moths were identified by dyar as a new species which he named cryptoses choloepi . dyar hypothesised that the moths and their larvae lived in the fur of the sloth and it was this that caused the sloth’s matted hair .
postulated linked mutualisms ( þ ) among sloths , moths and algae : ( a ) sloths descend their tree to defecate , and deliver gravid female sloth moths ( þ ) to oviposition sites in their dung ; ( b ) larval moths are copraphagous and as adults seek sloths in the canopy ; ( c ) moths represent portals for nutrients , and via decomposition and mineralization by detritivores increase inorganic nitrogen levels in sloth fur , which fuels algal ( þ ) growth , and ( d ) sloths ( þ ) then consume these algae - gardens , presumably to augment their limited diet . this figure brazenly ‘borrowed’ from pauli et al . 2014 ) .
the sloths take the risk of increased predation by descending to ground level , because by helping the moths they improve their own nutrition and hence their fitness . yet another great example of the wonders of the natural world .
although not as exotic as the sloth moth , we in the uk can also lay claim to a coprophagous moth , aglossa pinguinalis , the large tabby which feeds on , among other things , sheep dung . in spain it is recorded as a cave dweller feeding almost entirely on animal dung , apparently not being too fussy as to the source .
bradley , j . d . ( 1982 ) two new species of moths ( lepidoptera , pyralidae , chrysauginae ) associated with the three - toed sloth ( bradypus spp . ) in south america . acta amazonica , 12 , 649 - 656 .
brues , c . t . ( 1936 ) aberrant feeding behaviour among insects and its bearing on the development of specialized food habits . quarterly review of biology , 11 , 305 - 319 .
dyar , h . g . ( 1890 ) the number of molts of lepidopterous larvae . psyche , 5 , 420–422 .
dyar , h . g . ( 1908a ) a pyralid inhabiting the fur of the living sloth . proceedings of the entomological society of washington , 9 , 169 - 170 .
dyar , h . h . ( 1908b ) a further note on the sloth moth . proceedings of the entomological society of washington , 10 , 81 - 82 .
dyar , h . g . ( 1912 ) more about the sloth moth . proceedings of the entomological society of washington , 14 , 142 - 144 .
gilmore , d . pp . , da costa , c . p . & duarte , d . p . f . ( 2001 ) sloth biology : an update on their physiological ecology , behaviour and role as vectors of arthropods and arboviruses . brazilian journal of medical and biological research , 34 , 9 - 25 .
greenfield , m . d . ( 1981 ) moth sex pheromones : an evolutionary perspective . the florida entomologist , 64 , 4 - 17 .
kristensen , n . , scoble , m . j . & karsholt , o . ( 2007 ) lepidoptera phylogeny and systematics : the state of inventorying moth and butterfly diversity . zootaxa , 1668 , 699 - 747 .
pauli , j . n . , mendoza , j . e . , steffan , s . a . , carey , c . c . , weimer , p . j . & peery , m . z . ( 2014 ) a syndrome of mutualism reinfocrs the lifestyle of a sloth . proceedings of the royal society b , 281 , 20133006 . urltoken .
pinero , f . s . & lopez , f . j . p . ( 1998 ) coprophagy in lepidoptera : observational and experimental evidence in the pyralid moth aglossa pinguinalis . journal of zoology london , 244 , 357 - 362 .
tate , g . h . h . ( 1931 ) random observations on habits of south american mammals . journal of mammalogy , 12 , 248 - 256 .
waage , j . k . ( 1980 ) sloth moths and other zoophilous lepidoptera . proceedings of the british entomological and natural history society , 13 , 73 - 74 .
waage , j . k . & montgomery , g . g . ( 1976 ) crytopses choloepi : a coprophagous moth that lives on a sloth . science , 193 , 157 - 158 .
westwood , j . o . ( 1877 ) xxviii . entomological notes . transactions of the entomological society , 25 , 431 - 439 .
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a taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .
the name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .
the author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by
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and the number of omitted authors .
attribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .
all diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .
created by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .
the special centrifugal research issue ( vol . 20 , no . 3 ) of the annals of improbable research is at the printer , whizzing up to speed .
the special cloning & evolution issue ( vol . 20 , no . 2 ) is partly online : <
sloth moths and other zoophilous lepidoptera ,
jeffrey k . waage , proceedings and transactions of the british entomological and natural history society , vol . 13 , no . 3 / 4 , pp . 73 - 74 . 1980 . <
a moth and a sloth inspire this month ' s limerick competition . to enter , compose an original limerick that illuminates the nature of this ancient study :
cryptoses choloepi : a coprophagous moth that lives on a sloth ,
jeffrey k . waage and g . gene montgomery , science , vol . 193 , no . 4248 , 1976 , pp . 157 - 158 . <
the larvae of the sloth moth , cryptoses choloepi , live in the dung of the three - toed sloth , bradypus infuscatus . adult female moths apparently leave the fur of the sloth to oviposit when the sloth descends , once a week , to the forest floor to defecate . newly emerged moths fly from the dung pile into the forest canopy to find a sloth .
the mucous glands of the developing human nose ,
b . g . bang , cells tissues organs , vol . 59 , no . 4 , 1964 , pp . 297 - 314 . <
a further note on the sloth moth ,
h . g . dyar , proceedings of the entomological society of washington , vol . 10 , 1908 , pp . 81 - 82 . <
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comprise about 398 species occurring predominantly in the neotropical region . larvae can be seed , fruit , stem and root borers , and leaf rollers and tiers . some are myrmecophilous . the adults of
live in the fur of sloths and their larvae develop in sloth dung . larvae of other species have been found feeding on wasp nests and on spines of
spp . ( saturniidae ) caterpillars . most larvae have a sclerotised ring around sd1 of the metathorax .
references . dyar 1908 ; jordan 1926 ; pastrana 1953 ; waage & montgomery 1976 ; bradley 1982 ; solis & mitter 1992 .
the epipaschiinae comprise 705 described species in the tropical and temperate regions , except europe . larvae are leaf rollers , leaf tiers or leaf miners . a few species are minor pests of mahagonies , avocado , and corn ( zea mays ) . males of many species have a conspicuous scaled projection from the scape of the antennae . epipaschiinae are supported as a monophyletic group by three characters of the males : ( 1 ) an always upturned and pointed third segment of the labial palpi , ( 2 ) a ventrally curved phallobase of the male which usually extends beyond the ductus ejaculatorius , and ( 3 ) the weakly sclerotised tegumen .
the galleriinae comprise 258 species worldwide . larvae of some species , such as corcyra cephalonica ( rice moth ) feed on dry vegetable matter , while the larvae of other species are known to live in hymenopteran nests feeding on combs and animal debris ( e . g . galleria mellonella , the wax moth ) . sound production by the tegulae of adult males has been studied for purposes of monitoring and control of pest species . the males of galleriine moths have no gnathos , the pupae have a prominent median ridge on the thorax and abdomen dorsally , and most larvae have a sclerotised ring around sd1 of a1 .
references . mosher 1916 ; hasenfuss 1960 ; whalley 1964 ; spangler 1988 ; solis & mitter 1992 .
the phycitinae ( = anerastiinae , peoriinae ) are probably the most difficult group of pyraloidea in terms of identification and classification . they comprise 656 genera and about 3450 species . phycitines occur throughout the world . their larvae are mostly leaf rollers , but some are inquilines in galls , seed feeders , or predators of homoptera . there is strong evidence that the phycitinae are monophyletic : ( 1 ) the larva has a sclerotised area encircling the base of seta sd1 on the mesothorax , and ( 2 ) the female frenulum is composed of multiple acanthae into one bristle as in males .
the pyralinae ( = endotrichinae , hypotiinae ) comprise 134 genera and more than 1100 species worldwide . most species occur in asia and africa . the meal moth ( pyralis farinalis ) is a cosmopolitan pest of stored food products . other species are leaf feeders and the larvae of pyralis manihotalis has been reared from bat guano . with the exception of cardamyla and embryoglossa , all pyraline females have a short ductus bursae with the corpus bursae barely extending cephalad beyond segment 7 .
references for the cited literature can be obtained via - > database - > search .


the cabalian frog or leyte slender stream frog ( hylarana albotuberculata ) is a species of frog in the ranidae family .

it is endemic to the islands of leyte , samar , and mindanao in the philippines .

it is threatened by habitat loss through deforestation and habitat conversion to agriculture as well as by the pollution due to agricultural run-off .

cabalian frog

the cabalian frog , leyte slender stream frog is classified as data deficient ( dd ) , inadequate information to make a direct , or indirect , assessment of its risk of extinction .
» blue frog ? » lucky money frog » frog ring - any pictures ? » the perfect store bought blended compost for a sfg » so far . . .
hylarana caesari ( biju et al . , 2014 ) - maharashtra golden - backed frog
hylarana indica ( biju et al . , 2014 ) - indian golden - backed frog
hylarana magna ( biju et al . , 2014 ) - large golden - backed frog
hylarana serendipi ( biju et al . , 2014 ) - sri lankan golden backed frog
hylarana urbis ( biju et al . , 2014 ) - urban golden - backed frog
hylarana doni ( biju et al . , 2014 ) - don ' s golden backed frog
hylarana sreeni ( biju et al . , 2014 ) - sreeni ' s golden - backed frog
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
frost , d . r . 2018 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 . american museum of natural history , new york , usa available at : urltoken .
this species was transferred from the genus hylarana to sanguirana by fuiten et al . ( 2011 ) . brown et al . ( 2017 ) use new data phylogenetic data to resolve species boundaries associated with the southwest mindanao stream frogs , sanguirana everetti ( boulenger , 1882 ) , its junior synonym , rana mearnsi , stejneger , 1905 , and the northeast mindanao stream frogs , s . albotuberculata ( inger , 1954 ) . consideration of relationships , distributions , type localities , phenotypic data , and type specimens clearly indicates that the names r . mearnsi and s . albotuberculata refer to the same lineage , and therefore brown et al . ( 2017 ) recognize s . mearnsi as the oldest available name for this species .
justification : listed as data deficient in view of continuing uncertainties as to its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements .
this species is known only from very few localities on leyte , samar , and mindanao islands in the philippines .
moderately - sized numbers of samples in museums suggest that it might be common in preferred high - altitude stream habitats . however , there is very little field information regarding this species ' population status .
it inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests .
the most important threats to this species include deforestation through logging , habitat conversion to agriculture , and the pollution of streams and rivers due to agricultural run - off .
some populations are protected in national parks , although more protected areas need to be established on leyte to protect the remaining forest on this island .
this amended assessment has been generated to change the species epithet from albotuberculata to mearnsi ( see taxonomic notes ) . the name of the species on the range map has been updated accordingly .
arvin diesmos , angel alcala , rafe brown , leticia afuang , cynthia dolino , genevieve gee , katie hampson , mae leonida diesmos , aldrin mallari , perry ong , liza paguntalan , marisol pedregosa , dondi ubaldo , baldwin gutierrez . 2018 .
( amended version of 2004 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2018 : e . t58539a128381145 .
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iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . < www . iucnredlist . org > . downloaded on 10 november 2011 .
occurence status describes how common or rare a taxon is in a given area . see darwincore for more information on terminology .
establishment means describes how the taxon came to be established in an area . see darwincore for more information on terminology .
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are small to large - sized frogs . males have an average snout - vent length of
( nostrils ) are oval in shape and covered by a flap of skin . the
( parietal eye ) are present . the toes are webbed , but the fingers are not .
s . d . biju ; sonali garg ; stephen mahony ; nayana wijayathilaka ; gayani senevirathne ; madhava meegaskumbura ( 2014 ) .
liqiao chen ; robert w . murphy ; amy lathrop ; andre ngo ; nikolai l . orlov ; cuc tho ho ; ildiko l . m . somorjai ( 2005 ) .
anna gawor ; ralf hendrix ; miguel vences ; wolfgang böhme ; thomas ziegler ( 2009 ) .
larval morphology in four species of
ramlah zainudin ; mustafa a . rahman ; badrul munir m . zain ; m . n . shukor ; r . f . inger ; a . norhayati ( 2010 ) .
this article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 13 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .


scaphiophryne marmorata is a species of frog in the family microhylidae .

it is commonly known as the green burrowing frog and the marbled rain frog .

it is endemic to madagascar .

it is classified as " vulnerable " by the iucn as it is threatened by habitat loss .

scaphiophryne marmorata

a marbled rain frog ( scaphiophryne marmorata ) from the plzen zoo in the czech republic .
scaphiophryne ( scaphiophryne ) marmorata — grosjean , glos , teschke , glaw , and vences , 2007 , zool . j . linn . soc . , 151 : 572 .
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some of the beautifully colored scaphiophryne species are offered regularly in the pet trade .
scaphiophryne gottlebei busse and böhme , 1992 , isalo , vallée des singes , madagascar .
information on scaphiophryne menabensis is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
a native of madagascar , the green burrowing frog , or scaphiophryne marmorata , belongs to the family microhylidae . the family’s near - global distribution presents an evolutionary puzzle of how its species are related to one another . photo courtesy of brian freiermuth
scaphiophryne marmorata boulenger , 1882 , cat . batr . sal . coll . brit . mus . , ed . 2 : 472 . holotype : bmnh , by original designation ; bmnh 1947 . 2 . 30 . 81 according to blommers - schlösser and blanc , 1991 , faune de madagascar , 75 : 32 . type locality :
east betsileo
, madagascar .
several scaphiophryne species ( e . g . , s . gottlebei ) seem to have a quite restricted distribution , but more research is necessary to assess their conservation status reliably .
scaphiophryne spinosa has been separated from this species by vences et al . ( 2003 ) . the western subpopulations have also been separated as s . menabensis ( glos et al . 2005 ) .
examples of tongue aiming in microhylid frogs : ( a ) phrynomantis bifasciatus ; ( b ) dyscophus insularis ; ( c ) scaphiophryne marmorata ; ( d ) dermatonotus muelleri ; ( e ) kaloula pulchra ; ( f ) callulina sp . ; ( g ) gastrophryne olivacea ; ( h ) breviceps adspersus ; ( i ) microhyla sp . ; ( j ) probreviceps sp . note the angle of the tongue in relation to the midline of the head . all pictures were taken with the camera positioned at 45° , except h and j , which were head - on profiles .
adult scaphiophrynids are 0 . 8–2 . 4 in ( 20–60 mm ) in snoutvent length . the general body form of scaphiophryne is somewhat toadlike . the legs are short , and well - developed metatarsal tubercles are present on the hind limbs . some species ( e . g . , s . marmorata and s . gottlebei ) have distinctly enlarged fingertips that may help them climb . the coloration varies widely , but some species are beautiful and have symmetrical markings on the back . the habitus of paradoxophyla is different ; at first glance , it resembles that of aquatic pipid frogs of the genus hymenochirus .
busse , k . , and w . böhme .
two remarkable frog discoveries of the genera mantella ( ranidae : mantellinae ) and scaphiophryne ( microhylidae : scaphiophryninae ) from the west coast of madagascar .
revue française aquariologie 19 , no . 1–2 ( 1992 ) : 57–64 .
spiny burrowing frog - scaphiophryne pustulosa ( angel & guibé , 1945 ) a fairly active species , especially around dusk from the ankaratra mountains of central madagascar . occurs in cool , very dense forests where it may be active during day . the dorsum shows a grey , green colour with a beautiful yellow reticulate pattern . like the green burrower , its front digit pads are enlarged suggesting it too is semi arboreal . females represent the largest of the scaphiophryne , attaining 55mm although it is not as stocky as other species . like other scaphiophrynes , it is also still fairly uncommon in captive collections .
vences , aprea , capriglione , andreone , and odierna , 2002 , chromosome res . , 10 : 127 - 136 , reported an unnamed species , closely similar to scaphiophryne marmorata , and removed scaphiophrnye spinosa from synonymy . vences , raxworthy , nussbaum , and glaw , 2003 , herpetol . j . , 13 : 70 - 74 , discussed the species and range . see brief account by glaw and vences , 2007 , field guide amph . rept . madagascar , ed . 3 : 114 . see photograph , map , description of geographic range and habitat , and conservation status in stuart , hoffmann , chanson , cox , berridge , ramani , and young , 2008 , threatened amph . world : 461 .
representatives of the scaphiophrynidae occur in all climatic regions of madagascar ; s . calcarata , s . brevis , and s . gottlebei inhabit the hot and arid regions of the west and south . they are found in rocky formations , deciduous dry forest , open savanna , and even dry sand dunes close to the sea . another group of species ( e . g . , s . madagascariensis ) occurs in the cold , high montane savannas of central madagascar below and above the tree line . scaphiophryne marmorata and paradoxophyla palmata inhabit primarily low and mid - elevation rain - forests of eastern madagascar . despite the different habitats of the adults , the larval habitat is similar in all species ; tadpoles develop in stagnant and mostly temporary ponds and swamps .
moquard ' s burrowing frog - scaphiophryne calcarata ( boulenger , 1895 ) another rather plain dark brown species hailing from the entire western coastal area from north west madagascar ( andoany ) to the south west tip in tolagnaro . quite a small species rarely attaining 32mm . an explosive breeder after heavy rains during which huge number congregate in small temporary pools . lays up to 500 eggs which float on the water surface and develop very quickly to metamorphose in just 3 or 4 weeks .
madagascan burrowing frog - scaphiophryne madagascariensis ( boulenger , 1882 ) perhaps the least fossorial and certainly the most behaviourally interesting of the genus . although is possesses a ' spade ' on each hind limb , i have found is reluctant to burrow and certainly quite active in captivity . attaining 50mm , it is a large but rather streamlined and agile species , attractively adorned in an unusual lime green and black pattern . a mountain dweller of east betsileo ( central east & central madagascar ) , it occurs in both savannah - like environments and sometimes in humid forest .
scaphiophrynids are primarily nocturnal and terrestrial , spending the day buried in the ground under stones , fallen tree trunks , or other refuges . the species with expanded finger disks have some climbing abilities . the rainforestdwelling s . marmorata can be found in the leaf litter on the ground and climbing on mossy trees as well . sometimes , it is even active during the day . activity patterns in scaphiophrynids are highly seasonal . this is especially true for the species in arid regions and those in cold mountain habitats in which good climatic conditions for the development of tadpoles and juveniles are restricted to a short period of time . most observations have been made at the beginning of the rainy season in december or january , when breeding takes place and activity is at its peak . after the rainy season the frogs in the arid habitats disappear for about six months and presumably estivate buried in the ground .
scaphiophrynids are primarily explosive breeders and reproduce after heavy and prolonged rains at the beginning of the rainy season ( generally in december , january , or february ) . males aggregate in or at the edge of temporary ponds and often form large choruses that produce a continuous loud noise that can be heard from long distances . before they start calling , scaphiophryne greatly inflate the extremely large vocal sac and the body as well . sometimes calling males swimming at the water ' s surface are unable to dive when they are disturbed , because they cannot get rid of the air quickly . amplexus is axillary . females lay numerous small , pigmented eggs , which generally are deposited as a film on the surface of the water . the free - swimming and mainly filter - feeding tadpoles develop quickly to froglets if the water temperature is high .
this is the smallest known scaphiophryne ; the snout - vent length is 0 . 8–1 . 1 in ( 20–27 mm ) in males and 1 . 1–1 . 3 in ( 28–33 mm ) in females . the dorsum is pale brown , gray , or green with or without darker symmetrical markings and a pale vertebral line . the flanks are dark brown , and the venter is white ; the ventral surfaces of the thighs are red to violet . the throat is black in males and marbled brown and white in females . the tips of the fingers are not enlarged . the skin on the back is smooth or slightly granular . the tympanum is indistinct , and the webbing between the toes is poorly developed . the tadpoles have a sinistral spiracle and keratinized mouthparts , although the latter are poorly developed . on the other hand , they have unperforated nares , as is typical of microhylid larvae .
certainly the most conspicuous and sought after species , s . gottlebei was discovered fairly recently in the dry , hilly regions of vallée des singes , isalo , south central madagascar . i must confess that i have seen fewer amazingly coloured and patterned frog with its ivory white , red , yellow , green and black mottling . females grow to 35mm while males are slightly smaller . it is fossorial species to escape the searing heat and dry winds of that region . however its fingerpads are enlarged suggesting that it does climb and this may be due to it being a poor swimmer , so that flash floods of that region necessitates climbing small bushes or clinging to rocks to avoid drowning .
these frogs can be very gluttonous , devouring a wide variety of bugs , grubs and the like although they can easily reject food if one type is offered constantly . feed every 3 or 4 days with several items and coat every other sitting in a multivitamin powder , although initially they may refuse or spit out the coated item .
a field guide to the amphibians and reptiles of madagascar - glaw / vences - 2nd edition 1994 the strange frogs of madagascar - staniszewski ( reptilian magazine , vol . 4 no . 6 )
you can e - mail me at : marcstan @ urltoken all rights reserved . all text and photo ' s - copyright ©1996 - 8 marc staniszewski most recent revision : 30 / 09 / 98 back to my personal file
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frost , d . r . 2015 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .
listed as vulnerable because its extent of occurrence ( eoo ) is 14 , 718 km 2 , it occurs in fewer than ten threat - defined locations , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its forest habitat in eastern madagascar .
this species occurs in east - central madagascar from zahamena south to the andasibe area , from 100 - 1 , 000m asl . it occurs in fewer than ten threat - defined locations and its extent of occurrence ( eoo ) is 14 , 718 km 2 .
it is locally abundant . however due to continuing declines in the extent and quality of habitat , the population is suspected to be decreasing .
it is a species of rainforest and degraded secondary vegetation in the east , and deciduous dry forest in the west . it does not survive in very open areas . breeding takes place by larval development in shallow , temporary pools . although not observed despite intensive fieldwork around andasibe , the species is assumed to be an explosive breeder ( like other species in the genus ) that only reproduces once per rainy season after the first heavy rains ( glaw and vences 2007 ) .
it occurs in analamazaotra special reserve , andasibe - mantadia national park and zahamena national park . mattioli
. ( 2006 ) undertook a study into the economics of captive breeding this species , concluding that it is well suited to intensive commercial captive breeding programmes , and indeed that market demand could potentially be fully met with captive - bred animals .
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m 32 - 36 mm , f 35 - 44 mm . tympanum indistinct but typically visible . tibiotarsal articulation reaches at the most between insertion of forelimb and tympanum . tips of fingers and toes strongly enlarged . skin relatively smooth with a number of large granules . typically there are two symmetrical pairs of larger tubercles , a pair of elongated tubercles in the shoulder region and one of smaller tubercles on the posterior back . dorsally green with symmetrical darker markings . ventral pattern often with contrasted dark - white marbling , the dark colour extending onto the posterior belly ( glaw and vences 2007 ) .
is larger and has tubercles of more spiny appearance , especially above forelimb insertion .
is much larger , lacks the two pairs of symmetrical tubercles on the dorsum and often has reddish colour on the terminal discs of fingers and toes ( glaw and vences 2007 ) .
located in ampahanana forest ( near fierenana ) , andasibe , zahamena ( volotsangana river ) ( glaw and vences 2007 ) at 100 - 1000 m asl ( vences and glaw 2008 ) .
habits : largely unknown . tadpoles probably belonging to this species have recently been found in large temporary pools in rainforest at the edge of analamazoatra reserve . at andasibe , especially close to analamazoatra reserve entrance , single specimens , especially juveniles , can often be observed moving on the ground at night . since reproduction has almost never been observed despite intensive fieldwork by many researchers around andasibe , it is likely that this species , as other
, is a very explosive breeder that reproduces only once per rainy season after the first heavy rains ( glaw and vences 2007 ) .
, its distribution is severely fragmented , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its forest habitat in eastern madagascar . it does not survive in very open areas . its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture ( including livestock grazing ) , timber extraction , charcoal manufacture , the spread of invasive eucalyptus , fire , and expanding human settlements . the bright colouration of this species might make it more attractive for commercial collecting in the future . there are currently small numbers in the pet trade , but probably not at a level to have a negative impact on the species . it occurs in the rï¿½serve spï¿½ciale dï¿½analamazaotra , parc national de mantadia and parc national de zahamena ( vences and glaw 2008 ) .
. in : iucn 2008 . 2008 iucn red list of threatened species . www . iucnredlist . org . downloaded on 08 april 2009 .
miguel vences and frank glaw ( m . vences at tu - bs . de ) , assistant professor and curator of vertebrates at the institute for biodiversity and ecosystem dynamics in the zoological museum at the university of amsterdam
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .
arkive is working with iucn - international union for conservation of nature , to source images of the world ' s threatened amphibian species . together with conservation international and natureserve , iucn has led a comprehensive assessment of the conservation status for the world ' s known species of frogs , toads , salamanders , newts and caecilians . to date , the project has involved the input of more than 600 herpetologists from around the world .
iucn red list category , and details of range , ecology , threats and conservation information for every known amphibian species , can be found on the iucn red list website .
classified as vulnerable ( vu b1ab ( iii ) ) on the iucn red list 2004 ( 1 ) .
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frost , darrel r . 2004 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 3 . 0 ( 22 august , 2004 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa
amphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )
frost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .
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marbled rain frog ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 114 ) .
mid - altitude rainforest in central eastern madagascar from zahamena south to the andasibe area , 100 - 1000 m elevation .
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similar species : morphologically closest to s . menabensis which , however , is distributed in western madagascar . s . spinosa is larger and has tubercles of more spiny appearance , especially above forelimb insertion . s . boribory is much larger , lacks the two pairs of symmetrical tubercles on the dorsum and often has reddish colour on the terminal discs of fingers and toes ( glaw and vences 2007 ) .
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this little frog looked very much like a toad in the family bufonidae , but it ' s classified in the small family scaphiophrynidae instead . our guide mary noticed it hopping across the grass in the morning while the rest of us were admiring
in the trees . my sister , also named mary , took the second photo above , which shows how well camouflaged this frog is against the decomposing leaf litter .
here is a list of all the reptiles and frogs i saw on this trip to madagascar .
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the food seems to consist mainly of insects , but few data are available .
the snout - vent length is 0 . 8–1 . 0 in ( 20–24 mm ) ; males are slightly smaller than females . this is a distinctive , small frog with a triangular body form , a pointed snout , small eyes , and fully webbed toes . the tympanum is indistinct , and the fingertips are not enlarged . the dorsum is brown , gray , or beige , with some small black spots . the venter is mostly white with distinct dark spots . males have a dark vocal sac .
known from pristine and degraded primary rainforest up to elevations of 3 , 300 ft ( 1 , 000 m ) .
from december to february , males call after dusk at the edge of puddles or larger ponds , mainly after heavy rains .
the males ' calls are rather loud trills reminiscent of crickets . occasionally , males and couples in axillary amplexus swim on the surface of the water and dive quickly when disturbed . females lay several hundred small pigmented eggs about 0 . 04 in ( 1 mm ) in diameter surrounded by a gelatinous capsule . the gelatinous capsules and eggs emerge above the water surface . embryonic development is rapid , and larvae hatch one day after egg deposition . the tadpoles are typical microhylid filter - feeding tadpoles and swim in open water .
because the range of this unique species covers most of the eastern rainforest belt , including several nature reserves , it may be considered as not threatened .
distributed widely in western and southern madagascar at elevations below 1 , 000 ft ( 300 m ) .
it seems nearly impossible to find this nocturnal species during the dry season . after the first heavy rains , however , large numbers of individuals walk around at night , and calling males and amplectant pairs gather in temporary , sun - exposed ponds and swamps .
males aggregate in large choruses and produce loud , noisy calls . a female was observed approaching a calling male . the male became very excited and strongly enhanced the repetition rate of his vocalizations before clasping the female . breeding activity is explosive at the beginning of the rainy season and often is finished after a few nights . each female lays several hundred small eggs about 0 . 04 in ( 1 mm ) in diameter . the tadpoles are largely transparent , mostly swim in open water , and are mainly filter feeders , but they also feed on larger particles . the larval development is rapid , in a race against the desiccation of waters . after a few weeks , metamorphosis is completed , and tiny froglets , 0 . 2–0 . 3 in ( 5 . 5–7 . 5 mm ) in snout - vent length , emerge .
being widely distributed and common in primary and secondary habitats , the species is not threatened .
at the beginning of the rainy season , s . calcarata occasionally may penetrate the huts of madagascan people .
the snout - vent length reaches 1 . 4 in ( 36 mm ) . this is a toadlet that is colored conspicuously with contrasting colors . four pink or red symmetrically arranged patches surrounded by black and green are present on the dorsum . the flanks and legs are white with black bands on the legs . the venter is dark grayish violet . the tips of the fingers are distinctly enlarged . the skin on the back is smooth , and the tympanum is indistinct . the webbing between the toes and the inner metatarsal tubercle is well developed .
lives in eroded sandstone formations . in the isalo massif , humid forests persist in canyons and on the slopes , although the climate is rather arid .
found under stones during the day in the rainy season . it probably estivates during the dry season . the expanded terminal finger disks may indicate partial climbing habits . disturbed specimens inflate themselves , probably as a strategy to protect against predators .
the diet in nature is unknown . in captivity the frog feeds on crickets and other insects .
nothing is known , but probably an explosive breeder at the beginning of the rainy season . recently metamorphosed juveniles have been found at the edge of stagnant ponds .
the species is not categorized by the iucn and is not protected by cites . however , because of the small known range , it may be considered potentially threatened .
glaw , frank , and miguel vences . a fieldguide to the amphibians and reptiles of madagascar . 2nd ed . köln : vences & glaw verlag , 1994 .
blommers - schlösser , r . m . a .
observations on the larval development of some malagasy frogs , with notes on their ecology and biology ( anura : dyscophinae , scaphiophryninae and cophylinae ) .
beaufortia 24 , no . 309 ( 1975 ) : 7–26 .
blommers - schlösser , r . m . a . , and c . p . blanc .
amphibiens ( première partie ) .
faune de madagascar 75 , no . 1 ( 1991 ) : 1–379 .
wassersug , r .
the pseudohemisus tadpole : a morphological link between microhylid ( orton type 2 ) and ranoid ( orton type 4 ) larvae .
herpetologica 40 , no . 2 ( 1984 ) : 138–149 .
madagascaran toadlets ( scaphiophrynidae ) .
grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken
madagascaran toadlets ( scaphiophrynidae ) .
grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken
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native to madagascar , boophis picturatus lives in moist forests and rivers . photo courtesy of brian freiermuth
the mass extinction that obliterated three - fourths of life on earth , including non - avian dinosaurs , set the stage for the swift rise of frogs , a new study shows .
in a paper published this week in the proceedings of the national academy of sciences , an international team of researchers presented a new tree of life for frogs that helps solve longstanding riddles about relationships and sheds light on the history and pace of frog evolution .
unexpectedly , their analyses showed three major lineages of modern frogs — about 88 percent of living species — appeared simultaneously , evolving on the heels of the extinction event that marked the end of the cretaceous period and the beginning of the paleogene 66 million years ago . previous research suggested a more ancient origin of many of these modern frog groups .
“frogs have been around for well over 200 million years , but this study shows it wasn’t until the extinction of the dinosaurs that we had this burst of frog diversity that resulted in the vast majority of frogs we see today , ” said study co - author david blackburn , associate curator of amphibians and reptiles at the florida museum of natural history on the university of florida campus . “this finding was totally unexpected . ”
herpetologist david blackburn , shown with a goliath frog from the museum’s collection , co - authored a study that presents a new frog tree of life . florida museum of natural history photo by kristen grace
the speed at which frogs diversified after the asteroid or comet impact that triggered a massive die - off of most plant and animal life suggests the survivors were probably filling up new niches on earth , blackburn said .
“we think there were massive alterations of ecosystems at that time , including widespread destruction of forests , ” he said . “but frogs are pretty good at eking out a living in microhabitats , and as forests and tropical ecosystems rebounded , they quickly took advantage of those new ecological opportunities . ”
frogs rose to become one of the most diverse groups of vertebrates , with more than 6 , 700 described species . but sparse genetic data has hindered scientists from reliably tracing their evolutionary history and the links between frog families .
blackburn joined researchers from sun yat - sen university , the university of texas at austin and the university of california , berkeley to tackle the mystery of frog evolution with a dataset seven times larger than that used in prior research . the team sampled a core set of 95 nuclear genes from 156 frog species , combining this with previously published genetic data on an additional 145 species to produce the strongest - supported evolutionary tree , or phylogeny , to date . the tree represents all 55 known families of frogs and generates a new timeline of frog evolution .
the researchers then used fossil records to translate genetic differences between frog lineages into dates at which they likely diverged from one another . when the analyses pointed to a simultaneous evolution of the three major frog clades — hyloidea , microhylidae and natatanura — the researchers initially eyed the finding with skepticism , said peng zhang , a corresponding study author and professor in the department of biochemistry and molecular biology at sun yat - sen university in china .
the analyses that generated this frog tree of life showed 88 percent of modern frogs evolved after the mass extinction that killed non - avian dinosaurs , marked here by a dotted red line . graphic by feng et al . in proceedings of the national academy of sciences
“nobody had seen this result before , ” he said . “we redid the analysis using different parameter settings , but the result remained the same . i realized the signal was very strong in our data . what i saw could not be a false thing . ”
when examined in the context of the evolution of other animals , however , the finding makes sense , blackburn said .
“looking at bird or mammal phylogenies , we can see a reflection of earth’s history — its climatic and geologic events , ” he said . “you’d expect these major events — mass extinction and the breakup of continents — would have impact on frog evolution and that divergences between major lineages would relate to those in some respect . we see that in this phylogeny . ”
the close resemblance of distantly related frog species around the world , a factor of frog evolution and biology that has long confounded scientists , might be illuminated by the simultaneous evolution of major frog clades , blackburn said . after the extinction event decimated ecosystems and stimulated a reset , modern frogs may have faced similar evolutionary paths .
“you could easily go to central africa , the philippines and ecuador and find what look like the same frogs that might have last shared a common ancestor 120 million years ago , ” he said . “these different lineages seem to have diversified in similar ways after the extinction . ”
while the extinction event opened new opportunities for frogs , notably leading to the evolution of tree frogs worldwide , it snuffed out many frog lineages , particularly in north america , blackburn said .
“except for a small handful of species , all other north american frogs are ‘post - dinosaur’ colonists , ” blackburn said . “if you could travel back to the time of t . rex in north america , there would be frogs , but the chorus you would hear at night would have been nothing like you’d hear today . they’re not even the same families . ”
these petropedates cameronensis in the vicinity of manjo , cameroon , belong to the frog clade natatanura , which originated in africa soon after the mass extinction that wiped out three - fourths of life on earth . photo courtesy of brian freiermuth
the call of this mantidactylus lugubris from madagascar is a single , quick trill . photo courtesy of brian freiermuth
the range of the african ornate frog , or hildebrandtia ornata , spans much of africa . this species is rarely seen above ground outside of the breeding season and often lives in lowland savannah , like this one in tanzania . photo courtesy of brian freiermuth
found only in madagascar , mantella baroni’s bright colors warn would - be predators of its toxicity . photo courtesy of brian freiermuth
this cameroon slippery frog , or conraua robusta , was found near manjo , cameroon . a relative of the goliath frog , the world’s largest frog species , it can kill mice , rats and large insects . photo courtesy of brian freiermuth
tree frogs , such as this boophis marojezensis from madagascar , all evolved after the extinction of the dinosaurs , taking advantage of the gradual rebound in forests . photo courtesy of brian freiermuth
the study also indicates that global frog distribution tracks the breakup of the supercontinents , beginning with pangea about 200 million years ago and then , gondwana , which split into south america and africa . the data suggests frogs likely used antarctica , not yet encased in ice sheets , as a stepping stone from south america to australia .
blackburn is eager to use the new phylogeny as a roadmap for the fossil record , particularly for frogs that occurred in the cretaceous .
“this sets up expectations of what we should or shouldn’t find , ” he said . “it’s exciting to think about what discoveries could lay ahead in the frog fossil record . ”
while the survival and subsequent comeback of frogs testifies to their resilience , zhang said , their current vulnerability to disease , habitat loss and degradation is cause for concern .
“i think the most exciting thing about our study is that we show that frogs are such a strong animal group . they survived from the mass extinction that completely erased dinosaurs and boomed back quickly , ” he said . “however , frog species are declining nowadays because humans are destroying their habitats . does that mean humans are making a huge extinction event even stronger than this one ? we need to think about it . ”
other study co - authors are yan - jie feng and dan liang of sun yat - sen university , david hillis and david cannatella of the university of texas at austin and david wake of the university of california , berkeley .
the research was funded by the u . s . national science foundation , national natural science foundation of china , the national youth talent support program and the national science fund for excellent young scholars of china .
note to reporters : david blackburn is out of the office the week of july 3 and best reached by email or by contacting natalie van hoose at nvanhoose @ urltoken , 352 - 273 - 1922 .
classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
miguel vences and frank glaw institute for biodiversity and ecosystem dynamics ( ibed ) zoological museum university of amsterdam mauritskade 61 1092 ad amsterdam netherlands m . vences @ urltoken
tongue aiming ability was quantified by having individuals of phrynomantis bifasciatus aim into five quadrants : ( a ) left– 46° to –105° , ( b ) left –6° to –45° , ( c ) 0° to 5° to either side , ( d ) right 6° to 45° , ( e ) right 46° to 105° . the quadrant is essentially a bib , with the midline of the head designating 0° . as the head of the animal turns , the quadrant follows this movement so that a line drawn down the midline of the head would always be located at 0° .
ventral view of the buccal region of a cleared and stained specimen of phrynomantis bifasciatus . left and right sides are nearly identical . major cranial nerves are labeled on the left side and rami of the nerves that innervate the tongue and hyobranchial musculature are labeled on the right side . branches of the trigeminal nerve ( v ) innervate the m . submentalis ( 1 ) and the m . intermandibularis ( 2 ) . branches of the hypoglossal nerve ( xii ) innervate the m . genioglossus dorsoventralis , longitudinalis and transversalis ( 3 ) and the m . hyoglossus ( 4 ) . the glossopharyngeal nerve ( ix ) is dorsal to the hypoglossal nerve and innervates other hyobranchial musculature and the tongue pad . numbers 1 and 3 are located at the approximate sites of nerve transection for denervation of the m . intermandibularis and m . genioglossus lateralis and dorsoventralis , respectively .
ventral view of the superficial throat musculature in two anurans . ( a ) undifferentiated m . intermandibularis posterior of a typical frog . ( b ) differentiation of the m . intermandibularis posterior into two separate accessory slips in phrynomantis bifasciatus . mm , mentomeckelian element ; sm , m . submentalis ; ip , m . intermandibularis posterior ; m , mandible ; ih , m . interhyoideus ; ipa1 , m . intermandibularis posterior accessory 1 ; ipa2 , m . intermandibularis posterior accessory 2 .
sagittal section of the tongue of phrynomantis bifasciatus . ( a ) note that the fibers of the m . genioglossus dorsoventralis are directed longitudinally and then dorso - ventrally . ( b ) magnified view of the m . genioglossus dorsoventralis . single fibers run in both the longitudinal and vertical planes . d , dentary ; gh , m . geniohyoideus ; ggdv , m . genioglossus dorsoventralis ; ggl , genioglossus longitudinalis ; h , hyobranchium ; hg , m . hyoglossus ; im , m . intermandibularis ; ggt , m . genioglossus transversalis ; m , mucosal layer . scale bar , 1 mm .
tongue protraction in phrynomantis bifasciatus when prey is placed directly in front of the animal . ( a ) normal feeding . there is no deviation of the tongue when attempting to capture prey . ( b ) after right unilateral m . submentalis and m . intermandibularis denervation , the tongue is protracted normally . ( c ) after right unilateral m . genioglossus ( both longitudinalis and dorsoventralis ) denervation , the tongue deviates towards the right ( inactive ) side . animals are no longer able to capture prey placed directly in front of the head or towards the active side .
test examining the effect on aiming after right unilateral m . genioglossus denervation on one individual
species in which tongue aiming ability was examined , including the number of animals observed , presence or absence of aiming , maximum tongue angle when aiming , mean angle of tongue deviation after unilateral m . genioglossus denervation ( when prey is presented directly in front of the frog ) and direction of deviation after unilateral denervation
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photo credit : t . - c . francis pan some oyster larvae grow faster than others , but now donal t . manahan and colleagues reveal that the fastest growers are marked out by their high protein synthesis rates .
“one of the underappreciated benefits of fellowships is the act of applying for them , because you have to write and articulate your ideas . ”
in our latest early - career interview , we chat to simon sponberg , assistant professor at the georgia institute of technology , usa . he shares the story of his career , beginning with how he combined a love of physics and biology by studying how geckos stick to walls .
a new review from craig p . mcgowan and clint e . collins looks at the ecology , biomechanics and evolution of bipedal hopping in mammals , with a focus on why bipedal hopping has arisen in multiple clades of mammals .
photo credit : ari friedlaender not all orca species prey on aquatic mammals , so how do delphinids know when they are at risk ? a new study shows that pilot whales and risso’s dolphins flee from a subset of orca calls that share acoustic characteristics with other mammal alarm calls , including human screams . this article was featured in science magazine .
at the heart of prelights is the community of early - career researchers who select and highlight interesting preprints in various fields . we are now ready to grow our team of prelighters who are passionate about preprints and enjoy writing and communicating science . find out more here and apply by the extended deadline , 20 july 2018 .
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tholera decimalis , the feathered gothic , is a species of moth of the family noctuidae .

it is found in europe and scandinavia then through the palearctic to asia minor , western central asia , southern siberia and in north africa .

tholera decimalis

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feathered gothic ( tholera decimalis ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .
tholera cespitis , the hedge rustic , is a species of moth of the noctuidae family . it is found through the palearctic from europe to the altai mountains of siberia .
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gaden s . robinson , phillip r . ackery , ian j . kitching , george w . beccaloni and luis m . hernández
hosts brings together an enormous body of information on what the world ' s butterfly and moth ( lepidoptera ) caterpillars eat . the web - based version presented here offers a synoptic data set drawn from about 180 , 000 records comprising taxonomically ' cleaned ' hostplant data for about 22 , 000 lepidoptera species drawn from about 1600 published and manuscript sources . it is not ( and cannot be ) exhaustive , but it is probably the best and most comprehensive compilation of hostplant data available .
we hope that it will be useful to a wide range of biologists and that it will act as a spur to further recording and analysis of caterpillar - plant interactions .
hosts can be searched in two ways , using text search and drill - down search modes .
in text search mode , use either lepidoptera or hostplant criteria or a combination of the two . hosts operates only using scientific names . it is not possible to search for the hostplants of the red admiral butterfly but a search for hostplants using its scientific name , vanessa atalanta , will be successful . enter the generic name ( vanessa ) in the - lepidoptera criteria - genus box ; enter atalanta in the species : box ; click search .
hint : leave the ' starts with ' command as the default and in the species entry box omit the last few letters of the species - name ( eg , atalant ) . this will get around the problem of variable gender - endings . hosts uses original orthography of species - group names as far as possible , but some checklists follow the convention of altering the species - group name to accord with the presumed gender of the generic name ( eg flava , flavus ) .
restrict or refine searches using additional criteria ; choosing ' usa ' from the drop - down location box and entering [ starts with ] ' urt ' in the hostplant family box will return hostplant records of vanessa atalanta from urticaceae in the usa .
hint : restricting location may deliver a very incomplete subset of records : in the previous example all records specified as from the nearctic region ( usa + canada ) would be missed .
the preliminary search results pages give family , genus and species of the caterpillar and its hostplant . note that many hostplants are recorded as a plant genus only . clicking the caterpillar name will give the full record . the full record listing gives , additionally , the author of the lepidoptera species , subspecific information on the insect and the plant , if available , together with details of larval damage . laboratory rearings where the food utilised may not be the natural hostplant are indicated . the status of the record ( whether considered true , erroneous or suspect ) is not currently implemented in this version of hosts .
leguminosae ( c ) - caesalpinioideae . leguminosae ( m ) - mimosoideae . leguminosae ( p ) - papilionoideae .
detailed published compilations from hosts are available in press . these books give greater detail than the website , together with comprehensive cross - indexes , record status and full bibliographies . they are indispensable tools for naturalists and professional entomologists .
robinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hernández , l . m . 2001 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of the oriental region . 744 pp .
robinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hernández , l . m . 2002 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of america north of mexico . 824 pp . [ memoirs of the american entomological institute , volume 69 . ]
gaden robinson was responsible for the overall project design and management of the hosts database , and for records of lepidoptera exclusive of butterflies and bombycoid moths . phillip ackery and george beccaloni were responsible for butterfly data , including data drawn from card catalogues developed by ackery , whilst ian kitching was responsible for hostplant data of bombycoid moths . luis m . hernández was responsible for abstracting in the latter two years of the project and for development of the bibliography for the hardcopy versions of the data .
we are extremely grateful to the many people who contributed their own rearing records of lepidoptera or personal accumulations of data for inclusion in the hosts database , particularly mike bigger ( uk ) , john w . brown ( usa ) , chris conlan ( usa ) , rob ferber ( usa ) , konrad fiedler ( germany ) , jeremy holloway ( uk ) , frank hsu ( usa ) , jurie intachat ( malaysia ) , alec mcclay ( canada ) , bill palmer ( australia ) , pierre plauzoles ( usa ) and the generous individuals who contributed rearing records through the worldwideweb and who are known to us only as an email address .
we are particularly grateful to julian donahue and the los angeles county museum of natural history for allowing us to include data on microlepidoptera from the card catalogue prepared by the late j . a . comstock and c . henne , and for access to manuscript records by noel mcfarland .
marian fricano ( santa clara university ) and aileen giovanello ( clark university , international internship 1996 ) made substantial contributions of abstracted data ; fran love ( north carolina ) painstakingly checked scanned texts and reformatted them for import to paradox .
we are indebted to all our helpers for their diligence , accuracy and patience , and for their unswerving faith that this daunting project would reach a conclusion .
we thank the trustees of the loke wan tho memorial foundation for their generous support for this project .
robinson , g . s . , p . r . ackery , i . j . kitching , g . w . beccaloni & l . m . hernández , 2010 . hosts - a database of the world ' s lepidopteran hostplants . natural history museum , london . urltoken . ( accessed : 18 aug . 2010 ) .
brummitt , r . k . 1992 . vascular plant families and genera . [ vi ] + 804 pp . , royal botanic gardens , kew .
kartesz , j . t . 1994 . a synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the unites states , canada and greenland . timber press , portland . 1 , checklist , lxi + 622 pp ; 2 , thesaurus , vii + 816 pp .
kitching , i . j . & cadiou , j . - m . 2000 . hawkmoths of the world : an annotated and illustrated revsionary checklist . xx + 500 pp . , cornell university press , ithaca .
kitching , i . j . & rawlins , j . e . 1999 . the noctuoidea . pp . 355 - 401 . in : kristensen , n . p . ( ed . ) lepidoptera , moths and butterflies . 1 . evolution , systematics and biogeography . handbook of zoology , 4 ( 35 ) . lepidoptera . x + 491 pp . de gruyter , berlin .
letourneau , d . k . , hagen , j . a . & robinson , g . s . 2001 . bt crops : evaluating benefits under cultivation and risks from escaped transgenes in the wild . pp . 33 - 98 . in : letourneau , d . k . & burrows , b . e . ( eds ) , genetically engineered organisms : assessing environmental and human health effects . [ viii ] + 438 pp . , crc press , boca raton .
mabberley , d . j . 1987 . the plant book . a portable dictionary of the higher plants . xii + 707 pp . , cambridge university press . [ the 1993 reprint edition is currently used in editing . ]
nielsen , e . s . , edwards , e . d . & rangsi , t . v . ( eds ) 1996 . checklist of the lepidoptera of australia . monographs on australian lepidoptera . 4 . xiv + 529 pp . , csiro , melbourne .
nye , i . w . b . ( ed . ) 1975 - 91 . the generic names of moths of the world . 1 : 568 pp . ( noctuoidea ( part ) - nye , i . w . b . , 1975 ) ; 2 : xiv + 228 pp . ( noctuoidea ( part ) - watson , a . , fletcher , d . s . & nye , i . w . b . , 1980 ) ; 3 : xx + 243 pp . ( geometroidea - fletcher , d . s . , 1979 ) ; 4 : xiv + 192 pp . ( bombycoidea to zygaenoidea - fletcher , d . s . & nye , i . w . b . , 1982 ) ; 5 : xv + 185 pp . ( pyraloidea - fletcher , d . s . & nye , 1984 ) ; 6 : xxix + 368 pp . ( microlepidoptera - nye , i . w . b . & fletcher , d . s . , 1991 ) . british museum ( natural history ) / the natural history museum , london .
rawlins , j . e . 1984 . mycophagy in lepidoptera . pp . 382 - 483 . in : wheeler , q . & blackwell , m . ( eds ) fungus - insect relationships . perspectives in ecology and evolution . 514 pp . , columbia university press .
robinson , g . s . 1999 . hosts - a database of the hostplants of the world ' s lepidoptera . nota lepidopterologica , 22 : 35 - 47 .
robinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hernández , l . m . 2001 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of the oriental region . 744 pp . southdene sdn bhd , kuala lumpur .
robinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hernández , l . m . 2002 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of america north of mexico . memoirs of the american entomological institute , 69 : 1 - 824 .
scoble , m . j . ( ed . ) 1999 . a taxonomic catalogue to the geometridae of the world ( insecta : lepidoptera ) . 2 vols . csiro publications , melbourne .
royal botanic garden edinburgh dipterocarpaceae database : http : / / 193 . 62 . 154 . 38 / diptero /
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occupying rough grassland and downland , this moth is widely distributed , though local , over much of britain , and is common in parts .
the adults are on the wing in august and september , when the males in particular are attracted to light .
a grass - feeding species , the young larvae eat the blades , and when more mature , descend to ground level and devour the stems .
ukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .
the ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .
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recorded in 55 ( 80 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1873 . last recorded in 2017 .
underlying maps using digital map data © norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola™ 2018 . © james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data © nola™ 2018
to date 683 species of macro - moth along with 1159 species of micro - moth have been recorded in norfolk since records began in victorian times . this site aims to provide full details of all the species that occur ( or once occurred ) in norfolk , with photographs , descriptions , flight graphs , latest records , distribution maps and more !
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wingspan 32 - 45 mm . a variable , often grey - brown moth well marked with lines and other marks .
a grass - feeding species , the young larvae eat the blades and , when more mature , descend to ground level and devour the stems .
widely distributed over much of britain it can be quite common in some parts . in a recent survey to determine the status of all macro moths in britain this species was classified as common .
fairly common in leicestershire and rutland . l & r moth group status = a ( common and resident )
the wingspan is 34–40 mm . forewing dark earth brown ; lines indistinct ; inner and outer black with paler edges ; submarginal pale , with black wedge - shaped spots before it ; claviform stigma obscure , black - edged ; orbicular roundish , brown with pale ring ; reniform large with paler outline , especially externally ; hindwing whitish , the veins dark ; termen diffusely brownish ; in male white , with termen narrowly grey ; — ab . ferruginea hofm . ( carinthia and the tyrol ) is much paler with a reddish yellow tint .
there is one generation per year with adults on wing from the end of july to september .
larva shining dark brown ; thoracic and anal plates black ; head brown ; dorsal and subdorsal lines narrow , pale yellow ; lateral stripe broader ; spiracles black . the larvae feed on various grasses , including nardus stricta , calamagrostis purpurea , festuca and deschampsia species . larvae can be found from march to july . the species overwinters as an egg .
nesting biology of the solitary digger wasp podalonia affinis ( k . ) ( hymenoptera : sphecidae )
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nesting biology of the solitary digger wasp podalonia affinis ( k . ) ( hymenoptera : sphecidae ) [ 1993 ]
nesting biology of the solitary digger wasp podalonia affinis ( k . ) ( hymenoptera : sphecidae )
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the gothic ( naenia typica ) is a moth of the family noctuidae . it is distributed in temperate eurasia , in the palearctic ecozone , including europe , turkey , iran , caucasus , armenia , transcaucasia , central asia , altai mountains , and west and central siberia .
the forewings are broader than those of most other noctuids , and blackish with a network of fine white lines . the pattern is supposedly reminiscent of some elements of gothic architecture . the hindwings are grey . the species flies at night in june and july in the british isles . it sometimes comes to light but is not generally strongly attracted . by contrast , it is strongly attracted to sugar and flowers .
this species has a wingspan of 36 to 46 mm . forewing brownish fuscous , the veins pale ; edges of the upper stigmata whitish ; the cell blackish ; lines pale with dark edges ; hindwing brownish fuscous . the form issyca püng , from issykkul is redder , and has the termen less crenulate . — brunnea tutt has the ground colour ochreous brown with the veins pale ochreous instead of white .