the atlantic weasel shark ( paragaleus pectoralis ) is a weasel shark of the family hemigaleidae , found in the eastern atlantic ocean , from the surface to a depth of 100 m .

it can reach a length of 1.4 m.

atlantic weasel shark

a ) atlantic weasel shark dentition , b ) atlantic weasel shark denticles . image courtesy fao
the little - known atlantic weasel shark . . . - dyer island conservation trust | facebook
predators potential predators of the atlantic weasel shark are marine mammals and large fish including other sharks .
parasites parasites of the atlantic weasel shark include copepods as documented from a specimen captured off the coast of senegal .
the atlantic weasel shark is found in the tropical eastern atlantic ocean from cape verde and mauritania to northern namibia and possibly north to morocco . there exists a record of this shark in the northwestern atlantic ocean off the coast of new england ( us ) .
food habits as a specialist feeder , the atlantic weasel shark has a strong preference for cephalopods including squid and octopi . this shark will also feed on small bony fishes .
there have been no documented attacks on humans by the atlantic weasel sharks . most weasel sharks are considered harmless to humans with the exception of the snaggletooth shark ( hemipristis elongatus ) which is large enough to be considered potentially dangerous .
denticles the dermal denticles of the atlantic weasel shark are closely spaced and partially overlap . the blades are located on short pedicels and are nearly horizontal with five longitudinal ridges .
commonly found inshore to offshore of the continental shelf , the atlantic weasel shark ranges from depths of a few feet ( meters ) down to more than 328 feet ( 100m ) .
my topic is the conservation ecology of north atlantic shark populations . i am also the principal investigator of this project .
reproduction the atlantic weasel shark is a viviparous shark giving birth to 1 - 4 young per litter . the young measure approximately 18 . 5 inches ( 47 cm ) in length at birth . off the coast of senegal , most of the young are born during the months of may and june .
atlantic weasel sharks are caught on longlines , hook and line , bottom set gillnets , and bottom trawls . this shark is commercially important and is utilized fresh and dried salted for human consumption . it is also used in the processing of fishmeal .
we believe that the fact that atlantic weasel sharks occur nowhere else will have an important effect on how the local community will think about this species . therefore , the weasel shark could be used as an umbrella species to create awareness for sharks in general in this region . for example , other data deficient species with limited movements , such as the nurse shark , share the same habitats . finally , in our last expedition we not only caught juvenile weasel sharks , but various juvenile shark species - meaning one of these sites could be a multi - species nursery .
the enigmatic weasel shark , will it disappear before we know it ? dureuil , manuel . . dalhousie university , 30 may 2016 . experiment . doi : 10 . 18258 / 7199
the maximum total length of the atlantic weasel shark is 54 . 3 inches ( 138 cm ) . sexual maturity is obtained at total lengths of 31 . 5 inches ( 80 cm ) for males and 29 . 5 - 35 . 4 inches ( 75 - 90 cm ) for females .
garman originally described the atlantic weasel shark in 1906 as hemigaleus pectoralis . this name was later changed to the currently valid name of paragaleus pectoralis . the genus name , paragaleus , is derived from the greek
para
meaning the side of , and
galeos
meaning a kind of shark . synonyms referring to this species in past scientific literature include paragaleus gruveli ( budker 1935 ) .
the little - known atlantic weasel shark only occurs in west africa , an area which is most acutely threatened by illegal and unregulated overfishing . in 2015 , we found a previously unknown aggregation of weasel sharks in the remote island nation of cabo verde , which could be the last stronghold of this rare and enigmatic species . we will launch a second expedition in 2016 to study the species’ biology , threatened status and potential tools for its protection .
the primary goal of this project is to scientifically investigate the habitat use of the atlantic weasel shark at different life stages ( juveniles and adults ) , to increase the scientific knowledge about the biology of this species and to investigate opportunities for its protection . using the weasel shark as an umbrella species we hope to create awareness for sharks in this region in general , on a national and international level . this project also aims to train local researchers , to provide a better scientific infrastructure and to promote non - lethal catch and minimally invasive research methods for sharks .
eastern atlantic : cape verde and mauritania to northern namibia ( ref . 244 , 5578 ) ; possibly extending north to morocco . record from the northwest atlantic , specifically in new england , has not been verified even after an extensive survey of the area has been conducted .
the atlantic weasel shark is a demersal species inhabiting both inshore and offshore waters around the continental shelf in tropical to warm - temperate waters . the species occurs in shallow waters up to 100 m , and can be found quite close to land in the surf zone . common within its area of occurrence , little is known about the biology of this species ( compagno in prep . ) .
coloration the dorsal surface of this weasel shark is light gray to bronze , with yellow stripes running down the length of the body while the ventral surface is white . the yellow stripes are not prominent in preserved specimens . the fins have no distinguishing marks .
the english language common name is the atlantic weasel shark . other common names include atlantiese weselhaai ( afrikaans ) , atlantische wezelhaai ( dutch ) , atlantisk væselhaj ( danish ) , ehoushouinon ( fon gbe ) , marajo ( spanish ) , milandre jaune ( french ) , requin ( french ) , taess ( arabic ) , tiburón comadiza ( spanish ) , tiburón comadreja ( spanish ) and tubarão - doninha ( portuguese ) .
on our last expedition to cabo verde in 2015 , we installed acoustic underwater receivers in each a bay of the two islands were we found adult and juvenile atlantic weasel sharks . acoustic transmitter tags can communicate with these receivers , recording the presence of tagged individuals even in months where weather makes it impossible to be physically present .
greek , para = the side of + greek , galeos = a kind of shark ( ref . 45335 )
distributed throughout the east atlantic around the cape verde islands , and from mauritania down to angola ( compagno et al . 2005 ) . possibly occurs as far north as morocco ( compagno et al . 2005 ) and as far south as namibia ( bianchi et al . 1999 , carpenter 2008 ) . one northwest atlantic record from 1906 ( compagno et al . 2005 ) . there are no further records from the tropical atlantic , possible that the locality data from this specimen was erroneous ( compagno in prep . ) .
the atlantic weasel shark has a slender body and moderately long snout . the broad oval eyes are large and possess internal nictitating eyelids . the mouth is rounded and moderately long . the first dorsal fin is located in front of the pelvic fins and is larger than the second dorsal fin . the second dorsal fin is approximately two thirds the size of the first dorsal and originates slightly anterior of the anal fin origin . there are no spines on either dorsal fin . the pectoral fins are elongate and pointed . the anal fin is smaller than the second dorsal fin . the pelvic and dorsal fins as well as the ventral caudal lobe is not falcate , a character used to distinguish this shark from other weasel sharks . the caudal peduncle is slender and lacks lateral ridges . this shark also has an asymmetric caudal fin with a strong ventral lobe as well as precaudal pits . the caudal fin terminates in a narrowly rounded tip .
i have been researching sharks since 2009 , ranging from the conservation of white sharks in south africa to shark conservation and life history studies in the north atlantic . i have a bsc in biology from the university of marburg and an msc in biological oceanography from the university of kiel . i have extensive training in working with sharks and i am holding a certificate on the care and use of fish , was trained by our university veterinarian and conducted external passive tagging , satellite tagging and surgically implanted acoustic transmitters in several shark species .
are limited . another possibility is that the locality data for the specimen as obtained by garman is erroneous . it seems unlikely that the shark was transported alive from the eastern
this researcher has identified a valuable enclave of special interest in a possible weasel shark refuge and breeding area . the project goals are clearly stated and the study is very modest in the resources needed while the results will be important to move forward the agenda of achieving some protected status for some of this habitat if it in fact is a nursery area / critical habitat for this species . a lot of bang for the buck in research terms .
dorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 0 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 0 . a slender weasel shark with a moderately long snout , large eyes , and a short , small mouth with small , serrated upper teeth and erect - cusped lower teeth ( ref . 5578 ) . light grey or bronze with longitudinal yellow stripes , fins plain ; white below ( ref . 5578 ) .
in our lab a study was conducted which found that globally almost half of scientifically assessed shark populations are exploited above their rebound potential . this trend is triggered by an increasing demand for shark products and unwanted bycatch in fisheries targeting other marine life . sharks have long lifespans , late maturity and slow growth , which make them extremely vulnerable to even mild exploitation rates . scientists have become concerned about declines in sharks as their depletion may have serious consequences for the structure , function and stability of marine ecosystems . indeed , sharks belong to the most threatened of all vertebrates , making adequate shark protection essential to safeguard important ecosystem services .
for donations of $ 250 usd and more : you can give the shark a name . we will provide you with information on this individual and its whereabouts . we will also try to send you a picture . if you like this project please help us and share it .
what got me in particular is that sharks , which have been on this planet for more than 400 million years and survived several mass extinctions , can become threatened in only a few decades , by us . i therefore decided to make scientific shark research that aids their understanding and protection my priority .
this shark is viviparous , bearing 1 - 4 pups per litter ( mostly two ) , each about 47 cm in length . off senegal most young are born between may to june . this species reaches a maximum size of 138 cm in length , with males maturing at about 80cm and females maturing between 75 and 90 cm ( compagno
compagno , l . j . v . , 1984 . fao species catalogue . vol . 4 . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . part 2 - carcharhiniformes . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 4 / 2 ) : 251 - 655 . rome : fao . ( ref . 244 )
habitat protection is a very important tool in conservation , especially in areas where assessments are lacking and caches are not regulated . for example , temporal area closures for fishing fleets in important habitat areas can reduce the mortality on important life stages and therefore aid in stock rebuilding . pupping grounds , nursery areas and spawning grounds are critical for recruitment success and adequate protection of these sites could increase survival and the species’ capacity to withstand fishing pressure . on the other hand , intensive fishing in such areas is likely to make species more vulnerable to overexploitation . there is increasing evidence that a number of different shark species utilize the same critical habitat areas in consecutive years . identifying important habitat areas is therefore critical to aid effective shark protection .
a very common inshore to offshore shark of the continental shelf occurring at depths of a few meters to slightly over 100 m ( ref . 244 ) . a specialist feeder that prefers cephalopods , also feeds on small bony fishes ( ref . 244 ) . viviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . utilized fresh and dried salted for human consumption , and processed into fishmeal ( ref . 244 ) .
a very common inshore to offshore shark of the continental shelf occurring at depths of a few meters to slightly over 100 m ( ref . 244 ) . a specialist feeder that prefers cephalopods , also feeds on small bony fishes ( ref . 244 ) . viviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . utilized fresh and dried salted for human consumption , and processed into fishmeal ( ref . 244 ) .
this is a very timely and well articulated project . chondrichthyan research is challenging and notoriously difficult to secure funding for . in african waters extensive unregulated fishing occurs and studies such as this are crucial to understand the ecological composition in such threatened marine regions . manuel dureuil is one of the most driven and dedicated shark scientists i have met and i look forward to seeing the outputs of this study from his team !
this small shark has a slender body , long snout , and large oval eyes . the fins are somewhat small except for the elongated , pointed pectoral fins , and it has an asymmetric caudal ( tail ) fin . this specialized feeder preys mostly on cephalopods like squid and octopus , but will sometimes eat small fish . because of its size , usually no bigger than 4 . 5 feet long , and its specialized diet , it is considered little to no harm to humans .
marine ; demersal ; depth range ? - 100 m ( ref . 5578 ) , usually 30 - 70 m ( ref . 10730 ) . tropical ; 30°n -
maturity : l m ? , range 75 - 90 cm max length : 140 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5578 ) ; common length : 100 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 26999 )
viviparous ( with a yolk - sac placenta ) , with 1 to 4 young per litter . size at birth about 47 cm ( ref . 244 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) .
) : 17 . 7 - 25 . 9 , mean 19 . 9 ( based on 45 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5664 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00347 ( 0 . 00150 - 0 . 00799 ) , b = 3 . 09 ( 2 . 88 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 3 ±0 . 64 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : very low , minimum population doubling time more than 14 years ( fec = 1 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high vulnerability ( 63 of 100 ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
p . gruveli is considered a synonym of p . pectoralis , following krefft ( 1968 ) , compagno ( 1979 , 1984 , 1988 ) , and cadenat and blache ( 1982 ) .
it is a specialist feeder , primarily feeding on cephalopods , including squid and octopi . occasionally preys on small bony fishes such as soles and sardines to make up its diet ( compagno in prep . ) .
the meat is utilised fresh and dried - salted for human consumption and processed into fishmeal ( compagno in prep . ) .
no conservation measures are in place . catch levels need to be quantified and monitored .
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the iucn is a global union of states , governmental agencies , and non - governmental organizations in a partnership that assesses the conservation status of species .
the small mouth contains compressed teeth with distal cusplets and broad bases in the upper jaw and moderately long teeth with nearly straight smooth - edged cusps in the lower jaw . there are 26 - 30 rows of teeth in the upper jaw and 27 - 33 rows in the lower jaw with three of these rows located at the symphysis of the jaw .
: cape verde islands and mauritania to angola , possibly northward to morocco . ? western north
1 to 4 but mostly ( 60 % of 77 individuals ) 2 . off senegal most young are born in may and june .
in their stomachs ( cadenat and blache , l9b2 ) . the remainder of this
females reported from 83 to 117 cm ; size at birth about 47 cm .
- and - line , gillnets , and bottom trawls ; its meat is used fresh and dried salted for human consumption , and it is processed into fishmeal .
following krefft ( 1968 ) , compagno ( 1979 ) , and cadenat and blache ( 1982 ) . the record of the
by human agency to the
aquarial gardens
, because of the slow transportation ( steamships ) and limited aquarial technology available at the turn of the century .
locality :
. . . from the ' aquarial gardens ' , for which the collections were made off the coasts of massachusetts and rhode island .
(
cadenat , j . , 1950 . remarques biologiques sur leptocharias smithii müller et henle . bull . inst . fr . afr . noire , 12 ( 2 ) : 1950 408 - 11
cadenat , j . , 1957 . notes d ' ichtyologie ouest - africaine . 17 . biologie , régime alimentaire . bull . inst . fond . afr . noire ( a . sci . nat . ) , 19 ( 1 ) : 274 - 94
krefft , g . , 1968 . knorpelfische ( chondrichthyes ) aus dem tropischen ostatlantik . atlantide rep . , ( 10 ) : 33 - 76
compagno , l . j . v . , 1979 . carcharhinoid sharks : morphology , systematics and phylogeny . unpublished ph . d . thesis , stanford university , 932 p . available from university microfilms international , ann arbor , michigan
cadenat , j . and j . blache , 1981 . requins de mediterranee et d ' atlantique . faune trop . orstom , 21 : 330 p .
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the 10 acoustic transmitter tags will allow us to start a detailed investigation of the habitat use over 2 to 3 years . animals tagged with these transmitters can be located continuously by already installed underwater receivers , giving us information on when an individual is present in these bays . implanting these tags requires a small surgery with sterile tools . the about 200 external marker tags are particularly critical to study the body growth rate of this species , which is important for fisheries assessment and a good indicator of species’ vulnerability to fishing . the last bit we need is the tagging equipment , such as a tagging pole .
our field work is accompanied by a veterinarian and an experienced specialists for catch and live release and safe handling of sharks , both working for decades with these animals . in this project we are also working together with the ocean tracking network urltoken local ngo’s ( biosfera i and fundacao maio biodiversidade ) , the national institute for fisheries development ( indp ) and of course local students , local communities and local fishing charters
i am currently a phd candidate of dalhousie university and the transatlantic ocean system science and technology ( tosst ) school , under the supervision of dr . boris worm . boris is a full professor at dalhousie university , focusing on the conservation of marine biodiversity worldwide . he has authored over 100 publications on these topics , many with a focus on large marine predators , specifically sharks , tuna and billfish . our scientific papers can be found here .
i love nature and my life passion is to help conserve sharks worldwide . i am convinced that protecting nature is one of the most critical challenges we have . growing up far away from the sea , observations of birds and the local fauna in my childhood had to replace sharks . although i was always fascinated by sharks , at the time i was doing my undergraduate in biology , things became more concrete . i read boris’s first articles showing that sharks might be in deep trouble .
increasing the biological knowledge and uncovering habitat use is important for our understanding and protection of sharks worldwide .
acoustic tagging is ideal to provide information on presence or absence of individuals in a specific area over time . this allows us to investigate for example ‘site fidelity’ , a behavior where individuals return to key aggregation sites repeatedly over time . this is crucial information in determining if a species will benefit from habitat protection .
passive tagging , where species are equipped with an external marker tag carrying a unique identification number , can further provide general information on species movement and densities . it is a relatively inexpensive method , independent from battery life , and therefore allows to study more individuals over longer time periods . in addition , this method allows to investigate body growth from tagged and recaptured animals . body growth of individuals is an important piece of knowledge for fisheries science .
furthermore , the access to the animals while tagging enable us to record all kind of biological data , such as sex , genetic samples , blood and size measurements , as well as investigating environmental preferences of animals . this can provide important information to help us understand how vulnerable the species might be to disturbances , such as fishing pressure or climate change .
this research is part of a greater project , the cabo verde elasmobranch research and conservation project . this project aims to support the development of comprehensive , long - term and effective science based protections measures for cabo verde elasmobranchs ( sharks , skates and rays ) , through scientific research , governmental , ngo and community based conservation projects and education . therefore , an innovative coalition of researchers , industry , local communities , governmental and non - governmental organizations has been established . the project also strives to promote and utilize only non - lethal research methods and to be as minimally invasive as possible .
the acoustic underwater receivers that have already been installed can also be used by other scientists doing research on other marine species , from fish to sea turtles . this means our project can help others happen in the future and may even allow to study the interaction among different marine species
kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
atlantinkärppähai
to
paragaleus pectoralis ( garman , 1906 )
.
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the bleeding toad , fire toad , or indonesia tree toad ( leptophryne cruentata ) is a species of true toad endemic to java , indonesia .

it is listed as a critically endangered species due to a drastic population decline , caused in part by habitat loss due to global climate change and the eruption of mount galunggung in 1987 .

chytridiomycosis has been identified as a possible threat , but no positive identification has been made .

it is possible that the chemical cocktail secreted by the toads provides them with some resistance to the fungus .

bleeding toad

bleeding toad ( iskandar , 1998 , amph . java bali : 43 ) .
the bleeding toad is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
information on the bleeding toad ( leptophryne cruentata ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
the specific name
cruentata ' is derived from the latin word for bleeding .
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part of the range of bleeding toad is located in gunung gede pangrango national park . future conservation actions should include population surveys and possible captive breeding plans .
the bleeding toad , leptophryne cruentata , is listed as ‘critically endangered’ on the iucn red list of threatened speciestm . it is endemic to west java , indonesia , specifically around mount gede , mount pangaro , and south of sukabumi . this toad is most commonly found near small creeks in the mountains . the female lays her eggs in clutches in the creeks . the bleeding toad’s scientific name , cruentata , is from the latin word meaning “bleeding” because of the frog’s overall reddish - purple appearance and blood - red and yellow marbling on its back .
the bleeding toad , leptophryne cruentata , is listed as ‘critically endangered’ on the iucn red list of threatened species tm . it is endemic to west java , indonesia , specifically around mount gede , mount pangaro , and south of sukabumi . this toad is most commonly found near small creeks in the mountains . the female lays her eggs in clutches in the creeks . the bleeding toad’s scientific name , cruentata , is from the latin word meaning “bleeding” because of the frog’s overall reddish - purple appearance and blood - red and yellow marbling on its back .
fire toad ( iskandar , 1998 , amph . java bali : 43 ) .
revised critical habitat for the arroyo toad ( anaxyrus californicus ) : proposed rule .
veterinarian ' s assistant : i ' m sorry to hear that . the veterinarian will know what to do about this bleeding . i ' ll connect you asap . is there anything else important you think the veterinarian should know about there ?
the short - horned lizard is often referred to as a “horned toad” or “horny toad” because its squat , flattened shape and short , blunt snout give it a toad - ish look . there are over a dozen recognized horned - lizard species found in the deserts and semi - arid environments of north and central america , from southern canada to guatemala .
a number of studies suggest that cane toad tadpoles may impact on the growth and survival of native species through competition for food . cane toad tadpoles appear to significantly affect tadpoles of the ornate burrowing frog , limnodynastes ornatus , probably as a result of the superior competitive ability of cane toad tadpoles , rather than predation of early life stages of the species ( crossland 1997 ) .
the population declined drastically after the eruption of mount galunggung in 1987 . it is believed that other declining factors may be habitat alteration , loss , and fragmentation . although the amphibian chytrid fungus has not been recorded in this area , the sudden decline in a creekside population is reminiscent of declines in similar amphibian species due to the presence of this pathogen . only one individual bleeding toad was sighted from 1990 to 2003 .
large scale research efforts to control toad populations , such as researching biological control solutions , have not yielded sufficiently encouraging results to justify their continuation or implementation . similarly , efforts to stop or limit toad incursion by physical barriers or removal , despite having some success at a very local scale , do not provide a broad scale solution and protection for the key biodiversity assets impacted by the cane toad .
the population declined drastically after the eruption of mount galunggung in 1987 . it is believed that other declining factors may be habitat alteration , loss , and fragmentation . although the amphibian chytrid fungus has not been recorded in this area , the sudden decline in a creek - side population is reminiscent of declines in similar amphibian species due to the presence of this pathogen . only one individual bleeding toad was sighted from 1990 to 2003 .
indonesia tree toad ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 44 ) .
any assessment of the northern quoll ' s eligibility for listing as a threatened species as a direct result of cane toad poisoning is complicated by the species having been in the process of decline prior to the arrival of the cane toad and the likelihood that other factors are also contributing to the decline . it is possible that the impact of the cane toad has accelerated a gradual decline , into a more sudden and catastrophic one .
species of native snakes are also known to survive cane toad invasion . to what extent they are susceptible to cane toad toxin and whether observed impacts on individuals translates into population or species decline is uncertain . it is also not known whether these observed declines are short term or long term .
i have a gulf coast toad that appears to be shedding skin for over a week now . much of it has come off . she soaked in
i have a gulf coast toad that appears to be shedding skin for over a week now . much of it has come off . she soaked in her bowl , and it looks slimy . there is one part where the skin came off , and it looks reddish , like it was almost bleeding . i put on latex gloves and picked her up , but it seems to have stopped and is no longer red . she also has not been eating for three days now .
straughan , i . r . ( 1966 ) . the natural history of the cane toad in queensland . australian natural history 15 , 230 - 232 .
larval cane toads are algal , detritus and suspension feeders . while it has been shown that cane toad tadpoles readily prey upon anuran eggs , in laboratory tests in northern queensland cane toad tadpoles were not found to be significant predators of native anuran eggs , hatchlings or tadpoles . this study suggested that native tadpoles are often likely to have a greater impact on the survival of early life history stages of native anurans via predation than are cane toad tadpoles ( crossland 1998 ) .
freeland , w . j . ( 2004 ) . a review of the cane toad ' s ( bufo marinus lineaus ) impacts on the native australian fauna .
seabrook , w . ( 1991 ) . range expansion of the introduced cane toad bufo marinus in new south wales . australian zoologist 27 , 58 - 62 .
northern quoll populations demonstrate a normal fluctuation in numbers involving a slight decline through the dry season . they eat several species of native frogs and are known to mouth cane toads causing the release of poison from the cane toad ' s parotoid glands ( the swellings on each shoulder behind the eardrum ) . the poison is then ingested by northern quolls . symptoms of death from cane toad toxin can include bright red lips and or gums and can also include a red roof of mouth or bright red nose and nose bleeds , red ears , bleeding from the ears , a red eye , red skin pouch , bright purple teats and faeces around the anus ( oakwood 2003 ) .
large bodied goannas are known to undergo initial population declines following the invasion of the cane toad . in queensland , anecdotal evidence exists of severe population declines in gould ' s goanna , varanus gouldii ; merten ' s monitor , varanus mertensi , varanus panoptes and the spotted tree monitor , varanus timorensis , in almost immediate response to cane toad colonisation ( burnett 1997 ) . however a lack of systematic surveys of these species in northern queensland precludes comparisons of pre and post cane toad abundances . eight of the twenty monitor species whose distributions overlap potential cane toad distribution were considered to be at high risk from cane toads due to their micro habitat preferences , distribution and diet ( burnett 1997 ) .
a study of native frog species from the darling downs area of southern queensland that undertook competition trials found that cane toad tadpoles may affect the growth of native anuran tadpoles under some circumstances . trials conducted in artificial ponds indicated that cane toad larvae reduced the growth of three native species , limnodynastes tasmaniensis , limnodynastes terraereginae , and notaden bennettii ( williamson 1999 ) .
freeland , w . j . ( 1986 ) . populations of cane toad , bufo marinus , in relation to time since colonization . australian wildlife research 13 , 321 - 329 .
proposed designation of critical habitat for the arroyo toad ( bufo californicus ; revisions to proposed critical habitat , reopening of public comment period , and notice of availability of draft economic analysis .
other possible impacts have been suggested for ground feeding geckos , fish and bird species . in addition , there are reports of freshwater crocodiles , crocodylus johnstoni , dying after ingestion of cane toad toxin in the borroloola and beswick communities and numerous anecdotal reports of freshwater crocodiles dying following cane toad consumption ( begg et al . 2000 , van dam et al . 2002 ) .
there are a number of anecdotal reports and more recently , experimental data , on the impacts of ingestion of the cane toad by native species . studies have been , and are continuing to be , undertaken on the northern quoll , vertebrate fauna in kakadu national park , reptiles , snakes , and crocodiles to determine the impact of lethal toxic ingestion of the cane toad on these species .
over the next 10 years , the rest of the mainland top end population is expected to also disappear , along with much of the kimberley mainland population . these areas are estimated to constitute a further 30 % of the species ' pre - toad distribution . with the exception of some of its island locations , an almost total cane toad colonisation of the northern quolls range is expected .
more recent studies on reptiles , frogs , and the vertebrate fauna of kakadu national park are instructive and in particular recent population crashes in northern quolls provides compelling evidence that the invasion of the cane toad into new environments can cause local populations of the northern quoll to decline catastrophically . some local populations of the northern quoll persist in queensland post the introduction of the cane toad , but little information exists concerning the numbers that persist , why they persist , and there is no indication that the species is recolonising its former range habitat , or that recovery is occurring or likely to occur in the presence of the cane toad . there is no evidence that northern quolls , which are generally solitary hunters , learn to live successfully with the cane toad . the lethal ingestion of cane toad toxin poses a significant risk to the northern quoll and is a threatening process which could cause this species to become eligible for listing as extinct , extinct in the wild , critically endangered , endangered or vulnerable .
crossland , m . r . ( 1998 ) . a comparison of cane toad and native tadpoles as predators of native anuran eggs , hatchlings and larvae . wildlife research 25 : 373 - 81 .
recent studies in kakadu national park have demonstrated that local extinction of northern quolls is occurring following cane toad invasion . over the last two years this work has shown a significant decline in northern quoll populations with declines considered to be a direct result of lethal ingestion of cane toad toxin . two recent studies are notable : one involving dedicated surveys of the northern quoll at two sites and another that undertook broad scale fauna surveys .
translocation of northern quolls from mainland northern territory ( i . e . as part of the island arks program ) : approximately sixty northern quolls have been translocated to toad - free astell and pobasso islands from the mainland as a safeguard against advancing cane toads severely impacting mainland populations . this program is also attempting to improve the quarantining of islands to reduce the chance of cane toad invasion and to maintain the biodiversity present there ;
the study concluded that 75 species are potentially at risk from the invasion of the cane toad . these represent both species of crocodile , all 14 species of tortoise , 37 of 63 species of agamid and 22 of 26 species of varanid . of these 75 at risk species , 34 were considered likely to have their range totally encompassed by the cane toad ( under predicted 2030 climate change models ) and seven have already had their range totally encompassed .
anecdotal evidence suggests that queensland northern quoll populations have survived in small , high altitude areas associated with extremely rocky habitats . these populations would have survived cane toad invasion for over fifty years . however , there appear to be no studies documenting the size or extent of these populations or the factors that have led to the survival of these remnant populations following cane toad invasion . while northern quolls may still be present in a number of localised areas in queensland in which cane toads have been present for many years , they do not appear , to date , to be recolonising their former locations and to date there is little evidence that any substantive recovery has occurred following cane toad invasion .
studies have demonstrated that cane toad eggs , hatchlings and tadpoles are toxic to many native aquatic predators . it has also been suggested that there are possible impacts from cane toads on a proteocephalid tapeworm of the python , ataresia maculosus .
since its introduction to australia , the cane toad has spread south and west across the continent and now occurs in queensland , northern territory and new south wales . from their introductory site near cairns , the cane toad has spread throughout queensland , being recorded in brisbane in the 1940s , and was considered to occupy approximately 50 % of the state by the late 1990s ( sutherst et al . 1995 ) . during the early 1960s , the cane toad was recorded in north eastern new south wales and is now considered to occur on the north coast of new south wales as far south as the clarence river / yamba . the only confirmed breeding colony south of this area being at lake innes , near port macquarie .
while this species is one of the 49 species considered to be potentially at risk from lethal ingestion of cane toad toxin ( phillips et al . 2003 in press ) , and it is likely that this is a factor in the decline of the species , there is lack of quantitative evidence that the species is declining , or has declined , as a direct result of lethal toxic ingestion of cane toad such that it would become eligible to be listed at a higher level of endangerment . nor can it be established that the cane toad is having an adverse affect on the species . additional research is needed to identify whether lethal toxic ingestion is contributing to a decline of the ornamental snake at a population or species level .
the most common result of low vitamin a in the diet is a condition called short tongue syndrome , first described in the wyoming toad ( anaxyrus [ bufo ] baxteri ) . the low vitamin a levels create a condition called squamous metaplasia , which results in the animal’s inability to produce proper sticky mucus on the tongue . when a toad or frog tries to grasp prey , it doesn’t stick to the tongue when it is retracted into the mouth , and the prey gets away .
williamson , i . ( 1999 ) . competition between the larvae of the introduced cane toad bufo marinus ( anura : bufonidae ) and native anurans from the darling downs area of southern queensland . australian journal of ecology 24 : 636 - 643 .
the cane toad is a highly invasive species which has colonised substantial areas of the australian continent , occupying the habitats of many native species . as a result , a number of native species are considered to have experienced impacts from cane toads , most notably in relation to lethal ingestion of cane toad toxin . much of the research to date remains inconclusive at a species and population level ; is complicated by other factors of decline ; and it is uncertain to what degree species may survive short term crashes into the longer term . more recent research on the impact of lethal ingestion of cane toad toxin is compelling , particularly in relation to recent population crashes of the northern quoll in kakadu national park , northern territory . due to the symptoms and the absence of any other known cause of mortality , the deaths have been directly attributed to lethal toxic ingestion of cane toad poison . while the northern quoll is considered to have survived in isolated populations in queensland , there is little information on how successful this persistence is and no evidence that the species is recovering , or likely to recover . it is estimated that the cane toad will , in the foreseeable future , colonise almost the entire mainland range of the northern quoll and the species will continue to decline as a result .
the cane toad is a native of central and south america with a natural range extending from southern united states to tropical south america . cane toads have proven to be highly effective invaders of new ecosystems with their distribution now extending to over twenty new countries .
it is evident that a major decline of the northern quoll has occurred in kakadu national park , and will continue to occur , and that northern quolls may disappear from kakadu national park altogether within the foreseeable future due to the invasion of the cane toad .
sutherst , r . w . , floyd , r . b . , and maywald , g . f . ( 1995 ) . the potential distribution of the cane toad , bufo marinus l . in australia . conservation biology 10 , 294 - 299 .
crossland , m . r . ( 1997 ) . impact of the eggs , hatchlings and tadpoles of the introduced cane toad , bufo marinus ( anura : bufonidae ) on native aquatic fauna in northern queensland , australia . phd thesis , james cook university , townsville .
cane toads eat a wide variety of prey , breed opportunistically , have a far greater fecundity than native anurans and develop rapidly particularly in warmer waters . they are considered to be an extreme generalist with a tolerance for a broad range of environmental and climatic conditions and able to potentially occupy many habitats . there is considerable concern over the impact of the cane toad on native species and in particular , invertebrate communities , through predation and competition . most significantly , they possess highly toxic chemical predator defences and many scientific and anecdotal reports exist of deaths of native predators that have attempted to consume cane toads . historically , reports on the impacts of cane toads have been largely anecdotal with little quantitative data available since the cane toad ' s introduction in the 1930s . more recent studies have been undertaken to quantify the impacts of the cane toad and include :
two species listed as threatened under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 may be potentially affected by the cane toad . these species are the ornamental snake , denisonia maculata , and the green and golden bell frog , litoria aurea , both of which are listed as vulnerable under the act .
the green and golden bell frog has been recorded as being in decline since the 1960 ' s . the factors leading to the decline are not well understand but are likely to include predation of the tadpoles by introduced fish such as gambusia , loss of habitat through clearing and drainage , and diseases such as chytridiomycosis . the cane toad may also be a factor in the decline as the historical distribution of the green and golden bell frog has retracted to the south , such that its northern extent almost exactly correlates with the southern extent of the southern continuous distribution of the cane toad into new south wales .
population declines or evolutionary responses have been recorded for varanus panoptes and varanus gouldii . one expert noted that historically , such declines have been temporary , with recovery occurring in the following year and complete population recovery being noted in the third year post invasion and that many monitor species continue to survive following cane toad invasion .
she is half burrowed and hiding behind a plant right now . i don ' t want to disturb her again . no areas that appear to be raw and bleeding now . it was when i picked her up and some skin came off on my glove that i noticed a thin line of pink near the top of her head . i would liken it to when you get an abrasion on your skin and the blood comes up , but i don ' t see it now and there does not appear to be any redness or blood . her eyes are bright , although the last few days i noticed her eyes half shut . she has not accepted any food in three days now .
there is insufficient data on the diversity of queensland ' s frog populations before cane toad invasion to determine if there has been a resulting change in frog diversity or density . in the northern territory , where the cane toad is still colonising , baselines studies have been undertaken to monitor the calling activity of native frogs to determine changes in frog communities in response to cane toad incursion . these studies , which commenced in 1996 in the roper river valley and in 1998 in kakadu national park are based on the identification of the calls of more than twenty species of frogs as well as cane toads . to date there is insufficient data from the kakadu sites to support analysis . however , initial analysis of the roper river valley provides some indication of a decline in calling rates which correlates with the incursion of cane toads . in particular , the number of frog species calling per station declined markedly between the beginning of the study in 1997 / 98 and 2001 / 02 .
in northern queensland , the northern quoll appears to have undergone a decline during the past two decades . anecdotal evidence exists suggesting severe population declines in almost immediate response to cane toad colonisation of their habitat in three widely distributed areas of northern queensland ( burnett 1997 ) . however , lack of systematic surveys in northern queensland precludes any useful comparison between pre and post cane toad abundances of the species . despite other potential impacts , including the impacts of a rapidly expanding agricultural industry and human population growth in north east queensland , quoll species were considered to be at high risk from cane toads due to their habitat preferences , distribution and diet ( burnett 1997 ) .
while there is limited quantitative information on the declines of many of these reptiles in response to cane toads , the vertebrate fauna surveys undertaken in kakadu national park do give an indication of potential impact on these species with substantial declines in cane toad invaded sites recorded for the gilbert ' s dragon and goannas ( watson and woinarski 2003a + b ) .
this work was based on ecoclimatic predictions of the likely eventual distribution of cane toads across australia and identified those species that will come , or have come , into contact with cane toads . the percentage of the species ' range currently encompassed by the cane toad was estimated along with the percentage of their range that is likely to become affected as cane toads reach their full extent .
one study undertaken in the western gulf of carpentaria , northern territory , reported that the abundance of beetles was significantly lower , in the short term , in sites colonised by cane toads compared to cane toad free sites ( catling et al . 1999 ) . apart from this study , there have been no studies to investigate the impact of cane toads on invertebrate prey communities in australia or elsewhere .
over the last 10 years , the population has almost entirely been lost from the north east top end , northern territory ; cape york peninsula ; and the einasleigh uplands of northern queensland . these areas have been estimated to constitute approximately 30 - 40 % of the northern quoll ' s pre - toad distribution . the viability of these remnant populations in the wild is , at this stage , unknown .
all stages of the cane toad ' s life cycle : eggs , tadpoles , toadlets and adult toads , are poisonous . cane toads have venom - secreting poison glands ( known as parotoid glands ) or swellings on each shoulder where poison is released when they are threatened . if ingested , this venom can cause rapid heartbeat , excessive salivation , convulsions and paralysis and can result in death for many native animals .
many native snakes prey on frogs using their mouths to capture and consume cane toads entirely and cannot avoid direct exposure to toxins in the cane toad ' s body . frog eating snakes are known to be susceptible to impacts ( e . g . northern death adder , acanthophis praelongus , king brown or mulga snake , pseudechis australis , western brown snake , pseudonaja nuchalis , red - bellied black snake , pseudechis porphyriacus ) .
it appears that cane toads are more likely to have an adverse impact on terrestrial ground frogs or larger species such as the giant frog ( cyclorana australis ) and the marbled frog ( limnodynastes convexiusculus ) due to competitive interaction and in some circumstances , high densities of cane toad tadpoles in isolated pools could out compete native aquatic vertebrates and invertebrates for food resources . however there is limited quantitative data to adequately support a conclusion on such impacts .
in the northern territory , preliminary data from an intensive radio tracking study of goannas , initiated in september 2002 , kakadu national park , has estimated an initial mortality rate of around 50 - 70 % coincident with the arrival of cane toads . it was estimated that a 50 % plus decline occurred in populations of varanus panoptes within an approximately seven month period ( late oct 2003 to late may 2004 ) coincident with the arrival and build up of cane toad numbers ( holland 2004 ) . there is evidence that most goannas died following attempted ingestion of cane toads . there is little quantitative data yet on whether or not recovery of goanna populations is likely to occur in the northern territory as it has in queensland . some species are known to persist in areas of queensland that have had cane toads present from a few to many decades but there are no quantitative data on pre - toad population sizes .
it is evident that many species continue to maintain populations throughout their range , even in the presence of the cane toad , and there are some anecdotal reports that the wildlife impacts of cane toads may diminish over time . alternatively , a substantial body of anecdotal evidence , and more recent experimental evidence , suggests that some predator species undergo dramatic and potentially threatening declines in abundance as a result of fatal poisoning by cane toads , immediately following colonisation of their habitat .
cane toads attain high population densities after colonisation and consume large volumes of invertebrates . while larval cane toads are algal , detritus and suspension feeders , metamorphling , juvenile and adult cane toads feed on a broad variety of small prey items , predominantly ground dwelling arthropods . cane toads are thought to consume approximately 200 food items per night , far more prey than most native frogs ingest in the same period . the bulk of the diet is usually ants , beetle and termites , although they can eat anything that fits in their mouth including a wide variety of insects , frogs , small reptiles , mammals and birds . in addition , cane toads have the potential to compete with native species for food and shelter sites . the ability of the cane toad to rapidly expand both its range and density and to consume relatively large numbers of a wide variety of prey has led to concern that the cane toad is a key factor in the decline in of many native species .
while northern quolls are still present in a number of localised areas in queensland in which cane toads have been present for many years , they do not appear , to date , to be recolonising their former locations and to date there is little evidence that any substantive recovery has occurred following cane toad invasion . more recent experimental evidence from the northern territory supports anecdotal reports from cape york peninsula and other areas of queensland that northern quoll populations have been , and continue to be , severely affected by the presence of cane toads .
radio tracking of northern quolls commenced at the mary river ranger station , northern territory in 2002 , shortly before the arrival of cane toads later that year . the mary river population declined dramatically between october and december 2002 and by march 2003 appeared to be extinct with no northern quolls being caught in the subsequent may and july trapping trips . in contrast , northern quolls at the cane toad free control site at east alligator were still abundant . six subsequent trapping sessions at the mary river site , southern kakadu , have caught no northern quolls .
is a small and slender toad named after its characteristic red tinge and red spots or marbling . females of this species have a snout - vent length of 25 - 40 mm , while males have a snout - vent length of 20 - 30 mm . the skin is covered with small tubercles . the parotoid gland is small and sometimes indistinct . no bony ridges are present on the head . finger and toe tips are slightly swollen . the toes are webbed , with the webbing reaching up to the final subarticular tubercles on toes iii and v .
leptophryne cruentata is a small and slender toad named after its characteristic red tinge and red spots or marbling . females of this species have a snout - vent length of 25 - 40 mm , while males have a snout - vent length of 20 - 30 mm . the skin is covered with small tubercles . the parotoid gland is small and sometimes indistinct . no bony ridges are present on the head . finger and toe tips are slightly swollen . the toes are webbed , with the webbing reaching up to the final subarticular tubercles on toes iii and v .
there is , to date , insufficient data quantifying the impacts from cane toad predation ( e . g . on aquatic invertebrates , insects , worms , snails etc ) and the competition effects that may occur on native species through the presence of cane toads in their habitats . it is likely that cane toads compete with native species for food and shelter but little is known of these competition effects . while it is suspected that predation and competition may play significant roles in reducing biodiversity of native species , and altering ecosystems , data concerning such impacts is neither complete or comprehensive .
public awareness campaigns . in 2000 , new south wales launched a new campaign to ; prevent cane toads establishing outside their existing range ; raise community awareness of cane toads including impacts on biodiversity ; increase community ownership and involvement of the cane toad issue ; and raise community awareness of native frogs and their conservation requirements . the northern territory has also undertaken public awareness campaigns to alert residents and communities to the pending arrival of cane toads , notably around darwin and rural communities . this campaign highlighted the biology and impact of cane toads ; their identification , and outlined safe methods of collection and disposal .
for the most part , amphibian skin is delicate ( an obvious exception would be something like a bufo toad with thick , leathery skin ) . even the act of a human hand touching the skin can cause damage . abrasive nets or transport bags can also harm the slime layer and the skin . when handling amphibians , one should wear wet latex gloves , rinsed with chlorine - free water before touching the amphibian . cage furniture , such as rocks , plants , substrate , etc . , can cause abrasions to the feet , belly , rostrum ( nose ) and skin . once the skin is damaged , the risk of infection increases dramatically .
the northern quoll is likely to continue to disappear over most of its mainland , and some of its island , range . based on evidence from cape york peninsula and more recently kakadu national park ( and allowing for persistence in the existing pockets in queensland and in some offshore islands ) , this reduction is estimated at about 95 % of the range ( and hence total population ) as it was in 1980 , by about 2010 . over the next 10 years , it is likely that the rest of the mainland top end population will also disappear , as will much of the kimberley mainland population , estimated to represent a further loss of approximately 30 % of the species ' pre - toad distribution .
whilst not likely to be the sole cause of the northern contraction in range of the green and golden bell frog , competition and predation interactions between the cane toad and the green and golden bell frog are likely to have operated in concert with other threatening processes such as frog chytrid infection , gambusia predation , and habitat loss in the decline of the green and golden bell frog in the northern parts of its range . despite these observations , at this stage there is insufficient quantitative data to indicate that cane toads are causing the green and golden bell frog to decline . such that it would become eligible to be listed at a higher level of endangerment or that it is having an adverse affect on the species .
lethal ingestion of cane toads is thought to also pose a threat to many species of australian reptiles . both snakes and varanids prey upon frogs and have few options for prey manipulation . one study has estimated that 59 % of ' agamids ' ( dragons ) , 85 % of the ' varanids ' ( monitors ) and all of australia ' s crocodiles and freshwater turtles are potentially at risk from cane toads . this study reviewed published information on the distributions and dietary habits of australian reptiles and tested the ability of eleven ' at risk ' reptile taxa for their susceptibility to cane toad toxin ( one python , one freshwater turtle , two crocodiles , two dragons and five monitor species ) ( smith and phillips in prep ) .
research sites have been established to the west of kakadu national park and it is hoped that these studies will provide information directly relevant to the management of cane toad impacts in kakadu national park as well as much of northern australia . coordination of these various studies to assess available results , identify gaps and provide support funding if required , and to consider their implications will require ongoing attention . to this end , a national approach to address cane toads is being developed by the natural resource management ministerial council . it has directed the vertebrate pests committee to review the current threat posed by cane toads ; review the state of research to abate those threats ; identify gaps in current approaches ; and assess the costs and benefits of various options for national action .
to date , there is insufficient information to adequately quantify the likely extent of declines of many affected species . for some native species , cane toad impacts may be minor and inconsequential in the longer term , despite marked short term responses . alternatively , species may experience little immediate response but be either directly or indirectly impacted on in the longer term . most fauna populations undergo population fluctuations of varying magnitude and it is difficult to interpret changes from a baseline to a single subsequent re - sampling period . longer term population trends can only be discerned from natural fluctuations by a series of monitoring periods . it is considered that further research on the precise nature of both short and longer term impacts of cane toads on native species is required , including the impacts that are likely to come from predation and competition .
it is considered that , at this stage , there is insufficient data to adequately quantify the exact level of impact that cane toads pose to any listed threatened species , including the ornamental snake and the green and golden bell frog . while it is likely that cane toads are having a detrimental effect , this effect is , to date , insufficiently quantified . there are also currently no data on the impact of the cane toad on a listed threatened ecological community . there is insufficient quantitative data to indicate that the threatening process could cause a listed threatened species or a listed threatened ecological community to become eligible to be listed in another category representing a higher degree of endangerment . in addition , it can not be adequately demonstrated that any listed threatened species or listed threatened ecological community is adversely affected by the threatening process .
cane toads are large ground dwelling amphibians with a dry warty skin . they have a bony head with bony ridges over their eyes , sit upright and move in short rapid hops . their colour ranges from grey to olive brown and they have a pale belly with dark irregular spots . the average size of an adult is 10 - 15cm long but females have been recorded growing up to and over 23cm . they breed in still or slow - flowing water and can tolerate salinity levels up to 15 % . adult cane toads are active at night during the warm months of the year and can survive temperatures ranging from 5 - 40 degrees celsius . cane toad spawn occurs in long gelatinous strings with double rows of black eggs with females laying between 8 - 35 000 eggs at a time . cane toads have a life span of about five years , breed twice a year , and take between 6 - 18 months to reach sexual maturity .
a series of broad scale fauna surveys were conducted in kakadu at sites that had been surveyed up to 25 years previously . the monitoring and re - sampling of the terrestrial vertebrate fauna of kakadu national park was undertaken initially to provide some assessment of the short term impacts of colonising cane toads . the project sought to provide some assessment of the change in abundance of wildlife species in kakadu national park in the first year following the arrival of cane toads and was an assessment of short term responses only . changes in fauna abundances were examined since the last surveys and again after the arrival of cane toads . this survey also used control sites , monitored over the same period to eliminate the influence of factors other than cane toads ( e . g . fluctuations in northern quoll numbers between years due to levels of rainfall ) . while northern quolls declined to zero at the cane toad invaded sites , there was no decline at the control sites .
analysis of climatic variables and the adaptive abilities of the cane toad suggests that cane toads may eventually permanently inhabit the wet coastal areas of the eastern and northern parts of the continent at least as far south as port macquarie in the east of the continent and south to broome in western australia . temperature range analysis has indicated that cane toads , in warm years , could overwinter as far south as bega near the victorian border . conversely , a drop of 2 - 2 . 5 degrees celsius in mean temperature would result in a shrinkage of the suitable overwintering area to the far north coast of nsw . it was estimated , based on this model , that cane toads will further increase their range primarily throughout coastal and near coastal regions of tropical australia to encompass an area of approximately two million km2 ( sutherst et al . 1995 ) . in addition , cane toads have now been recorded well inland , at least as far south as dunmarra , northern territory .
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frost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 27 january 2014 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 january 2014 ) .
justification : listed as critically endangered because of a drastic population decline , estimated to be more than 80 % over the last ten years , inferred from the apparent disappearance of most of the population .
this species occurs only on mount pangrango , mount gedeh and curug luhur , jawa barat , java , indonesia , at altitudes between 1 , 000m and 2 , 000m asl .
in 1976 , this species was abundant within its small range . in 1987 , it was very rare following the eruption of mount galunggung . there were no records from the early 1990s until 2003 , when one individual was sighted from the cibeureum waterfall . it appears to have undergone a major decline .
it lives in the boundary zone between moist lowland and montane forest . it breeds in very slow - moving , intermittent streams in forest where the larvae also develop .
it appears to have declined drastically due to a volcanic eruption . however , its decline is also reminiscent of similar disappearances of montane stream - breeding amphibians in other parts of the moist tropics , and so chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out ( although this disease has not so far been recorded in this region ) .
this species occurs in the gunung gede pangrango national park . surveys are needed to locate this species and a captive - breeding programme might need to be established .
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bufo cruentatus tschudi , 1838 , classif . batr . : 52 . syntypes : rmnh 2130 ( 2 specimens ) according to m . s . hoogmoed in frost , 1985 , amph . species world : 67 ; given as rmnh 2130 - 31 by gassó miracle , van den hoek ostende , and arntzen , 2007 , zootaxa , 1482 : 32 , who noted that 2131 could not be located . type locality :
india orient .
; given as java [ indonesia ] by duméril and bibron , 1841 , erp . gen . , 8 : 666 ; iskandar , 1998 , amph . java bali : 43 , noted that the types came from cibodas , java , indonesia .
bufo montanus werner , 1897 , zool . anz . , 20 : 265 . holotype : nhmw 22864 , according to häupl and tiedemann , 1978 , kat . wiss . samml . naturhist . mus . wien , 2 : 14 , and häupl , tiedemann , and grillitsch , 1994 , kat . wiss . samml . naturhist . mus . wien , 9 : 18 . type locality :
tijibodas ( java )
, indonesia . synonymy by van kampen , 1923 , amph . indo - austral . arch . : 78 .
cacophryne cruentata — brongersma , 1935 , zool . meded . , leiden , 18 : 257 - 259 .
known only from mount pangrango , mount gedeh , and curug luhur , jawa barat , java , indonesia , 1000 - 2000 m elevation .
see comment under leptophryne borbonica . see accounts by liem , 1973
1971
, philipp . j . sci . , 100 : 137 ( as cacophryne cruentata ) , and iskandar , 1998 , amph . java bali : 43 - 44 . see identification table by manthey and grossmann , 1997 , amph . rept . südostasiens : 26 , to compare this species with others in the sunda shelf region . see photograph , map , description of geographic range and habitat , and conservation status in stuart , hoffmann , chanson , cox , berridge , ramani , and young , 2008 , threatened amph . world : 195 .
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submit your observations of this species to inaturalist and they will appear on this map . learn more about this species on amphibiaweb .
outlined below are the roles and responsibilities for the 4 different levels of involvement for potential partners . if your organization would like to be a part of the amazing amphibians program in either of these capacities please email amazing @ urltoken .
senior partner – these partners will help with multiple aspects of the program , help facilitate the completion of several species profiles , publicize each amazing amphibian and will likely have a landing page for the program on their website . this level of partner will be leading in using their communication channels to gather additional information for the program such as images and data points for inaturalist .
strategic partner – these partners will play an active role in creating species profiles , submitting at least three species profiles per year and actively use their social network to publicize each amazing amphibian . this level of partner will be active in using their communication channels to gather additional information for the program such as images and data points for inaturalist .
focal partner – partners tend to be active in a limited geographic area . this partner will submit at least one regional species profile per year and use their social network to publicize each amazing amphibian . this level of partner will be involved in using their communication channels to gather additional information at a regional level for the program such as images and data points for inaturalist .
affiliate – these partners are interested in promoting the program but might not be in a position to provide profiles . these partners will publicize each amazing amphibian through the social media outlets .