incisitermes minor is a species of termite in the family kalotermitidae known commonly as the western drywood termite .

it is native to western north america , including the western united states and northern mexico .

it has been found in many other parts of the united states , all the way to the east coast .

it has been reported from toronto .

it has been introduced to hawaii .

it has been noted in china and it is not uncommon in japan .

this is an economically important pest of wooden structures , including houses .

in california and arizona alone its economic impact is estimated to be about $ 250 million per year .

within a single colony there are three types of termites , the alates , soldier , and worker .

this eusocial species is a dark brown color and has an orange head .

the colonies are most active during the spring and summer , preferring to be active in higher temperatures .

incisitermes minor

compound eye formation in the termite incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi
physiological and behavioral adaptations of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) ( . . .
species status of incisitermes spp . ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in japan : status of incisitermes spp . in japan
influence of environmental factors on activity patterns of incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in naturally infested logs .
influence of environmental factors on activity patterns of incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in naturally infested logs . - pubmed - ncbi
nesting ecology and cuticular microbial loads in dampwoof ( zootermopsis angusticollis ) and drywood termites ( incisitermes minor , i . schwarzi , crytotermes cavifrons ) .
figure 1 . alate of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by b . j . cabrera , university of florida .
figure 2 . locations of confirmed records of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . map by john warner , university of florida .
indrayani y . , yoshimura t . , imamura y . a novel control strategy for dry - wood termite incisitermes minor infestation using a bait system .
species incisitermes minor - western drywood termite . ( bugguide . net / node / view / 469117 ) . accessed august 16 , 2016 . [ images ]
figure 3 . head capsule of a western drywood termite soldier , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by r . h . scheffrahn , university of florida .
figure 5 . king and queen of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by r . h . scheffrahn , university of florida .
harvey ( 1934 ) provides a highly detailed description of the biology and life history of incisitermes minor . the life cycle is typical for that of other drywood termites .
2013 - 0504 - eb060704 - iso00099 - incisitermes _ minor [ 1057h39s , e , i , tree - oak - bark ] { exd } - g . jpg
the most destructive drywood termites in the u . s . include the western drywood termite ( incisitermes minor ) and the tropical rough - headed drywood termite ( cryptotermes brevis ) .
messenger mt , scheffrahn rh , su n - y . 2000 . first report of incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in louisiana . florida entomologist 83 : 92 - 93 .
figure 7 . fecal pellets collecting under a door that is infested by the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by b . j . cabrera , university of florida .
grace jk , cutten gm , scheffrahn rh , mcekevan dk . 1991 . first infestation by incisitermes minor of a canadian building ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . sociobiology 18 : 299 - 304 .
the western drywood termite is not a
typical
incisitermes in that several characteristics ( color , wings , ocellus , arolium , soldier eye , etc . ) are distinct from most other species of incisitermes .
figure 9 . soldiers , alates and
workers
( pseudergates ) of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by r . h . scheffrahn , university of florida .
the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , is the most common structure - infesting drywood termite in the southwestern united states . originally described as kalotermes minor by hagen ( 1858 ) , incisitermes minor was reclassified into the genus incisitermes by krishna ( 1961 ) . in california , incisitermes minor infestations are still sometimes referred to by some pest control operators as
kalos
and designated with a
k
on termite inspection reports . currently , there is only one kalotermes species in the united states ( kalotermes approximatus ( snyder ) , found in florida and the southeastern u . s . north to virginia ) . some members of the kalotermitidae are called drywood termites because colonies live entirely within sound , dead , dry wood . drywood termites do not require any contact with the ground .
the distribution and biology of the common dry - wood termite , kalotermes minor , pp . 201–207
incisitermes minor is found in the coastal and lower montane regions of southern california . its range extends up the coast to northern california and onward in a discontinuous distribution along the coasts of oregon and washington . it is also found extensively in the central valley of california up to sacramento and in isolated pockets in the high desert where trees are present . towards the east , incisitermes minor ' s range extends to central arizona and southward it extends into baja california and sonora , mexico . the relative ease of intracontinental travel and commerce coupled with the fact that infested wood can be easily transported has resulted in isolated occurrences of incisitermes minor infestations throughout the united states , including florida .
figure 6 . characteristic damage and galleries in wood made by the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . ( wood in galvanized metal funnel ) . photograph by b . j . cabrera , university of florida .
lewis v , leighton s , tabuchi r , haverty m . seasonal and daily patterns in activity of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . insects . 2011 ; 2 ( 4 ) : 555 - 563 .
lewis , v . ; leighton , s . ; tabuchi , r . ; haverty , m . seasonal and daily patterns in activity of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . insects 2011 , 2 , 555 - 563 .
however , lenz questioned whether reproductive decision - making in i . minor had a similar response as that of in c . secundus ( lenz and yoshimura , personal communication ) . an experiment set up in orphaned i . minor colonies using the same ratio model of nest value and colony size , as in c . secundus , drove a much slower response in the neotenic production rate . incisitermes minor did not produce the same response as c . secundus , suggesting that the model might not fit [ 36 ] . this inference contradicts harvey’s description [ 10 ] about the emergence of replacement reproductives in i . minor colonies . further work is necessary to unravel the factors that trigger and regulate neotenic numbers in orphaned i . minor groups .
lewis , vernard ; leighton , shawn ; tabuchi , robin ; haverty , michael . 2011 .
seasonal and daily patterns in activity of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) .
insects 2 , no . 4 : 555 - 563 .
then the major question arises : to what extent does “the suitable environmental condition” facilitate the emergence of reproductives in i . minor ?
figure 4 . comparison of the fecal pellets of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) ( right ) , and smaller west indian powderpost drywood termite , cryptotermes brevis ( walker ) ( left ) . photograph by b . j . cabrera , university of florida .
infestation of the invasive dry - wood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) was first reported in japan in 1976 at a residential house in tokyo . since then , records of i . minor have steadily increased , and more than half of the prefectures in japan are listed as infested areas at present . the integrated management of i . minor consists of two phases : the individual technological phase and the regional phase . recent research efforts have been overcoming the technological issues , and the regional systematization of management system will be the next target . the development of novel preventive / remedial strategies against i . minor may have a positive effect on the wood preservation industry in japan .
infestation of the invasive dry - wood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) was first reported in japan in 1976 at a residential house in tokyo . since then , records of i . minor have steadily increased , and more than half of the prefectures in japan are listed as infested areas at present . the integrated management of i . minor consists of two phases : the individual technological phase and the regional phase . recent research efforts have been overcoming the technological issues , and the regional systematization of management system will be the next target . the development of novel preventive / remedial strategies against i . minor may have a positive effect on the wood preservation industry in japan .
although harvey ( 1934 ) acknowledged secondary reproductives may appear in the colony to supplement egg production , the existence of more than one pair of functional reproductives in an incisitermes minor colony - - even in older , larger ones - - remains unlikely . luykx ( 1986 ) believed that what appeared to be extra reproductives in colonies of incisitermes schwarzi were probably the result of a mixture of two different colonies . atkinson ( unpublished ) examined the caste composition of 38 incisitermes minor colonies and never found more than one pair of reproductives in a colony . however , he noted that some replacement reproductives may not have been fully melanized ( darkened ) and could have been overlooked in colonies in which no reproductives at all were found .
cabrera , b . j . and m . k . rust . 1994 . the effect of temperature and relative humidity on the survival and wood consumption of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . sociobiology . 24 ( 2 ) : 95 - 113 .
himmi sk , yoshimura t , yanase y , oya m , torigoe t , akada m , imadzu s . nest - gallery development and caste composition of isolated foraging groups of the drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . insects . 2016 ; 7 ( 3 ) : 38 .
nest - gallery extension from natal colony to adjacent timber activity by an i . minor colony . ( a ) entrance hole in spruce a timber ; and ( b ) i . minor colony emerged from the attic floor to attack the adjacent bottom surface of spruce b and sugi timbers .
infestations have also been found in arkansas , iowa , maryland , new jersey , new york , oklahoma , ohio , and texas . a heavily infested structure was reported in toronto , canada ( grace et al . 1991 ) . recently , incisitermes minor has been found in georgia ( scheffrahn et al . 2001 ) , south carolina ( hathorne et al . 2000 ) and louisiana ( messenger et al . 2000 ) . the latter is significant to florida because incisitermes minor was taken from a park tree in new orleans indicating that it can survive outdoors in a non - mediterranean , subtropical climate . this apparently was the case with three boat infestations in florida where termites and damage were found in wood located outside the cabins . in southern california and florida , yachts , sailboats , and small pleasure craft harboring mature colonies may serve as floating sources of introduction outside incisitermes minor ' s native range as they set sail for ports of call around the world .
vernard r . lewis , shawn leighton , robin tabuchi , james a . baldwin , michael i . haverty ; influence of environmental factors on activity patterns of incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in naturally infested logs , journal of economic entomology , volume 106 , issue 1 , 1 february 2013 , pages 338–346 , urltoken
in california , incisitermes minor occurs naturally in oak and riparian woodlands , river washes and canyons with trees . colonies are often found in the dead portions of california laurel , willow , cottonwood , oak , and sycamore trees and in stumps , downed logs , and large , dead branches on the ground . in urban and suburban areas , incisitermes minor is often found in rose , pyracantha , and oleander bushes , and alder , almond , apricot , ash , avocado , carob , cherry , citrus , elderberry , mulberry , ornamental pear , peach , plum and walnut trees . the western drywood termite infests sound , dry wood in human - made structures , as well as furniture and other wooden items .
in one case study , conducted in the laboratory at the university of florida , fort lauderdale research and education center , incisitermes minor workers in structural lumber initiated a large infestation . in april 1990 , western drywood termite - infested wood was cut into sections and placed on a laminate - covered plywood bench top not previously exposed to incisitermes minor . a few days later , workers were observed trailing from the exposed wood galleries to the juncture between the bench top and wall . over the years , fecal pellets were observed falling from the bench top . in 2000 , the entire 24 foot length of the bench top had pellets falling from it . known flights from the bench top occurred in september 1999 and july 2001 .
incisitermes minor is the most common species of drywood termite infesting structures in the southwestern portion of the united states . these termite swarmers ( alates ) are dark brown with smoky - black wings and a ½ - inch long body . soldier termites have a large , brown - colored head and two large mouthparts that look like teeth extending well beyond the head .
himmi , s . k . ; yoshimura , t . ; yanase , y . ; oya , m . ; torigoe , t . ; akada , m . ; imadzu , s . nest - gallery development and caste composition of isolated foraging groups of the drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . insects 2016 , 7 , 38 .
himmi , s . k . ; yoshimura , tsuyoshi ; yanase , yoshiyuki ; oya , masao ; torigoe , toshiyuki ; akada , masanori ; imadzu , setsuo . 2016 .
nest - gallery development and caste composition of isolated foraging groups of the drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) .
insects 7 , no . 3 : 38 .
the galleries of incisitermes minor are typical of other drywood termite species , albeit a bit larger and more cavernous . they consist of irregular excavations that extend throughout the sapwood , across both spring and summerwood , and sometimes into the heartwood . some galleries are spacious enough to accommodate large aggregations of termites while others are so narrow that termites can only pass through in single file . another characteristic feeding behavior is that incisitermes minor will excavate towards the outer surface of the wood without actually breaking through it , thus leaving a paper thin , outer protective layer . infested wood sometimes appears sound , but upon close inspection and mechanical probing this outer shell can be easily broken , revealing the underlying galleries and large amounts of frass ( fecal pellets ) .
there are three common species of drywood termites found in the south . you can identify the species by looking at certain features of either the swarming termites or solider termites . incisitermes snyderi are the most common species found . the reproductive termites are light yellow in color and are 7 / 16 inch long . the wings are uniformly transparent . their swarming tends to occur at night , and tend to swarm towards lights . cryptotermes brevis are similar in appearance to incisitermes snyderi . the body of the swarmers for incisitermes minor are dark and measure approximately 9 / 16 inch long . their wings are yellow , brown or colorless and will swarm during the day - time . for both species of incisitermes , the soldiers are about 5 / 16 inches long with dark yellow - brown heads with strong mandibles . the head of the soldier for cryptotermes brevis is square shaped , black in color with very short mandibles . the worker termites are smaller than the soldiers with soft , white bodies .
termite nest architecture has important biological attributes , as the whole structure represents a morphological expression of the sum of behavioral patterns which relate to a better understanding of their feeding ecology . the nest - gallery system of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor , inside naturally infested wood was visualized by x - ray computed tomography . drywood termites are . . . [ show full abstract ]
the hypothesis that western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , nymphs are negatively phototactic was tested . significantly more nymphs were found under the covered half of a petri dish than under the uncovered half exposed to either incandescent or fluorescent light , whereas there was no significant preference for either the covered or uncovered side when exposed to red darkroom . . . [ show full abstract ]
. . . the hypothesis that western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , nymphs are negatively phototactic was tested . significantly more nymphs were found under the covered half of a petri dish than under the uncovered half exposed to either incandescent or fluorescent light , whereas there was no significant preference for either the covered or uncovered side when exposed to red darkroom light . t . . .
luykx p . 1986 . termite colony dynamics as revealed by the sex - and caste - ratios of whole colonies of incisitermes schwarzi banks ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . insectes soc . 33 : 221 - 248 .
three of the more common home - invading termite species are eastern subterranean termites , pacific dampwood termites , and southeastern drywood termites . their scientific names are reticulitermes flavipes , zootermopsis angusticollis , and incisitermes snyderi , respectively .
the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor , is california’s second most important termite pest after the subterranean termite and is the most common species of drywood termite . it is a native insect that has been here millions of years , mostly infesting dead wood in trees along rivers , washes , and arroyos . drywood termites are commonly found along the pacific coastal region extending into the central valley and deserts of southern california .
number of i . minor ( hagen ) individuals of various castes dissected from five infested and two uninfested loquat [ eriobotrya japonica ( thunb . ) lindl . ] logs after completion of all experiments
mean ae ring down counts resulting from the constant temperature experiment correlated with the total number of i . minor dissected from each of the five infested logs . data were transformed to the natural log .
the documentation of colonization process of foraging groups of i . minor in previously unoccupied timbers using x - ray ct has provided better understanding on how isolated groups of i . minor develop and maintain the nest - gallery system ; as well as to sustain the colony . in establishing nest - gallery , i . minor showed selective foraging activities and adaptability to different timber enviroments . stigmergic behaviors were observed in the way of isolated groups of i . minor maintain the nest - gallery system , which was expressed in sealing a tunnel gallery that ends at the outer edge of the timber ; and transporting fecal pellets to particular chambers located beneath timber surface . the isolated groups of i . minor showed dynamic change in caste composition to sustain the colony . in both groups in which the primary reproductive are absent , a replacement reproductive has emerged from pseudergate stage . however , the sexes of replacement reproductive , time interval and the suitable conditions to facilitate the emergence of replacement reproductive are not been fully understood yet .
an x - ray computed - tomographic examination of nest - gallery development from timbers naturally infested by foraging groups of incisitermes minor colonies was conducted . this study documents the colonization process of i . minor to new timbers and how the isolated groups maintain their nest - gallery system . the results suggested that development of a nest - gallery within a suitable wood item is not random , but shows selection for softer substrate and other adaptations to the different timber environments . stigmergic coordinations were expressed in dynamic changes of the nest - gallery system ; indicated by fortification behavior in sealing and re - opening a tunnel approaching the outer edge of the timber , and accumulating fecal pellets in particular chambers located beneath the timber surface . the study also examines the caste composition of isolated groups to discover how i . minor sustains colonies with and without primary reproductives .
we quantified the response of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , to heat within two galleries routed into a wood cross . nymphs were placed in the gallery of the right arm and after 2 h , the gallery temperature was raised > 40°c . trials also were conducted with the addition of alates or soldiers to groups of nymphs . termites moved only as far as necessary to avoid . . . [ show full abstract ]
the nesting biology of the drywood termite , incisitermes minor , is poorly understood . to date , no published data are available regarding the in situ nest - gallery development of i . minor . three naturally infested sitka spruce ( picea sitchensis bong . carriere ) timbers were analyzed by x - ray computer tomography to observe the structure of the first royal chamber and the termite’s nest - founding behavior . one timber was infested by a group of termites which emerged from their natal nest . the other two timbers were infested by dealate reproductives from the nuptial flight . the study revealed that the drywood termite engages in outside foraging activity and has great foraging flexibility . computer tomographic images also revealed that i . minor reproductives showed anatomical selectivity in their nest - founding activity . the structure of the initial royal chambers varied to follow the anatomical texture of the timbers , which resembled either a european pear shape or a cashew nut shape .
three - min ae ring down counts from 24 november 2009 until 26 january 2010 , for five sensors ( 1–5 ) in i . minor - infested logs and two sensors ( 6–7 ) in uninfested logs under constant temperature conditions .
. . . those larvae that did not meet either early larvae ( lem ) or late larvae body size criteria were considered mid larva ( lm ) . observations from this study failed to produce characteristics separating late i . minor larvae in to either a worker or nymphal caste , consistent with the notion that i . minor follows a basically linear pathway ( cabrera and rust 1999 ) . thus , late larvae would act as workers ( reviewed in watanabe et al . 2014 ) . . . .
after a drywood termite colony has matured ( several years ) , winged alates ( swarmers ) are produced that leave the colony to establish new colonies . swarming activity ( nuptial flights ) generally occurs at dusk or during the night and they tend to fly towards areas of greatest light intensity , gathering around lights or illuminated windows . however , the dark western drywood termite ( incisitermes minor ) is a daytime swarmer . swarming of arizona species occurs in early to late summer with certain species swarming during the winter months of january and february also .
lemaster et al . ( 1997 ) found no periodicity in feeding of i . minor in a 24 - h day . however , the investigation only ran for 1 wk and was conducted under constant temperature conditions . indrayani et al . ( 2006 ) also used ae technology to monitor i . minor feeding when affected by different laboratory temperatures and relative humidity ; however , they did not report diurnal or seasonal ae activity . using ae monitoring during an investigation of local chemical treatments in a field study in southern california , activity of i . minor infestations in untreated locations of structures declined during winter months ( v . lewis , unpublished data ) . because this field study involved only four posttreatment inspection dates , it was not possible to make definitive statements on seasonal foraging of drywood termites .
twenty - four different combinations of six temperatures ( 15° , 20° , 25° , 30° , 35° , and 40°c ) and four relative humidity ( rh ) ( 60 % , 70 % , 80 % , and 90 % ) conditions were used for pseudergates of the western dry - wood termite incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . the feeding activities of the termites were monitored by the detection of generated acoustic emission ( ae ) events from feeder wood blocks in a test chamber . temperature and rh showed independent and interactive significant effects on the feeding activity of i . minor . the optimal temperature and rh conditions for the feeding activities were 35°c and 70 % , respectively , and the optimal combinations were 35°c - 70 % and 35°c - 80 % with an exceptionally higher feeding activity at the combination condition of 30°c - 70 % .
little research has been conducted on the movement patterns of drywood termites . currently , only the speed of locomotion of i . minor ( 1 . 4 cm / s ) in response to temperature and light is known ( cabrera and rust 1994 , 1996 , 2000 ) . rust et al . ( 1979 ) inferred movement of the drywood termite incisitermes fruticavus rust from studies that measured daily changes in temperature inside galleries for the jojoba shrub , simmondsia chinensis ( link ) ; however , the daily or seasonality of movement of drywood termites within structures in california remains poorly understood .
by examing the color of neotenic bodies in the isolated groups from both spruce timbers and comparing it with harvey’s description , it seems that the neotenics in those groups had just emerged . the fact that we didn’t find any eggs indicated that the secondary reproductives had not yet reached complete development . harvey described that secondary reproductives emerged in perfect molt just one month after isolation ; however , our case in both spruce timbers indicates a much longer time for the colony to adjust its caste composition . atkinson [ 33 ] reported that seasonal trends in colony composition were relatively weak in i . minor . he observed that all or most of the alates in i . minor colonies appeared to emerge whenever suitable environmental conditions were present . this might mean that the emergence of replacement reproductives in the isolated groups of i . minor in spruce timbers occurred when the groups met “suitable environmental conditions” [ 33 ] .
plots of ae ring down counts over time under constant darkness from 19 august 2009 to 25 august 2009 for five sensors that contain live colonies of i . minor . the smooth line is a running average of the ae ring down counts for 30 min before until 30 min after the data points .
. . . in addition , individual late - larval workers ( pseudergates ) may deviate from this straight developmental pathway through regressive or stationary molts ( miller 1969 ; noirot and pasteels 1987 ) . cabrera and rust ( 1999 ) observed caste differentiation in i . minor and reported four larval instars and two nymphal instars aside from alates and soldiers . luykx ( 1986 ) and luykx et al . ( 1986 ) described three larval stages and four immature worker stages along with pseudergates , nymphs , soldiers , reproductives , and alates for i . schwarzi , a close relative of i . minor . . . .
incisitermes minor has at least seven instars and it probably takes more than a year for a nymph to develop from the egg to an alate or soldier ( harvey 1934 ) . the duration of each instar is variable depending on prevailing environmental conditions and available resources . the average size of the fifth to seventh instar ranges from approximately 6 . 5 to 9 . 5 mm long and they weigh from 10 to 15 mg . western drywood termite nymphs have relatively large amounts of fat body and the larger nymphs are very robust . the percent fat content of dry weight of late instar nymphs is approximately 18 percent ( k . haagsma , unpublished data ) .
nymphs of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , were tested for their feeding preferences on wood and extracts of 11 tree species . the amount of wood consumed was inversely proportional to its specific gravity , but methanol extracts of least preferred woods were also least preferred when termites were confined to paper treated with extracts . in choice tests , only paper treated with extract of wood from which the colony developed and untreated and methanol - treated controls were significantly fed upon . ponderosa pine extract applied to douglas fir and sugar pine significantly decreased the amount of wood consumed . resistance to termite feeding appeared to depend on the presence of repellent chemicals in the wood .
in florida , incisitermes minor has a spotty distribution from the panhandle down to miami ( where it was probably first introduced into florida [ hickin 1971 ] ) and has been found on both coasts of the peninsula . scheffrahn et al . ( 1988 ) reported two incidences of infestation and since then there have been 22 more confirmed records ( scheffrahn , unpublished data ) . of all records , three occurred on boats - - two of these from southern california - - that were subsequently fumigated . three other infestations were associated with furniture that was traced to the pacific coast . so far , all the florida infestations have only been found in structural lumber , not in natural wood .
because drywood termites ( family kalotermitidae ) are single piece nesters and can live deep in wood , there are few reports of seasonal or daily cycles of feeding or foraging behavior . seasonal activity patterns of drywood termites are very important for their detection and treatment . a common seasonal activity for drywood termites is swarming . in california , the western drywood termite incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , swarms during the day , starting in summer and continuing into fall ( ebeling 1978 ) . feeding and foraging are important drywood termite activities ; however , little is known about when they occur or what drives them . the cryptic behavior of drywood termites inside wood hinders studies that explore their normal feeding and foraging behavior . acoustic emission ( ae ) technology has been used to detect the presence of drywood and dampwood termites in wood ( lewis and lemaster 1991 , lemaster et al . 1997 ) and recently has been used to explore seasonal and daily patterns foraging and feeding activity of i . minor ( lewis et al . 2011 ) .
. . . however , it might well be that hodotermes mossambicus exhibit aggressive behaviour at the nest entrance under more natural conditions in the field . the fact that nestmate discrimination in the trophallaxis bioassay was primarily found when larvae were used as donors might just reflect that this group is under natural conditions much more involved in the behaviour of feeding nestmates than any other caste , as has been demonstrated in incisitermes minor by cabrera and rust ( 1999 ) . in addition , non - nestmates recognized by larvae are almost certainly intruders which should be discriminated in the context of nestmate feeding behaviour , whereas foragers might meet non - nestmates frequently outside the nests in behavioural contexts where nestmate discrimination does not pay . . . .
the purpose of our study was to explore for patterns of seasonal or daily feeding and movement of i . minor in naturally infested logs as measured by ae technology . such knowledge would greatlyimprove inspection success , pre - and post - treatment evaluations of remedial measures againstinfestations and enable more detailed investigations into the natural history of drywood termites .
three types of experiments were designed to evaluate the performance of a bait system intended to control incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . in the first type of experiment , type i , the effectiveness of the bait in a small wood specimen was evaluated . in the second type , type ii , the bait effectiveness was evaluated in a larger wood specimen . feeding arena lumber with artificial galleries was prepared for the type iii experiment so that the response of the insects to the gel could be observed . in general , the average percentage of termites that died after being exposed to the gel formulation in all three types of experiment was more than 60 % , and in the gel control the average percentage of live termites was more than 95 % in types i and iii , and more than 75 % in type ii . these results suggest that the gel bait system used in this study has the potential to eliminate i . minor colonies . further investigation will be necessary to increase the reliability of the bait system as a control measure against dry - wood termites .
mean daily activity patterns for i . minor in each of five logs ( sensors 1–5 ) . the heavy , dark line is the mean ae ring down count . the gray line is the temperature trace ( °c ) collected simultaneously for each ae data point . ae data for all logs were collected from 15 june 2008 to 15 may 2009 .
incisitermes minor is a tremendous pest in california and arizona with an estimated annual economic impact of $ 250 million ( m . rust , unpublished ) , mainly in damage and treatment costs . a survey of structural inspection reports conducted in san bernardino , riverside , and orange counties in southern california between september 1992 and april 1993 revealed that the western drywood termite accounted for approximately 55 percent of the total inspections for wood - destroying organisms . near the coast , they accounted for > 75 percent of the inspections ( t . atkinson , unpublished data ) . the western drywood termite will continue to torment homeowners and keep termite control companies busy , especially in newly developed areas in california where urban sprawl is running rampant . further infestations are likely to be discovered in florida .
there are few reports of diurnal or seasonal ae activity data for i . minor . using 100 i . minor workers contained in an artificially infested wooden block held at constant temperature and humidity , lemaster et al . ( 1997 ) reported ae events results from a single sensor during a 7 - d test . there was no statistically significant cycling or periodicity found in ae activity . the plot of ae activity appeared flat and hovered between the values of 100 and 200 events per hour . no ring down count data were reported . the maximum ae event results reported by lemaster et al . ( 1997 ) compared favorably with the maximum events reported for the current study , although we report here only ae ring down count data . indrayani et al . ( 2006 ) conducted a second ae activity study . for this laboratory study i . minor workers ( 10 ) also were used in small wooden blocks to test the affects of varying temperature and humidity . the tests were of short duration , only 12 h . this study reported that the optimum temperature for peak ae activity was 30°c .
two kinds of nest - founding activities have been identified in drywood termites [ 5 ] : ( 1 ) from nuptial flight by pairing dealate reproductives ; or ( 2 ) from nest - gallery extension through colony foraging to a new piece of adjacent timber [ 8 ] . in this paper , we present a case study of nest - gallery development from timbers naturally infested by an i . minor colony through foraging activity . the study was intended to capture the colonization process of foraging groups of i . minor in previously unoccupied timber and how the groups maintain their nest - gallery system . the study also examines the caste composition of isolated groups in search of a better understanding of how one - piece nester types sustain their colonies .
the introduction of x - ray computed tomography ( ct ) as a non - destructive approach to analyzing termite nests has brought us a better understanding of the nesting biology of this cryptic insect . fuchs et al . [ 1 ] were the first to introduce ct as a useful tool for providing a three - dimensional ( 3d ) view of the hidden gallery system of drywood termite cryptotermes secundus , though at a low - resolution display . perna et al . presented detailed images of gallery networks [ 2 ] of cubitermes sp . and used them to analyze their topological defense strategy [ 3 ] and efficiency [ 4 ] , while himmi et al . [ 5 ] used x - ray ct to analyze the initial structure of the royal chamber of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor .
when we were certain that we had completed all experimentation by using the five i . minor - infested logs , we dissected these five logs , as well as the uninfested logs , and counted all live individuals by caste ( table 1 ) . the single alate found in each of the untreated logs was because of natural swarming activity from some of the logs in the test building . we regressed the line ( ln ) of the mean ae ring down counts from the constant temperature experiment ( the most recent experiment before log dissection ) for all seven logs against the ln of the total number of individuals remaining . a highly significant relationship was found ( r 2 = 0 . 92 ) between the i . minor population and ae activity ( fig . 7 ) .
. . . the timbers were laid in random positions , without considering whether tangential sections , radial sections , sapwood parts , and heartwood parts were oriented in any particular direction . the experimental set - up was conducted on august 3 , 2012 , 1 month before i . minor swarming season in the wakayama area , which was reported to be in september [ 10 ] . . . .
the mean daily ae ring down count ( black line ) from five sensors ( 1–5 ) in i . minor - infested logs ( 1–5 ) and two sensors ( 6–7 ) in uninfested logs under constant temperature conditions . the mean has been smoothed with a loess ( nonparametric regression ) smoother . the gray line is the smoothed mean temperature profile across all observations . ( online figure in color . )
seasonal activity patterns of drywood termites have an important impact on our ability to detect these structural pests and treat infestations . for example , the presence of alates and shed wings within infested structures are often the first signs of the presence of drywood termites . in california , the annual dispersal flights of incisitermes minor ( hagen ) occur during the day in the fall [ 1 ] . feeding and foraging , including excavation of wood , are important drywood termite activities ; however , little is known whether they occur randomly or follow an underlying pattern . the cryptic behavior of drywood termites hinders studies on their feeding and foraging biology . because direct observation is impossible in wood naturally infested by drywood termites , we must rely on indirect methods of observation . a method that has proven extremely useful is the quantification of vibrations within termite - infested wood using acoustic emission ( ae ) technology .
the purpose of this study was to investigate the nature of the circadian cycle of activity in i . minor : the role or influence of temperature and light on patterns of feeding and foraging as measured by vibrational activity in naturally infested wood . by knowing when drywood termites are most active and whether physical features of their environment affect their activity , inspections and posttreatment evaluations of remedial treatments could be greatly improved .
the hourly averages for ae ring down counts for each active and inactive log , as well as temperature and relative humidity , were plotted for the 11 - month period . the mean daily activity pattern for i . minor in each of the five logs ( sensors 1–5 ) , represented by ae ring down counts , was graphed in relation to the mean temperature ( °c ) over a 24 - hour period .
plots of ae ring down counts under constant darkness as a function of temperature in five i . minor - infested logs and two uninfested logs . the temperature values are “jittered” so that they do not land exactly on top of each other . all sensors associated with infested logs show a positive relationship with temperature . each data point represents 3 - min recordings taken at least two times / h / d / sensor over 7 d .
activity of colonies of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor , was measured with acoustic emission ( ae ) technology in five loquat ( eriobotrya japonica ) logs . termite activity , whether it was feeding , excavation or movement , was monitored for 11 months under ambient conditions in a small wooden structure maintained at the university of california richmond field station . ae , temperature , and humidity data were measured in 3 - minute increments . termite activity was greater during the warmer summer months compared to the cooler winter months . termites in all five logs displayed a similar daily cycle of activity , peaking in the late afternoon . seasonal and daily fluctuations in termite activity were significantly associated with temperature , whereas humidity did not appear to have a noticeable effect on termite activity . possible mechanisms that drive the seasonal and daily cycles in termite activity , as measured by ae technology , and the possible implications for inspections and post - treatment analysis are discussed .
summary : differences in feeding and trophallaxis among castes of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , were determined using rubidium ( rb ) as a tracer . both 5th - and 6th - instar nymphs and 3rd - and 4th - instar larvae fed directly on rb - treated paper and acted as both donors and recipients in trophallactic exchanges with other larvae and nymphs , and as donors for soldiers and alates . soldiers and alates did not feed on rb - treated paper suggesting that they do not feed directly on wood and are completely dependent on nymphs for their nutritional needs . larvae paired with rb - fed nymphs received the greatest amount of rb suggesting that there may be a hierarchy of trophallaxis in drywood termites . transfer efficiency , the percentage of the total rb intake of donors that is passed to the recipients , ranged from 1 . 1 % ( nymphal donors to alate recipients ) to 16 . 6 % ( larval donors to nymphal recipients ) .
there is considerable variance in the number of i . minor extracted from naturally infested logs and structural wood , and ranges from 7 to 2 , 943 [ 19 , 21 , 30 - 32 ] . also clearly evident , larger colonies and infestations produce greater ae activity . and also clearly evident is that when drywood termites are allowed to search and forage for wood naturally under ambient conditions , their activity follows a cyclic pattern common to many terrestrial animals .
. . . naturally , new colony dissemination is facilitated by swarming activities in the dispersal flight season . swarming occurs during the summer to the fall on bright , sunny days which attract alates to emerge from the colonies ( positive phototaxis ) 10 111213 . in addition to information on swarming activities , information on the nutritional ecology of i . minor and its feeding preferences for various timbers are also very important for investigating initial nest - gallery establishment . . . .
there are only a few reports available on seasonal or daily activity for i . minor as measured by ae technology . using 100 workers contained in an artificially infested wooden block held at constant temperature and humidity , lemaster et al . [ 22 ] presented ae event results over seven days from a single sensor . no statistically significant cycling or periodicity in ae measurements could be detected . the plot of termite activity appeared flat and ranged from just 100 to 200 ae events per hour .
little research has been conducted on the movement patterns of drywood termites . currently , only the speed of locomotion of i . minor ( 1 . 4 cm / s ) in response to temperature and light is known [ 26 , 27 ] . movement of the drywood termite i . fruticavus rust was inferred from studies that measured daily changes in temperature inside galleries for the jojoba shrub , simmondsia chinensis ( link ) [ 28 ] ; however , the seasonal movement of drywood termites within structures remains poorly understood .
staurojoenina is a large and structurally complex genus of hypermastigont parabasalians found in the hindgut of lower termites . although several species of staurojoenina have been described worldwide , all staurojoenina observed to date in different species of north american termites have been treated as the same species , s . assimilis . here , we characterize staurojoenina from the north american termite neotermes jouteli using light microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , and phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal rna , and compare it with s . assimilis from its type host , incisitermes minor . the basic morphological characteristics of the n . jouteli symbiont , including its abundant bacterial epibionts , are similar as far as they may be compared with existing data from s . assimilis , although not consistently identical . in contrast , we find that they are extremely distantly related at the molecular level , sharing a pairwise similarity of ssu rrna genes comparable to that seen between different genera or even families of other parabasalians . based on their evolutionary distance and habitat in different termite genera , we consider the n . jouteli staurojoenina to be distinct from s . assimilis , and describe a new species , staurojoenina mulleri , in honor of the pioneering parabasalian researcher , miklos muller .
n2 - staurojoenina is a large and structurally complex genus of hypermastigont parabasalians found in the hindgut of lower termites . although several species of staurojoenina have been described worldwide , all staurojoenina observed to date in different species of north american termites have been treated as the same species , s . assimilis . here , we characterize staurojoenina from the north american termite neotermes jouteli using light microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , and phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal rna , and compare it with s . assimilis from its type host , incisitermes minor . the basic morphological characteristics of the n . jouteli symbiont , including its abundant bacterial epibionts , are similar as far as they may be compared with existing data from s . assimilis , although not consistently identical . in contrast , we find that they are extremely distantly related at the molecular level , sharing a pairwise similarity of ssu rrna genes comparable to that seen between different genera or even families of other parabasalians . based on their evolutionary distance and habitat in different termite genera , we consider the n . jouteli staurojoenina to be distinct from s . assimilis , and describe a new species , staurojoenina mulleri , in honor of the pioneering parabasalian researcher , miklos muller .
ab - staurojoenina is a large and structurally complex genus of hypermastigont parabasalians found in the hindgut of lower termites . although several species of staurojoenina have been described worldwide , all staurojoenina observed to date in different species of north american termites have been treated as the same species , s . assimilis . here , we characterize staurojoenina from the north american termite neotermes jouteli using light microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , and phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal rna , and compare it with s . assimilis from its type host , incisitermes minor . the basic morphological characteristics of the n . jouteli symbiont , including its abundant bacterial epibionts , are similar as far as they may be compared with existing data from s . assimilis , although not consistently identical . in contrast , we find that they are extremely distantly related at the molecular level , sharing a pairwise similarity of ssu rrna genes comparable to that seen between different genera or even families of other parabasalians . based on their evolutionary distance and habitat in different termite genera , we consider the n . jouteli staurojoenina to be distinct from s . assimilis , and describe a new species , staurojoenina mulleri , in honor of the pioneering parabasalian researcher , miklos muller .
abstract =
staurojoenina is a large and structurally complex genus of hypermastigont parabasalians found in the hindgut of lower termites . although several species of staurojoenina have been described worldwide , all staurojoenina observed to date in different species of north american termites have been treated as the same species , s . assimilis . here , we characterize staurojoenina from the north american termite neotermes jouteli using light microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , and phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal rna , and compare it with s . assimilis from its type host , incisitermes minor . the basic morphological characteristics of the n . jouteli symbiont , including its abundant bacterial epibionts , are similar as far as they may be compared with existing data from s . assimilis , although not consistently identical . in contrast , we find that they are extremely distantly related at the molecular level , sharing a pairwise similarity of ssu rrna genes comparable to that seen between different genera or even families of other parabasalians . based on their evolutionary distance and habitat in different termite genera , we consider the n . jouteli staurojoenina to be distinct from s . assimilis , and describe a new species , staurojoenina mulleri , in honor of the pioneering parabasalian researcher , miklos muller .
,
. . . because of this hidden ecology , i . minor can be easily transported around the world within an infested piece of wood as a result of human activities . originally from the southwestern usa and northern mexico [ 2 ] , infestations of this invasive species have been reported in canada [ 4 ] , china [ 5 ] , and hawaii [ 6 ] , and more than half of the prefectures in japan are listed as infested areas789 10 . in our modern and mobile society , the introduction of such wood - inhabiting termites to new areas is very hard to prevent . . . .
lewis et al . ( 2011 ) investigated activity of colonies of i . minor with acoustic emission ( ae ) technology in naturally infested logs . activity , whether it was feeding , excavation , or movement , was monitored for 11 mo under ambient conditions in a small wooden structure . ae , temperature , and humidity data were measured in 3 - min increments . termite activity was greater during the warmer summer months compared with the cooler winter months . termites in all logs displayed a similar daily cycle of activity , peaking in the late afternoon . seasonal and daily fluctuations in termite activity were significantly associated with temperature , whereas humidity had a less noticeable effect on termite activity .


isotelus is a genus of asaphid trilobites from the middle and upper ordovician period , fairly common in the northeastern united states , northwest manitoba , southwestern quebec and southeastern ontario .

one species , isotelus rex , is currently the world 's largest trilobite ever found as a complete fossil .

isotelus

this is an isotelus eye . the eye appears as a smooth bump on a cephalon fragment .
this is a genal spine . it is one of the most common fragments of the isotelus found .
isotelus maximus range in size from less than a millimeter to as long as 24 inches . the exoskeleton of this giant of trilobite is usually found in fragments . for this reason , most people only find parts of isotelus trilobite . isotelus maximus has been found whole , but this is quite unusual and a great treasure . usually , complete specimens of isotelus are found in hundreds of pieces that must be meticulously reassembled . you will probably be satisfied finding parts of isotelus often several inches long . you may get lucky and find a complete specimen of enrolled isotelus as small as a pebble . the pictures below will help you find and identify evidence to what this fascinating giant trilobite looked like .
hansen , m . c . 1989 . large isotelus found : ohio geology newsletter ( spring 1989 ) : 6 .
shrake , d . 2005 . isotelus : ohio’s state fossil . geofacts no 6 , pgs . 1 - 2 .
description : in proportion , i am sure that isotelus are found in very low numbers compared to the ubiquitous flexicalymenes . this one , in fact , is the first mt . orab isotelus ever acquired by pangaea fossils . it appears to be in very good condition . it would make a nice addition to any mid - western ordovician collection . isotelus maximus is the state fossil of ohio .
occasionally , you will find part of a pygidium of isotelus with one or more thoracic segments still attached . this is a rare treasure .
that lived during the ordovician period . it’s fossils are common within several formations that outcrop in southwestern ohio . the largest isotelus trilobite to be found in ohio is about 16 inches long though the largest known trilobite isotelus rex found in manitoba , canada is from the same genus .
in 1985 , the ohio government made isotelus ohio ' s official fossil . isotelus is a trilobite that existed between 430 and 480 million years ago . at this point in time , an ocean covered much of what is now ohio . isotelus is evidence of this , as it was a marine organism . a trilobite was an invertebrate creature that had a hard outer shell or skeleton . two lines crossed the body of the trilobite , making it appear to be in three parts . trilobite means
three - lobed creature .
isotelus primarily lived during the ordovician age . they were one of the largest trilobites , with some of these animals reaching nearly thirty inches in length . isotelus no longer exist , becoming extinct approximately 430 million years ago .
the trilobite anatomy chart was done with an isotelus replica from a specimen found by dan cooper , dry dredger member . the isotelus fragments shown are from the collections of the dry dredgers , an association of amateur geologists and fossil follectors . the cincinnati trilobite fragment identifier was written and produced by bill heimbrock , dry dredger member .
the other side of the isotelus h ypostoma also has distinct markings . fine ridges like corduroy run diagonally across each lobe . the interior of the hypostoma is hollow .
this is the largest complete trilobite specimen ( “in captivity” ) from the cincinnati region . the world record is held by an isotelus specimen from the ordovician of manitoba that measures 70 cm ( 27 . 6 “ ) long . cmc ip50168 - isotelus maximus , late ordovician , adams county , ohio . anonymous donation in memory of dr . richard durrell .
isotelus gigas dekay occurrence : reference : ross , 1979 ; babcock , 1996 lacks genal spines or has shorter genal spines than i . maximus ; also more triangular cephalic and pygidial margins than i . maximus
the most famous specimen of isotelus from ohio was discovered in 1919 while digging an outlet tunnel during the construction of the huffman dam near dayton . this giant trilobite specimen measures 14 ½ inches long . a couple elementary school classes in dayton proposed naming this specimen of the official state fossil . while declining to designate only that specific specimen , the legislature instead passed a bill naming the genus isotelus in 1985 .
late ordovician , about 450 , 000 , 000 b . p . ; 1 - 2950 isotelus rex ; holotype specimen ; collected by d . m . rudkin et al . ; churchill , mb ; 1998
isotelus , a late ordovician trilobite , was designated the official state invertebrate fossil of ohio on june 20 , 1985 . after seeing a beautiful specimen of isotelus at the dayton museum of natural history ( now known as the boonschoft museum of discovery ) , third grade students from beavertown school in kettering , and fourth grade students from st . anthony school in dayton decided to try to get this trilobite designated as the official state fossil of ohio . a letter campaign to representatives robert l . corbin and robert e . hickey convinced them to sponsor legislation in the ohio house of representatives . senator charles horn agreed to do the same in the ohio senate . although the students wanted one particular specimen of isotelus collected from huffman dam near dayton in 1919 to represent ohio , the genus isotelus was designated as the official state invertebrate fossil ( shrake , 2005 ) .
the pygidium , or
tail section
of the isotelus is one contiguous plate . consequentially , it is often found complete in the fossil record . however , small fractures are usually visible due to the exoskeleton ' s fragile nature .
the center of the isotelus hypostoma is often found separated from the two lobes . the result is a shell fragment with what appears to be a lip . this is a loosely applied description because if trilobites had lips , they would certainly be soft body parts .
isotelus is an exceptional choice for your state fossil representative . this trilobite fossil has played a pivotal role in the pursuit of scientific knowledge to understand the history of life in this region . its scientific and historical importance is unparalleled in ohio , and is a hallmark to the global significance of paleontological and geological resources in our state .
the hypostoma , or
mouth plate
of the isotelus is a very recognizable body part that is commonly found as the result of molting . found on the underside of the trilobite , the hypostoma looks like a pair of fang - like lobes with distinctive curvy lines and a pair of
dimples
above the lobes . oddly enough , one lobe is typically bigger than the other . click the picture to see these markings . the side shown in this picture faces outward on the underside of the trilobite .
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, expressed maximally in the orders asaphida , redlichiida , and lichida . below , depicted in scale alongside a familiar object , are some of the largest recorded specimens :
( from new york ) , in contrast , have not been found at full size as complete specimens , but large disarticulated parts result in reconstructions of the sizes indicated below . however , many large specimens of
has likewise been found as a complete specimen over 300 mm in length . the total length of
is a moderately effaced asaphid trilobite lacking terminal spines or prolongations , and the holotype specimen was found in a carbonate unit showing little evidence of distortion or compaction . all dorsal sclerites of the holotype are closely articulated , suggesting this is not an exuvium . at about 720 mm long , 400 mm in maximum width ( across the cephalon ) , and 70 mm in height ( at the posterior midpoint of the cephalon ) , it is the largest complete trilobite specimen ever found .
and some of the earliest described species were considered to be among the biggest trilobites then known . indeed , several specific epithets , including those of
locke , 1838 , were coined in reference to their comparatively large size . hansen ( 1989 ) reported complete specimens of
with lengths up to 410 mm . prior to the discovery of the 720 mm
examples of large non - asaphide trilobites include redlichiide cambropallas ( holmidae , 230 mm ) and acadoparadoxides ( paradoxididae , 390 mm ) , out of the cambrian of morocco ( geyer , 1993 ) . many large specimens emerge each year out of morocco , but they are often at least partially restored . however , some very large complete specimens have been prepared .
treatise on invertebrate paleontology , pt . o , arthropoda 1 , trilobita , revised , volume 1
geological society of america and university of kansas press , lawrence , 530 p .
el genero uralichas delgado , 1892 ( trilobite , lichida ) en al ordovicico de la peninsula iberica .
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journal of paleontology . ( journal , magazine , 1927 ) [ worldcat . org ]
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vols . 7 - 10 , 12 - 13 , 15 - < 17 > include section
bibliography and index to new genera , species and varieties of foraminifera
( varies ) - - by h . e . thalmann . editors : 1927 - mar . 1930 , j . a . cushman ; june 1930 - mar . 1937 , r . c . moore ( with j . b . reeside , 1935 - mar . 1937 , c . w . cooke , apr . 1937 - mar . 1939 ) ; may 1939 - < 43 > c . w . cooke ( with n . d . newell , may 1939 - july 1942 , j . m . weller , sept . 1942 - < 43 > ) .
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journal of paleontology . / society of economic paleontologists and mineralogists . ; paleontological society . ; american association of petroleum geologists . ; geological society of america . ; ; [ tulsa , okla . ] society of economic paleontologists and mineralogists .
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and was characterized by its distinctive flat shape . the head and the tail were well developed and large relative to the whole
. the number of thoracic segments was small , and the eyes were large and crescentic in shape .
ordovician period , in geologic time , the second period of the paleozoic era . it began 485 . 4 million years ago , following the cambrian period , and ended 443 . 8 million years ago , when the silurian period began . ordovician rocks have the distinction of occurring at the highest elevation on earth—the…
trilobite , any member of a group of extinct fossil arthropods easily recognized by their distinctive three - lobed , three - segmented form . trilobites , exclusively marine animals , first appeared at the beginning of the cambrian period , about 542 million years ago , when they dominated the seas . although…
arthropod , any member of the phylum arthropoda , the largest phylum in the animal kingdom , which includes such familiar forms as lobsters , crabs , spiders , mites , insects , centipedes , and millipedes . about 84 percent of all known species of animals are members of this phylum . arthropods are…
fossil , remnant , impression , or trace of an animal or plant of a past geologic age that has been preserved in earth’s crust . the complex of data recorded in fossils worldwide—known as the fossil record—is the primary source of information about the history of life on earth . only a small fraction of…
ameura , genus of trilobites ( extinct arthropods ) found as fossils in north america rocks dating from the late carboniferous to the late permian period ( from 318 million to 251 million years ago ) . ameura is characterized by a well - developed cephalon ( head ) and a long pygidium ( tail region ) that…
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two big trilobites have been found in the caesar creek spillway . this one is on display in the visitor center . the other one is in the smithsonian . photo credit ; erin shaw - odnr caesar creek naturalist
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this fragment of the genal area shows part of the genal spine and a distinct hole that characterizes the genal area .
here , the entire
free cheek
was found encased in crinoid stems and matrix . note the apparently large eye .
the ends of thoracic segments are often found cemented together in groups preserving the distinctive shape of the pleural lobe .
individually , the ends of each thoracic segment resemble the paddle on an oar of a boat . this commonly found fragment is often mistaken for a hypostoma ( mouth plate ) , but is missing the fine lines on its surface .
single thoracic segments are often found on the surface of a rock . it appears as a unique brown stripe .
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all original material copyright 2008–2016 . no part of this site may be reproduced without written permission .
the content and opinions expressed on this web page do not necessarily reflect the views of nor are they endorsed by the university of georgia or the university system of georgia .
mon - sat : 10 a . m . to 5 p . m .
meet your state representative . i am not referring to your state senator or your district representative . this is your representative of ohio’s rich and significant paleontological past .
foerste was a dayton area high school teacher , a renowned and prolific paleontologist , and an important member of the “cincinnati school” of paleontology . the “cincinnati school” was not a formal educational institution , but rather refers to a dedicated group of amateur paleontologists active in the cincinnati area in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . each was a passionate collector and scholar of cincinnati fossils , and the fame of cincinnati grew from the research publications of these “gentlemen naturalists . ” all were associated with the cincinnati society of natural history , a predecessor of cincinnati museum center . since the time of the “cincinnati school , ” many cincinnatians have contributed to our understanding of the history of life . today , the university of cincinnati department of geology features one of america’s foremost paleontological programs . the dry dredgers , an award - winning association of amateur fossil collectors , and the longest running such group in the united states , is still going strong today . the extensive fossil collections of the cincinnati society of natural history , the university of cincinnati , and many “cincinnati school” and “dry dredgers” members , now reside at cincinnati museum center and form the largest collection of late ordovician fossils in the world .
the majority of the states in the united states have an official state fossil designation . several states have
unofficially designated thanks to a fossil being designated as the “state dinosaur” or “state stone” . there are 7 states without a state fossil designation , arkansas , hawaii , indiana , iowa , minnesota , new hampshire and rhode island .
(
king lizard
) is a genus of early whale that lived 40 to 34 million years ago in the late eocene . basilosaurus represents one of the earliest whales although it is actually descended from land mammals . the front flippers had an elbow joint and the back flippers where hind legs would have been are greatly reduced in size . it ' s estimated it could reach gigantic sizes of 40 - 60 feet in length . these ancient whale fossils are most abundant in alabama but fossil remains of the basilosaurus cetoides may not be removed from the state without prior written approval of the governor .
the woolly mammoth or mammuthus primigenius was a species of mammoth . the common name for the extinct elephant genus mammuthus . it was about the size of a modern day elephant , covered in fur and lived from 400 , 000 years ago to as recent as 4 , 000 years ago . it first evolved in eurasia and entered alaska from siberia over the bering land bridge around 65 , 000 years ago . it ' s fossils are frequently found in alaska by gold miners after being washed out of stream banks .
arizana is famous for it ' s vast petrified forest , so it makes sense that arizona ' s state fossil would be the most plentiful species of fossil tree in that forest , araucarioxylon arizonicum . petrified wood is fossil wood that has been turn to a fossil via permineralization . that is the organic wood material was replaced with minerals by water after it was buried . the petrified forest national monument is located north of i - 40 east of holbrook and is from the triassic age , approximately 200 million years ago .
arkansaurus , a bipedal coelurosaurian dinosaur , is the only dinosaur whose remains have been found in arkansas . joe b . friday discovered the dinosaur ' s fossilized foot in a gravel pit near lockesburg in 1972 when he was out looking for a cow .
) are abundant at the la brea tar pits in los angeles . smilodon is one of the most recognizable of the ferocious saber - toothed cats which roamed the americas up until 11 , 000 years ago . they could weight up to 350 kg and had massive , 8 inch long upper canine teeth which they used to prey on large ice age mammals .
the spike - tailed stegosaurus is one of the most iconic and recognizable dinosaurs . it ' s rare fossils can be found in the jurassic aged morrison formation of colorado . it is believed that a typical stegosaurus weighed ten tons but had a brain that was only about 2 ounces ( the size of a walnut ) while probably not the brightest of the dinosaurs it had a formidable array of armored plates , and a spiked tail with which to defend itself .
the connecticut valley is home to one of the most impressive dinosaur track sites in the world . tracks of many different types of dinosaurs have been found preserved in the valley ' s sandstone dating back to the early jurassic . eubrontes is the name given to the three - toed tracks but no skeletal remains have been found of their creator and the specific genus of dinosaur is not yet known . these tracks were the first known dinosaur fossils to be discovered in north america .
belemnites are an extinct group of squid - like cephalopods that lived during the jurassic and cretaceous . they had a hard , internal , cone shaped structure that is often preserved as a fossil though it is not technically a shell . they had 10 arms but unlike modern squid these arms had small hooks instead of suckers .
belemnites of the species belemnitella americana are found abundantly in the exposures of the mount laurel formation along the banks of the chesapeake and delaware canal . the fine - grained sands and silts of the mount laurel were deposited in a shallow sea during the late cretaceous .
currently , florida does not officially recognize a state fossil but it ' s state stone is actually a fossil , so we ' ll count it . the state stone , err fossil is agatized coral and the most commonly found type found in florida is anthozoa .
agatized
is a common name given to fossils that have been replaced by silica and contaminate minerals which provide the color . agatized / fossilized coral is found in several florida locations and may have been formed when runoffs of silt rich is clay and silica buried an eocene aged coral reef . some of the first inhabitants of florida some 5 , 000 years ago used this agatized coral as a material for making stone tools and points .
georgia ' s state fossil is the fossil shark tooth without any specific species or genus identified . fossil shark teeth are common in deposits ranging the cretaceous through the miocene in georgia . the reason shark teeth are so common is that sharks shed their teeth frequently during their lifetime and an adult shark may have left behind many thousands of teeth on the seafloor . the most impressive of these fossil shark teeth found in georgia are those of the
was discovered in 1928 by a cattle rancher near hagerman , idaho , hence the name . it is one of the oldest horses of the equus genus appearing 3 . 5 million years ago and is believed to be very similar to the african zebra . nearly 200 fossil horse skeletons have been recovered from the hagerman fossil beds national monument .
) was a soft - bodied invertebrate of unknown affinities that lived in the the waters of muddy estuaries during the pennsylvanian period , 300 million years ago . its fossils have only been found in the mazon creek fossil beds of illinois , united states . it lacks characteristics of any modern phyla and paleontologists speculate that it may be a representative of a stem group to one of the many phyla of worms .
was a giant , predatory marine lizard that could reach sizes of up to 50 feet in length . pteranodon is a type of pterosaurs which included some of the largest known flying reptiles , with wingspans up to 20 ft .
brachiopod shells are probably the most commonly found fossils in kentucky . they are so many different species of fossil brachiopods found in kentucky , the state simply designated the entire group as the state fossil .
are marine animals that superficially resembled clams , but are a completely different phylum with a vastly different internal structure .
petrified palm wood is the louisiana state fossil and is characterized by prominent rod - like structures within the regular grain of the petrified wood . in louisiana , petrified palm wood belongs to the genus
. it is found within the catahoula formation , which consists almost entirely of sediments deposited within broad , low - lying coastal plains during the oligocene period about 30 million years ago .
pertica is a genus of extinct vascular plants of the early to middle devonian ( around 420 to 380 million years ago ) . pertica quadrifaria ( the type species of the genus ) was described in 1972 from compression fossils found in the trout valley formation of northern maine , usa . it was an upright plant which grew to perhaps as much as a 3 feet in height .
ecphora gardnerae gardnerae is a species of large carnivorous sea snail lived during the miocene epoch , and became extinct more than five million years ago . the shells are found as fossils in maryland and virginia . ecphora was one of the first fossils from the new world to be illustrated in a scientific work in europe .
the connecticut river valley of western massachusetts is one of the world ' s richest sources of prehistoric dinosaur tracks . the dinosaur tracks in the connecticut valley date from about 180 million to 210 million years ago . they are actually the first recorded dinosaur tracks being first discovered by a farmer ' s son in the early 1800 ' s . the prints were first thought to be the marks of ancient birds . no one can be certain which dinosaurs made the prints , but it ' s believed the largest ( more than a foot in length ) may have been made by dilophosaurus , a 20 - foot long meat - eating dinosaur .
mammut americanum or the american mastodon is the youngest and most widely known member of the genus mammut . mastodons where relatives of elephants and mammoths and lived in michigan during the pliocene and pleistocene .
which is a rock containing fossilized rugose coral ( hexagonaria percarinata ) was designated the michigan state stone in 1965 .
petoskey stones are found in the gravel point formation of the traverse group . they are fragments of a coral reef that was originally deposited during the devonian period . the fragments were then natural polished by glaciers and are found over a wide area .
the name comes from an ottawa indian chief , chief pet - o - sega . the city of petoskey , michigan , is also named after him , and is the center of the area where the stones are found .
like alabama , mississippi has designated a primitive whale ( or rather two of them ) as their state fossils .
crinoids , sometimes commonly referred to as sea lilies are animals not plants . they are echinoderms related to starfish , sea urchins and brittle stars .
maiasaura is a large type of duck - billed dinosaur in montana during the upper cretaceous period , about 76 . 7 million years ago . maiasaura was large , attaining an adult length of about 30 ft and had the typical hadrosaurid flat ( duck - billed ) beak . . it had a small , spiky crest in front of its eyes , which may have been used in headbutting contests between males during the breeding season .
the mammoth was adopted as the nebraska state fossil in 1967 . the world’s largest mammoth skeleton , nicknamed ‘archie’ was discovered in lincoln county , nebraska and is currently on display at the university of nebraska state museum . archie is 25 feet , seven inches long and is estimate to have weighed a staggering 15 tons .
the mammoth was an elephant but much larger than the modern day version , hence the name . the remains on three different species of mammoth that roamed the plains during the pleistocene period have been found in nebraska .
shonisaurus is a gigantic genus of ichthyosaur that could reach lengths of nearly 50 feet . an ichthyosaur is an extinct marine reptile resembling a dolphin , with a long pointed head , four flippers , and a vertical tail .
in 1920 a large bone - bed of shonisaurus fossils was discovered near berlin , nevada in the triassic aged luning formation . excavations thirty years later would reveal the remains of 37 large individuals . these were named shonisaurus , which means
lizard from the shoshone mountains
, after the where the fossils were found . this area is now encompassed by berlin–ichthyosaur state park . shonisaurus was designated as the state fossil of nevada in 1984 .
hadrosaurus foulkii was a type of duckbilled dinosaur that roamed the forests and swamps along new jersey ' s coastline 80 million years ago . it was probably about 25 feet long and 10 feet tall . hadrosaurs are believed to have stood on their hind legs while grazing , and had a mouthful of hundreds of tiny , blocky teeth that would have functioned to grind leaves and other vegetation .
hadrosaurus foulkii was the dinosaur known from more than isolated teeth to be found in north america . a of hadrosaurus foulkii skeleton was discovered in 1858 by william foulke in a marl pit near haddonfield , new jersey . in 1868 , it became the first mounted dinosaur skeleton in the world and it was named the state dinosaur of new jersey in 1991 .
coelophysis bauri is an extinct species of coelophysid dinosaur that lived during the late triassic period , approximately 200 million years ago . it was a small , theropod dinosaur , about 6 feet in length and only weighing around 50 lbs . it was most likely a carnivore , preying on small reptiles , amphibians and early triassic mammals .
the remains of hundreds of skeletons of coelophysis were discovered at ghost ranch during the 1940s . because of the large number of remains that have been found it is probably the best known dinosaur of the triassic . coelophysis was adopted as the official fossil of new mexico by law in 1981 .
eurypterus is an extinct genus of “sea scorpion” that lived during the silurian period from around around 432 to 418 million years ago . the first discovered species of the genus was eurypterus remipes . eurypterus averaged at about 5 to 9 inches in length and possessed spine - bearing appendages with a large paddle they used for swimming .
eurypterus remipes lived along the bottom of the shallow , brackish sea that covered much of new york over 400 million years ago . the first fossil of eurypterus was found in 1818 by s . l . mitchill . it was first thought to be a fossil catfish and wasn’t correctly identified as an arthropod until years later . it was named the official state fossil of ny in 1984 .
. megalodon is the largest known predator in the history of the planet having been estimated to reach sizes of up to 60 feet long . huge serrated teeth up to 7 1 / 2 inches have been discovered . it ' s a good thing that this gigantic shark went extinct about 2 . 6 million years ago .
are relatively common fossils in north carolina . they are popularly collected by divers in the rivers and offshore after they erode out of the miocene aged hawthorn formation . these fossil teeth were adopted as the official state fossil of north carolina in 2013 .
teredo wood the name that is given to wood that was bored into by small marine mollusks called shipworms . thus , petrified teredo wood would be the fossils of this wood bearing the distinctive boreholes .
during the paleocene ( around 60 million years ago ) parts of north dakota were covered by warm water swamps , similar to florida today . sequoias and other trees growing in these swamps fell into the water and were washed out to sea become driftwood . they would then be bored into by the marine shipworms . under the right conditions this driftwood would become fossilized and replaced with silica through the process of petrification .
is a common fossil in the cannonball formation of south - central north dakota . it was designated the north dakota state fossil in 1967 .
is a genus of allosaurid dinosaur from the late jurassic ( ~ 151 million years old ) morrison formation of oklahoma . it was a truly massive predator , estimated to have reached a maximum size of 34 - 43 feet in length . the first bones of saurophaganax were found in the early 1930s near kenton , oklahoma . since that time , discoveries have been rare and fragmentary .
the metasequoia or “dawn redwood” is a deciduous conifer that flourished from 34 to 5 million years ago . it’s fossils are common in rocks of these ages in oregon and many other areas of the pacific northwest . it was made the official oregon state fossil in 2005 after intense lobbying by a local fossil enthusiast who presented every legislator with a metasequoia fossil . it’s an appropriate fossil for the state , because of the states prominent timber heritage .
phacops may be the most widely recognizable type of trilobite fossil in the world . phacops rana is a species of the genus that can found in pennsylvania ' s devonian aged rocks . trilobites are an extinct marine arthropod that occurred abundantly during the paleozoic era .
phacops rana was named the official state fossil of pennsylvania in 1988 after being proposed to lawmakers by a elementary school science class .
became the official state fossil of south carolina in 2014 . south dakota is the sixth state to make a mammoth the state fossil , and the second most recent to official name a state fossil . it almost didn’t happen because of months of delays by creationist lawmakers who tried to add amendments referring to the book of genesis and god ' s creation to the law .
“the columbian mammoth , which was created on the sixth day with the other beasts of the field , is designated as the official state fossil of south carolina and must be officially referred to as the ' columbian mammoth , ' which was created on the sixth day with the other beasts of the field .
it took much pleading by state residents to keep religion out of science but eventually the bill passed free of religious amendments .
prior to 1988 the official state fossil of south dakota was the cycad , a type of palm like mesozoic plant . legislators decided to change it to one of the most recognizable dinosaurs to all - time , triceratops .
the horned dinosaur triceratops is one of the most common dinosaur fossils in the cretaceous aged hell creek formation that outcrops in south dakota . many fine specimens of this large , rhinocerous looking herbivore have been discovered in south dakota .
pterorigonia is an extinct genus of that is a common fossil in the cretaceous aged rocks in west tennessee . about 70 million years ago , much of tennessee was covered by a shallow sea . in 1998 pterorigonia thoracica was named as the official state fossil of the state .
the early cretaceous sauropod dinosaur paluxysaurus jonesi is estimated to have been about 60 feet long , 26 feet of that being it’s long neck . it is a relative of brachiosaurus & camarasaurus and its tracks can be viewed at dinosaur valley state park near glen rose , texas . complete skeletons of this dinosaur are unknown , and most material is fragmentary .
originally the official state dinosaur was pleurocoelus but that designation only lasted seven years when the bones were determined to have come from a different genus and species , paluxysaurus jonesi . in 2009 governor rick perry signed house concurrent resolution no changing the name of the state dinosaur to match .
texas ' s state stone , petrified palmoxylon wood also happens to be a fossil .
allosaurus is a well - known predatory dinosaur that lived during the jurassic period and probably hunted in packs . it averaged about 25 - 30 feet in length and is the most common dinosaur fossil found in the morrison formation that outcrops in eastern utah . over 60 skeletons , representing both adults and juveniles of the species have been found in one quarry in utah along . it’s skull could reach up to 3 feet in length with backwardly curving teeth . it could open its jaw very wide and it has been theorized that it used it’s upper jaw like a hatchet to attach prey .
vermont has two state fossils designated , a state terrestrial ( land ) fossil and a state marine fossil .
the “mount holly mammoth” was designated as the state terrestrial fossil in 2014 . discovered in 1848 , the mount holly mammoth consists of a partial mammoth found in a peat bog on mt . holly while making an excavation for a railroad .
in making this excavation , the workmen found at the bottom of the bed , resting upon gravel which separated it from the rock below , a huge tooth . the depth of the peat at that place was eleven feet . soon afterwards one of the tusks was found , about eighty feet from the place of the tooth mentioned above , which was a grinder . subsequently the other tusk and several of the bones of the animal were found near the same place . these bones and teeth were submitted to the inspection of professor agassiz , who pronounced them to be extinct species of elephant . the directors of the r . & b . r . r . to whom they belong , placed them in the museum of the university of vermont , for preservation , and for the illustration of our fossil geology . ”
in 1993 a fossil beluga whale skeleton was designated as the official vermont marine fossil . vermont is the only state that designates a fossil symbol from a species that still exists today .
holds the distinction of being the first fossil described in north america in 1687 . it was named to honor thomas jefferson because of his interest in natural history and to celebrate the chesapeake bay , the largest estuary in the world . fossils of this 4 million year old shellfish are commonly found in streams and beaches of southeastern virginia . it is an index fossil for the lower yorktown formation .
washington is one of six states to have the woolly mammoth , designated as a state fossil , but at least they were one of the first to do so . so , it’s the other states being unoriginal . petrified wood ( a fossil ) is also designated as the state stone . fossilized remains of the columbian mammoth were found on the olympic peninsula in western washington and petrified wood at several localities in eastern washington .
jeffersonii is an extinct giant ground sloth that lived in north america from the late miocene ( 10 million years ago ) through the pleistocene ( 11k years ago ) it was nearly 10 feet high and weight up to a ton . it is one of the most unusual north american ice - age mammals . it had thick hair that enabled the species to endure colder temperatures and range farther north than other ground sloths . it’s name latin for “great claw” from the fact that it had a giant claw .
like the state fossil of virginia the species is named after fossil lover and third president of the united state , thomas jefferson . his lecture on megalonyx to the american philosophical society in 1797 marked the beginning of vertebrate paleontology in north america . in 2008 megalonyx jeffersonii was officially adopted as the west virginia state fossil .
in 1985 the trilobite calymene celebra was adopted as the official wisconsin state fossil . trilobites are extinct marine arthropods which dominated the seas during the paleozoic period . calymene celebra lived during the silurian period , at a time when warm , shallow seas covered the state . its fossils are common in the vast niagara dolomite outcroppings which are exposed in the state .
wyoming has both a state fossil , designated in 1987 and a state dinosaur designated in 1994 .
a genus of fossil herring was designated at the official state fossil . 45 - 50 million years ago , several large , freshwater lakes covered the southwestern part of wyoming , as well as areas of utah and colorado . periodically there were mass die - offs of fish in the lake , potentially caused by volcanic eruptions , temperature fluctuations , or algal blooms . a low oxygen environment at the bottom of the lake allowed for beautiful preservation of these fish as fossils . today these fossils are found in huge numbers at several quarries near kemmerer , wy . knightia is the most common of the fossil fish from the green river formation .
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this trilobite was discovered during field research on the hudson bay shoreline , where it lay exposed for only 1 . 5 hours each tide cycle . the crew worked quickly , using hammers , pry bars , and chisels to separate it from the surrounding bedrock .
trilobites lived in ancient seas from the early cambrian period ( about 540 , 000 , 000 years ago ) . they probably ate live and dead animals on the sea floor . this trilobite may have grown so large because it lived in warm waters with ample food , as churchill was near the equator at the time .
trilobites are extinct arthropods that were the dominant creatures in seas of the early paleozoic era . most trilobites are up to a few centimetres long . this fossil , measuring more than 70 centimetres in length , is the largest complete specimen in the world , and is listed in the guinness book of world records .
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a spectacular , museum - quality example of the official ohio state fossil , it is complete , down to the genal spines . it measures 9
in length on an 11 3 / 4
x 10 1 / 2
matrix . resin . ohio .
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