the pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis or hexaprotodon liberiensis ) is a small hippopotamid which is native to the forests and swamps of west africa , primarily in liberia , with small populations in sierra leone , guinea , and ivory coast .

the pygmy hippo is reclusive and nocturnal .

it is one of only two extant species in the family hippopotamidae , the other being its much larger relative , the common hippopotamus ( hippopotamus amphibius ) .

the pygmy hippopotamus displays many terrestrial adaptations , but like the hippo , it is semiaquatic and relies on water to keep its skin moist and its body temperature cool .

behaviors such as mating and giving birth may occur in water or on land .

the pygmy hippo is herbivorous , feeding on ferns , broad-leaved plants , grasses , and fruits it finds in the forests .

a rare nocturnal forest creature , the pygmy hippopotamus is a difficult animal to study in the wild .

pygmy hippos were unknown outside west africa until the 19th century .

introduced to zoos in the early 20th century , they breed well in captivity and the vast majority of research is derived from zoo specimens .

the survival of the species in captivity is more assured than in the wild ; the world conservation union estimates that fewer than 3,000 pygmy hippos remain in the wild .

pygmy hippos are primarily threatened by loss of habitat , as forests are logged and converted to farm land , and are also vulnerable to poaching , hunting for bushmeat , natural predators , and war .

pygmy hippos are among the species illegally hunted for food in liberia .

pygmy hippopotamus

pygmy hippopotamus | pygmy hippopotamus classification and evolution the pygmy hippopotamus . . . | hip hippos | pinterest | hippopotamus and animal
subject pygmy hippopotamus . pygmy hippopotamus > research . pygmy hippopotamus > conservation . rare mammals > africa , west .
common hippopotamus , river hippopotamus , or nile hippopotamus ; in afrikaan : seekoei ( sea cow ) .
the pygmy hippopotamus is one of only two extant hippopotamus species in the world . here are a few facts about the lesser known pygmy hippopotamus , the cousin of a much larger common hippopotamus .
image caption : pygmy hippo / pygmy hippopotamus . credit : tomasz sienicki / wikipedia ( cc by 2 . 5 )
leidy , 1991 . pygmy hippopotamus . pp . 1350 - 1351 in r nowak , ed .
millburn , naomi .
facts on the pygmy hippopotamus
accessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken
millburn , naomi .
facts on the pygmy hippopotamus .
animals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / pygmy - hippopotamus - 2204 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .
millburn , naomi . ( n . d . ) . facts on the pygmy hippopotamus . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / pygmy - hippopotamus - 2204 . html
when it was decided to separate the dwarfed cypriote hippopotamus from the genus hippopotamus , the word phanourios was chosen as the new genus after the saint whose name is frequently connected with cypriote hippopotamus fossils .
the cerebral cortex of the pygmy hippopotamus , hexaprotodon liberiensis ( cetartiodactyla , hippopotamidae ) : mri , cytoarchitecture , and neuronal morphology .
although they superficially look like the well - known common hippopotamus ( hippopotamus amphibius ) , pygmy hippos ( choeropsis liberiensis ) differ in ecology , behavior , and most conspicuously , body size . the common hippopotamus can reach upwards of 3 , 000 kg , whereas the diminutive pygmy hippopotamus rarely tops 300 kg . the hippos are so distinct that the species are two different genera . while common hippos congregate in large social groups , the pygmy hippopotamus is rare , solitary and nocturnal ; traits that make direct observation nearly impossible and survey methods more complex .
source / reference article learn how you can use or cite the pygmy hippopotamus article in your website content , school work and other projects .
the bone he believed to be a human long bone , which he pictures , is in fact a humerus of the cypriote pygmy hippopotamus .
for further information about this species , see 10103 _ hippopotamus _ amphibius . pdf .
hippopotamus es are also found in the upper and lower stretches of the zambezi . …
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the cerebral cortex of the pygmy hippopotamus , hexaprotodon liberiensis ( cetartiodactyla , hippopotamidae ) : mri , cytoarchitecture , and neuronal morp . . . - pubmed - ncbi
the pygmy hippopotamus shares the barrel - shaped body form of the closely related common hippopotamus ( hippopotamus amphibius ) , but is considerably smaller . other physical differences between the two hippopotamus species include the placing of the eyes , which are more towards the side of the head in the pygmy hippopotamus , feet that are not as webbed as in the common hippopotamus ( 2 ) , and the pygmy ' s sloping smooth , greenish - black back ( 7 ) . the sexes are similar in appearance ; as males do not have a scrotum , males and females are very difficult to tell apart ( 7 ) . the name hippopotamus derives from the greek for ' river horse ' ( 2 ) . genetic studies have revealed that hippopotami share a common ancestor with whales ( 2 ) , while recent fossil evidence alludes to a close relationship between whales and all ungulates ( 7 ) .
there were many species of smaller hippos that once inhabited the mediterranean , but these are now extinct . among these species are the sicilian hippopotamus , the maltese hippopotamus , the cretan dwarf hippopotamus , and the cyprus dwarf hippopotamus . these species are considered to be dwarf hippos , because they were larger than pygmy hippos but smaller than hippopotamuses . it is thought that their small size occurred due to living on islands , a frequent occurrence among island dwelling animals .
the pygmy hippopotamus is found in western africa , mainly in liberia but also in sierra leone , guinea , and the ivory coast ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
the pygmy hippopotamus is a herbivorous species . its diet consists of various vegetation including succulents , tender shoots , leaves , roots , grasses , aquatic plants and fallen fruit .
the hippopotamus can be found in all kinds of ancient african folklore with its name in greek actually meaning
water horse
. despite this fascination with the hippopotamus , hunting of them for their meat and
the pygmy hippopotamus , or pygmy hippo , choeropsis liberiensis , is an endangered mammal of high conservation concern endemic to the threatened upper guinea forest hotspot of west africa . zsl is working in the field and in our zoos to protect the remaining populations .
i arrived that rainy night on tiwai island armed with 20 remote - sensing camera traps to capture pygmy hippos in digital pictures . i was also exploring methods to safely capture a pygmy hippopotamus and attach a radio tracking device . since locally pygmy hippos are known to be delicious and they routinely destroy farmer’s crops ( see video below ) , i also created questionnaires to learn about local knowledge of pygmy hippos and conservation perceptions .
mueller , jennifer .
how are endangered hippopotamus being protected in africa ?
accessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken
the hippopotamus has an enormous grey barrel - shaped body that can measure up to five meters in length and weigh more than four tonnes , and which is held up by short and stocky legs . one of the hippopotamus ' s most
at first glance , the pygmy hippopotamus looks like a mini version of its larger relative , the hippopotamus ( also known as the river or common hippopotamus ) . but it differs in behavior and physical characteristics . the pygmy hippo has adaptations for spending time in the water but is much less aquatic than the hippo . its nose and ears close underwater just like a hippo ' s do , but its head is rounder and narrower , its neck is proportionally longer , and its eyes are not on the top of its head .
for example , the african pygmy hippopotamus and the south american capybara are both semiaquatic residents of swampy tropical forest habitats . although they belong to entirely separate orders , they have converged upon comparable sizes . furthermore , they have done so from opposite ends of their normal size ranges—the african pygmy hippo…
of the two species of hippopotamus , only one , the pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis ) is classified as endangered . a pygmy hippo looks much like the better - known common hippo , but smaller , with eyes on the side of a more rounded head . although little is known about this nocturnal species , a 1993 international union for conservation of nature study , the most recent of its kind , estimated between 2 , 000 and 3 , 000 individuals live in the west african countries of liberia , sierra leone , guinea and the ivory coast . conservation biologists consider a nigerian pygmy hippopotamus subspecies to be extinct .
a common or river hippo weighs about 10 times as much as a pygmy hippo .
and consumes a wide range a plants and plant material throughout the forest . the pygmy
mueller , jennifer .
how are endangered hippopotamus being protected in africa ?
animals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / endangered - hippopotamus - being - protected - africa - 7405 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .
which can weigh up to 3kg each . due to the way that the skin of the hippopotamus is made up , the
the pygmy hippo is classified in the genus choeropsis that means , “resembling a hog” . it is thought that the malagasy pygmy hippopotamus , which is now among the three extinct species that inhabited madagascar , was a sister species to the pygmy hippo , deriving from the same ancestor . samuel g . morton once classified the pygmy hippo as hippopotamus minor , but studies showed that it was unique enough to hold its own genus , choeropsis . coryndon suggested that the pygmy hippo was a close relative of prehistoric hippos that were native to asia , called hexaprotodon . after coryndon made this assumption in 1977 , it was majorly accepted until 2005 , when boisserie claimed that it was too distinct from hexaprotodon , and so the pygmy hippo was re - classified into its genus choeropsis .
the pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis ) is a herbivorous creature that exists predominantly in western africa ' s liberia , although to a much lesser degree in nearby nations such as nigeria , ivory coast , guinea and sierra leone . the moderate - sized animals are considered to be significantly more timid than their larger counterparts , the common hippopotamus .
mueller , jennifer . ( n . d . ) . how are endangered hippopotamus being protected in africa ? animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / endangered - hippopotamus - being - protected - africa - 7405 . html
because the pygmy hippo is smaller than the common hippopotamus , its bones are thinner , which give it a better level of gracefulness . the pygmy hippo’s spine differs from that of the hippopotamus , curving forward at a sloping angel , and it is thought that this aids its movement through dense vegetation . the pygmy hippo spends less time in the water than its larger relative , and so its nostrils and eye sockets are less adapted to keeping water out . the toes are also adapted for moving through forest vegetation , bearing toes that are more spread out and with less webbing than the toes of the common hippopotamus . despite these adaptations that aid on land , the pygmy hippo is the most aquatic of all even - toed ungulates .
the rare pygmy hippopotamus ( hexaprotodon liberiensis , also known as choeropsis liberiensis ) , the other living species of the family hippopotamidae , is about the size of a domestic pig . the pygmy hippo is less aquatic than its larger relative , although , when pursued , it hides in water . less gregarious , it…
. when startled , pygmy hippos flee a short distance into vegetation , where they hide .
oil pollution in estuaries by the sea further threaten pygmy hippo populations . ( oliver 1993 )
. despite its appearance , the hippopotamus is actually thought to be most closely related to whales as the two are thought to have had a common ancestor that existed roughly 54 million years ago . also known as the common hippopotamus , it is one of two hippo
the pygmy hippopotamus , choeropsis liberiensis is a shy inhabitant of the upper guinea forest ecosystem of liberia , sierra leone , guinea and côte d’ivoire . with only about 2000 - 3000 individuals remaining , the pygmy hippo is classified as endangered on the 2010 iucn red list , as well as being an evolutionarily distinct species .
a hippopotamus . photograph by william & marcia levy . the national audubon society collection / photo researchers , inc . reproduced by permission .
source / reference article learn how you can use or cite the hippopotamus article in your website content , school work and other projects .
comments : first described as hippopotamus minor morton , 1844 ( proc . acad . nat . sci . phila . , 2 : 14 )
the biggest threat to the pygmy hippopotamus ' continued survival is loss of habitat due to logging and deforestation to clear the way for agricultural development and human settlements . because of this , the species ' largest populations are found on protected nature preserves . a large population lives in the sapo national park in liberia , the country ' s only national preserve . the park ' s 509 square miles are the most effectively protected pygmy hippopotamus habitat according to the iucn . pygmy hippo populations also live in tai national park in the ivory coast and the gola forest reserve in sierra leone .
tire mogul harvey firestone , who owned a rubber plantation in liberia , gave president calvin coolidge a pygmy hippo named billy . billy is an ancestor of almost all pygmy hippos living in american zoos .
hippopotamus madagascariensis retains low orbits and a relatively short muzzle . stuenes ( 1989 ) used these features to propose a more terrestrial way of life for this species than in hippopotamus amphibius . similarly , stuenes ( 1989 ) indicated a cranio - mandibular morphology closer to that of choeropsis liberiensis , the extant pigmy hippo from western africa . she further noted that hippopotamus madagascariensis exhibited teeth generally more worn than in hippopotamus lemerlei . these characters both suggest a diet differing from that of the other madagascan dwarf hippopotamid . the ecology of hippopotamus madagascariensis may have been close to that of mediterranean extinct dwarf hippopotamids , but further investigation of this question is required , notably on postcranial anatomy , stable isotope enamel / bone contents , and dental wear .
, they have a number of adaptations that aid them when in the dense forest . although the pygmy
pygmy hippos are classified as endangered by the iucn and are on appendix ii of cites . threats to
the hippopotamus spends up to 18 hours a day in the water to keep cool but when darkness falls , they venture out onto land and follow well - trodden paths to their feeding grounds , before returning to the water in the morning . the hippopotamus is one of the largest and most feared
we soon began our first pit trap attempts to capture a pygmy hippopotamus . if the pit traps were successful in catching a pygmy hippopotamus , we would bring a wildlife veterinarian to sierra leone to help us anesthetize a hippo . when the hippo was asleep , we would place a radio collar to track the hippo’s movements through the forest . we were interested in learning more about hippo habitat to identify what pygmy hippos need to survive . using local hunter knowledge and maybe a little bit of “juju” , we dug several holes and covered them with rattan mats and debris . then it was time to wait .
the pygmy hippopotamus , hexaprotodon liberiensis , is a solitary and nocturnal species belonging to the hippopotamidae family . these semi - aquatic creatures are herbivores in nature , and are believed to be more timid and calm than their larger cousins . the pygmy hippopotamus is native to west africa , predominantly to liberia , however , some of them are also found in guinea , sierra leone , and ivory coast . interestingly , this creature was not known until the middle of the 19th century . in 1844 , dr . samuel morton of the academy of natural sciences , philadelphia described it scientifically for the first time , on the basis of the skulls that he had found when he was living in monrovia , the capital of liberia . he found that this species of hippopotamus was much smaller than the common hippopotamus , and so he named it as hippopotamus minor . however , in 1849 , with more research conducted on the species and its distinctive characteristics recognized , it was renamed as choeropsis liberiensis . more researches were carried out on the pygmy hippo , and in 1977 , it was found that it bore some striking similarities with the extinct species of the hexaprotodon , some fossils of which have been discovered . owing to this , it is now renamed as hexaprotodon liberiensis . we , at buzzle , have collected some facts about the pygmy hippopotamus .
and even rest in burrows in the vegetation on river banks . unlike its larger cousin though , the pygmy
gives birth to a single calf either in a den in the dense vegetation or in the water . pygmy
forests within the pygmy hippo’s historical range have been steadily logged , farmed and settled . human development activities have caused the retreat of pygmy hippo into diminishing parcels of forest , which are becoming increasingly fragmented and insular .
specific ecosystem roles of pygmy hippos are unknown but their herbivorous diet probably has an effect on plant populations .
lang , e . 1990 . pygmy hippoptamuses . pp . 58 - 64 in b grzimek , ed .
zsl london zoo ' s two pygmy hippos , thug and nicky , have a plush pad to enjoy .
deforestation is the main threat facing the pygmy hippopotamus ( 2 ) . hunting is also known to occur , but the extent of this has not been determined ( 2 ) . the subspecies c . l . heslopi in nigeria may already be extinct ( 2 ) .
pygmy hippos use scent marking with their feces to alert other hippos to their presence . like other mammals , they may use scent cues to advertise reproductive status as well . pygmy hippos are typically silent , but do make snorts , grunts , hisses , and squeaks occasionally . otherwise , little is known about how pygmy hippos communicate .
edinburgh zoo currently has two pygmy hippos : an adult male , called otto and an adult female called gloria .
pygmy hippos often spend time resting and feeding on land . their behavior in the wild is still largely unknown .
as of 2004 , 290 captive - born pygmy hippos in 135 zoos . ( hlavacek et al . 2005 )
solitary pygmy hippos in captivity may experience undue stress when pairs of females or male / female pairs housed together .
in 2007 zsl’s edge of existence programme recognised pygmy hippos as a priority for conservation . since then , zsl has been working in liberia and sierra leone , trying to work towards protecting what remains of the wild pygmy hippo population .
, but also from hunting . the hippopotamus has been hunted by people for both its meat and its teeth which are made of ivory . since the ban on trading
the pygmy hippopotamus , or pygmy hippo , was discovered only recently - in the mid 1800s . a shy and solitary animal , it lives in swamps and forests . it is smaller than the common hippo but not an exact copy . for its size the pygmy hippo has longer legs , a smaller head and narrower mouth . hiding in dense forests it eats leaves , herbs , fallen fruits and grasses . to reach higher branches it stands on its hind legs and leans on the tree with its front legs .
lang , e . m . , k . hentschel , and w . bulow . 1990 . pygmy hippopotamuses ( genus
pygmy hippo distribution . adapted from urltoken according to iucn fact sheet . click here or on map for detailed inset .
it was thought that both the pygmy hippopotamus and its larger relative , the common hippopotamus , were most closely related to hogs or pigs in the suidae family , or peccaries . due to research done in the past ten years , it is now commonly thought that hippos are more closely related to dolphins or whales . it is thought that hippos originated from africa , and although they moved through europe and asia , no native specimens have been found in the americas .
now that we knew the traps could successfully and safely capture a pygmy hippopotamus , my major professor , dr . john carroll and a wildlife veterinarian , dr . michele miller , flew to sierra leone to help me capture and radio - collar a pygmy hippopotamus . my advisor , dr . sonia hernandez , would coordinate everything from the united . i added 2 more field assistants ( alusine and lahai ) who could read and write to help . unfortunately we did not successfully capture a hippo during this time , although we had several near - captures ( the pygmy hippos fell halfway in but were able to escape ) . we hope to travel for another attempt later this year if we can raise the funds .
. the pygmy hippo is less aquatic than its larger relative , although , when pursued , it hides in water . less
of the hippopotamus , particularly of the young or sick individuals . it is because of this that females are thought to congregate in herds as larger numbers are more intimidating to hungry
the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has included the pygmy hippopotamus in their list of endangered species . according to the iucn estimates , there are less than 3 , 000 pygmy hippos surviving in the wild today . loss of habitat , due to the shrinking of forests , is one of the major causes of concern with respect to the endangerment of these animals . moreover , they are hunted on a largely for bush meat , which is considered to be of a very superior quality . pygmy hippopotamus is also likely to fall prey to animals such as crocodiles , pythons , and leopards , which further dwindles their population . however , fortunately enough , their population has been increasing in captivity since the past few years .
, the hippopotamus only eats around 40kg of food a night as it uses very little energy whilst floating in the water for most of the day . in areas that are close to
to find food , they are seen as pests by farmers who not only fear for their livelihood , but also for their lives themselves . the hippopotamus is known to be an aggressive
the island sweepstakes why did pygmy elephants , dwarf deer , and large mice once populate the mediterranean ? by paul y . sondaar
including four webbed toes on each foot that help with swimming and walking on slippery banks , and the eyes , ears and nostrils of the hippopotamus are situated on the top of its head . this means that when the hippopotamus ' s body is immersed in the water , they are still able to see , hear and breath whilst keeping cool in the hot sun .
➦ the average age of maturity of a pygmy hippopotamus lies between three to five years . ➦ not much is known about their breeding behavior in the wild . however , a considerable number of studies have been conducted on the ones in captivity . ➦ in captivity , pygmy hippos mate as monogamous pairs , one to four times during an estrous period . also , they mate during any time of the year . ➦ the gestation period ranges anywhere between 190 to 210 days , and generally , a single calf is born . there have been some rare instances of twins as well . ➦ the pygmy hippopotamus can mate and give birth , both in water and on land , unlike their greater cousins , who mate only in water . ➦ the young pygmy hippos usually wean by the age of six to eight months , only after which they accompany their mother for foraging into the forest .
the pygmy hippopotamus resembles its large relative closely , with short legs and a stout body , however , this species is about half as small as its cousin is . the pygmy hippo reaches an average body length of 5 . 8 feet , a height of 2 . 6 feet at the shoulders , and an average weight between four hundred and six hundred pounds . its skin can be green - black in color , or brown , with a light creamy colored underbelly . like the large hippopotamus , the pygmy hippo secretes a pinkish colored substance , known as “blood - sweat” , although it is neither sweat nor blood . it is thought that this secretion holds a mixture of sun screening and antiseptic properties . this aids the hippos in keeping their dry skin moist .
thug and nicky will be joining up with the other animals in into africa . just like the giraffes , okapi , and warthogs , pygmy hippos hail from africa . in fact , pygmy hippos are very rare animals and can only be found in west africa .
and forages in the forest at night for a wide variety of plant matter and fallen fruits . like their larger cousin , the pygmy
pygmy hippos are distributed across west africa , more specifically , in sierra leone , guinea , côte d ' ivoire , and liberia .
some zoologists replace the genus hexaprotodon with choeropsis . more pig - like than its larger relative , the pygmy hippo ' s scientific status has been quite varied - when it was first described , many dismissed it as a stunted freak , a dwarf subspecies or a juvenile specimen of the common hippopotamus . after its initial description , when no more news of the pygmy hippo reached the west , many scientists wrote it off - whatever it was - as extinct . however , its true status - as a distinct and existent species - was proven by schomburgk in 1911 , when he captured five live specimens and brought them back to europe . the name hippopotamus is from hippos ( greek ) a horse , and potamos ( greek ) a river - although
river - pig
would be much more appropriate ! while this ungulate is large in comparison to most others , it gets its name ' pygmy ' from the fact that it is much smaller than the river hippopotamus . .
in captivity , the populations of pygmy hippos are increasing , causing the survival of the species in in zoos to be higher than the chances of wild pygmy hippos surviving . the number of births in zoos doubled between the years of 1970 and 1991 , but only nineteen percent of births in captivity since 1919 have been males . the zoo basel , located in switzerland , oversees the breeding of pygmy hippos around the world , holding the international studbook of breeding males . there are some wild populations that can be found in protected areas , and the species was listed as a “focal species” by the evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered ( edge ) project in 2007 . the pygmy hippopotamus appears on the iucn red list with a conservation status of “endangered” .
part i . discovery , history and capture . what is a pygmy hippopotamus ? the small details that define them / gabriella l . flacke ; hippos in popular culture and folklore / gabriella l . flacke ; looking for enigmas in the fores : a chronicle of travelers , trappers , and researchers / phillip t . robinson ; the use and abuse of hippos in nature : no peace treaty in sight / phillip t . robinson ; heslop ' s pygmy hippopotamus : the nigerian extinction / phillip t . robinson ; hans schomburgk : hunter , trapper , bush bicyclist / phillip t . robinson ; frans van den brink : the master hippo catcher / phillip t . robinson
at the san diego zoo , our pygmy hippos are fed a super high - fiber pellet , a bit of hay , and greens .
two hippo species are found in africa . the large hippo , found in east africa , occurs south of the sahara . the other , much smaller ( 440 to 605 pounds ) species of hippo is the pygmy hippopotamus . limited to very restricted ranges in west africa , it is a shy , solitary forest dweller and is now rare .
billy , a pygmy hippo , the common ancestor of most pygmy hippos in u . s . zoos , was presented to the u . s . president calvin coolidge by an american businessman in 1927 . it was then donated to the national zoo , washington , d . c .
that are becoming more and more isolated . although hippopotamus populations are considered stable in a number of countries in the south and the east of the continent , they are declining in many others and are particularly
the pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis or hexaprotodon liberiensis ) , also known as the pygmy hippo , is native to western areas of africa . its range includes liberia , with smaller populations occurring in ivory coast , sierra leone , and guinea . it prefers a habitat in swamps and forests , where a body of water is available to keep its skin moisturized . it is a semi - aquatic creature , and can perform tasks such as breeding or giving birth in the water or on land .
has a long barrel - shaped body that is covered in slate - grey skin , which lightens towards the underside . the head of the pygmy
and along with its narrower mouth , makes it easier for them to run through the forest at speed . due to the fact that the pygmy
such as pythons , that are able easily ambush the unprotected young calf whilst its mother is out foraging . the biggest threat to the remaining pygmy
at taronga zoo we currently have two pygmy hippos , a male named fergus and a female named kambiri ( dob : 26 june 2010 ) .
want to know the key differences between pygmy hippos and their large cousins ? here are some ways to sort between your common hippos and pygmys .
it is estimated that there could be less that 2000 pygmy hippos left in the wild , with a nigerian subspecies already believed to be extinct . in the wild , pygmy hippos come under threat from hunting and habitat loss . many populations of hippos have become fragmented due to logging , mining , farming and other human activity . as pygmy hippos are forced to engage with local communities , they come under more and more danger from extinction .
part iii . biology and natural history . the flora and fauna of pygmy hippo country : meet the neighbors / gabriella l . flacke ; pygmy hippo feeding behavior and nutrition / knut m . hentschel ; the pygmy hippo hunters : our guides in the forest / phillip t . robinson ; common ground for hippos in west africa : their overlapping occurrence in nature / phillip t . robinson ; sly , shy or focused ? the origins of elusiveness / phillip t . robinson ; husbandry , health , and pathology of pygmy hippos : optimizing well - being in captivity / gabriella l . flacke .
zsl has pioneered in situ conservation of pygmy hippos in liberia since 2008 , in collaboration with fauna and flora international ( ffi ) and liberia’s forestry development authority ( fda ) . because the pygmy hippo is so poorly known , we have carried out surveys of where they exist and threats to their populations , using methods such as camera trapping . in 2008 zsl and our partners obtained the first photos of pygmy hippos in the country . in november 2010 , zsl held the first ‘international pygmy hippo conservation strategy planning workshop’ in liberia and produced a regional conservation strategy under the umbrella of the iucn ssc hippo specialist group . the strategy articulated the vision , goal , objectives and actions required for in situ conservation of pygmy hippos . also in 2010 zsl began working with a team from njala university in sierra leone to research and protect a population of pygmy hippos around loma mountain in northern sierra leone .
birth weight : common hippo 25 - 55 kg ( 55 - 121 lb ) ; pygmy hippos 5 . 73 kg ( 12 . 7 lb )
➦ the pygmy hippopotamus is found mainly in the forests and swamps of west africa . ➦ though the creature is adapted to terrestrial life in many ways , its semi - aquatic characteristics requires it to dwell in the vicinity of water bodies , to help moisten its skin and maintain proper level of its body temperature . owing to this , it makes its burrow close to a freshwater body . ➦ it is interesting to note that the range of habitat of the pygmy hippo , in spite of being so closely related to the common hippo , does not overlap with it . the common hippo is usually found in grasslands , whereas the pygmy hippo is an inhabitant of the forests .
the pygmy hippo ' s feet are less webbed and its toes more free than those of the hippo , and its legs are longer than its huge cousin ' s . the pygmy hippo ' s teeth are also different : it only has one pair of incisors , while the hippo has two or three .
hippos display tusk - like canines sharpened by wear against their upper teeth . to the front of a pygmy hippo jaw are a single pair of incisors .
origin of name and closest relatives : the name hippopotamus comes from the greek word meaning ‘river horse’ , although hippos are not related to horses . hippos are actually related to cetaceans i . e . whales , dolphins and porpoises
pygmy hippos are different than common hippos in more ways than just their much smaller physiques . the birthing practices are also very different between the two creatures . while common hippos welcome their young to the world in the winter , pygmy hippos do so on land . the youngsters are capable of swimming immediately after birth .
so far the response to our project has been excellent . residents are proud that their island is an important habitat for this rare animal , as demonstrated during the ambassador’s visit , and they believe this project will help advertise tourism and research on tiwai island . when people view pygmy hippos and other wildlife as more than protein or pests , they are more willing to help in conservation efforts . our hope is that one day the pygmy hippo can be seen as the diamond of sierra leone . as kenewa once said “we shall never again eat pygmy hippo meat . we have tasted pygmy hippo benefits , and they are sweeter . ”
the pygmy hippopotamus usually lives in swamp and river settings that are in the midst of thick and damp tropical lowland forests . these nocturnal hippos often like to stay in burrows closely surrounding rivers . since they are semi - aquatic , it ' s important for them to never be far from water . h20 is vital for these hippos as it both cools their bodies and hydrates their skin .
forages under the cover of night eating grasses , ferns , leaves , shrubs and fruits that have fallen onto the forest floor from the branches above . the pygmy
the pygmy hippo population is currently decreasing , being assessed as an endangered species by the iucn red list ( retrieved 23 . 02 . 16 from urltoken ) .
in the field , zsl carries out vital research into pygmy hippo ecology , distribution and behaviour . we also work with local communities and government wildlife authorities to protect them . alongside this , zsl london zoo and whipsnade zoo are part of a captive breeding program and in 2010 produced the iucn ssc regional pygmy hippo conservation strategy .
baby pygmy hippos weigh between 9 . 9–13 . 7 pounds at birth , and are able to swim almost immediately after birth . instead of following the mother out of the water , the baby pygmy hippo will remain hidden in the water for safety as she forages for food . the baby will nurse up to three times a day and is weaned at six to eight months of age . the average age at which the pygmy hippo reaches sexual maturity is between three and five years of age .
a 1993 population estimate suggested that only 2000 - 3000 pygmy hippo individuals still existed , and their numbers are likely to have declined since then . they are classified as endangered on the 2010 iucn red list of threatened species . a distinct pygmy hippo subspecies ( c . liberiensis heslopi ) that once existed in nigeria has most probably gone extinct . these declines result from habitat loss and hunting . the fragmentation and destruction of the pygmy hippo ' s forest habitat due to logging , mining , agrobusiness expansion and farming activities have brought pygmy hippos into closer contact with humans and as a result they are at much greater risk of being hunted and disturbed by human activities .
unlike the common hippopotamus , the pygmy hippo was not known outside of its range until the 19th century . in liberia , it was known as the water cow . early reports of this species described it as a wild hog . the first captured individual , from sierra leone , was taken to europe by a british colonial service member , but it did not live long after its arrival . it was not until 1911 that the pygmy hippo was successfully introduced into europe . some of these european individuals were shipped to germany and to the bronx zoo in new york after that .
unlike many animals , pygmy hippos breed easily in captivity , and international captive breeding programs for the species have been successful . as of 2004 , the most recent count , 303 pygmy hippos lived in captivity , 209 of which were captive - born . this represented more than twice the number of captive - born pygmy hippos since 1970 . many of these were born from parents who also had been bred in captivity . captive breeding faces challenges because much of pygmy hippo behavior in the wild is unknown , causing some to die in captivity . for example , although wild individuals live in solitude , coming together only to mate , many captives are kept in pairs , causing hostility .
inhabits areas of dense , lowland tropical forest and swampland , where it spends the majority of its time foraging for food and resting on land . despite the fact that pygmy
researchers can help generate more direct funds by providing employment for local residents , introducing capital directly into the local economy . in countries with few educational opportunities , any sharing of knowledge between researcher and resident is beneficial . field assistants often bring the scientific knowledge they learn during their employment to their families and friends . my field assistants became ambassadors for the pygmy hippopotamus , and helped to disseminate new findings to the communities .
zsl ' s edge of existence programme identified pygmy hippos as a priority for conservation in 2007 , and since then , zsl have worked to conserve them in liberia’s sapo national park and loma mountains in sierra leone . we carry out research to understand pygmy hippo ecology , distribution and behaviour and work with local communities and government wildlife authorities to protect them . zsl london zoo and whipsnade zoo also carry out captive breeding of these animals . zsl led the production of the iucn ssc regional pygmy hippo conservation strategy in 2010 .
as a result of habitat loss , the pygmy hippopotamus population is dropping and the species is considered to be endangered by the iucn red list of threatened species as of 2008 . some of the causes for the habitat loss and ruination are pollution in their water environments , poaching , logging and human development within the forests that serve as their homes . hunting is also associated with the drop in population . according to bristol zoo , there may be fewer than 2 , 000 free - roaming pygmy hippopotamuses remaining . however , captive reproduction efforts are in full swing , including one in the united kingdom .
when my peace corps tenure ended in 2007 , i returned to the university of georgia to obtain a doctorate in forest resources . at the end of my first year of classes , i received an email about an endangered , elusive creature - the pygmy hippopotamus . i was intrigued . there was a possibility for funding field research to study pygmy hippos on a river island in sierra leone . i searched the scientific literature , and did not find much information . with the help of my advisors , i wrote a proposal to conservation international , who agreed to fund me for my first field season .
dedication foreword - david . p . mallon , manchester metropolitan university preface - phillip . t . robinson authors ' introduction - the authors i . discovery , history and capture 1 . what is a pygmy hippopotamus - gabriella l . flacke 2 . hippos in popular culture and folklore - gabriella l . flacke 3 . looking for enigmas in the forest - phillip t . robinson 4 . the use and abuse of hippos in nature - phillip t . robinson 5 . heslop ' s pygmy hippopotamus - phillip t . robinson 6 . hans schomburgk - hunter , trapper , bush bicyclist - phillip t . robinson 7 . frans van den brink - master hippo catcher - phillip t . robinson ii . working in pygmy hippo country phillip t . robinson 8 . arriving in west africa 9 . just getting there is most of the journey 10 . wrestling the town chief in pygmy hippo country 11 . journeys without destinations 12 . going bush in sierra leone 13 . traveling hammocks and piggyback rides 14 . a six to six walk 15 . small planes 16 . navigating pygmy hippo country co - authors and contributors 17 . pygmy hippo research on tiwai island - april l . conway 18 . living the dream - gabriella l . flacke 19 . pygmy hippo research in the ivory coast - knut m . hentschel 20 . the hippo hotel of ivory coast - waldemar bülow iii . biology and natural history 21 . the flora and fauna of pygmy hippo country - gabriella l . flacke 22 . the feeding behavior of pygmy hippos in the wild - knut m . hentschel 23 . the pygmy hippo hunters - phillip t . robinson 24 . common ground for hippos in west africa - phillip t . robinson 25 . sly , shy or focused ? the origins of elusiveness - phillip t . robinson 26 . husbandry , health and pathology of pygmy hippos - gabriella l . flacke iv . conservation during wartime 27 . staying alive during the war - phillip t . robinson 28 the disruptions and setbacks of civil war - phillip t . robinson and henk dop 29 . the shortcut from master sergeant to president - phillip t . robinson v . conservation and the future 30 . a very sad story of greed - knut m . hentschel 31 . conservation genetics and fragmented populations - gabriela l . flacke and phillip t . robinson 32 . distribution and population estimates - gabriella l . flacke 33 . conservation planning and priorities - gabriella l . flacke afterword - the authors image credits index
formerly included in the genus hexaprotodon but a review of the taxonomy and phylogeny of the hippopotamids has restricted the definition of hexaprotodon to extinct indian and southeast asian hippos and revalidated choeropsis for the extant pygmy hippo ( boisserie 2005 ) . two subspecies are recognized . the nominate subspecies c . l . liberiensis occurs in côte d’ivoire , guinea , liberia and sierra leone . the subspecies c . l . heslopi ( heslop’s pygmy hippopotamus ) is known only from the niger delta , nigeria . it was considered a distinct subspecies by corbet ( 1969 ) and coryndon ( 1977 ) , based on variations in cranial anatomy .
that lasts for around eight months , the female hippopotamus gives birth to a single calf generally during the rainy season . although like many other activities ( including mating ) the hippopotamus often gives birth in the water , it is not actually that uncommon for their young to be born on land . the female protects her calf fiercely and it rides on her back to keep it safe . hippopotamus calves are fully weaned by the time they are 18 months old but tend to remain with their mother until they are fully grown , often not leaving her until they are 7 or 8 years old . although young males will become more independent and find their own patch of bank to patrol , females will join a herd of other females and young but despite this seemingly sociable
pygmy hippos ( hexaprotodon liberiensis ) are native to west africa , with the largest population in liberia . they live in dense forests near rivers and streams . they are good swimmers and have muscular valves that close their ears and nostrils when submerged . as the name suggests , the pygmy hippo is far smaller than the common hippopotamus ( hippopotamus amphibiou s ) , and are either solitary or live in small family units . they have large and extremely sharp teeth , which they use for protection . hippopotami have extremely high rates of water loss ( three to five times the rate in man ) which is due to their unique skin structure ; this explains why they must spend the day in water . pygmy hippos are herbivores . they uproot swamp plants which they bite with their lips and crush hard fruit with their teeth and strip leaves from shrubs and trees . they also eat leaves and grasses . after a gestation period of around 6 months , the female hippo will give birth to a single calf . for the first few weeks , the calf is hidden in bushes as it cannot walk very far . pygmy hippo calves do not instinctively know how to swim – their mother teaches them how to do this . mothers defend their calf aggressively and they stay together for at least two years . pygmy hippos are facing very serious threats in the wild . populations are declining rapidly due to habitat destruction caused by logging , farming and human settlement . pressures from wars in the hippos’ native range are another dire threat . sadly , pygmy hippos are also increasingly being threatened by bushmeat hunters .
there is much more to learn about the pygmy hippo ' s herbivorous diet . researchers believe that they most likely feed on leaves , roots , ferns , and fruits near rivers and streams . pygmy hippos search for food on the forest floor or in swamps but can stand on their hind legs to reach food higher up in trees if they need to .
tthe pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis ) is a unique and endangered species endemic to the upper guinea forests of west africa . sierra leone , one of four countries home to these animals , recently ended a decade - long war that left the country devastated . the iucn / scc pigs , peccaries , and hippos specialist group has set forth several objectives , including identification of populations at risk , establishment of distributions and abundance estimates , and dissemination of information ( eltringham 1993 ) . the recent pygmy hippo conservation strategy workshop in monrovia , liberia , pulled together stakeholders from across the range states to accumulate current knowledge of the status of pygmy hippos , and identified current threats , mainly habitat degradation and poaching . in sierra leone , the forests are rapidly shrinking and bush meat is a common source of protein .
little is known about the behavior of pygmy hippos in the wild , but they are usually found by themselves or in pairs . with their cavernous mouth and formidable teeth and tusks , the hippos need only “yawn” at potential enemies to send them packing . other ways to stay safe include rearing , lunging , scooping water with the mouth , and head shaking . unlike their larger relative , pygmy hippos are shy and would prefer to flee rather than stay and fight . leopards seem to be the only natural predator able to successfully attack pygmy hippos .
follows well - trodden and marked paths between its feeding and resting grounds and can dart through these tunnels at a remarkable pace if it feels in danger . although pygmy hippopotamuses roam individual
is hunted for both its teeth and its meat , which despite not being closely related , is said to taste like pork . people however , have also had devastating affects on pygmy
of grasses are the main source of food for the hippopotamus that are found growing on plains relatively close to water . when they come onto land at night , hippo ' s may travel up to 5km during the night to get to their feeding grounds which they do by following paths that are marked with dung . oddly enough , the hippopotamus doesn ' t even use its large canines for eating at all but instead has strong lips that are used to clip the grasses and cheek teeth which then grind them up . despite its large


trimeresurus kanburiensis is a species of pit viper found in only a few areas of thailand .

highly venomous , it is an arboreal but heavily built species with a brown or tawny coloration .

trimeresurus kanburiensis

trimeresurus kanburiensis smith 1943 : 519 trimeresurus kanburiensis — welch 1994 : 115 trimeresurus kanburiensis — cox et al . 1998 : 22 trimeresurus kanburiensis — mcdiarmid , campbell & touré 1999 : 337 trimeresurus kanburiensis — gumprecht et al . 2004 cryptelytrops kanburiensis — malhotra & thorpe 2004 trimeresurus ( trimeresurus ) kanburiensis — david et al . 2011 trimeresurus kanburiensis — wallach et al . 2014 : 742 cryptelytrops kanburiensis — chan - ard et al . 2015 : 286
venomous ! trimeresurus venustus has been considered as a synonym of t . kanburiensis and therefore many literature references to t . kanburiensis are likely to refer in fact to t . venustus . t . kanburiensis also has been confused with t . purpureomaculatus .
the description of the rare thai species trimeresurus kanburiensis smith , 1943 is expanded on the basis of recently collected specimens . we provide a detailed comparison with trimeresurus venustus , a species described from south thailand and regarded by several authors as a synonym of trimeresurus kanburiensis . the existence of 14 characters differentiating the populations referred to trimeresurus kanburiensis from those regarded as trimeresurus venustus definitely supports the validity of this latter species .
trimeresurus venustus vogel 1991 trimeresurus venustus — welch 1994 : 117 trimeresurus venustus — manthey & grossmann 1997 : 411 trimeresurus venustus — gumprecht et al . 2004 trimeresurus venustus — david et al . 2004 cryptelytrops venustus — malhotra & thorpe 2004 trimeresurus ( trimeresurus ) venustus — david et al . 2011 trimeresurus venustus — livigni 2013 : 396 trimeresurus venustus — wallach et al . 2014 : 743 cryptelytrops venustus — chan - ard et al . 2015 : 287
gumprecht , a . 2002 . eine ungewöhnliche zeichnung bei trimeresurus kanburiensis smith 1943 . sauria 24 ( 1 ) : 45 - 46 - get paper here
gumprecht a . ( 2002a ) , «eine ungewöhnlich zeichnung bei trimeresurus kanburiensis smith , 1943» , sauria , 24 ( 1 ) , 45 – 46 .
venomous ! synonymy : regarded as a synonym of trimeresurus kanburiensis smith , 1943 by mcdiarmid et al . ( 1999 ) . older literature references to t . kanburiensis are likely to refer in fact to this taxon . similar species : closely related to c . macrops .
bulian j . ( 2001 ) , «hinweise zur lebensweise und haltung der bambusotter trimeresurus kanburiensis » , reptilia ( münster ) , 31 ( october / november ) , 62 – 66 .
rediscovery and redefinition of malcolm smith’s trimeresurus kanburiensis in thailand , with a report of envenoming . transactions of the royal society of tropical medicine and hygiene , 86 : 95 - 99 .
gumprecht a . ( 2002b ) , «briefe an die redaktion . nochmal : trimeresurus kanburiensis » , reptilia ( münster ) , 7 ( 5 ) ( no . 37 ) , 4 – 5 .
. it is hence important to note that literature before 1992 may have mentioned c . purpureomaculatus when referring to c . kanburiensis .
david et al . ( 2011 ) considered some of the genera of malhotra & thorpe to be subgenera of the genus trimeresurus , creating new combinations such as
trimeresurus ( parias ) flavomaculatus
,
trimeresurus ( popeia ) popeiorum
,
trimeresurus ( viridovipera ) stejnegeri
, etc . [ 14 ]
trimeresurus ( craspedocephalus ) borneensis – david et al . , 2011 [ 3 ]
gumprecht a . ( 2001 ) , «die bambusottern der gattung trimeresurus lacépède . teil iv : checkliste der trimeresurus - arten thailands» , sauria , 23 ( 2 ) , 25 – 32 .
gumprecht a . ( 1998a ) , «die bambusottern der gattung trimeresurus lacépède . teil ii . die grossaugenbambusotter trimeresurus macrops kramer , 1977» , sauria , 20 ( 3 ) , 25 – 36 .
david , p . , g . vogel , m . sumontha , o . s . g . pauwels & l . chanhome 2004 . expanded description of the poorly known pitviper trimeresurus kanburiensis smith , 1943 , with confirmation of the validity of trimeresurus venustus vogel , 1991 . russ . j . herpetol . 11 ( 2 ) : 81 - 9 - get paper here
whether this species of trimeresurus lays eggs or bears live young is as yet unknown . [ 6 ]
david , p . , g . vogel , m . sumontha , o . s . g . pauwels & l . chanhome ( 2004 ) expanded description of the poorly known pitviper trimeresurus kanburiensis smith , 1943 , with confirmation of the validity of trimeresurus venustus vogel , 1991 ( reptilia : serpentes : crotalidae ) . russian journal of herpetology , 11 ( 2 ) : 81 - 90 .
vogel g 1991 . eine neue trimeresurus - art aus thailand , trimeresurus venustus sp . nov . ( reptilia : serpentes : crotalidae ) . sauria 13 ( 1 ) : 23 - 28 - get paper here
vogel g . ( 1991 ) , «eine neue trimeresurus - art aus thailand , trimeresurus venustus sp . nov . ( reptilia : serpentes : crotalidae ) » , sauria , 13 ( 1 ) , 23 – 28 .
warrell , d . a . , s . looareesuwan , a . f . stimson & r . a . hutton ( 1992 ) rediscovery and redefinition of malcolm smith ' s trimeresurus kanburiensis in thailand , with a report of envenoming . transactions of the royal society of tropical medicine and hygiene 86 : 95 - 99
gumprecht a . and bulian j . ( 2003 ) , «die bambusottern der gattung trimeresurus lacépède . teil viii : nachträge und anmerkungen zur checkliste der trimeresurus - arten thailands» , sauria , 25 ( 4 ) , 15 – 17 .
trimeresurus venom varies in toxicity between species , but all are primarily hemotoxic and considered to be medically significant to humans .
warrell d . a . , looareesuwan s . , stimson a . f . , and hutton r . a . ( 1992 ) , «rediscovery and redefinition of malcolm smith’s trimeresurus kanburiensis in thailand , with a report of envenoming» , trans . r . soc . trop . med . hyg . , 86 , 95 – 99 .
gumprecht a . ( 2003 ) , «die bambusottern der gattung trimeresurus lacépède . teil vii : anmerkungen zur biologie , haltung und nachzucht von trimeresurus sumatranus ( raffles , 1822 ) » , sauria , 25 ( 1 ) , 37 – 44 .
, but some authors ( e . g . , warrell et al . , 1992 ; mcdiarmid et al . , 1999 ) considered it conspecific with t . kanburiensis , a species described from the kanchanaburi area of western
. the new species resembles trimeresurus kanburiensis and t . venustus ( assigned to cryptelytrops by malhotra & thorpe 2004 - see above ) in pattern , but has a short , spinose hemipenis more reminiscent of species such as t . stejnegeri , assigned to viridovipera by malhotra & thorpe ( 2004 ) . orlov et al . retain the species in the genus trimeresurus due to stated difficulties in assigning the new species to one or other of the genera described or revalidated by malhotra & thorpe ( 2004 ) .
the diet of trimeresurus species includes a variety of animals , including lizards , amphibians , birds , rodents , and other small mammals .
malhotra a , thorpe rs , 2004 . a phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis ) .
most species in the genus trimeresurus are relatively small , primarily arboreal species , with thin bodies and prehensile tails . however , trimeresurus flavoviridis ( the okinawa habu ) can reach a total length ( including tail ) of 242 cm ( 7 ft 9 in ) , and is one of the longest pit vipers in east asia . most trimeresurus species are typically green in color , but some species also have yellow , black , orange , red , or gold markings .
like most viper species , many of the species in the genus trimeresurus are ovoviviparous , bearing live young . however , some species such as t . flavoviridis , t . kaulbacki , and t . macrolepis are oviparous , lay eggs . also , the reproductive biology of some trimeresurus species is as yet unknown .
boulenger ga . 1890 . the fauna of british india , including ceylon and burma . reptilia and batrachia . secretary of state for india in council . ( taylor and francis , printers . ) london . xviii + 541 pp . ( trimeresurus , p . 425 & trimeresurus gramineus , pp . 429 - 430 . )
trimeresurus borneensis is a venomous pit viper species endemic to the island of borneo . [ 1 ] no subspecies are currently recognized . [ 3 ] [ 5 ]
like most viper species , many of the species in the genus trimeresurus are ovoviviparous , bearing live young . however , some species such as t . flavoviridis , t . gramineus , t . kaulbacki , and t . macrolepis are oviparous , lay eggs . also , the reproductive biology of some trimeresurus species is as yet unknown .
malhotra & thorpe ( 2004a ) and david et al . ( 2004 ) analysed the affinities of the pitviper trimeresurus venustus vogel 1991 . the species was described from southern
) a review of morphological variation in trimeresurus popeiorum ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalinae ) , with the description of two new species . zootaxa 727 : 1 - 63 .
stejneger , l . 1927 . the green pit viper , trimeresurus gramineus , in china . proceedings of the united states national museum 72 ( 19 ) : 1 - 10 .
species in the genus trimeresurus are found in southeast asia from india including regions of north chotanagpur ofjharkhand to southern china and japan , and the malay archipelago to timor . [ 1 ]
malhotra and thorpe . 2004b . a phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 32 ( 2004 ) 83–100
c . purpureomaculatus venom was found to be relatively highly lethal compared to other asian pit - vipers in the ( historical ) trimeresurus genus ( tan , armugam & tan , 1989 ) .
malhotra , a . & r . s . thorpe ( 2004a ) reassessment of the validity and diagnosis of the pitviper trimeresurus venustus vogel , 1991 . herpetological journal 14 : 21 - 33 .
malhotra , a . & r . s . thorpe 2004 . reassessment of the validity and diagnosis of the pitviper trimeresurus venustus vogel , 1991 . the herpetological journal 14 ( 1 ) : 21 - 33
gumprecht a . and ryabov s . ( 2002 ) , «die gattung trimeresurus lacépède , 1804 — zum kenntnisstand der forschung» , draco , 12 ( 4 ) ( no . 12 ) , 31 – 44 .
the genus trimeresurus ( sensu lato ) has been the subject of considerable taxonomic work since 2000 , resulting in the recognition of additional genera within this complex . most authors now recognise the genus protobothrops for the species cornutus , flavoviridis , jerdonii , kaulbacki , mucrosquamatus , tokarensis , xiangchengensis , [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] since these have been shown not to be closely related to other trimeresurus in recent phylogenetic analyses .
malhotra , a . & r . s . thorpe ( 2004 ) a phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 32 : 83–100
regenass u . and kramer e . ( 1981 ) , «zur systematik der grünen grubenottern der gattung trimeresurus ( serpentes , crotalidae ) » , rev . suisse zool . , 88 ( 1 ) , 163 – 205 .
malhotra a , thorpe rs ( 2004 ) .
a phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis )
. molecular phylogenetics and evolution 32 : 83 - 100 .
pope ch , pope sh . 1933 . a study of the green pit - vipers of southeastern asia and malaysia , commonly identified as trimeresurus gramineus ( shaw ) , with description of a new species from peninsular india .
malhotra , a . & r . s . thorpe ( 2004b ) a phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 32 : 83–100 .
hoge a . r . and de lemos romano s . a . ( 1974 ) , «notes on trimeresurus brongersmai hoge 1969 ( serpentes , viperidae , crotalinae ) » , mem . inst . butantan , 38 , 147 – 158 .
malhotra , a . , thorpe , r . s . , 2004 . a phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 32 , 83 - 100 .
in addition , malhotra and thorpe ( 2004 ) [ 10 ] proposed a radical shake up of the entire genus , splitting trimeresurus into seven genera . their proposed arrangement ( including species described since 2004 ) is shown in the table below :
malhotra a . and thorpe r . s . ( 2000 ) , «a phylogeny of the trimeresurus group of pit vipers : new evidence from a mitochondrial gene tree» , mol . phylogen . evol . , 16 ( 2 ) , 199 – 211 .
das , indraneil . 2002 . a photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of india . ralph curtis books . sanibel island , florida . 144 pp . isbn 0 - 88359 - 056 - 5 . ( trimeresurus gramineus , p . 65 . )
das , indraneil . 2006 . a photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of borneo . ralph curtis books . sanibel island , florida . 144 pp . isbn 0 - 88359 - 061 - 1 . ( trimeresurus borneensis , p . 57 . )
in recent years , research on the genus trimeresurus has revealed a number of instances of paraphyly and cryptic species . as of 2007 , the species included in trimeresurus sensu lato ( brattstrom 1964 ) had been separated into 11 different genera , although fewer genera are now generally recognized as a result of new phylogenetic data ( e . g . , malhotra and thorpe 2004 a , b , 2005 , guo et al . 2007 and references therein ; guo et al . 2009 ; hoser 2012 and references therein ) .
malhotra , a . and r . s . thorpe . 2004a . maximizing information in systematic revisions : a combined molecular and morphological analysis of a cryptic green pitviper complex ( trimeresurus stejnegeri ) . biological journal of the linnean society 82 : 219 - 235 .
malhotra , anita & thorpe , roger s . 2004 . a phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 32 : 83 –100 [ erratum p . 680 ] - get paper here
lacépède , b . g . 1804 . mémoire sur plusieurs animaux de la nouvelle - hollande dont la description n ' a pas encore été publiée . annales du muséum d ' histoire naturelle , paris 4 : 184 - 211 . ( trimeresurus , p . 209 . )
reviews of the following genera or of parts of these genera are currently made : amphiesma , dendrelaphis , tropidolaemus , ahaetulla , lycodon , trimeresurus , pareas , pseudorabdion , xenochrophis and oligodon investigations on the philippines , china , sumatra and india brought interesting new regional results , too .
sumontha m , kunya k , pauwels osg , nitikul a , punnadee s ( 2011 ) .
trimeresurus ( popeia ) phuketensis , a new pitviper ( squamata : viperidae ) from phuket island , southwestern thailand
. russian journal of herpetology 18 ( 3 ) : 11 - 17 .
malhotra , a . and r . s . thorpe . 2005 . erratum to “a phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis ) ” [ mol . phylogenet . evol . 32 ( 2004 ) 83–100 ] . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 34 : 680–681 .
herrmann , h . - w . , t . ziegler , a . malhotra , r . s . thorpe & c . l . parkinson ( 2004 ) redescription and systematics of trimeresurus cornutus ( serpentes : viperidae ) based on morphology and molecular data . herpetologica 60 ( 2 ) : 211 - 221
trimeresurus is a genus of venomous pit vipers found in asia from the indian subcontinent throughout southeast asia , china and the pacific islands . currently at least 35 species are recognized . [ 2 ] common names include asian palm pit vipers , [ 3 ] asian lanceheads and asian lance - headed vipers . [ 4 ]
lacépède bg ( 1804 ) .
mémoire sur plusieurs animaux de la nouvelle - hollande dont la description n ' a pas encore été publiée
. annales du muséum d ' histoire naturelle , paris 4 : 184 - 211 . ( trimeresurus , new genus , p . 209 ) . ( in french ) .
david p , vogel g , dubois a , 2011 . on the need to follow rigorously the rules of the code for the subsequent designation of a nucleospecies ( type species ) for a nominal genus which lacked one : the case of the nominal genus trimeresurus lacépède , 1804 ( reptilia : squamata : viperidae ) .
evolution of south - east asian pitvipers , genus trimeresurus from molecular studies . in : thorpe , r . s . , w€uster , w . , malhotra , a . ( eds . ) , v enomous snakes , ecology , evolution and snakebite . symposium of the zoological society of london , 70 : 115–118 .
pope c . h . and pope s . h . ( 1933 ) , «a study of the green pit - vipers of southeastern asia and malaysia , commonly identified as trimeresurus gramineus ( shaw ) , with description of a new species from peninsular india» , am . mus . novitates , 620 , 1 – 12 .
orlov , n . l . , s . a . ryabov , b . n . thanh & h cuc , t . 2004 . a new species of trimeresurus ( ophidia : viperidae : crotalinae ) from karst region in central vietnam . russ . j . herpetol . 11 ( 2 ) : 139 - 149 - get paper here
david , patrick ; gernot vogel & alain dubois 2011 . on the need to follow rigorously the rules of the code for the subsequent designation of a nucleospecies ( type species ) for a nominal genus which lacked one : the case of the nominal genus trimeresurus lacépède , 1804 ( reptilia : squamata : viperidae ) . zootaxa 2992 : 1–51 - get paper here
sumontha , m . , kunya , k . , s . g . pauwels , o . , nitikul , a . , and punnadee , s . ( 2011 ) .
trimeresurus ( popeia ) phuketensis , a new pitviper ( squamata : viperidae ) from phuket island , southwestern thailand
. russian journal of herpetology . 18 ; 3 : 11 - 17 .
david , patrick ; vogel , gernot ; dubois , alain . 2011 . on the need to follow rigorously the rules of the code for the subsequent designation of a nucleospecies ( type species ) for a nominal genus which lacked one : the case of the nominal genus trimeresurus lacépède , 1804 ( reptilia : squamata : viperidae ) . zootaxa 2992 : 1 - 51 .
david , patrick ; vogel , gernot ; dubois , alain ( 2011 ) .
on the need to follow rigorously the rules of the code for the subsequent designation of a nucleospecies ( type species ) for a nominal genus which lacked one : the case of the nominal genus trimeresurus lacépède , 1804 ( reptilia : squamata : viperidae )
. zootaxa 2992 : 1 - 51 .
malhotra a . and thorpe r . s . ( 1996 ) , «new perspectives on the evolution of south - east asian pit vipers ( genus trimeresurus ) from molecular studies» , in : venomous snakes . ecology , evolution and snakebite , r . s . thorpe , w . wüster , and a . malhotra ( eds . ) , symp . zool . soc . london , 70 [ «1997» ] , 115 – 128 .
the thrombin - like enzyme in the venom was isolated and characterized , and termed purpurase . anti - purpurase raised from the venom was found to cross - react with venoms of other pit - vipers in the former trimeresurus genus ( now seven genera ) , but not with that of other crotalids . hence , this lends support to the notion that the seven genera are more closely related to each other than to other genera of pit - vipers ( tan , 2010 ) .
type locality : limestone hills near kanburi , south - western siam [ = kanchanaburi , thailand ] .
note : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .
chan - ard , t . , parr , j . w . k . & nabhitabhata , j . 2015 . a field guide to the reptiles of thailand . oxford university press , ny , 352 pp . [ see book reviews by pauwels & grismer 2015 and hikida 2015 for corrections ] - get paper here
cox , merel j . ; van dijk , peter paul ; jarujin nabhitabhata & thirakhupt , kumthorn 1998 . a photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of peninsular malaysia , singapore and thailand . ralph curtis publishing , 144 pp .
das , i . 2012 . a naturalist ' s guide to the snakes of south - east asia : malaysia , singapore , thailand , myanmar , borneo , sumatra , java and bali . oxford j , ohn beaufoy publishing - get paper here
grismer , l . lee ; tri , ngo van ; grismer , jesse l . 2008 . a new species of insular pitviper of the genus cryptelytrops ( squamata : viperidae ) from southern vietnam . zootaxa 1715 : 57 - 68 - get paper here
gumprecht , a . ; tillack , f . ; orlov , n . l . ; captain , a . & ryabow , s . 2004 . asian pitvipers . geitje books , berlin , 368 pp .
mcdiarmid , r . w . ; campbell , j . a . & touré , t . a . 1999 . snake species of the world . vol . 1 . herpetologists’ league , 511 pp .
smith , m . a . 1943 . the fauna of british india , ceylon and burma , including the whole of the indo - chinese sub - region . reptilia and amphibia . 3 ( serpentes ) . taylor and francis , london . 583 pp .
taylor , e . h . 1965 . the serpents of thailand and adjacent waters . univ . kansas sci . bull . 45 ( 9 ) : 609 - 1096 - get paper here
wallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .
welch , k . r . g . 1994 . snakes of the world . a checklist . i . venomous snakes . kcm books , somerset , england .
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
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chan - ard , t . , grismer , l . & stuart , b .
justification : this species is listed as endangered because it has a restricted distribution of little more than 3 , 000 km² , it is present in fewer than five locations , and there is a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals due to illegal harvest for pet trade . although the species is present in a protected area and is legally protected , better enforcement of the law is needed to avoid or limit population declines .
this species is known with certainty only from kanchanaburi ( = kanburi ) province in western thailand , on the border with myanmar , where it is known only from sai yak and thong pha phum districts ( t . chan - ard pers . comm . september 2011 ) . it also likely occurs in adjacent kayin state , myanmar , but it has not yet been documented there ( leviton
. 2008 ) . it occurs at elevations of up to 600 m . its known extent of occurrence is around 3 , 000 km²
there is no information on its population size . the species is known only from a few specimens ( smith 1943 , taylor 1965 , david
smith ( 1943 ) obtained the holotype in limestone hills ( = limestone karst ) . this species occurs in bamboo forests up to 600 m of elevation .
this species occurs in a protected area . field surveys are needed to determine its natural history and extent of its geographic range ( including its presence in adjacent myanmar ) . the species is legally protected from export from thailand for the pet trade . all international trade is illegal , therefore compliance of the law should be enforced .
chan - ard , t . , grismer , l . & stuart , b . 2012 .
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the number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .
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general shape small in length , slender , cylindrical bodied snake with a prehensile tail . can grow to a maximum of at least 0 . 69 metres ( few recorded specimens ) . head is large , triangular shaped and distinct from narrow neck . snout is relatively short when compared with other species of this genus . eyes are medium in size with vertically elliptical pupils . dorsal scales are strongly keeled . dorsal scale count 19 - 19 - 15 .
habitat elevations up to about 1000 metres in hilly ( limestone ) terrain in primary forest , particularly in the bamboo vegetation around kanburi , sw thailand .
description : first aid for bites by viperid snakes likely to cause significant local injury at the bite site ( see listing in comments section ) .
treatment summary bites by this species cause moderate , possibly major local & systemic effects , including coagulopathy / bleeding & shock . urgently assess & admit all cases . antivenom therapy is probably the key treatment , especially for coagulopathy .
general approach to management all cases should be treated as urgent & potentially lethal . rapid assessment & commencement of treatment including appropriate antivenom ( if indicated & available ) is mandatory . admit all cases .
antivenom therapy antivenom is the key treatment for systemic envenoming . multiple doses may be required .
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patrick david , gernot vogel , montri sumontha , olivier s . g . pauwels , lawan chanhome
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holotype : zmb 48045 ; paratypes : zmb , bmnh ; zsm 127 / 1990 ( given as zsm 127 . 1990 in the original description ) , male , “thung song , provinz nakhon si thammarat , süd - thailand” , collected by j . krimmer , no date ; zsm 128 / 1990 ( given as zsm 128 . 1990 in the original description ) , adult , same locality , collected by g . vogel , 09 . 1989 .
livigni , f . ( ed . ) 2013 . a life for reptiles and amphibians , volume 1 . chimaira , frankfurt , 495 pp . - get paper here
manthey , u . & grossmann , w . 1997 . amphibien & reptilien südostasiens . natur und tier verlag ( münster ) , 512 pp . - get paper here
rostral scale as deep as broad or broader than deep ; upper head - scales small , smooth , imbricate ; supraocular scale narrow , rarely broken up ; internasals in contact or separated by one or two scales ; 8 to 13 scales on a line between the supraoculars ; usually one or two , rarely three , series of scales between the suboculars and the labials ; 9 to 12 upper labials , second usually forming the anterior border of the loreal pit , third largest ; temporal scales smooth .
dorsal scales more or less distinctly keeled , in 21 ( rarely 19 or 23 ) rows . ventrals 145 - 175 ; anal scale entire ; subcaudals in two rows 53 - 76 .
upper parts usually bright green , rarely yellowish , greyish , or purplish brown , with or without black , brown , or reddish spots ; usually a light , white , yellow , or red streak along the outer row of scales ; end of tail frequently yellow or red ; lower parts green , yellow , or whitish .
the range of this species has been restricted to southern india . it is also rarely seen near harishchandragad and some other mountain ranges of western ghats aka sahyadris in maharashtra .
t . gramineus is ovoviviparous . adult females gives birth to 6 to 11 young ones , which measure up to 4 . 5inches in length .
mcdiarmid rw , campbell ja , touré t . 1999 . snake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , volume 1 . herpetologists ' league . 511 pp . isbn 1 - 893777 - 00 - 6 ( series ) . isbn 1 - 893777 - 01 - 4 ( volume ) .
khaire , n . 2006 . a guide to the snakes of maharashtra , goa and karnataka . indian herpetological society . pune , india . ( photographic guide with 61 species . )
the fauna of british india , ceylon and burma , including the whole of the indo - chinese sub - region . reptilia and amphibia , vol . iii .
. secretary of state for india . ( taylor & francis , printers ) . london . xii + 583 pp . , 166 figures . (
mehrtens jm . 1987 . living snakes of the world in color . new york : sterling publishers . 480 pp . isbn 0 - 8069 - 6460 - x .
u . s . navy . 1991 . poisonous snakes of the world . us govt . new york : dover publications inc . 203 pp . isbn 0 - 486 - 26629 - x .
parker hw , grandison agc . 1977 . snakes - - a natural history . second edition . british museum ( natural history ) and cornell university press . 108 pp . 16 plates . lcccn 76 - 54625 . isbn 0 - 8014 - 1095 - 9 ( cloth ) , isbn 0 - 8014 - 9164 - 9 ( paper ) .
gumprecht a , tillack f , orlov nl , captain a , ryabov s . 2004 . asian pitvipers . geitjebooks berlin . 1st edition . 368 pp . isbn 3 - 937975 - 00 - 4 .
cantor , t . e . 1839 . spicilegium serpentium indicorum [ parts 1 and 2 ] . proc . zool . soc . london 7 : 31 - 34 , 49 - 55 .
gumprecht , a . ; tillack , f . ; orlov , n . l . ; captain , a . & ryabow , s . 2004 . asian pit vipers . geitje books . berlin . 368 pp .
russell , p . 1796 . an account of indian serpents , collected on the coast of coromandel ; containing descriptions and drawings of each species , together with experiments and remarks on their several poisons . george nicol . london . viii + 91 pp . + plates i . - xlvi .
general zoology , or systematic natural history : vol . iii . , part ii
. g . kearsley . ( thomas davison , printer ) . london . iv + pp .
this article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 8 / 29 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .
india ( assam ) , nicobar islands , myanmar , thailand , cambodia , laos , vietnam , southern china ( fukien , hainan , kwangsi , kwangtung ) , hong kong , west malaysia , indonesia ( sumatra , borneo , sulawesi , java , madoera , lombok , sumbawa , komodo , flores , sumba , roti , timor , kisar , wetar ) .
vietnam : bach ma and tonkin . occurs in rainforests at low elevations . also in central vietnam . [ 5 ]
philippine islands : agutayan , batan , camiguin , catanduanes , dinagat , jolo , leyte , luzon , mindanao , mindoro , negros and polillo .
peninsular thailand , west malaysia , singapore and indonesia ( sumatra and the nearby islands of bangka , simalur , nias , batu and the mentawai islands .
india ( assam ) through northern myanmar to tibet , china ( hupeh , szechwan and yunnan ) and vietnam .
india ( assam ) and bangladesh to myanmar , china ( fukien , kwangshi , kwantung and szechwan ) and taiwan .
sumontha , kunya , s . g . pauwels , nitikul & punnadee , 2011 [ 7 ]
northern india , myanmar , thailand , west malaysia , vietnam and indonesia ( sumatra , the mentawai islands of siberut , sipora and north pagai , and on the island of borneo ) .
southern thailand , west and east malaysia ( sabah and sarawak ) and indonesia ( borneo , sumatra , the mentawai islands of siberut and north pagai , simalur and java .
india ( assam and the andaman islands ) , bangladesh , myanmar , thailand , west malaysia , singapore and indonesia ( sumatra ) .
india ( assam ) , and nepal through myanmar and thailand to china ( kwangsi , kwangtung , hainan , fukien , chekiang , yunnan ) and taiwan .
southern thailand , west and east malaysia ( sabah and sarawak on borneo ) and indonesia ( bangka , billiton , borneo , sumatra and the nearby islands of simalur , nias , and possibly the mentawai islands [ sipora ] ) .
t . andersonii theobald , 1868 . commonly called anderson ' s pit viper , found in the andaman islands of india .
t . barati regenass & kramer , 1981 . commonly called barat ' s bamboo viper , found in indonesia .
t . fucatus vogel , david & pauwels , 2004 . commonly called the siamese peninsula pit viper and found in southern thailand , myanmar , malaysia .
t . insularis kramer , 1977 . commonly called the white - lipped island pit viper and found in indonesia .
t . malcolmi loveridge , 1938 . commonly called malcolm ' s pit viper and found on borneo ( indonesia ) .
t . nebularis vogel , david & pauwels , 2004 . commonly called the cameron highlands pit viper and found in west malaysia ( cameron highlands ) .
t . sabahi regenass & kramer , 1981 . commonly called sabah ' s bamboo viper and found on borneo , indonesia .
t . truongsonensis , ryabov , thanh & cuc , 2004 . found in central vietnam .
t . venustus vogel , 1991 . commonly called the beautiful pit viper and found in southern thailand .
. commonly called wirot ' s pit viper and found in thailand and west malaysia .
this new arrangement has been followed by many , [ 11 ] [ 12 ] but not all [ 8 ] [ 13 ] subsequent authors .
mcdiarmid rw , campbell ja , touré t ( 1999 ) . snake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , volume 1 . washington , district of columbia : herpetologists ' league . 511 pp . isbn 1 - 893777 - 00 - 6 ( series ) . isbn 1 - 893777 - 01 - 4 ( volume ) .
mehrtens jm ( 1987 ) . living snakes of the world in color . new york : sterling publishers . 480 pp . isbn 0 - 8069 - 6460 - x .
united states navy ( 1991 ) . poisonous snakes of the world . new york : u . s . government / dover publications inc . 203 pp . isbn 0 - 486 - 26629 - x .
gumprecht a , tillack f , orlov nl , captain a , ryabov s ( 2004 ) . asian pitvipers . first edition . berlin : geitjebooks . 368 pp . isbn 3 - 937975 - 00 - 4 .
yang , j . - h . ; orlov , n . i . ; wang , y . - y . ( 2011 ) .
a new species of pitviper of the genus protobothrops from china ( squamata : viperidae ) .
zootaxa 2936 : 59 - 68 .
kraus f , mink dg , brown wm ( 1996 ) .
crotaline intergeneric relationships based on mitochondrial dna sequence data
. copeia 1996 : 763 - 773 .
castoe ta , parkinson cl ( 2006 ) .
bayesian mixed models and the phylogeny of pitvipers ( viperidae : serpentes )
. mol . phylogenet . evol . 39 : 91 - 110 .
grismer ll , grismer jl , mcguire ja ( 2006 ) .
a new species of pitviper of the genus popeia ( squamata : viperidae ) from pulau tioman , pahang , west malaysia
. zootaxa 1305 : 1 - 19 .
vogel g ( 2006 ) . venomous snakes of asia / giftschlangen asiens . frankfurt am main : terralog , edition chimaira .
this page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses .
thailand is home to a large variety of vipers . the majority are pit vipers that are easily recognized by the presence of a heat - sensing pit on each cheek . at this point , the siamese russell’s viper , daboia siamensis , is the only viper in thailand that lacks the heat - sensing pits . at the same time it is also arguably the most dangerous of all the vipers . being terrestial , very well camouflaged , equiped with a highly potent , nasty venom , and living mostly in farm lands , it is like a living landmine .
the vipers are one of our favorite groups of snakes . there is just something about their usualy stout bodies , triangular heads and most of all the look in their eyes .
in the coming years the viper species list will likely increase quite a bit . we have seen various vipers that will likely be described as new species in the near future .
cm ) , with a maximum total length of 7 . 9 feet / 242
. it is slenderly built and gracefully proportioned with a large head . the tail , however , is not
the color pattern consists of a light olive of brown ground color , overlaid with elongated dark green or brownish blotches . the blotches have yellow edges , sometimes contain yellow spots , and frequently fuse to produce wavy stripes . the belly is whitish with dark coloring along the edges .
given is
amakarima island ( one of the loo - choo group )
( = keramashima , ryukyu islands ) .
and cultivated fields . found on rock walls and in old tombs and caves .
. bold and irritable , it can strike quickly and has a long reach .
mating takes place in early spring and up to 18 eggs are laid in mid - summer . the hatchlings , which emerge after an incubation period of 5–6 weeks , are 10 inches ( 25
, was introduced in 1910 . although the effects of this introduction have not been studied , in other such cases the negative effects on species of native
is 2 per 1 , 000 people , which is very high . the venom of this species is of high toxicity containing cytotoxin and haemorrhagin components ,
if a bite victim receives medical care promptly , bites are not life - threatening . however , 6 - 8 % do suffer permanent disability .
( ハブ酒 ) . ( sake in japanese can refer to any alcoholic beverage . ) in this case , the sake is a
( 泡盛 ) , alleged to have medicinal properties . the production includes the snakes in the fermentation process and it is sold in bottles that may or may not contain the body of a snake .
gumprecht a , tillack f , orlov nl , captain a , ryabov s . 2004 . asian pitvipers . geitjebooks . berlin . 1st edition . 368 pp . isbn 3 - 937975 - 00 - 4 .
brown jh . 1973 . toxicology and pharmacology of venoms from poisonous snakes . springfield , illinois : charles c . thomas . 184 pp . lcccn 73 - 229 . isbn 0 - 398 - 02808 - 7 .
hays wst , conant s . 2007 . biology and impacts of pacific island invasive species . 1 . a worldwide review of effects of the small indian mongoose , herpestes javanicus ( carnivora : herpestidae ) . pacific science 61 ( 1 ) : 3 - 16 .
urltoken 沖縄県における平成23 年の毒蛇咬症 沖縄県衛生環境研究所 . according to this report , 8901 snakebites from this snake are reported during 1964 - 2011 in okinawa prefecture ( amami excluded ) . among those , fatalities are 53 . so , fatality rate is around 0 . 6 % .