cypraecassis testiculus , common name the reticulated cowry helmet , is a species of large sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family cassidae , the helmet snails and bonnet snails .

there is one subspecies : cypraecassis testiculus senegalica ( gmelin , 1791 )

cypraecassis testiculus

a cypraecassis testiculus communal egg mass and eggs are illustrated below ; apparentlyfor the first time .
cassidae » cypraecassis testiculus senegalica , id : 160025 , shell detail « shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .
( of cypraecassis ( cypraecassis ) testiculus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
( of cypraecassis testiculus senegalica ( gmelin , 1791 ) ) rolán e . , 2005 . malacological fauna from the cape verde archipelago . part 1 , polyplacophora and gastropoda . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
predators of e . lucunter include : ruddy turnstones , arenaria interpres ; conchs ; and fish including triggerfish , grunts , jacks and wrasses ( abbott et al . 1974 ) . predation by the reticulate cowrie - helmet , cypraecassis testiculus , has also been documented for individuals in panama ( hendler 1977 ) .
( of cypraecassis testiculus senegalica ( gmelin , 1791 ) ) bernard , p . a . ( ed . ) ( 1984 ) . coquillages du gabon [ shells of gabon ] . pierre a . bernard : libreville , gabon . 140 , 75 plates pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
predators of this urchin include : several species of fish ( randall 1967 ) , shorebirds such as ruddy turnstones , arenaria interpres ( hendler 1977 ) , and herring gulls , larus sp . ( moore et al . 1963 ) ; the reticulate cowrie - helmet , cypraecassis testiculus ( hendler 1977 ) ; and the caribbean helmet , cassis tuberosa ( engstrom 1982 ) .
someone in our group said that it was an emperor ' s helmet and i mentioned that when i sent the pictures to volunteer identifier bea in ontario . soon bea was back saying that the helmet part was right but not the emperor . it ' s the reticulate cowry - helmet , cypraecassis testiculus , a member of the helmet and bonnet snail family , the cassidae .
( of cypraecassis mamillata salmon , 1948 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
( of cypraecassis neglecta verrill , 1949 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
( of cypraecassis minima bernard , 1984 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
gofas , s . ; afonso , j . p . ; brandào , m . ( ed . ) . ( s . a . ) . conchas e moluscos de angola = coquillages et mollusques d ' angola . [ shells and molluscs of angola ] . universidade agostinho / elf aquitaine angola : angola . 140 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
rosenberg , g . ; moretzsohn , f . ; garcía , e . f . ( 2009 ) . gastropoda ( mollusca ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 579–699 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of buccinum senegalicum gmelin , 1791 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
( of buccinum plicatum gmelin , 1791 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
( of cassidea crumena bruguière , 1789 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
( of cassis mitellapolonica röding , 1798 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
( of cassis pileolus röding , 1798 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
( of cassis bicincta bayer , 1935 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
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one of the most intriguing patterns in mammalian biogeography is the “island rule” , which states that colonising species have a tendency to converge in body size , with larger species evolving decreased sizes and smaller species increased sizes . it has recently been suggested that an analogous pattern holds for the colonisation of the deep - sea benthos by marine gastropoda . in particular , a pioneering study showed that gastropods from the western atlantic showed the same graded trend from dwarfism to gigantism that is evident in island endemic mammals . however , subsequent to the publication of the gastropod study , the standard tests of the island rule have been shown to yield false positives at a very high rate , leaving the result open to doubt .
the evolution of gastropod body size in the deep sea is reexamined . using an extended and updated data set , and improved statistical methods , it is shown that some results of the previous study may have been artifactual , but that its central conclusion is robust . it is further shown that the effect is not restricted to a single gastropod clade , that its strength increases markedly with depth , but that it applies even in the mesopelagic zone .
the replication of the island rule in a distant taxonomic group and a partially analogous ecological situation could help to uncover the causes of the patterns observed—which are currently much disputed . the gastropod pattern is evident at intermediate depths , and so cannot be attributed to the unique features of abyssal ecology .
citation : welch jj ( 2010 ) the “island rule” and deep - sea gastropods : re - examining the evidence . plos one 5 ( 1 ) : e8776 . urltoken
copyright : © 2010 john j . welch . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : some preliminary work undertaken when jw was funded by bbsrc grant do17750 awarded to andrew rambaut . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
the island rule states that after island colonisation , animals undergo predictable patterns of body size evolution , with larger colonising species becoming smaller , and smaller species becoming larger . the result is a graded trend from dwarfism in the largest colonists to gigantism in the smallest [ 1 ] – [ 4 ] . because insular habitats are distinctive in a number of ways , this pattern might be variously explained , and a variety of hypotheses have indeed been proposed in the literature [ 1 ] – [ 11 ] . recently , mcclain et al . [ 12 ] made an important advance by testing for analogous patterns of body size evolution in a non - insular system . specifically , they compared body sizes of animals living in deep - sea benthic habitats with their shallow - water living congeners . using the malacolog database version 3 . 3 . 3 of rosenberg [ 13 ] , mcclain et al . [ 12 ] took the gastropods of the western atlantic as a case study , and reported that a highly significant trend from dwarfism to gigantism was evident in the deep - sea species .
here , i re - examine whether deep - sea gastropods manifest the island rule , making use of the improved statistical methods , and data collated from the recently updated malacolog database [ 24 ] , which has been both expanded , and revised to reflect advances in gastropod systematics [ 25 ] . it is found that the central conclusion of mcclain et al . [ 12 ] is robust , and that gastropod colonists of the deep - sea benthos do indeed exhibit island - rule - like evolution .
to demonstrate the liberal nature of the standard tests of the island rule , consider results when deep - sea habitation is defined via the midpoint of the recorded depth range , i . e . , “deep - sea species” have a range midpoint below 200m , and all other species are deemed “shallow - water” . with this definition , 254 genera contained both deep and shallow species , and their generic mean body sizes are plotted in figure 1a . applying the standard test [ 3 ] , [ 12 ] , the ordinary - least - squares regression slope ( dashed line ) is found to be highly significantly less than one ( n = 254 ; b = 0 . 902 ; t - test p = 0 . 0015 ) , which offers strong apparent support for the island rule . however , assigning species groups to the “deep” or “shallow” categories at random , showed that even stronger support was obtained with ∼43 % of 100 , 000 randomized data sets , suggesting that there is nothing exceptional in the trend observed in the true data . accordingly , the standardized - major - axis slope ( solid line ) was very close to one , and the permutation test showed no significant deviation from the pattern expected if deep - sea colonization had no effect on body size evolution ( n = 254 ; b = 1 . 020 ; permutation p = 0 . 476 ) .
part a shows how different tests of the ‘island rule’ can give qualitatively different results . “deep - sea” species were defined as those with a depth range midpoint > 200m , and all other species defined as “shallow - water” . the ordinary - least - squares regression ( dashed line ) differs significantly from the 1∶1 line of the null ( dotted line ) , but the standardized - major - axis regression ( solid line ) shows no significant departure . part b shows a less ambiguous case : “deep - sea” species are those never observed above 400m , and “shallow - water” species those never observed below 200m ; body sizes are within - genus means , taking equal numbers of deep - and shallow - water species in each genus .
averaging across species has untested statistical properties [ 30 ] , but it does have the advantage of reducing noise and the influence of anomalous data . for example , figure 1b plots results for balanced samples with “deep - sea” defined as > 400m . these data are clearly noisy , and the slope is strongly influenced by a single outlier ( the largest value on both axes ) . this point represents the genus fasciolaria , which contains just a single deep - sea species , the recently discovered fasciolaria tephrina [ 32 ] . to restrict the influence of such isolated observations , mcclain et al . [ 12 ] excluded from their analyses all genera with fewer than two shallow and two deep species . despite reducing sample size by ∼2 / 3 , this procedure strengthens the observed effect , with a highly significant departure from the null now apparent at the shallowest cutoff depth ( table 1 part b ; figure 2 ) .
the body sizes of deep - sea gastropods are plotted against those of their shallow - water congeners . “shallow - water” species were never observed below 200m , and “deep - sea” species never observed above depths of a : 200m , b : 400m and c : 600m . separate standardized - major - axis regression lines are shown for the neogastropoda ( black points ) and all other groups ( grey points ) . the dotted line is the 1∶1 expected under the null . genera with fewer than two deep and two shallow species were excluded .
this study has confirmed the important findings of mcclain et al . [ 12 ] that the marine gastropods of the western atlantic show a pattern of body size evolution that is analogous to the island rule , with colonists of the deep - sea benthos tending to converge in size in a graded trend ( see also [ 16 ] ) . no evidence was found of phylogenetic heterogeneity in the strength of the observed effect , as results for the neogastropoda alone were indistinguishable from those for the remaining taxa . in contrast , the strength of the effect did increase systematically with range depth , with deeper - sea species showing a stronger tendency to converge in size . nevertheless , the effect is still apparent in species inhabiting the mesopelagic zone ( 200–1000m ) , and so cannot be attributed to unique features of abyssal ecology .
since the pattern was first identified [ 1 ] – [ 3 ] the island rule has been explained in a large number of ways [ 1 ] – [ 11 ] . a powerful method of distinguishing between the competing explanations is to test for the presence of analogous patterns in systems that share some , but not all of the ecological characteristics of island habitats [ 4 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 34 ] . for example , one putative contributor to the vertebrate pattern is “immigrant selection” , that is , between - lineage differences in the probability of reaching isolated islands , as opposed to differences in survival after colonisation [ 4 ] , [ 35 ] , [ 36 ] . the colonization of the deep - sea benthos differs clearly and qualitatively from the colonization of islands , and so if it is assumed that the similar patterns of body size evolution reflect a similarity of underlying cause [ 12 ] , this argues against immigrant selection as a key determinant of the graded trend that is observed in both cases .
similarly , predator release is a particularly plausible explanation of the vertebrate island rule [ 1 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 6 ] , [ 11 ] ; this is partly because it can naturally account for both dwarfism and gigantism ( by assuming that large and small body sizes evolve as alternative strategies for predator avoidance ) , and partly because predator release is so clearly implicated in other unusual characteristics of island endemics ( such as tameness ) [ 37 ] , [ 38 ] . but there is little evidence that reduced predation characterises the deep - sea [ 12 ] , [ 14 ] , and indeed there is direct evidence of substantial predation acting on deep - sea gastropods [ 12 ] , [ 39 ] – [ 41 ] . the gastropod results therefore argue against the predator release hypothesis as a general explanation of the island rule [ 12 ] .
we are therefore still far from understanding the causes of the patterns observed – and particularly the roles of inter - and intra - specific competition [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] . a detailed clarification of where the pattern does and does not hold will be an important step toward achieving this goal [ 4 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] .
many thanks are due to andrew rambaut for providing a script to mine the malacolog database . many thanks also to lucy weinert , nicolas bierne , gary rosenberg , shai meiri . simon joly and an anonymous reviewer , who all greatly improved the manuscript with their comments and advice .
conceived and designed the experiments : jw . performed the experiments : jw . analyzed the data : jw . wrote the paper : jw .
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verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
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the star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :
we want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .
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haiti . in the bay of cap - haitien . 2 m . circa 1980 .
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gastropod ( 1 shell ) , shell spiral in shape , ovate , tapering towards the bottom , short spire , body whorl takes up most of shell ; color background orangish brown to gray to pink , brown spots or blotches in spiraling rows with lighter color in between blotches ; radiating ribs crossed by widely space , shallow spiraling grooves ; aperture side smooth , lighter colored , an orangish band about 2 / 3 ' s down and orange spot on shoulder ; aperture long , narrow , outer lip of aperture thickened , toothed on inside , dark nearly black spots on back side of lip ; columella ( inner side of aperture ) crenulate ( ridged ) ; siphonal canal short , angled back and upturned .
this helmet has a distinctive color pattern which helps distinguish it from other helmets .
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turgeon , d . d . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , w . k . emerson , w . g . lyons , w . pratt , et al .
turgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .
common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .
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bernard , p . a . ( ed . ) ( 1984 ) . coquillages du gabon [ shells of gabon ] . pierre a . bernard : libreville , gabon . 140 , 75 plates pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
rolán e . , 2005 . malacological fauna from the cape verde archipelago . part 1 , polyplacophora and gastropoda . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
the green sea urchin , lytechinus variegatus . photo by lh sweat , smithsonian marine station at fort pierce .
lytechinus variegatus covering itself with fragments of algae and other debris . photo by lh sweat , smithsonian marine station at fort pierce .
please refer to the accompanying glossary for definitions of the descriptive terms used in this report .
the green sea urchin , lytechinus variegatus , is one of several urchin species common to florida and the caribbean . the spines of l . variegatus are characteristically short , and the underlying test is hemispherical with smoothly curving sides adorned with numerous small tubercles ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . tubercles are sparse on the aboral portions of the ambulacra and interambulacra , resulting in naked patches . globiferous pedicellariae are numerous and conspicuous , appearing as stalked and nearly spherical white or pink structures . the color of the test and spines is variable , and has been used to identify subspecies of l . variegatus ( serafy 1973 ) .
l . variegatus is similar in appearance to l . williamsi . however , the latter has purple pedicellariae instead of white or pink , fewer plates in each column of the test , and 12 wedges in the spines compared to the 24 found in l . variegatus ( hendler et al . 1995 ) .
short - spined urchins like l . variegatus have fragile tests , which limit them to low energy areas with minimal wave impact ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . they are most common in quiet waters with rocky and sandy bottoms , and in beds of the turtle grass , thalassia testudinum . l . variegatus is reportedly intolerant of turbid waters with high quantities of suspended silt ( moore et al . 1963 ) .
the range of the green sea urchin extends from beaufort , north carolina southward throughout the caribbean to santos , brazil . l . variegatus atlanticus also occurs in bermuda ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . depths range from zero to 250 meters , although most individuals are found in waters less than 50 m ( serafy 1979 ) .
the distribution of l . variegatus within the irl remains undocumented . however , this urchin is likely most abundant in the southern lagoon , where turtle grass beds are more prevalent .
l . variegatus reaches a total diameter of about 110 mm , with a test diameter of about 85 mm ( hendler et al . 1995 ) .
in turtle grass beds , l . variegatus can reach extremely high numbers . although little information is available concerning the abundance of this speciesin the irl , densities of l . variegatus in other locations have been reported at 636 individuals per square meter ( camp et al . 1973 ) .
the green sea urchin is normally gonochoric . reproduction of hermaphroditic individuals has been linked to abnormally low water temperatures ( moore et al . 1963 ) . the spawning period of the green sea urchin is shorter in northern latitudes ( moore et al . 1963 ) . in tropical locations like panama , l . variegatus is sexually ripe throughout the year ( lessios 1985 , 1991 ) . in florida , reproduction varies with season and environmental conditions ( ernest & blake 1981 ) . mazur & miller ( 1971 ) reported a reproductive season of march to october for florida urchins held in the laboratory . spawning in panama , and possibly other locations , tends to occur during the new and full moons ( lessios 1991 ) .
pearce & cameron ( 1991 ) provide a review of the extensive literature available describing fertilization and early development in l . variegatus . full development from zygote to metamorphosis takes 33 - 43 days in the laboratory ( mazur & miller 1971 ) , and can be accelerated by increasing the water temperature ( petersen & almeida 1976 ) . salinities below 35 ppt result in decreased larval survival and developmental rates , even when the parents are acclimated to such salinities ( roller & stickle 1993 ) . in response to low food supply , larvae can increase their feeding efficiency by enlarging their ciliated bands ( boideron - metairon 1988 ) . after metamorphosis , juveniles can grow to a test diameter of about 15 mm in 6 months , and to 25 mm in 9 months ( pawson & miller 1982 , michel 1984 ) . pearse & cameron ( 1991 ) found some evidence for a difference in the number of chromosomes between male and female urchins .
when population densities are high , l . variegatus can overgraze seagrass beds ( camp et al . 1973 ) . however , studies have shown that the majority of the reported 0 . 6 g dry weight of t . testudinum consumed daily by each urchin consists of dead blades , having a minimal effect on live turtle grass ( vadas et al . 1982 ) .
l . variegatus often covers itself with plant and shell debris , holding the material in place with its tube feet ( mortensen 1943 , millott 1956 , sharp & gray 1962 , kier & grant 1965 ) . millott ( 1956 ) documented a rise in covering behavior in response to increased light levels , suggesting that the collected debris acts to shade the animal from strong light .
the turbellarian , syndisyrinx collongistyla , has been reported to infest the body cavity and intestines of l . variegatus ( nappi & crawford 1984 , hertel et al . 1990 ) . protozoan parasites are also reported for this urchin ( mortensen 1943 ) . the polychaete , podarke obscura , has been listed as an occasional associate ( ruppert & fox 1988 ) .
boideron - metairon if . 1988 . morphological plasticity on laboratory - reared echinoplutei of dendraster excentricus ( eschscholtz ) and lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck ) in response to food conditions . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . 119 : 31 - 41 .
camp dk , cobb s & jf van breeveld . 1973 . overgrazing of seagrasses by a regular urchin , lytechinus variegatus . bioscience 23 : 37 - 38 .
engstrom na . 1982 . immigration as a factor in maintaining populations of the sea urchin lytechinus variegatus ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) in seagrass beds on the southwest coast of puerto rico . studies neotrop . fauna environ . 17 : 51 - 60 .
ernest rg & nj blake . 1981 . reproductive patterns within sub - populations of lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck ) ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . 55 : 25 - 37 .
hendler g . 1977 . the differential effects of season stress and predation on the stability of reef - flat echinoid populations . in : taylor dl ( ed . ) . 217 - 223 . proceedings : third international coral reef symposium . volume 1 ( biology ) . rosenstiel school of marine & atmospheric science , university of miami . miami , florida .
hendler g , miller je , pawson dl & pm kier . 1995 . sea stars , sea urchins , and allies : echinoderms of florida and the caribbean . smithsonian institution press . washington , d . c . 390 pp .
hertel l , duszynski dw & je ubelaker . 1990 . turbellarians ( umagillidae ) from caribbean urchins with a description of syndisyrinx collongistyla , n . sp . trans . amer . microscop . soc . 109 : 272 - 281 .
kier pm & re grant , 1965 . echinoid distribution and habits , kay largo coral reef preserve , florida . smithsonian misc . collect . 149 : 1 - 68 .
lessios ha . 1985 . annual reproductive periodicity in eight echinoid species on the caribbean coast of panama . in : keegan bf & bds o’connor ( eds . ) . 303 - 311 . echinodermata . proceedings of the fifth international echinoderm conference . galway , 24 - 29 september 1984 . belkema , rotterdam .
lessios ha . 1991 . presence and absence of monthly reproductive rhythms among eight caribbean echinoids off the coast of panama . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . 153 : 27 - 47 .
mazur je & jw miller . 1971 . a description of the complex metamorphosis of the sea urchin lytechinus variegatus cultured in synthetic sea water . ohio j . sci . 71 : 30 - 36 .
michel hb . 1984 . culture of lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck ) ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) from egg to young adult . bull . mar . sci . 34 : 312 - 314 .
millot n . 1956 . the covering reaction of sea urchins . 1 . a preliminary account of covering in the tropical echinoid lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck ) , and its relation to light . j . exp . biol . 33 : 508 - 523 .
moore hb , jutare t , bauer jc & ja jones . 1963 . the biology of lytechinus variegatus . bull . mar . sci . gulf carib . 13 : 23 - 53 .
mortensen t . 1943 . a monograph of the echinoidea . volume iii . ( 3 ) . camarodonta . i . orthopsidae , glyphocyphidae , temnopleuridae and toxopneustidae . ca reitzel , copenhagen . vii + 553 pp . 56 pls .
nappi aj & ja crawford . 1984 . the occurrence and distribution of a syndesmid ( turbellaria : umagillidae ) in jamaican sea urchins . j . parasitol . 70 : 595 - 597 .
pawson dl & je miller . 1982 . studies of genetically controlled phenotypic characters in laboratory - reared lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck ) ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . in : lawrence jm ( ed . ) . 165 - 171 . echinoderms : proceedings of the international conference . tampa bay , 14 - 17 september 1981 . balkema , rotterdam .
pearse js & ra cameron . 1991 . echinodermata : echinoidea . in : giese ac , pearse js & vb pearse ( eds . ) . 513 - 662 . reproduction of marine invertebrates , volume vi , echinoderms and lophophorates . the boxwood press . pacific grove , ca .
petersen ja & am almeida . 1976 . effects of salinity and temperature on the development and survival of the echinoids arbacia , echinometra and lythechinus . thalassia jugoslavia 12 : 297 - 298 .
randall je . 1967 . food habits of reef fishes of the west indies . inst . mar . sci . univ . miami . studies in tropical oceanog . no . 5 : 665 - 847 .
roller ra & stickle . 1993 . effects of temperature and salinity acclimation of adults on larval survival , physiology , and early development of lytechinus variegatus ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . mar . biol . ( berlin ) 116 : 583 - 591 .
ruppert , ee & rs fox . 1988 . seashore animals of the southeast : a guide to common shallow - water invertebrates of the southeastern atlantic coast . university of sc press . columbia , sc . usa . 429 pp .
serafy dk . 1973 . variation in the polytypic sea urchin lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck , 1816 ) in the western atlantic ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . bull . mar . sci . 23 : 525 - 534 .
serafy dk . 1979 . echinoids ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . memoirs of the hourglass cruises 5 : 1 - 120 .
sharp dt & ie gray . 1962 . studies on factors affecting the local distribution of two sea urchins , arbacia punctulata and lytechinus variegatus . ecology 43 : 309 - 313 .
vadas rl , fenchel t & jc ogden . 1982 . ecological studies on the sea urchin lytechinus variegatus and the algal - seagrass communities of the miskito cays , nicaragua . aquat . botany 14 : 109 - 115 .
the rock - boring urchin , echinometra lucunter . photo by lh sweat , smithsonian institution .
two echinometra lucunter feeding on the floating alga , sargassum . photo by lh sweat , smithsonian institution .
the rock boring urchin , echinometra lucunter , has an elongate oval test with two rows of large tubercles along the ambulacra and interambulacra , pairs of pores arranged in arcs of six , and a large peristome ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . the spines are long and slender , thickened at the base , and sharply pointed at the tips .
on the aboral side , the primary and secondary spines are dark olive green , with greenish violet to purple tips ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . the general color of the spines is blackish , although some specimens may exhibit a reddish color . test and muscle bases of the spines are shades of red - brown . tube feet on the aboral surface are light brown , and the terminal disks are dark brown to blackish . oral spines have a lighter color than aboral ones , light olive green with a violet gradient near the tips . the test and peristome are flecked with creamy brown . the tube feet near the mouth are translucent , with terminal disks that are creamy white in color , lined with a narrow dark brown band , and measuring about twice the size of those on the aboral feet .
as with many intertidal organisms , studies have revealed differences in the structure of e . lucunter from environments with varying wave action . specimens from high - energy areas tend to have tests that are flatter , thicker , smaller , and narrower , and a distinctive pattern of insertion of ocular plates in the apical system ( lewis & storey 1984 ) .
the general shape and size of e . lucunter is similar to that of the reef urchin , e . viridis . however , the latter usually has a more circular test shape and longer spines , a reddish test , pore pairs in arcs of five instead of six , and conspicuously white milled rings around the base of each spine ( hendler et al . 1995 ) .
the rock - boring urchin is commonly found on limestone reef rock in the surf zone ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . it can be very common in shallow , exposed fore reef or reef crest habitats , occupying shallow depressions or borrows created by the abrading action of the urchin’s spines and teeth on the rock surface . the success of e . lucunter in harsh environments may be partially due to its apparent resistance to stresses caused by increased temperature and salinity ( hendler 1977 ) .
the range of e . lucunter extends from beaufort , north carolina and bermuda southward throughout the caribbean and eastern central america to desterra , brazil . populations can also be found in west africa . the subspecies e . lucunter polypora pawson , is common at ascension and st . helena islands ( pawson 1978 ) . the depth range for this species is generally zero to 45 meters ( serafy 1979 ) .
the distribution of e . lucunter within the irl remains undocumented . however , this species appears to be concentrated mostly around rock jetties and other hard structures near inlets ( lh sweat , personal observation ) .
e . lucunter reaches a maximum size of 15 cm , though most individuals are about half that size ( hendler et al . 1995 ) .
the abundance of e . lucunter in the irl is undocumented . however , studies have reported densities elsewhere of up to 129 individuals per square meter ( greenstein 1993 ) .
the annual spawning cycle for the rock - boring urchin has been reported to occur in late summer in the florida keys ( mcpherson 1969 ) , peaks in the fall in puerto rico ( cameron 1986 ) , and occurs variably throughout the year in panama ( lessios 1981 ) . lewis & storey ( 1984 ) documented one spawning event per year in urchins from high - energy environments , and two events annually in urchins from low - energy areas . tennent et al . ( 1931 ) reported that spawning in one individual takes about 15 minutes . fertilization and development are adversely affected by reducing salinity ( petersen & almeida 1976 ) . larvae of this species have been reared through metamorphosis in the laboratory ( e . g . mortensen 1921 ) .
the rock - boring urchin feeds mostly at night from their burrows , consuming clumps of drift algae , or venturing out of the burrow to feed and then usually returning to the same hole ( mcpherson 1969 , abbott et al . 1974 , ogden 1976 ) . in panama , individuals were observed to clear the area around their burrows of all organisms except calcareous algae ( hendler et al . 1995 ) .
antagonistic behaviors among conspecifics have been observed for this urchin . grunbaum et al . ( 1978 ) found that intruding urchins were pushed and bit by the individual originally inhabiting the burrow , and the inhabitant won most altercations . escape responses have been observed in individuals following exposure to chemical extracts from other echinometra spp . ( parker & shulman 1986 ) .
the eulimid gastropod , monogamus minibulla is a parasite of the rock - boring urchin ( warén & moolenbeek 1989 ) . the turbellarian , syndisyrinx collongistyla , has been reported to infest the intestines of e . lucunter in jamaica , s . evelinae has been found in specimens from st . barthélemy ( hertel et al . 1990 ) . protozoans have also been reported to infest e . lucunter ( mortensen 1943 ) . the rock - boring urchin has been observed to share its burrow with several associates , including a goby , a porcelain crab , and a brittle star ( schoppe 1991 ) .
the burrowing behavior of e . lucunter can contribute greatly to the breakdown of coral reefs and intertidal limestone shorelines , especially when urchin population densities are high . hoskin & reed ( 1985 ) estimated that burrows are excavated in approximately 3 years . rates of erosion on coral reefs due to this excavation have been reported at 3 . 9 kg per square meter annually in the virgin islands , 7 . 0 kg per square meter annually in bermuda , and 24 g per urchin per year in barbados ( ogden 1977 ) .
ablanedo et al . ( 1990 ) found that individuals of e . lucunter accumulate certain heavy metals in the gonads , test , spines , and lantern . therefore , they can be used as an indicator species to reflect the level of environmental pollution to which they are exposed .
abbott dp , ogden jc & ia abbott . 1974 . studies on the activity pattern , behavior , and food of the echinoid echinometra lucunter ( linnaeus ) on beachrock and algal reefs in st . croix , u . s . virgin islands . west indies laboratory special publication no . 4 . fairleigh dickinson university . christiansted , st . croix . u . s . virgin islands . iv + 111 pp .
ablanedo n , gonzalez h , ramirez m & i torres . 1990 . evaluación del erizo de mar echinometra lucunter como indictor de contaminación por metales pesados , cuba . aquat . living res . 3 : 113 - 120 .
cameron ra . 1986 . reproduction , larval occurrence and recruitment in caribbean sea urchins . bull . mar . sci . 39 : 332 - 346 .
greenstein bj . 1993 . is the fossil record of regular echinoids really so poor ? a comparison of living and subfossil assemblages . palaios 8 : 587 - 601 .
grunbaum h , bergman g , abbott dp & jc ogden . 1978 . intraspecific agonistic behavior in the rock - boring sea urchin echinometra lucunter ( l . ) ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . bull . mar . sci . 28 : 181 - 188 .
hoskin cm & jk reed . 1985 . carbonate sediment production by the rock - boring urchin echinometra lucunter and associated endolithic infauna at black rock , little bahama bank . symposia ser . underwater res . 3 : 151 - 161 .
lessios ha . 1981 . reproductive periodicity of the echinoids diadema and echinometra on the two coasts of panama . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . 50 : 47 - 61 .
lewis jb & gs storey . 1984 . differences in morphology and life history traits of the echinoid echinometra lucunter from different habitats . mar . ecol . prog . ser . 15 : 207 - 211 .
mcpherson bf . 1969 . studies on the biology of the tropical sea urchins echinometra lucunter and echinometra viridis . bull . mar . sci . 19 : 194 - 213 .
mortensen t . 1921 . studies of the development and larval forms of echinoderms . g . e . c . gad . copenhagen , denmark . xxxiii + 266 pp .
ogden jc . 1976 . some aspects of herbivore - plant relationships on caribbean reefs and seagrass beds . aquat . botany 2 : 103 - 116 .
ogden jc . 1977 . carbonate - sediment production by parrotfish and sea urchins on caribbean reefs . stud . geol . 4 : 281 - 288 .
parker da & mj schulman . 1986 . avoiding predation : alarm responses of caribbean sea urchins to simulated predation on conspecific and heterospecific sea urchins . mar . biol . ( berlin ) 93 : 201 - 208 .
pawson dl . 1978 . the echinoderm fauna of ascension island , south atlantic ocean . smithsonian contrib . mar . sci . 2 . iv + 31 pp .
schoppe s . 1991 . echinometra lucunter ( linnaeus ) ( echinoidea , echinometridae ) als wirt einer komplexen lebensgemeinschaft im karibischen meer . helgoländ . meeresunt . 45 : 373 - 379 .
tennent dh , gardiner ms & de smith . 1931 . a cytological and biochemical study of the ovaries of the sea urchin echinometra lucunter . carnegie institution of washington publication no . 27 . 1 - 46 . pls . 1 - 7 .
warén a & r moolenbeek . 1989 . a new eulimid gastropod , trochostilifer eucidaricola , parasitic on the pencil urchin eucidaris tribuloides from the southern caribbean . proc . biol . soc . wash . 102 : 169 - 175 .
depth : 0 to 60 m ( live 0 . 3 to 3 m )
distribution : usa : north carolina , florida : east florida , west florida , florida keys ; usa : louisiana , texas ; mexico : quintana roo ; honduras : swan island ; colombia : offshore islands ; costa rica , panama , colombia , venezuela : islas los roques ; bermuda , bahamas : grand bahama island , abaco ( great or little ) , bimini , eleuthera , little san salvador , cat island , san salvador ( watling is . ) , long island , mayaguana ; cuba : north havana province , north matanzas , villa clara , cienfuegos , santiago de cuba , guantanamo ; jamaica , puerto rico ; virgin islands : st . john , st . croix , tortola ; st . barthelemy / st . bartholomew , barbuda ; st . vincent & the grenadines : grenada ; barbados ; trinidad & tobago : trinidad ; brazil : ceara , pernambuco , alagoas , bahia
distribution : cuba : pinar del rio , havana province ; puerto rico ; virgin islands : st . croix ; eastern atlantic : st . helena
shells of gabon 140 pp . published by the author : libreville , gabon . [ stated date : - - nov 1984 . ]
encyclopédie méthodique . histoire naturelle des vers encyclopédie méthodique . histoire naturelle des vers 1 345 - 757 . panckoucke : paris .
systema naturae per regna tria naturae . editio decima tertia systema naturae , 13th ed . , vol . 1 ( 6 ) 3021 - 3910 . lipsiae .
systema naturae systema naturae , 10th ed . , vol . 1 824 pp . laurentii salvii : holmiae [ stockholm , sweden ] .
museum boltenianum viii + 199 pp . hamburg . [ stated date : - - sep 1798 . ]
our collecting trip to the caribbees , including a list of shells collected mollusca 2 ( 5 ) 1 - 14 , 3 pls . [ numbered as 2 ] . [ stated date : 20 aug 1949 . ]
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national inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .
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maximum reported size : 85 mm . the rounded body whorl is purplish cream overlaid with dark purple brown . often this coloration is arranged spirally in the form of indistinct chevrons . the shell is solid with a long , narrow aperture and is shaped like a small helmet shell . the aperture is bordered with whitish raised lirae which appear as teeth on the inside of the thickened outer lip . the outerlip is crossed by orange bars that coincide with dark brown markings on the dorsal side . the parietal shield is glossy and rounded . it is yellowish and overlaid with three or four orange patches , one of which is always loated at the apical end . sculpture consists of narrow axial ridges that are depressed by shallow spiral grooves to form axially elongate beads .
little information available on this species . . . ripe for further investigation ! poca informacion sobre esta especie que nos lleva a investigar de una manera mas profunda !
redfern , c . 2001 . bahamian seashells . bahamianseashells . com , inc . boca raton , florida . page : 59 . olsson , a . a . & mcginty , t . l . 1958 . recent marine mollusks from the caribbean coast of panama with the description of some new genera and species . bulletins of american paleontology vol . 39 nº304
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discussions , photo series , how to identify or distinguish a species or between species .
description : f + + , very strange specimen ! looks like hybrid of vibex and turgida ! we had some before from b . cook !
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the snakelocks anemone ( anemonia viridis ) is a sea anemone found in the eastern atlantic ocean to the mediterranean sea .

the tentacles of anemones in deep or murky water can be a grey colour , but are otherwise usually a deep green colour with purple tips due to the presence of symbiotic algae within the tentacles that use sunlight as an energy source .

as a result , the anemones prefer brightly lit shallow waters .

on average the snakelock anemone is 8 cm wide .

snakelocks anemone

profile of the snakelocks anemone this profile contains interesting facts and information about the snakelocks anemone species .
some anemones such as the snakelocks anemone glow fluorescent green under ultra violet light .
description of the snakelocks anemone the snakelocks anemone is a popular anemone for the aquarium setup , it adapts easily to different environments and makes an ideal home for clownfish who have a symbiotic relationship with sea anemones . this particular variety of sea anemone is eaten ! in spain , the dish is called
ortiguillas de mar
which translates as sea nettles . the anemone is marinated in vinegar , coated in a tempura style batter and deep fried .
swimming in chesil fleet through ' some sargassum , i felt a mild tingling sensation across my abdomen . this was caused by snakelocks anemone !
which lives in the tentacles of the snakelocks anemone without being harmed . the presence of the zooxanthellae has been shown to improve long term survival for
beadlet anemone ( actinia equina ) – the most familiar sea anemone to most . found on a wide range of rocky shores , often as dark red or green blobs of jelly when out of the water at low tide . strawberry anemone ( actinia fragacea ) – similar to the beadlet anemone but larger and marked like a strawberry . snakelocks anemone ( anemone viridis ) – another familar anemone in the south west , whose brightly coloured tentacles remain extended even when disturbed . gem anemone ( aulactinia verrucosa ) – a squat anemone with many markings and a bumpy body . normally found attached to rocks on the lower shore and in pools . cloak anemone ( adamsia carciniopados ) – is a beautiful pink spotty anemone almost always found living with the hermit crab ( pagurus prideaux ) .
daly , s . 1999 .
the creature feature - snakelocks anemone
( on - line ) . accessed april 9 , 2003 at urltoken .
that are found in the anemone ' s tissues . these algae are necessary for the long term survival of the sea anemone . when the numbers of algae diminish the anemone may appear dull grey in colour . the algae need light to flourish , so snakelocks anemones will be found in the sunniest pools . unlike
take up about 6 % - 12 % of the mass of the anemone .
in the wild , snakelocks anemones rarely retract their tentacles because of the algae ' s need for sunlight . even when left on land after high tide the tentacles stay exposed . the tentacles are also used in conflicts with adjacent anemones . in fighting over the same territory , the red beadlet anemone ( actinia equina ) uses its blue beads while the snakelocks anemone strikes with its long tentacles . the tentacles are sticky to the human hand , but can produce a powerful sting and rash on thinner human skin . the sessile snakelocks anemone normally is the only sea anemone species in a pool , fighting off other sea anemones species . often these anemones are found living in colonies .
scientific classification of the snakelocks anemone definition : scientific classification , or biological classification , is how biologists group and categorize species of organisms with shared physical characteristics . scientific classification belongs to the science of taxonomy .
, is distinguished by its long greenish tentacles . the green coloration is due to the photosynthetic zooxanthellae algae growing in the tentacles ' tissues . without the chlorophyll of the algae , the anemone would appear gray or light brown . sometimes the tentacle tips are purple . the snakelocks anemone has some of the longest tentacles of all sea anemones . with up to over 200 sticky tentacles , the snakelocks anemone grows to 20 cm across and eight cm tall . the tentacles are lined with venomous stinging cells called cnidocysts .
) and then search under the scientific name of the anemone % / or longitudinal fission .
the snakelocks anemone is very impressive considering its two - coloured tentacles and the length of the tentacles . this species is common on rocky seashores , especially in rock pools , and thus may be familiar to some visitors .
horton , a . 2000 .
snakelocks anemome
( on - line ) . accessed april 9 , 2003 at urltoken .
hiscock , k . 2003 .
* anemonia viridis * . snakelocks anemone
( on - line ) . marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information sub - programme . accessed july 19 , 2004 at urltoken .
[ 2 ] dr keith hiscock , hiscock , k . , 2008 . anemonia viridis . snakelocks anemone . marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information sub - programme [ on - line ] . , 29 / 04 / 2008 .
. as the zooxanthellae provides food , the anemone provides nitrogen . without this mutualistic interaction neither species would flourish .
interesting information about sea anemones sea anemones are named after the anemone flower . they are a predatory animal that releases a toxin to paralyse its prey . the prey is then moved into the anemones gastro vascular cavity . the poison secreted by a sea anemone affects fish and crustaceans . the clown fish or anemonefish however has a mutually symbiotic relationship with the sea anemone , they are not affected by its poison and live among its tentacles , indeed laying their eggs on the anemone itself . the clownfish uses the sea anemone as a form of defence from larger predators .
snakelocks sea anemones - anatomy the sea anemone has just one external opening . this single opening acts as both a mouth and an anus . all waste and undigested material is excreted through this opening . a sea anemone has no sense organs , its nervous system is very primitive but it does have nerves and muscles . the anemone doesn ' t have a skeleton , it keeps itself stable by closing its mouth enabling it to stay rigid . snakelocks sea anemones - movement can a sea anemone move ? although sea anemones usually remain static , they can use their pedal disc to move slowly flexing their body or using their tentacles to swim slowly to another location . they can attach themselves to a rock , the sea bed or the shell of a crustacean , a hermit crab for example . a sea anemone will only move location if they are attacked by a predator or the conditions of the water are unsuitable .
, a family of sea anemones , commonly called “night sea anemone” , distributed in the western pacific ocean ; it is also called in japanese “unbachi - isoginchaku” which means “sea - wasp anemone” in okinawa ( south japan ) . the shape of the animal changes with its circumstances (
garcia p . j . , schein r . m . , burnett j . w . fulminant hepatic failure from a sea anemone sting .
massmanian a . , valcuende cavero f . v . , ramirez bosca a . r . , castells rodellas a . c . sea anemone dermatitis .
hiscock , k . 2008 . anemonia viridis snakelocks anemone . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken
the snakelocks will mainly eat things like : small fish , gastropods , crustaceans , and all sorts of things that would dare enter into its jaws . whether they are dead or alive , the victims are caught by the leafy , snake - like tentacles of the snakelocks . what is keeping the victims from escaping these tentacles you ask ? well , my voracious scientist , there happen to be hundreds of tiny harpoon - like structures vested inside the snakelocks tentacles . undetectable by the naked eye , these harpoon - like structures known as nematocysts will shoot out of the snakelocks and emit a venom that may be either paralytical or even lethal . after the victim has been caught by these dangerous harpoons ( also known as stinging cells ) it is then absorbed into its body the same way a venus flytrap eats an insect .
the snakelocks harbor a yellow - green or yellow - brown algae called zooxanthellae as an endosymbiont . this zooxanthellae is a tissue that is fed by intense light that can only be provided by shallow waters which much light passes through . if they do not get the light needed to survive , the tentacles will retract and become colorless , indicating that the snakelocks is either dead or dying due to the lack of sunshine .
the snakelocks has two forms of reproduction . it reproduces by budding ( a process in which the snakelocks will make an identical half of itsself ) . this process may be known as longitudinal fission ; meaning that the
fission
( to split in half ) is extending along the long axis of the body , in other words , from head to the tail . this
longitudinal fission
can take hours or minutes to perform . they can also reproduce through regeneration - a bodily function in which the invertebrate will re - grow any lost appendages . considering these two reproductional functions , snakelocks is truly an amazing creature .
sea anemones vary in size , with some tropical species reaching more than a metre in diameter . one of the largest in british waters is the horesman anemone ( urticina eques ) , reaching sizes of 35cm across . one of the smallest in britain is the rare anemone gonactinia prolifera , which rarely grows more than 5mm tall .
are commensal . the anemone provides protection for the spider crab . the crab is immune to the possibly dangerous sting . another commensal relationship includes bucchichi ' s goby ,
snakelocks anemones live best attached to the bottom in shallow salt water and intertidal pools . these anemones have been found as far down as 20 meters , but are rare below 10 - 12 meters . they compete for space with
longitudinal fission . anemone splits into two identical halves , as illustrated ( click on the link below ) . the process can take from between 5 minutes and 2 hours .
having some of the longest tentacles proves to be an advantage for these planktonivorous and carnivorous food gathers . the tentacles surround the mouth , sweeping the ocean water searching for planktonic and benthic crustaceans . during times of starvation , sea anemones will release their basal disc to move to new locations in search of better feeding areas . most sea anemones do not consume large gastropod molluscs , but they are one of the main staples for the snakelocks anemone . having over 200 tentacles increases the surface area . the large surface area is proportional to the size of the prey that can be captured . they feast on all types of small fish and palaemonid prawns . living in symbiosis with the photosynthetic algae - zooxanthellae seems to produce food and also remove waste products . after ingesting a meal , the snakelocks anemone increases the amount of oxygen it consumes because the zooxanthaellae produces oxygen as a by - product of its photosynthesis . having both long tentacles and zooxanthellae algae provides two ways of food intake . bacteria that live in the coelenteron breaks down the organic detritus for the anemone , but the detritus is a minor component of the anemone ' s overall food intake .
the venomous stinging cells of the snakelocks can leave a violent rash on anyone whom dares cross its tentacles . this rash may last for weeks to a month , its mark can be even more painful than a jellyfish sting . the sting may cause an irritating , itching feeling with a constant feeling of inflammation . in some cases , scars have formed from the terrible rash that the ominous sting will cause . there have also been reports of these marks being very similar to stinging nettles ( which are found on land as plants ) . in light of the latter statement , we may conclude saying that the snakelocks anemone is almost like an underwater stinging nettle .
snakelocks anemones are mainly sessile , but will move to escape from predators or find better food locations . the predators consist of octopi , oxystomatid crabs , and fish that find the anemones after high tide when the sea anemones are left exposed .
curiosities : the snakelocks anemone , like all cnidaria , can have a powerful sting . when it is touched with your fingers , the stinging cells attack the skin , but without piercing it , and the tentacles remain stuck on your fingers . as the tentacles come off easily , there is always a danger that they might reach more delicate areas such as the face , neck , inner arm , etc . , causing injuries .
norton r . s . , pennington m . w . , wulff h . pottasium channel blockade by the sea anemone toxin shk for the treatment of multiple sclerosis and other autoimmune diseases .
nagai h . , oshiro n . , takuwa - kuroda k . , iwanaga s . , nozaki m . , nakajima t . novel proteinaceous toxins from the nematocyst venom of the okinawan sea anemone
nagai h . , oshiro n . , takuwa - kuroda k . , iwanaga s . , nozaki m . , nakajima t . a new polypeptide toxin from the nematocyst venom of an okinawa sea anemone
dutch : wasroos , draadroos french ( add . ) : ortique , anémone beignets , ortie de mer italian : capelli di venere , anemone capelli di serpe , matrona di mare , morosa portuguese : anémona do mar comun
this minireview focuses on the sea anemone , a coelenterate of the phylum cnidaria . sea anemones have sting venoms to catch and immobilize small fishes and shrimps for feeding and protection . most are not harmful for humans or only cause mild dermatitis . a few species possess highly toxic venoms and are hazardous for humans . the hell’s fire sea anemone ( actinodendron plumosum ) is named for the severe skin ulceration caused by its sting [ 10 , 20 ] . envenomation by the sea anemone stichodactyla haddoni caused shock and organ failure , including fulminant hepatitis [ 22 , 24 ] . phyllodiscus semoni ( p . semoni ) is another sea anemone dangerous to humans . the sting usually induces severe dermatitis with ulceration and profound swelling in the regions of contact [ 18 , 21 ] . more serious sequelae of envenomation by p . semoni include the development of acute renal failure without evidence of dysfunction of other organs [ 18 ] .
this large anemone has long flexuous tentacles which are a grey - brown or bright green in colour . the green variety has purple tips to the tentacles . the tentacles rarely withdraw into the column , which is reddish or greyish brown .
during the mating season from june through august sperm is released and received by the ova via water flow . inside of the female ova , the zooxanthellae algae are carried into the next generation . the snakelocks anemone is oviparous , meaning the eggs are laid outside the mother ' s body . this sexual process for reproduction is less common than the asexual longitudinal fission process . longitudinal fission is a literal splitting of the sea anemone . after the splitting , they each have a simple and uncompleted ring of tentacles . the two new sea anemones have an uncentered mouth to start food consumption . many of the internal tissues are duplicated before the actual splitting process . the longitudinal fission splits laterally , starting at the basal disc . the whole fission process happens relatively quickly , it takes from 5 minutes to 2 hours .
description : the anemones are pink invertebrates with a vegetable appearance and long , moving tentacles . the snakelocks anemone has two clearly different shapes distinguished in the external appearance and the habitat : one smaller form with a diameter of 2 to 5 cm , which preferably lives on well - lit rocky walls and beds with blocks up to 5 m in depth ; and another larger form with a diameter of up to 15 cm and tentacles up to 50 cm in length , which also lives on well - lit rocky walls but at depths of between 3 and 25 m .
mizuno m . , nishikawa k . , yuzawa y . , kanie t . , mori h . , araki y . , hotta n . , matsuo s . a case report of acute renal failure following a sting presumedly by a sea anemone .
this anemone is very common in the most protected parts of the tidal zone . unlike other anemones , this one cannot retract its long tentacles . so , to lessen its loss of water during low tide , it reduces the exposed area of its body . it lives in symbiosis with green algae ( which give it its typical colouration ) and for that reason it inhabits places close to the surface with plenty of sunlight . besides obtaining nutrients from the algae living on its body , this anemone feeds on small fish and invertebrates , that it gathers using its venomous tentacles .
symbiotic algae which appears to be necessary for the long term survival of this sea anemone . ingests larger food items both dead and alive , e . g . small fish , just moulted palaemonid prawns . gastropod molluscs and all sorts of crustaceans form the bulk of the diet in limited studies .
soletti r . c . , de faria g . p . , vernal j . , terenzi h . , anderluh g . , borges h . l . , moura - neto v . , gabilan n . h . potentiation of anticancer - drug cytotoxicity by sea anemone pore - formimg proteins in human glioblastoma cells .
the sea anemone , categorized in phylum coelenterate ( cnidaria ) , class anthozoa , is armed with venom - secreting nematocysts to aid in the capture of prey and to protect from predators . most sea anemones are harmless for man or at worst cause dermatitis by contact irritants / toxins . however , venom of some sea anemones is extremely harmful for man ; actinodendron plumosum ( hell’s fire sea anemone ) , actineria villosa ( okinawan sea anemone , called fusa - unbachi in japan ) and p . semoni all cause severe injury including dermatitis [ 15 , 127 ] , hepatitis [ 24 ] , renal failure [ 18 ] and anaphylactic shock [ 22 ] . the sea anemones anemonia sulcata and anemonia equine , were reported to cause severe dermatitis with hyper - and parakeratosis with many infiltrative cells in the skin [ 128 ] , while toxins from other sea anemones , including actinia equina , anemonia sulcata , anthopleura xanthgrammica , bunodosoma granulifera , bunodosoma caissarum and stichodactyla helianthus , were cytolytic , haemolytic , neurotoxic and cardiotoxic [ 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 ] .
anemones have adapted to a wide range of habitats , from the muddy depths of sea lochs , to seashores , wrecks and offshore reefs . some even attach to other living creatures . the beadlet anemone is an example of a specis found on the shore , which can survive out of the water when the tide drops , by drawing its tentacles inside its body .
leaves etc . , usually in well - lit situations . occurs mainly on the shore , from about mid - tide level downwards , mostly in localities exposed to strong wave action but also in sheltered places , and in the shallow sublittoral down to about 20 m . a conspicuous species and , if present , may well be the first anemone to catch the eye .
chi v . , pennington m . w . , norton r . s . , tarcha e . j . , londono l . m . , sims - fahey b . , upadhyay s . k . , lakey j . t . , iadonato s . , wulff h . , beeton c . , et al . development of a sea anemone toxin as an immunomodulator for therapy of autoimmune diseases .
when poked with fingers the tentacles feel incredibly sticky to the thick skin . however , when grazed on by the abdomen the tentacles can sting and raise a rash , which can last a month . there have been several reports in 1999 . this anemone was responsible for a severe blistering of a baby ' s leg on a guernsey beach in august 1999 . the sting can be worse than that of the jellyfish around britain .
in the natural world , there are many creatures with venoms that have interesting and varied activities . although the sea anemone , a member of the phylum coelenterata , has venom that it uses to capture and immobilise small fishes and shrimp and for protection from predators , most sea anemones are harmless to man . however , a few species are highly toxic ; some have venoms containing neurotoxins , recently suggested as potential immune - modulators for therapeutic application in immune diseases . phyllodiscus semoni is a highly toxic sea anemone ; the venom has multiple effects , including lethality , hemolysis and renal injuries . we previously reported that venom extracted from phyllodiscus semoni induced acute glomerular endothelial injuries in rats resembling hemolytic uremic syndrome ( hus ) , accompanied with complement dysregulation in glomeruli and suggested that the model might be useful for analyses of pathology and development of therapeutic approaches in hus . in this mini - review , we describe in detail the venom - induced acute renal injuries in rat and summarize how the venom of phyllodiscus semoni could have potential as a tool for analyses of complement activation and therapeutic interventions in hus .
to capture its ' food , the anemone uses the stinging power in its ' tentacles . the sweeping tentacles capture food , and then transport it to the mouth by ciliary currents . sometimes the unfortunate prey wanders mistakenly into the paralyzing tentacles or a tidal wave bring in new food specimens . inside the tentacles are cnidocyte cells . the cnidocytes contain the nematocysts that are the stinging capsules . the nematocysts respond only when both stimuli occurs - the combination of touch and food extract . as the cnidocytes paralyze the prey , the movement in the tentacles brings the food through the mouth for extra - cellular digestion . ammino acids and glucose can be directly absorbed from the sea water by the ectodermal cells on the tentacles .
present on the western coasts of britain from portsmouth all around to the west coast of scotland where it extends northwards to just south of cape wrath . absent from the east basin of the irish sea .
present mainly in the intertidal especially in pools from mid - tide downwards but not extending far into the sublittoral . however , frequently present , often in large numbers on the leaves of seagrass ( e . g .
column smooth , disk wide , tentacles long , fairly stout and flexuous - up to about 200 .
the column is reddish or greyish brown , the disk brown or greyish with white radial lines , tentacles grey - brown or bright green with purple tips .
pale individuals may occur where there is little or no light ( for instance when removed to an aquarium ) .
howson , c . m . & picton , b . e . , 1997 . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . belfast : ulster museum . [ ulster museum publication , no . 276 . ]
lewis , j . r . , 1964 . the ecology of rocky shores . london : english universities press .
stephenson , t . a . , 1935 . the british sea anemones , vol . 2 . london : ray society .
marine life information network ( marlin ) , the marine biological association of the uk ( see contact us ) © 2018 the marine biological association of the uk , all rights reserved .
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are found on the southern and western shores of britain and as far south as the mediterranean sea . they are distinguished by long flowing tentacles and will usually be found in a bright green colour , sometimes with purple tips to the tentacles . a few specimens have a
, they do not readily retract their tentacles if left stranded on land by the retreating tide . however , in aquaria they demonstrate their ability to do so .
intertidal pools and shallow water . requires high intensity light levels ( e . g . 50000 lux is natural in summer , 16000 lux will probably suffice in aquaria ) for the
i got stung by something caught up in a thick canopy of sargassum at kimmeridge , dorset , in july 1999 - it bubbled up like a severe nettle sting , then turned red as it subsided to leave red weals which i still have a trace of on my stomach ( over a month later ) . i guess it was an unusual reaction to common jellyfish as i didn ' t see any
a snorkeller was stung on the soft skin on the underside of her forearm producing a large red weal after diving at kimmeridge , dorset . after 6 weeks the weal had almost disappeared , but it still itched .
i remember years ago seeing a boy messing about with these anemones and developing a sudden and painful line of weals on his inner arm . (
i was recently in the purbecks in dorset and whilst my daughter was swimming in a rock pool ( at dancing ledge ) she was suddenly stung by ' something ' ! ! there were no jelly fish in sight and we weren ' t sure what caused it . the sting was very painful and when it eased off , very itchy ! just after she was stung , the marks on her arm and leg were similar to those you get when stung by stinging nettles ( raised and white blotches ) . the marks , as shown in the attached picture , are now raised and red with ' a kind of tickly feeling ' when touched . could this be some kind of stinging seaweed ? ? is there such a thing in the coastal waters off the uk ?
in dorset , part of the purbeck coastline in the south west of england .
there is a particular rock pool that was artificially created by a headmaster of a local boarding school sometime in the early 20th century . it forms a perfect intertidal swimming pool that attracts lots of families and bathers like myself . i was in the pool for some time leaning and sitting on the edges . i did feel a small sting quite early on but thought it was an open cut or graze from scrambling on the rocks before getting in .
after a long swim in the sea as well , i got out and immediatley felt a rapid burning sensation like my skin was on fire . the area bubbled up in patches , very similar to a dense collection of nettle stings . interestingly , the stings on my bottom form a neat and rather unattractive line on the edge of my bikini bottoms . there were other people in the water at the same time but they had long shorts on or wetsuits , so the stings couldn ' t penetrate . i did hear from another swimmer that a little girl who was only wearing a bikini like me , had also suffered an attack .
i took the attached photo about ten minutes after getting out of the water . the area remained very hot and very very tender for about two days . during the following week it began to go down then it formed in red welts that look like chronic
. it ' s become itchy and inflamed and i started to use calamine lotion again to sooth it . i hope that you will publish the photos and the story to warn people , particularly with young children , that this rock pool has a large concentration of
i very much look forward to hearing form you . please let me know if you require any further information .
south & west of the british isles . mediterranean and the atlantic coasts of portugal , france , spain .
in the wild , this species will not retract its tentacles , although in captivity it has been shown to be able to do so .
ref : simon davy , zooxanthellae in the tissues of british sea anemones ( coelenterate society talk at the school of ocean sciences , university of wales , bangor ) .
. photographs can be found on the following site . click on the logo .
, has a basal diameter of 20 mm and a long tentacle stretching out of 210 mm .
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in the mediterranean sea and eastern atlantic ocean from north africa and the canary islands to the british isles , where the species is confined to the western coasts .
rock pools in the intertidal zone as well as often in large numbers on the leaves of seagrass ( e . g . zostera marina ) in shallow waters down to 30 m . usually on hard ground or in crevices .
, is found in shallow water throughout the mediterranean sea and north along portugal , spain , and france to the southern and western coasts of great britain . it may also occur along the african coast south of the straits of gibraltar .
at the 10 to 12 meter line , so living above this line avoids conflict with other species and positions them closer to the sunlight . the high intensity sunlight near the surface provides energy for their symbiotic algae ( called zooxanthellae ) . around the british coast these anemones attach themselves to rocks , blades of eel - grass , or kelp .
underneath the mass of tentacles grows the polyp body , which is a tubular structure . the mouth lies imbedded between the tentacles . the mouth leads into the body cavity through the pharynx and into the coelenteron ( gut sac ) . as with all cnidarians , there is no anus - - undigested waste is regurgitated back out through the mouth . the gonads in
adults of this species do not invest in their offspring except to provide yolk for their eggs .
has an alloimmune memory . when it is presented with a known stimulus , is has a specific remembered response . it can
remember
stimuli for up to five days .
( harris , 1990 ; horton , 2000 ; shick , 1991 ; waller , et al . , 1996 )
stephanie eaker ( author ) , southwestern university , stephanie fabritius ( editor ) , southwestern university .
the body of water between africa , europe , the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , and the western hemisphere . it is the second largest ocean in the world after the pacific ocean .
referring to an animal that lives on or near the bottom of a body of water . also an aquatic biome consisting of the ocean bottom below the pelagic and coastal zones . bottom habitats in the very deepest oceans ( below 9000 m ) are sometimes referred to as the abyssal zone . see also oceanic vent .
used loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies . more specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits ( a continuous , modular society ) - as in clonal organisms .
particles of organic material from dead and decomposing organisms . detritus is the result of the activity of decomposers ( organisms that decompose organic material ) .
having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .
the area of shoreline influenced mainly by the tides , between the highest and lowest reaches of the tide . an aquatic habitat .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .
photosynthetic or plant constituent of plankton ; mainly unicellular algae . ( compare to zooplankton . )
a form of body symmetry in which the parts of an animal are arranged concentrically around a central oral / aboral axis and more than one imaginary plane through this axis results in halves that are mirror - images of each other . examples are cnidarians ( phylum cnidaria , jellyfish , anemones , and corals ) .
attached to substratum and moving little or not at all . synapomorphy of the anthozoa
that region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .
an animal which has an organ capable of injecting a poisonous substance into a wound ( for example , scorpions , jellyfish , and rattlesnakes ) .
animal constituent of plankton ; mainly small crustaceans and fish larvae . ( compare to phytoplankton . )
fautin , d . 2004 .
anemonia viridis classification
( on - line ) . hexacorallians of the world . accessed july 12 , 2004 at urltoken .
to cite this page : eaker , s . 2003 .
anemonia viridis
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
, up to about 200 in number . the tentacles are rarely retracted but they can be completely retracted into the
reddish or greyish brown , usually darkest above , sometimes with irregular pale streaks , acrorhagi matching the ground colour . disc brown or greyish , usually with white radial lines , tentacles grey - brown or bright grass - green with purple tips . some tentacles may bear a median longitudinal pale line , more rarely they are suffused with crimson , mainly on the aboral sides , which may extend onto the
is unable to tolerate prolonged conditions of extreme cold ; in the exceptionally cold winter of 1963 - 64 it disappeared from many localities .
locally abundant on south and west coasts of the british isles , extending north to mid - scotland . common on all south - west coasts of europe and in the mediterranean .
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this species is eaten in some mediterranean countries . in sardinia , “ orziadas ” and also in southwestern spain , in the gulf of cádiz region , as “ ortiguillas de mar ” ( literally ,
little sea nettles
, because of its urticant tentacles ) , are deep - fried in olive oil .
they will usually be located in shallow waters or certain interlocked - tidal areas . they have specific light preferences such as the light generated by 80 watts of electricity which is equivalent to 50 , 000 lux ( lux is a unit of illumination equal to 1 lumen per square meter ) .
this page was last modified on 24 july 2014 , at 14 : 26 .
sometimes called the ‘flowers of the sea’ , sea anemones are actually beautiful animals , closely related to jellyfish and corals .
like jellyfish and corals , anemones belong to the group cnidarians . the name cnidaria comes from the latin cnidae which means ‘nettle’ . all of the animals within this group have stinging cells which they use for the capture of prey and to protect themselves against predators . sea anemones are simple animals , often attached to hard surfaces such as rocks and boulders . however there are also burrowing anemones that bury themselves in sand , mud or gravel on the sea floor .
sea anemones have many fascinating methods of reproduction with some species using a combination of techniques . some , including beadlet and daisy anemones are vivaporous ( so are humans ! ) and reproduce through internal fertilisation , releasing fully formed young anemones from their mouths . most anemones can reproduce asexually through budding , where fragments break off and develop into new individuals . some stretch themselves along their base and split across the middle resulting in two new anemones of equal size . this method is called longitudinal fission . in others , small pieces of tissue break from the base forming tiny anemones . this method is called basal laceration .
sea anemones can be found in oceans all over the world , but arguably some of the most beautiful are seen right here in britain . our own temperate waters support over 70 species of anenome .
fish , and shrimps , can often be found hiding from predators inside the floating tentacles of anemones .
most sea anemones live attached , catching passing food with their tentacles . sea anemones can move slowly by gliding on their base . many are also capable of moving rapidly to avoid predation or competition by detaching , catching a current and re - attaching elsewhere .
the diet of most anemones consists of small animals such as plankton , crabs and fish , however a number of bigger sea anemones will eat much larger prey . for example , dahlia anemones can be greedy feeders that will prey on starfish and jellyfish
anemones have rings of tentacles surrounding their central mouth . tentacles have specialised stinging cells called nematocysts . they use these to immobilise their prey so that the tentacles are then able to move the food into the mouth . the extending tentacles can also be used to catch passing food as it drifts past .
some sea anemones are very long lived and have been known to reach 60 - 80 years . because anemones are able to clone themselves they do not age and therefore have the potential to live indefinitely in the absence of predators or disease .
there are around 32 types of starfish in british waters and 1 , 500 around the world . find out about this amazing group of animals , how they feed , how they move and where they live .
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biology : there are different animal species that live in association with the anemones , for instance some fish and crabs . they normally live alone and sometimes in small groups . they are carnivores that eat small crustaceans , mussels and small fish . if the conditions are right , they can reproduce by longitudinal division , that is , asexually , but they also have oviparous sexual reproduction from may to july and separate sexes .
habitat : this invertebrate lives on rocks exposed to light , often from the tide line to depths of 6 metres . it is often found in shallow waters in calm bays , and withstands dirty waters very well .
status : species not evaluated ( according to the red list of endangered species ) .
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masashi mizuno , 1 , * yasuhiko ito , 1 and b . paul morgan 2
1 renal replacement therapy , division of nephrology , nagoya university graduate school of medicine , 65 tsurumai - cho , showa - ku , nagoya 466 - 8550 , japan ; email : pj . ca . u - ayogan . dem @ otiusay
2 complement biology group , institute of infection and immunology , school of medicine , cardiff university , cardiff cf14 4xn , uk ; email : ku . ca . ffidrac @ pbnagrom
* author to whom correspondence should be addressed ; email : pj . ca . u - ayogan . dem @ uzimm or pj . oc . oohay @ pj1mihsasam ; tel . : + 81 - 52 - 744 - 2205 ; fax : + 81 - 52 - 744 - 2184 .
received 2012 may 31 ; revised 2012 jun 29 ; accepted 2012 jul 12 .
this article is an open - access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license ( urltoken ) .
] , various situations in which envenomation by aquatic animals has injured people have been reported . culprits include cnidarians such as fire coral (
] . components of some venoms are highly toxic for humans and can rarely cause multiple organ failure and lethal shock .
on the other hand , some toxins have found use as experimental agents and some have been investigated as therapeutics . for example , it was reported that nn - 32 purified from the venom of the cobra naja naja might have anti - cancer effects in animal models [ 41 ] . a number of venoms have been shown to have complement ( c ) activating components that directly or indirectly contribute to tissue damage [ 3 , 5 , 7 , 42 ] . one of these , the c3 - like protein cobra venom factor ( cvf ) purified from venom of the egyptian or thai cobra , is widely used as an experimental tool to induce excessive activation and consumption of c in animal models [ 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 ] . a humanized cvf has been tested as a therapeutic approach in man [ 48 , 49 ] . the c activating component of brown recluse spider ( loxosceles genus ) venom has also been proposed as a tool for biological purposes [ 50 ] .
research on the venoms of marine animals has also yielded interesting and clinically relevant data . for example , dideoxpetrasynol a , a protein toxin from the sponge
] has been proposed as a cytotoxic agent to target some cancers . several other toxin - derived agents have been shown to have antitumor activities and proposed as therapeutics [
is a potent blocker of the kv1 . 3 potassium channel , inhibits t lymphocyte proliferation [
we recently reported that the venom , termed pstx - t , extracted from nematocysts of p . semoni had nephrotoxin activity and induced acute renal injuries in rodents [ 76 ] . this nephrotoxin acutely induced glomerular endothelial injuries , with a similar pathology to atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome ( ahus ) . this animal model might be attractive to analyze pathological mechanisms and to develop new agents for therapeutic use in ahus . in the present mini review , we summarize the nature and time - course of the natural venom - induced acute renal injuries and explore the mechanisms of nephrotoxicity of p . semoni venom nephrotoxin in a rodent system .
natural venoms represent a rare cause of acute kidney injuries . these can be broadly divided into three categories ; food poisons , biting poisons and sting poisons ( envenomation ) , as indicated in
] . acute kidney injuries ( aki ) induced by natural venoms included acute tubular necrosis caused by impairment of renal hemodynamics , intravascular hemolysis , rhabdomyolysis , disseminated intravascular coagulation ( dic ) and direct toxin - mediated effects , including thrombotic microangiopathy similar to that observed in hus . there are many reports of renal injuries caused by snake bites [
] , usually accompanied by systemic organ failures and / or shock . for instance , snake envenomation often induced hemolysis , rhabdomyolysis and dic , and sometimes was accompanied by acute renal failure with thrombotic microangiopathy , particularly following bites of taipan (
renal injuries caused by marine animal toxins can also divided into these three categories . marine envenomation can cause dermal injuries , neurotoxicity , hemolysis , and systemic shock reactions , including anaphylactic shock ; some victims developed acute renal failure (
) . the causes of renal injuries include systemic shock , hemolysis , rhabdomyolysis , and direct nephrotoxic effects . for instance , acute renal failure with hemolysis was caused by a portuguese man - of - war sting [
* acute tubular necrosis ; * * thrombotic microangiopathy ; * * * hemolytic uremic syndrome .
3 . envenomation by sea anemones including p . semoni and the acute kidney injuries
a ) . the sting induces severe dermatitis with local ulceration and swelling that often takes months to resolve . we recently reported a more serious sequela of envenomation by
photographs of phyllodiscus semoni ( unbachi - isogintyaku ) and nematocysts . ( a ) the intact organism as found in the seas off okinawa island ; ( b ) close - up view of the globular vesicles ( white arrows ) with nematocysts . scales bar is in the upper right corner of frame b . the underwater photos were taken by m . mizuno .