polyptychoceras is an extinct genus of ammonites from the late cretaceous of asia , europe , and north and south america .

it was first named by hisakatsu yabe in 1927 .

polyptychoceras

file : polyptychoceras ( subptychoceras ) yubarense . jpg — wikipedia republished / / wiki 2
polyptychoceras ( subptychoceras ) yubarense - private collection stage : late cretaceous from 100 . 5–66 ma ( million years ago ) ; upper yezo group locality : obirashibe river , obira , rumoi , hokkaido , japan size : 23x18x8 cm
polyptychoceras vancouverense upper cretaceous , santonian , trent river formation trent river , vancouver island , canada this species is referred to as he paperclip ammonite due to is resemblance . the ammonite was found in three sections and has been glued back together and then prepared . a rare heteromorph from a more unusual location . the ammonite measures 4 . 9cm ' s in length
interestingly , all heteromorphs known from the santonian are endemic to bp and nwp provinces . nostoceratids include nipponites bacchus , hyphantoceras orientale and h . ( ? ) heteromorphum ( found in sakhalin and japan ) , and h . reussianum and h . yabei ( found in sakhalin and the koryak upland ) , while the family diplomoceratidae is represented by mostly sakhalin endemics . only two species were found in northeasterly regions , viz . polyptychoceras ( po . ) pseudogaultinum and po . ( s . ) vancouverense , while others are known from sakhalin ( neocrioceras spinigerum , diplomoceras notabile , pseudoxybeloceras ( ps . ) obstrictum , ps . ( ps . ) quadrinodosum , ps . ( ps . ) sakhalinum and ps . ( subptychoceras ) yubarense ) and only two were found in japan ( polyptychoceras ( po . ) pseudogaultinum and po . ( subptychoceras ) yubarense ) .
. . . 10 . 10e ) , and an upper lamellar layer ( schindewolf 1958 ; closs 1960 ; farinacci et al . 1976 ; hewitt et al . 1993 ) . the basal layer occurs on the convex side of the aptychus and forms the co - marginal lirae that are visible on the inner ( dorsal ) side of the aptychus and are interpreted as growth lines ( kruta et al . 2009 ; f ig . 10 . 10f ) . the aptychi of cretaceous ancyloceratina ( e . g . , baculites , hoploscaphites , and polyptychoceras ) differ from those of jurassic ammonitina in having one or two layers without a sponge - like structure ( kruta et al . 2009 ; f ig . 10 . 10d ) . . . .
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this heteromorph ammonite is quite common in cretaceous shales on the trent and puntledge rivers . they are known to collectors as the paper - clip ammonites or sometime they are referred to as candy canes .
in this sample , fossilized remnants of the shell are still visible over most of the ammonite . these ammonites have 3 parallel shafts , but usually only two are found - - one bend in the paper clip .
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corrigendum to “molecular phylogeny and ontogeny of a new ciliate genus , paracladotricha salina n . g . . .
we ( shao et al . ) established a new genus and described the morphology , cell division , and phylogeny of a chinese population of a hypotrichous ciliate in this electronic - only journal . since this work does not contain a zoobank registration , it is not published in the sense of nomenclature ( iczn , articles 8 . 5 , 9 . 11 ) , that is , it is not a work in which a name or nomenclatural act can be made . . . [ show full abstract ]
megafossil biostratigraphy of the upper cretaceous futakawa formation of the sotoizumi group in the . . .
zoological nomenclature and electronic publication - a reply to dubois et al . ( 2013 )
a group of 19 authors ( dubois et al . 2013 ) recently raised concerns about the latest amendment to the international code of zoological nomenclature ( iczn 2012a , b , c ) , that allows new names and other nomenclatural acts to gain legislative acceptance ( become
available
) from publications issued and distributed electronically . two editorials by publishers have already responded to some of the . . . [ show full abstract ]
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diplomoceras cylindraceum ( j . l . m . defrance , 1816 † ) ( fossil )
oxybeloceras crassum ( r . p . whitfield , 1877 † ) ( fossil )
oxybeloceras mortoni ( f . b . meek & hayden , 1876 † ) ( fossil )
pseudoxybeloceras ( parasolenoceras ) interruptum ( f . schlüter , 1872 † ) ( fossil )
pseudoxybeloceras ( parasolenoceras ) splendens ( m . collignon , 1969 † ) ( fossil )
spiroxybeloceras meekanum ( r . p . whitfield , 1877 † ) ( fossil )
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does anyone have any saurolophus in their collection ? i just got a mini saurolophus from a cheap set from walmart . it is just yellow . it is pretty nice .
this volume accompanies an emu school intended to bring contemporary research on mineral reaction kinetics to the attention of young researchers and to put it into the context of recent developments in related disciplines . a selection of topics , methods and concepts , which the contributors deem currently most relevant and instructive , is presented .
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) . boreal – boreal palaeogeographic realm ; tethyan – tethyan palaeogeographic realm . a – arctic province ; bp – boreal pacific province ; nwp – north west pacific province ; nep – north east pacific province ; swp – south west pacific province ; sep – south east pacific province ; wna –western interior of north america ; eu – european province ; ai – african - indian province ; mc – mediterranean / caucasian province .
as noted above , it is possible to subdivide the pacific into various provinces on the basis of mid - and late cretaceous ammonite faunas . in general , this subdivision can be recognised only at the species level ; however , there are some intervals where it is even demonstrable at the generic level .
in addition to sonneratia , the family hoplitidae is represented by gastroplitines , that is , gastroplites ( paragastroplites ) cf . flexicostatus , neogastroplites sp . and n . kamchatkensis , which are confined to the arctic province . however , n . kamchatkensis is morphologically similar to n . americanus , which is widely distributed in the western interior and could be its geographical sibling species .
some taxa were identified exclusively from northeast russia ( bp province ) , having no records ( yet ) in sakhalin or sikhote alin , namely proplacenticeras sutherlandbrowni ( widely distributed also in nep ; see mclearn , 1972 ) , the widespread mortoniceras and stoliczkaia ( lamnayella ) cf . japonica , endemic to the pacific . interestingly , that last - mentioned form is also known from japan , but not from sakhalin .
an assemblage of albian heteromorph ammonites , recorded from the russian pacific coast , is comprised exclusively of turrilitids , namely mariella sp . , m . aff . circumtaeniata , turrilites sp . , pseudhelicoceras sp . and p . carlottense . there is no doubt that these are cosmopolitan genera , but in most cases , identification at species level is fraught with difficulties because of poor preservation . for now , it cannot be stated whether these forms comprised endemics or more cosmopolitan forms , in addition to p . carlottense , which is known from the arctic , bp and nep provinces .
the late cenomanian oae2 ( yazykova , 2004 ) probably was the main trigger to the extirpation of cenomanian faunas . the cenomanian / turonian boundary mass extinctions reflected in the diversity of every biotic group , both at the generic and specific level . some ammonite families and subfamilies disappeared , for example , turrilitidae , acanthoceratinae and lyelliceratidae . amongst species known from the russian pacific , not a single cenomanian taxon survived this crisis .
the global scaphites facies can be clearly traced in northeast russia and sakhalin , from where only endemic representatives are known : scaphites planus , yezoites puerculus , y . subplanus , y . pseudoaequalis and y . teshioensis . species of yezoites predominate , while at the same time scaphites is the dominant genus in eu or mc ( see , amongst others , atabekian & akopian , 1970 ; kaplan et al . , 1987 ; wiese et al . , 1996 ) .
in comparison to the cenomanian when the family desmoceratidae was represented by a few widely distributed taxa , in the turonian this group included only endemics , that is , puzosia ( m . ) takahashii , jimboiceras planulatiforme , pachydesmoceras pachydiscoide , tragodesmoceroidas subcostatus and damesites damesi intermedius , while in northeast russia only kitchinites ishikawai and j . planulatiforme are known . the sole member of the pseudotissotiidae , hourcquia pacifica , is endemic to nwp .
heteromorphs are comparatively diverse in the turonian . of note is that of four nostoceratids identified , namely nostoceras ( eubostrychoceras ) japonicum , nipponites mirabilis , n . sachalinensis and hyphantoceras aff . reussianum , only the first two are known from northeast russia , but all of them occur in sakhalin , including the only one which is truly cosmopolitan , h . reussianum . two endemic forms represent the family diplomoceratidae , one of them occurring in sakhalin , scalarites mihoensis , the other in northeast russia , s . scalaris . in total , the degree of endemicity rose during the turonian and continued this trend in the coniacian .
the family phylloceratidae is still represented by the pacific species h . ( n . ) ramosum as well as the gaudryceratids gaudryceras denseplicatum and g . tenuiliratum , joined now , however , by anagaudryceras politissimum , an immigrant from southern india , which much later , during the maastrichtian , was widely distributed in ai , swp , sep and nep , but in nwp it is confined either to the coniacian ( sakhalin ) or to the late campanian - early maastrichtian ( japan ) . this could also be connected with some temperature maximum , recorded for the coniacian and campanian ( yu . d . zakharov et al . , 2002 ) .
tetragonitids are represented by tetragonites glabrus , which probably appeared already in the cenomanian of alaska ( bp ) , and later extended into the nwp , nep and ai provinces . a similar way of distribution can be determined for t . epigonus , which first appeared in the turonian of japan ( nwp ) and later extended to the eu , ai and swp provinces .
the appearance of binneyites in sakhalin is interesting . this genus was held to be endemic to the northern western interior of north america ( wna province ) . since only a single specimen is known from the northwest pacific , probably , this is an example of post - mortem drift distribution ( compare kennedy & cobban , 1976 ) .
of the family desmoceratidae only kitchinites ishikawai survives , but new ( sub ) species appeared as well , such as k . japonica , jimboiceras mihoense , damesites damesi intermedius and d . sugata . all of them are pacific endemics , with the exception of d . sugata , which is also known from the ai and south eu provinces . hourcquia pacifica , the endemic pseudotissotiid , survived into the coniacian .
the coniacian of sakhalin and japan sees the first member of the family pachydiscidae , an endemic to nwp , menuites ( anapachydiscus ) sutneri . this constitutes one of the earliest appearances of menuites ( anapachydiscus ) ; an even earlier one was noted from post - turonian strata in durban , south africa ( kennedy et al . , 1973 ) .
in the russian pacific , the santonian was characterised by a continued increase of taxonomic diversity , in spite of an abrupt temperature drop across the coniacian / santonian boundary ( yu . d . zakharov et al . , 2002 ) , which is reflected in the disappearance of many coniacian forms . however , as noted before , ammonites did not really depend of climate changes and usually rapidly recovered following such environmental crises .
some long - lived species still occur , such as the phylloceratid , hypophylloceras ( neophylloceras ) ramosum , and the gaudryceratids gaudryceras tenuiliratum and g . denseplicatum . however , these two families also are represented by new species in northeast russia , that is , phyllopachyceras forbesianum ( phylloceratidae ) , and , in sakhalin , phyllopachyceras ezoense ( phylloceratidae ) , anagaudryceras yokoyamai and zelandites kawanoi ( gau - dryceratidae ) .
the family tetragonitidae is represented by the endemic saghalinites saghalinensis , tetragonites glabrus , t . epigonus and t . popetensis , and one immigrant species , pseudophyllites indra , which appeared only in northeast russia . in far east russia , collignoniceratids are represented by the subfamily texanitinae , also with a high degree of provincialism . texanites ( plesiotexanites ) kawasakii and protexanites ( p . ) bontanti shimizui are known only from sakhalin , the latter being an immigrant from eu province , while p . ( p . ) fukazawai and p . ( p . ) shoshonensis have been recorded exclusively from northeast russia ( bp province ) .
desmoceratids are still represented by species and subspecies which appeared earlier , that is , kitchinites ishikawai , k . japonica , damesites sugata and d . damesi intermedius . two others , d . d . damesi and hauericeras angustum , are new and both are endemic . hauericeras angustum probably originated from h . gardeni , after migrating in from ai to japan .
there is a markedly wide distribution of pachydiscids , comprising eupachydiscus haradai , menuites ( m . ) menu , m . ( m . ) naibutiensis and m . ( m . ) japonicus . it appears that m . ( m . ) menu first appeared in the koryak upland , later in sakhalin and japan , and gave rise to two endemic species , m . ( m . ) naibutiensis and m . ( m . ) japonicus , which in turn disappeared from the pacific and migrated elsewhere , more specifically south africa and southern india ( ai province ) , where they appeared during the maastrichtian ( forbes , 1846 ; kennedy & henderson , 1992a , 1992b ; kennedy & klinger , 2006 ) .
the family kossmaticeratidae shows the highest degree of provincialism , with three species of yokoyamaoceras known from northeast russia only , namely y . venustum , y . jimboi and y . kotoi . in sakhalin only two of these , y . jimboi and y . ishikawai , have been recorded .
one the most interesting events in the santonian is the appearance of the mortoniceratine ( brancoceratid ) mortoniceras ? kawasakii , recorded by kawada ( 1929 ) . elsewhere in the world , representatives of mortoniceras sensu stricto are completely unknown from post - albian / lower cenomanian strata . probably , kawada’s specimen is best reassigned to the subgenus mortoniceras ( submortoniceras ) , which is known from the campanian of california and oregon ( anderson , 1958 ) , and could thus represent the precursor of species of mortoniceras ( submortoniceras ) in california .
the family tetragonitidae appears to have evolved furthest , with seven species known from campanian deposits in far east russia . two of these are cosmopolitan ( pseudophyllites indra and tetragonites epigonus ) , another two ( t . glabrus and t . popetensis ) are characterised by wider distribution than the remaining three , t . crassus , saghalinites teshioensis and s . saghalinensis , which are endemic to the north pacific . representatives of saghalinites have not yet been found in northeast russia .
during the campanian , kossmaticeratids demonstrated absolute endemicity and provincialism . three species are known from northeasterly regions , namely yoko - yamaoceras jimboi , y . venustum and y . kotoi , while only one ( y . ishikawai ) was found in sakhalin .
representatives of the collignoniceratidae are known only from the koryak upland , being the endemics protexanites fukazawai and p . aff . shoshonensis . these record the last appearance of this family and of the subfamily texanitinae , both here as elsewhere in the world ( wright et al . , 1996 ) .
representatives of the family tetragonitidae , tetragonites popetensis , pseudophyllites indra and saghalinites sp . , are characterised by a relatively wide distribution . also interesting is the appearance of the kossmaticeratid brahmaites ( subbrahmaites ) sachalinensis , which clearly is an endemic subgenus and species , but this event is correlative with the fad of brahmaites ( b . ) brahma forbes in southern india , southwest france , madagascar ( collignon , 1938 ) and tunisia ( goolaerts et al . , 2004 ) , and also with the occurrence of b . ( b . ) kossmati in western australia ( henderson & mcnamara , 1985 ) .
in comparison to the campanian , heteromorph ammonites are not so diverse , with only two families and four species in all : nostoceras ( didymoceras ) cf . californicum anderson , neancyloceras pseudoarmatum , diplomoceras notabile and glyptoxoceras sp . many seamounts have now been charted , inclusive of data on their fossil records , for example , zelandites japonicus , saghalinites sp . and indeterminate belemnitids , the latter from the magellan rise , ioan guyot ( yu . d . zakharov et al . , 2007 ) .
we thank c . klug ( zürich ) , c . monnet ( lille ) , and d . korn ( berlin ) for their constructive critique and comments .
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monnet c , bucher h , escarguel g , guex j ( 2003 ) cenomanian ( early late cretaceous ) ammonoid faunas of western europe . part ii : diversity patterns and the end - cenomanian anoxic event . ecl geol helv 96 : 381–398
monnet c , klug c , de baets k ( 2015 ) evolutionary patterns of ammonoids : phenotypic trends , convergence , and parallel evolution . this volume
myers ce , mackenzie rai , lieberman bs ( 2013 ) greenhouse biogeography : the relationship of geographic range to invasion and extinction in the cretaceous western interior seaway . paleobiol 39 : 135–148
nagm e , wilmsen m , aly mf , hewaidy a - g ( 2010 ) upper cenomanian - turonian ( upper cretaceous ) ammonoids from the western wadi araba , eastern desert , egypt . cret res 31 : 473–499
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olivero eb ( 2012 ) sedimentary cycles , ammonite diversity and palaeoenvironmental changes in the upper cretaceous marambio group , antarctica . cret res 34 : 348–366
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pavlovia is an evolute genus . the ribs are strong and well spaced . they are simple on the periumbilical region and on the flank . they generally bifurcate , and sometimes trifurcate , just before running over the venter .
the shell is made of a succession of straight parallel shafts . a given shaft can grow just enough to encompass the previous one or , like in the photographed specimen , it can get much longer than the previous one . the simple ribs are quite smooth on the early stage and get stronger when approaching t
sphenodiscus is highly involute with an extremely compressed whorl section . the surface of the shell is smooth and the venter is very sharp . the suture pattern is complex with many lobes and saddles .
prolyelliceras is highly evolute . it has strong , simple and well spaced ribs which run straight over the venter . on the venter , the ribs bear tubercles on ventral and lateral - ventral positions . the ornamentation is completed by a lateral row of tubercles .
australiceras is an heteromorph genus with whorls very close to each others and simple ribbing . on the juvenile whorls , smooth ribs alternate with ribs bearing conical tubercles . the tubercles get smaller with the growth of the shell until they disappear on the body chamber .
compressed whorl section with a round venter . simple ribs on the periumbilical region , which fork at the start of the flank and then run straight across the venter . the shell is terminated with a simple peristome .
peltoceras marysae is an evolute species . the microconch only shows the first two stages of the macroconch : the inner whorls show fine , dense simple ribs , which then become a bit stronger and sometimes fork . the ammonite is terminated by two lappets .
peltoceras marysae is an evolute species and its ornamentation changes a lot along its growth . the inner whorls show fine , dense simple ribs , which then become a bit stronger and sometimes fork . then appears a bituberculated stage with very strong tubercles . the ornamentation becomes softer on the b
kosmoceras inner whorls are involute and the outer whorls becomes moderately evolute . the fine ribbing on the inner whorls persists on the body chamber and become wavy when approaching the aperture , announcing the lappets . the ventral tubercles , separated by a smooth depression also persists on the
kosmoceras inner whorls are involute and the outer whorls becomes moderately evolute . the fine ribbing on the inner whorls tends to disappear on the body chamber . the ventral tubercles , separated by a smooth depression , disappear on the body chamber which presents a smooth venter . the periumbilical
dactylioceras is highly evolute and has strong slightly inclined forward ribs . the ribs run over the venter and sometimes fork on its outer edge . dactylioceras commune can be distinguished by its almost perfectly round whorl section . the fine ribbing in the inner whorls becomes sparser on the outer
the juvenile whorls form a tightly coiled helical spire covered with a fine ribbing . the body chamber then rolls away from the juvenile whorls before turning back towards them in a ' u ' turn . the ribbing gets stronger on the body chamber . the aperture of the body chamber is right underneath the spire
quite thick involute genus with strong ribbing on the inner whorls and a smooth keel . the ribbing tends to disappear on the body chamber which represents about 90 % of the last whorl .
planispiral heteromorphic genus . strong simple ribs distinctly spaced . aegocrioceras capricornu can be distinguished by its tight coiling and the thickness of the whorl .
planispiral heteromorphic genus . strong simple ribs distinctly spaced . aegocrioceras capricornu can be distinguished by its loose coiling and the very slow growth of the width of the whorl .
the early whorls , planispirally coiled and highly evolute , are followed by a more or less straight section . the senile stage is materialized by a section of shell that turns back on itself in a hook like shape . ornamentation based on straight , radial and simple ribs , with sporadic constrictions . at
small involute species . the last whorl shows two elbows ( a round one followed by a pinched one ) and narrow flanks . the thin ribs start above a flat periumbilical zone and they generally divide into two ribs at mid - flank . the umbilicus has a rectangular shape with rounded angles . the rostrum is prece
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[ 1 ] text - fig . 12e - f ifrim et al . ( 2004 ) [ 2 ] text - fig . 13d - e ifrim et al . ( 2004 )
upper maastrichtian , ifrim et al . ( 2004 ) : ifrim et al . ( 2004 )
kennedy , w . j . . ( 1986 ) : the ammonite fauna of the calcaire à baculites ( upper maastrichtian ) of the cotentin peninsula ( manche , france ) . palaeontology vol . 29 ( 1 ) p . 25 - 83
ifrim , c . . ; stinnesbeck , w . . and lópez - oliva , j . g . . ( 2004 ) : maastrichtian cephalopods from cerralvo , north - eastern mexico . palaeontology vol . 47 ( 6 ) p . 15751627
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. . . - the aptychi of this species are elongated in shape ; at the juvenile stage , they are slightly wider than at the adult stage ( fig . 4 ) . the outer bivalve calcitic plates increase their thickness towards the lateral margin ( see terminology in kruta et al . 2009 ; fig . 1 ) , reaching their maximum thick - ness at some distance from the edge and then decreasing ( fig . 5a , b ) . the surface of the calcitic layer is either smooth , or , in some cases , carries sub - tle longitudinal grooves , growth lines or small shal - low pits in the initial part ( fig . 4c ) . . . .
. . . although aptychi praestriaptyhus and granulapty - chus with a thin calcitic plate were described by trauth ( 1927trauth ( - 1936trauth ( , 1938 , their microstructure rarely became an object of study . the microstructure of aptychi has been studied mainly regarding rela - tively thick form types : laevaptychus and lamellap - tychus ( von zittel 1903 ; schindewolf 1958 ; farinacci et al . 1976 ; hewitt et al . 1993 ; kruta et al . 2009 ) , due to this fact , the typical features of these morpho - types ( e . g . three - layered structure and tubular layer ) were approximated to other types of upper jurassic aptychi . . . .
. . . this lamellar structure makes it possible to understand the mode of aptychi growth : each new lamella was deposited along the lateral margin of the aptychus and slightly overlapped the previous one ; therefore , aptychi grew not only hori - zontally but also vertically , gradually thickening . similarly , with the thickening in a vertical direction , the laevaptychi of aspidoceratid macroconchs grew ( kruta et al . 2009 ) . therefore , despite significant differences in the microstructure and the number of calcitic layers , the growth pattern of aptychi in both sexual dimorphic counterparts of aspidoceratinae was quite similar . . . .
. . . the outer chitinous lamella is sculptured by dense , concentric growth lines and has an indentation at the midline joint in the posterior margin . the outer calcified element of the lower jaw , i . e . , aptychus , is made of calcite ( schindewolf 1958 ; landman et al . 2007 ; kruta et al . 2009 ) . it is distinctly partitioned into paired plates along the harmonic midline joint termed
symphysenrand
by trauth ( 1927 ) , whose english equivalent , symphysis , was introduced by arkell ( 1957 ) . . . .
. . . during activity their hyponomic sinus forms a ventral peristome angle ( v p ) of only 5–158 allowing their hyponome to bend beneath the shell during forward - jetting , i . e . , clear adaptations to their scavenging and carnivorous , nekto - benthic habits . mesozoic ammonoids vary from brevidomic to longidomic and consistently lack a hyponomic sinus indicating basically different propulsion systems ranging from moderate forwards and backwards swimming potential , including the possibility of medusa - like slow propulsion by modified arms and twin - nozzle hyponomes ( westermann , 2013 ) , to vertically migrating or drifting megaplankton , planktivorous habits ( westermann , 1996 ; kruta et al . , 2009 ) . . . .
. . . because recent material is unavailable for comparison , we selected an example of the best preserved aptychus ( amnh 54277 ) from the lower campanian of alabama . in amnh 54277 , the calcitic increments are identifiable and the main lamellar layer ( r1 ) and the outer layer ( r2 ) are well defined in this specimen ( see [ 27 ] for a discussion of aptychus microstructure ) . we assigned a high preservation index ( 5 = excellent preservation ) if the two layers ( r1 and r2 ) could be identified and / or if calcitic increments could be observed ( for very small pieces of aptychus , the outer layer was not always present ) . . . .
. . . aptychus - type lower jaws are characterized by the presence of a pair of calcareous plates ( aptychus in sensu stricto ) that cover the wide area of the underlying outer chitinous lamella with a distinct median depression . the paired calcareous plates are made of calcite ( schindewolf 1958 ; landman et al . 2007 ; kruta et al . 2009 ) . in cross - section along the maximum growth axis , each of the paired plates is built up of obliquely arranged microincrements that were probably secreted from outside by the overlying epithelial issue , as in the case of the anterior calcareous tips of modern nautilids ( tanabe & fukuda 1987b ; seilacher 1993 ) . . . .
. . . the calcite appears as two plates , forming the aptychus ( see landman et al . , 2007b , for a description of the aptychus in baculites ) . the aptychus is only 100 to 200 mm thick in scaphites ( kruta et al . , 2009 ) . the ventral surface of the aptychus is covered with comarginal lirae . . . .
microstructure and mineralogy of the outer calcareous layer in the lower jaws of cretaceous tetragon . . .
tanabe , k . , landman , n . h . & kruta , i . 2011 : microstructure and mineralogy of the outer calcareous layer in the lower jaws of cretaceous tetragonitoidea and desmoceratoidea ( ammonoidea ) . lethaia , vol . 45 , pp . 191–199 . based on the differences in their relative size , overall shape , structure and the degree of development of an outer calcified covering , lower jaws of the ammonoidea have been . . . [ show full abstract ]
we report on well - preserved upper and lower jaws found inside the body chambers of two specimens of didymoceras nebrascense ( meek and hayden , 1856 ) from the upper cretaceous pierre shale of the usa . the finds are described and compared to existing material , and their possible functions are discussed .
documentation of repaired injuries and abnormalities on the jaws ofmodern nautilus sheds light on the ecology and behavior of these animals . it also helps elucidate the function of ammonite aptychi , which are traditionally interpreted as opercula . we examined 219 pairs of jaws belonging to nautilus belauensis , n . mucmmphulus , n . pompilius , and allonautilus scrobiculatus . abnormalities occur in . . . [ show full abstract ]
ammonites are prominent in macroevolutionary studies because of their abundance and diversity in the fossil record , but their paleobiology and position in the marine food web are not well understood due to the lack of preserved soft tissue . we present three - dimensional reconstructions of the buccal apparatus in the mesozoic ammonite baculites with the use of synchrotron x - ray microtomography . . . . [ show full abstract ]
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extinct species : late cretaceous , coniacian - maastrichtian ( 89 . 3 - 70 . 6 ma )


the hairy-legged vampire bat ( diphylla ecaudata ) is one of three extant species of vampire bats .

it mainly feeds on the blood of birds , but can also feed both on domestic birds and humans .

this vampire bat lives mainly in tropical and subtropical forestlands of south america , central america , and southern mexico .

it is the sole member of the genus diphylla .

hairy - legged vampire bat

hairy - legged vampire bats are the rarest of the three vampire bat species ( mccarthy 1987 ) .
the flying mammals are well known to feed on blood , however , the hairy - legged vampire bat and white - winged vampire bat subspecies predominantly feast on birds .
schutt , jr . , w . , j . altenbach . 1997 . a sixth digit in diphylla ecaudata , the hairy legged vampire bat .
hairy - legged vampire bats are nocturnal . they roost either alone or in small groups of 12 or less . in one study ,
texas parks & wildlife , 1994 .
hairy legged vampire
( on - line ) . accessed march 21 , 2001 at urltoken .
reddell , j . r . 1968 . the hairy - legged vampire , diphylla ecaudata , in texas . journal of mammalogy 49 : 769 .
vampire bats ( desmodus rotundus ) are bats that feed on blood . this particular habit in certain animals is known as ‘hematophagy’ . there are only three bat species that actually feed on blood : the common vampire bat ( desmodus rotundus ) , the hairy - legged vampire bat ( diphylla ecaudata ) and the white - winged vampire bat ( diaemus youngi ) .
, commonly referred to as hairy - legged vampire bats , range from reddish brown to sooty brown in color . they have a narrow , hairy interfemoral membrane and a pug - nosed snout . hairy - legged vampire bats are distinguished by their typically smaller body and ears than other vampire bats . they also have a total of 26 teeth , more than other vampire bat species . hairy - legged vampire bats have highly modified upper incisors . these incisors are larger than the canines and occlude against each other so that they are continuously sharpened to a very fine edge . the outer incisors are much reduced ( carattini 2001 ; texas parks and wildlife 1994 ) .
vampire bats only come out to feed when it is fully dark . like fruit - eating bats and unlike insectivorous and fish - eating bats , they only emit low - energy sound pulses . the common vampire bat feeds mostly on the blood of mammals , whereas the hairy - legged vampire bat , and the white - winged vampire bat feed on the blood of birds .
none of these theories about the origins of vampire bats has been proved . evidence from proteins suggests that vampire bats have been around for 6 to 8 million years . these are the dates when the hairy - legged vampire bats separated from the white - winged vampire bats and the common vampire bats .
vampire bats are among the most fascination of mammals , although we know relatively little about the details of their lives . common vampire bats , as their name implies , are the most widespread of vampires . they adapt well to captivity and often are exhibited in zoos . these bats may be among the best studied in the world . hairy - legged vampire bats and white - winged vampire bats are less common and are less often caught by biologists . while common vampire bats may feed on the blood of mammals or birds , the white - winged vampire bat and the hairy - legged vampire bat are thought to prefer bird blood .
scientists in brazil have discovered that hairy - legged vampire bats have resorted to feeding on humans , sparking fears that the rabies and hantavirus - carrying creatures could cause an increase in disease in humans .
…or desmodus , youngi ) and the hairy - legged vampire bat ( diphylla ecaudata ) are the only sanguivorous ( blood - eating ) bats . the common vampire bat thrives in agricultural areas and feeds on livestock such as cattle , pigs , and chickens . the other two vampires are primarily restricted to intact forests , where they feed on birds , reptiles , …
vampire bat colonies appear to be naturally decimated by rabies virus infections and discrete colonies may fall to population densities incapable of maintaining transmission . the so - called ‘migration’ of vampire bat - associated rabies described from south america ( for detailed discussion of the epidemiology of vampire bat rabies , see
) , and wildlife rabies control programs are still nonexistent ( other than vampire bat control ) .
) . cyclic changes in vampire bat populations could drive cyclic and periodic epidemics of cattle rabies caused by vampire bat transmitted rabies . in regions of central and south america , areas affected by vampire rabies experience outbreaks every 2 to 3 years (
because hairy - legged vampire bats almost always feed by taking the blood of birds , they rarely attack humans . if they were to bite a human , the wounds would not be serious . however , it is possible for them to transmit rabies and other diseases through those wounds . because hairy - legged vampire bats may occasionally take blood from livestock and trasmit diseases , they are potentially economically important to cattlemen and sportsmen of texas as a reservoir of bovine paralytic rabies ( texas parks & wildlife 1994 ; carattini 2001 ; britannica 1999 - 2000 ) .
let ' s follow the process as a common vampire bat sets out for a night ' s foraging .
while in the wild , this species of vampire bat may live about 9 years . in captivity they may survive much longer (
vampire bats
2001 ) .
perhaps as a result of being so misunderstood , vampire bats and many other bat species are at risk of extinction .
does not eat for more than 2 nights in a row then it will die from starvation . it has been estimated that about 1 / 3 of hairy - legged vampire bats does not eat each night , they must then rely on shared food from roost mates ( schutt & altenbach 1997 ; tomlinson ; texas parks & wildlife 1994 ) .
carattini , l . 2001 .
the vampire bat
( on - line ) . accessed march 21 , 2001 at urltoken .
source / reference article learn how you can use or cite the vampire bat article in your website content , school work and other projects .
vampire bats tend to live in almost completely dark places , such as caves , old wells , hollow trees and buildings . colonies can range from a single individual to thousands . vampire bats often roost with other species of bat .
studies of common vampire bats in costa rica indicate that it is risky to depend upon blood as the only source of food . each adult common vampire bat has a 7 % chance of not feeding on any night . this means that about once every 25 nights the bat will miss its meal and go hungry . common vampire bats cannot survive two nights without meal , so fasting is dangerous . for young bats , the risk of not finding food is higher , 33 % . so , twice a week each young common vampire bat will probably miss a meal .
) . such areas have been associated with high incidences of vampire bat rabies transmission to both humans and herbivores and have identified the circulation of specific virus lineages within localized geographical locations . it is hypothesized that topological features such as dense jungle may restrict vampire bat movement and that this results in the generation of viral sublineages circulating within distinct regions (
further surveys are needed in the amazon region to confirm the species presence or absence . as for other vampire species , education programs about vampire and rabies control programs are required . the species should be excluded from vampire control programs .
there are no major threats throughout its range . there are vampire control programs .
once the common vampire bat locates a host , usually a sleeping mammal , they land and approach it on the ground . a recent study found that common vampire bats can , in addition to walking , run at speeds of up to 1 . 2 metres per second . vampire bats locate a suitable place to bite their victims using their infrared sensors .
shedding the plasma makes taking off from the ground easier . but the bat still has added almost 60 % of its body weight in blood . to take off from the ground the bat must generate lots of lift . common vampire bats have very long thumbs . as the bat prepares to take off it crouches close to the ground and then , by contracting its chest muscles , flings itself skyward . the thumbs provide extra leverage for takeoff . usually within two hours of setting out , the common vampire bat returns to its roost and settles down to spend the rest of the night digesting its blood meal .
the tank is the bat ' s stomach , and its lining rapidly absorbs the blood plasma . in turn , the circulatory system shunts the plasma to the kidneys . from there it passes to the bladder and out of the bat . within 2 minutes of beginning to feed , a common vampire bat begins to urinate . the urine is very dilute - - no wonder , it is the plasma from that blood meal . the plasma is heavy but contains no nutritive value , so the bat benefits from leaving it behind .
tropics . only one specimen of a vampire bat has ever been found in the united states , in texas in 1967 , and it probably had wandered some 700 km north from its breeding population . .
common vampire bats usually roost in hollows , so they may be found in caves , hollow trees and buildings . the bat leaves its roost just after dusk , setting out to find a meal . the relatively long and narrow wings - - providing a high aspect ration on high wing loading - - make it possible for the common vampire bat to fly rapidly and consume relatively little energy in doing so .
vampire bats are not an endangered species and have a conservation status of being ‘least concern’ .
) . alongside this , both deforestation and the introduction of prey species such as livestock into new areas provide a food source that will help increase populations of vampire bats . the white - winged vampire bat is found from mexico to southern argentina and is also present on the islands of trinidad and isla margarita . in trinidad , white - winged vampire bats have been found cohabiting roosts in caves with
is one of three species of vampire bats , all of which are found only in the new world tropics . only one specimen of a vampire bat has ever been found in the united states , in texas in 1967 , and it probably had wandered some 700 km north from its breeding population . .
vampire bats can live up to 9 years in the wild and up to 19 in captivity .
it sounds like the stuff of horror fiction , but scientists have raised health fears after a species of disease - carrying vampire bat , previously thought to mostly diet on birds , has been discovered feeding on human blood .
the feeding pattern of the vampire bat adds a layer of complexity to its anatomy . because they often do not find host organisms for many hours and may have to fly a long distance to do so , vampire bats usually feed in enormous quantities . this influx of proteins can however make the bat too heavy to fly . vampire bats have so much stealth that they can drink for 30 minutes without awakening the animal . if vampire bats do not get blood for two days , they will eventually die , but that is less likely to happen . female bats are generous and will give their blood to other bats who lack food .
unlike fruit - eating bats , the vampire bats have a short , conical muzzle without a nose leaf . instead they have naked pads with u - shaped grooves at the tip . the common vampire bat also has specialised infrared sensors on its nose , by which it perceives temperature . a nucleus has been found in the brain of vampire bats that has a similar position and has similar histology to the infrared nucleus of infrared sensitive snakes .
radio - tracking studies suggest that a foraging common vampire bat returns to a general area where it has found prey before . having reached its foraging area , the bat must find and select a victim . the fine details of its search and selection behaviour remain unknown . however , the inferior coliculus , part of the bat ' s brain thatt processes sound , is specialized for detecting the regular breathing sounds of a sleeping animal such as a cow . the bat lands on the ground near its intended victim and approaches on foot . among bats , common vampires are the most agile on the ground , hopping about like ballet dancers .
2001 .
vampire bats
( on - line ) . accessed march 21 , 2001 at urltoken .
, native to the tropics of central and south america . there are three recognised sub - species of vampire
the human population across central america and vast regions of south america remains at risk of rabv transmission from bats , in particular , hematophagous or vampire bats . there are only three species of hematophagous bat that consume blood exclusively as their diet : the
vampire bats have burnt amber coloured fur on their backside while soft and velvety light brown fur that covers their belly . vampire bats have a wingspan of about 8 inches and a body about the size of an adults thumb .
apparently , the bats urinary system accommodates this by releasing dilute urine consisting of a lot of water and fewer solutes . however , when the bat is resting , a new problem is faced . the large amounts of protein create excess urea and must be disposed of . the urinary system of the vampire bat then uses various hormones to make concentrated urine which consists of more urea and less water .
groom each other and help other bats in need . by learning to recognize other bats in a colony through voice and smell , bats can communicate with each other when necessary . a bat can beg for food and another bat who has built a strong bond with that bat will regurgitate blood for it to eat , demonstrating reciprocal social behavior . these bats are shy , quick to take flight , and seem to rapidly vacate roosts once they have been disturbed by humans (
vampire bats
2001 ; texas parks & wildlife 1994 ) .
existing data on colonies of bats in the united states : summary and analysis of the u . s . geological survey ' s bat population database
) is compatible with a traveling wavefront of rabies propagating among neighboring vampire bat metapopulations , whereby populations are decimated in the trough behind the traveling wavefront and require time to recover above some critical population density to support rabies virus transmission . control of population densities below the
then crawls up to it ' s generally sleeping victim , before biting it and feeding on the flowing blood . vampire
is present across much of latin america . it has been postulated that the introduction of domesticated livestock to the americas has increased vampire bat densities considerably over the past 300 years through an increase in available prey species such as cattle , horses , goat , and sheep (
vampire bats are members of the new world leaf - nosed bats , the phyllostomidae . all three species of living vampire bats occur in south and central america . fossils of three other species reveal that several thousand years ago vampire bats were more widespread . they are known from cuba and from as far north as west virginia and the northern califfornia , places where they no longer occur . with the exception of captive amimals , vampire bats have never been found outside of the new world .
do not suck the blood of their victims , but inside lap it up using their grooved tongue as it flows out of the wound . chemicals in the vampire bat ' s saliva both stop the blood from clotting and numb the area of skin around the bite to prevent the
there is a heat ( infrared ) sensor on the nose - leaf of common vampire bats , permitting them to locate an area where the blood flows close to the skin . if there is fur on the skin , the common vampire bat uses its canine and cheek teeth like a barber ' s shears to clip away the hairs . the bat ' s razor - sharp upper incisor teeth are then used to make a quick cut , leaving the 5 - mm wound described above . the upper incisors lack enamel , making it easier to keep them razor sharp .
a vampire bat finds its prey with echolocation ( use of ultra - high frequency sounds for navigation ) , smell , and sound . they fly about one metre above the ground . then they use special heat sensors in their noses to find veins that are close to the skin .
sources : 1 . david burnie , dorling kindersley ( 2008 ) illustrated encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 2 . david burnie , kingfisher ( 2011 ) the kingfisher animal encyclopedia [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 3 . david w . macdonald , oxford university press ( 2010 ) the encyclopedia of mammals [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 4 . dorling kindersley ( 2006 ) dorling kindersley encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 5 . richard mackay , university of california press ( 2009 ) the atlas of endangered species [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 6 . tom jackson , lorenz books ( 2007 ) the world encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 7 . vampire bat behaviour ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 8 . vampire bat feeding ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 9 . vampire bat lifecycles ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 10 . vampire bat senses ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 11 . vampire bats ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ]
the feeding process usually takes about a half an hour . an adult may consume about 5 teaspoons of blood , which is about half of its body weight . after the bat feeds , it urinates continuously until it is light enough to fly again . the longest this bat can go without eating is 2 nights . if
common vampire bats will almost always have only one offspring per breeding season . each colony will typically contain only one reproducing male , with around twenty females and their offspring . vampire bats need blood at least once every few days to survive . if they cannot get blood , they will approach another vampire bat whilst roosting , asking for a blood ‘transfusion’ . the blood is exchanged mouth - to - mouth in a motion that looks very much like kissing . their babies use tiny thumbs in the middle of the wing to cling on the mothers furry belly .
participate in altruistic feeding , whereby a bat that has fed will regurgitate blood for one that has not . this could provide a further opportunity for transmission of virus .
tomlinson , d .
natural history of the vampire
( on - line ) . accessed march 20 , 2001 at urltoken .
vampire bats have small ears and a short tail membrane . their front teeth are specialised for cutting and their back teeth are much smaller than in other bats . their digestive systems are also specialised for their liquid diet . the saliva of vampire bats contains the substance , ‘draculin’ , which prevents the victims blood from clotting . vampire bats therefore , lap blood rather than suck it as most people imagine .
vampire bats are amazingly well - equipped to live on a diet of blood and only blood - something no other mammal in the world does . its teeth are so razor - sharp that the bird or mammal it feeds on usually does not even feel the tiny bite it inflicts . the bat ' s saliva contains a chemical that keeps the blood flowing , and its tongue is grooved - the bat uses it almost like a straw . as soon as the bat feeds , it urinates . its body retains the nourishing part of the blood but gets rid of the water , so that it does not have to fly away carrying an extra load of weight .
encyclopaedia britannica , 1999 - 2000 .
vampire bat
( on - line ) . accessed march 21 , 2001 at wysiwyg : / / 42 / http : / / www . britannica . com / b . . . 1 + 1 + 74754 , 00 . html ? query = diaemus % 20youn .
vampire bats are amazingly well - equipped to live on a diet of blood and only blood - something no other mammal in the world does . its teeth are so razor - sharp that the bird or mammal it feeds on usually does not even feel the tiny bite it inflicts . the bat ' s saliva contains a chemical that keeps the blood flowing , and its tongue is grooved - the bat uses it almost like a straw . as soon as the bat feeds , it urinates . its body retains the nourishing part of the blood but gets rid of the water , so that it does not have to fly away carrying an extra load of weight .
when a common vampire bats rerturn to the roost , they often meet face - to - face and groom one another . a bat that fails to feed uses this face - to - face contact to beg blood from a roostmate . the successful bat may then regurgitate some blood to the unsuccessful one . the cost of the doner is relatively small , particularly since before the month is out it will need a donation itself . the benefit to the receiver is high , for it is survival .
other blood - feeding animals such as ticks , insects and leeches do not face the same problem as vampire bats because they can go for weeks , months or even years without a meal . vampire bats , however , are warm - blooded , and the cost of staying warm means that fasting is soon fatal . the costs of keeping warm account for the absence of vampire bats from cooler parts of north , central and south america .
5 . white - winged vampires will also take their meals in the trees instead of the barnyard . while a bird roosts on a branch , the bat sneaks up on it from below , crawling along the underside of the branch and staying out of sight . once it’s directly underneath its prey , the bat bites the bird’s big rear - pointing toe and drinks its fill .
vampire bats are the only known mammals that exist entirely on a diet of blood . their preferred prey are lareg birds , horses , cows and pigs .
genetic analyses have revealed that colonies of common vampire bats are mixtures of relatives and nonrelatives . this means that the social support provided by the colony transcends the business of helping relatives . cooperation may be one of the central keys to the success of common vampire bats . we would expect that common vampire bats that are not part of the colony would not get blood from the members of the group . giving blood appears to depend upon the prospect of a donation in return .
the bat then begins to use its tongue in the wound as well as its saliva . the action of he tongue keeps blood flowing , while grooves on the underside of the tongue draw blood toward the bat ' s mouth . meanwhile , the saliva has at least three active ingredientts that promote bleeding . one is an anticoagulant that counters the clotting defences . a second keeps red blood cells from sticking together and a third inhibits the constriction of veins near the wound . it may take the bat about 20 minutes to fill its tank ; then it is time to take off and return to its roost .
each vampire bat , whatever the species , needs about two tablespoonful of blood every day . this represents about 60 % of the bat ' s body weight , or 20 g of blood . the bats extract this blood through a wound they make with their front ( incisor ) teeth . the wounds are approximately 5 mm deep and 5 mm in diameter and do not cut arteries or veins . if you made a wound this size on your body , it would produce about one drop of blood or less than a gram . it appears that vampire bats are
one stop shoppers ,
feeding on one victim each night . getting 20 g of blood from a wound that normally produces just one drop is a specialized business .
7 . unlike its cousins , the common vampire bat eats solely on the ground , and it has evolved to be as nimble there as it is in flight . while most other bats are awkward crawlers , the common vampire can move with a quick run - like gait or hop along the ground , supporting its weight on its hind legs and using its wings and elongated thumbs to steer and push off of the ground . this comes in handy for chasing after prey on the move and for jumping out of the way if it needs to .
4 . white - winged vampires have a few tricks for feeding on domestic chickens without startling the birds . sometimes , they’ll approach a hen and mimic a chick by nuzzling up to her brood patch . this featherless section of skin on the hen’s underside is densely packed with blood vessels and is used to transfer heat to her eggs or chicks during nesting . the vessels make an easy target for the bat , and if the hen thinks it ' s her baby cuddling up to her , she’ll sit on the bat to give it access to drink . other times , the bats will climb up on a hen’s back , mimicking the touch and weight of a mounting rooster and sending the hen into the crouching stance they take before mating . the bat can then shimmy up to the hen’s neck for a bite and she’ll stay in that position until the bat hops off .
biologists have argued for years about whether vampire bats should be housed in their own family ( the desmodontidae ) or included among the new world leaf - nosed bats ( the phyllostomidae ) . people on both sides of this argument agree that the new world leaf - nosed bats are the vampire bats ' closest relatives . vampire bats are highly specialized for feeding on blood . this situation raises several questions : how did blood - feeding arise in bats ? why is it restricted to the new world tropics ? when did it appear ?
three theories account for the origin of vampire bats . the first proposes that vampire bats originated from fruit - eating bats . this theory suggests that large , strong upper incisor teeth would make fruit bats well suited to switching to blood . this theory does not explain why blood - feeding did not also appear among the old world fruit bats , the pteropodidae .
people are often surprised to learn that vampire bats are not found in central europe . it seems common to suppose that human myths about vampires and stories about dracula somehow involve vampire bats . the truth is that vampire bats got their names from human myths about vampires . in many human cultures , vampires are people who return from the dead to feed on the blood of living people . after the bats were discovered by european explorers , they were given the name vampire , denoting blood - feeding . the blood - feeding were well known to many human inhabitants of south and central america well before their discovery by europeans . bram stoker , intrigued by the publicity surrounding bats that fed on blood , included bats in his book dracula .
is so fast that they must feed every two days to ensure their survival ( blood is very nutritious containing high amounts of water ) . the nearly 20 teeth in the bat ' s mouth are mostly redundant due to their liquid
to hunt for food . despite being incredibly strong fliers , the design of their arms and legs means that they can also move about on the ground with surprising speed and agility . vampire
fears about vampire bats are fueled by a lot of misconceptions . a common one is that the bats bite the throats of their human victims . this is very far from the truth !
) of a vampire bat rabies virus isolate . as previously reported , a decrease in feeding was observed following the onset of clinical disease in those that succumbed leading to dehydration and reduced salivation . infected bats were swabbed prior to and following the onset of clinical disease . no viral material was detected in swabs from clinical animals ; however , virus isolation in tissue culture was successful from three bats that survived infection after 6 (
ellison , l . e . , t . j . o ' shea , m . a . bogan , a . l . everette , and d . m . schneider . 2003 . existing data on colonies of bats in the united states : summary and analysis of the u . s . geological survey ' s bat population database . monitoring trends in bat populations of the united states and territories : problems and prospects . u . s . geological survey 127 - 237 .
bats are firmly rooted in western vampire lore , but only three species , out of some 1100 in the order chiroptera , actually have a taste for blood . the vampire bats are the only mammals in the world that live on blood alone , and the unique challenges of that diet make them some of the most specialized , fascinating and downright weird animals that nature has to offer .
when you remember how much blood is available in different sized mammals and birds , it is obvious that one stop shopping for vampire bats will only work with large prey . the availability of large prey and the difficulty of obtaining large amounts of blood probably explains why vampire bats are no bigger than 40 g . fossil species that probably weighed about 60 g may have had more large mammals and birds to tap .
, it is the bite itself that can cause problems becoming infected or diseased . farmers have not only attempted to poison entire colonies but are also known to destroy their daytime lairs using dynamite , often eliminating thousands of vampire
) , but it is a solitary bat and does not form groups like desmodus . there are no lingual grooves under the tongue as in desmodus and diaemus , but it does have a groove along the roof of the mouth which may serve as a
blood gutter
.
description . a relatively large , sooty - brown bat with no tail ; a narrow , hairy interfemoral membrane ; short , rounded ears ; and a short , pug - nosed snout . the dentition is highly modified with the middle upper incisors larger than the canines ; the outer incisors very small and set so close to the canines that they are easily overlooked ; the crowns of the outer lower incisors seven - lobed , fan - shaped , and more than twice as wide as the inner lower incisors ; premolars and molars very small and probably non - functional . dental formula : i 2 / 2 , c 1 / 1 , pm 1 / 2 , m 2 / 2 x 2 = 26 . external measurements average : total length , 85 mm ; foot , 13 mm ; forearm , 53 mm . weight , 30 - 40 g .
) . cattle may also be infected from dogs or foxes , in areas where such rabies is endemic . in north america , predominant sources of infection are from wild carnivore species , such as from skunks in the midwest and raccoons in the east . in addition , cattle may infrequently become infected with insectivorous bat rabies virus variants . among 47 rabies - positive bovine samples provided to the centers for disease control and prevention from various state health departments within the us , 8 % ( 4 / 47 ) were bat - associated variants ( j . s . smith , personal communication ) .
produces an anticoagulant in their saliva that is about 20 times more powerful than any other anticoagulant known . the saliva has been used as a blood - thinning drug to treat heart attacks and strokes in humans (
vampire bats
2001 ) .
) include an alpha form that is more fibrin dependent than t - pa . its half - life is also longer than that of t - pa . experimental studies have shown that the recombinant alpha - 1 form and the bat plasminogen activator may be superior to t - pa in sustaining recanalization and may cause less fibrinogenolysis .
) include an alpha form that is more fibrin - dependent than t - pa . its half - life is also longer than that of t - pa . experimental studies have shown that the recombinant alpha - 1 form and the bat plasminogen activator may be superior to t - pa in sustaining recanalization and may cause less fibrinogenolysis .
in mammals and birds , which are thought to be the usual prey of vampire bats , blood amounts to 6 - 10 % of the animal ' s weight . this means that a 100 - kilogram person ( 220 pounds ) would have no more than 10 kilograms of blood , or a 1 , 000 - kilogram moose would have 100 kilograms of blood . a 450 - gram ( 1 - pound ) rat would have no more than 45 g of blood , and the vampire bats themselves have only 4 g of blood .
9 . vampires are known to share meals with each other . mother bats regurgitate previously - drunk blood for their offspring until the babies are old enough to hunt on their own . other related bats and even unrelated ones have also been observed puking blood up for one another in a reciprocal arrangement . if a bat can’t find a meal one night , one of its roost - mates may share some of its meal . in the future , the bat who was fed is highly likely to return the favor . if it cheats , or takes a blood donation without ever giving back , it may find that it gets the cold shoulder the next time it needs help .
but inside land on the ground close by and crawl up to it , where they are able to detect veins close to the skin ' s surface with precision , thanks to their heat - sensing nose . using it ' s set of sharp front teeth , the vampire
efforts to eradicate who colonies at a time however , have led to population declines in certain areas . scientists have also discovered though that the anti - coagulant found in the bat ' s saliva , proves to more effective at preventing blood clotting than any medicine , meaning that this could have significant positive implications for patients with strokes or heart attacks .
vampire bats very rarely bite people because they apparently dislike human blood . the three species of bats are quite different from each other and are therefore placed within different genera ( no other species are currently classified in any of the three genera concerned ) . but they are related .
is primarily an inhabitant of tropical and subtropical forestlands . they can be found in both mesic , forested and arid , open areas . during the daytime these bats roost in caves , mine tunnels , hollow trees , or abandoned buildings (
vampire bats
2001 ; texas parks & wildlife 1994 ) .
the food of diphylla is the blood of warm - blooded vertebrates , mainly birds , including domestic chickens . ernest walker reported that diphylla attacks the legs and cloacal region of chickens . one bat was
observed alighting on the tail of a chicken , hanging by its hind legs and biting the exposed skin in the cloacal region , and then lapping up the blood while in an upright position .
common vampire bats live together in structured societies that provide a network of social support . like other bats , common vampires are long - lived . banding studies suggest that some survive almost 20 years in the wild . banding studies also reveal that individuals remain in their roosting groups for at least three years and probably for their entire lives . colonies of common vampire bats usually include one adult male with several females and their young . the bats may not all roost together at any one time , for they move between several roosts within the home range of the colony . females that roost together often forage in the same general area , and several bats may line up , feeding in succession at a wound .
the third theory proposes that the ancestors of vampire bats began to feed on insects and insect larvae they found in wounds on large animals . this theory notes that insectivorous bats often feed where there are many insects and some of them adjust their hunting style according to the situation . throughout the tropics , flies known as screwworms lay their eggs in wounds and their larvae develop into large masses . this theory identifies strong , sharp upper incisor teeth as the key to why blood - feeding only appeared in new world bats . many new world leaf - nosed bats have large , strong upper incisors . these teeth are lacking from those old world bats with flexible foraging behaviour , namely the slit - faced bats and the false vampire bats .
feeding for common vampires is often risky , given that their preferred victim , the domestic cow , is several thousand times larger than they are . they usually bite cows on the area of the leg just above and behind the hoof , since the skin is relatively thin and the blood vessels run close to the surface . one step backwards , and a bat could be squashed if it hadn’t figured out how to run or make impressive three - foot leaps into the air .
) . this study corroborated earlier observations that are of general interest . first , the detection of early clinical signs was not possible merely through observation , and it was not until animals were separated and forced to move around that disease signs were evident . this suggests that bats that have become separated from a roost with clear clinical disease may be in a late stage of infection , although it remains unknown how clinical disease progression correlates with virus excretion . this may have significant consequences for contact and transmission rates within bat species . second , as reported previously (
vampire bats do not kill their prey . they only take about a teaspoon or two of blood at a feeding . since bats rarely carry rabies , there is little chance their victims will die from that disease . however , it has been said that some do carry the disease and it is not the blood - sucking that kills the victim , but the transfer of the rabies . i guess it depends upon species and whether that species has contracted the disease .
found in all types of forest , mainly at low elevations . roosts in caves and mines , rarely in hollow trees . individuals are well spaced in the roost , and group size is usually small , although a group of more than 500 was found in a cave in puebla , mexico , where numbers were much reduced in january , perhaps indicating seasonal movements or migration . avian blood may predominate in the diet of wild individuals , although cattle are occasionally exploited . unlike other vampires , this attractive bat is gentle and easy to handle . reproduction occurs year around ( reid 2009 ) . also occurs in open areas ( aguiar pers . comm . ) .
the second theory suggests that the ancestors of vampire bats acquired a taste for blood by feeding on ticks and other blood - feeding ectoparasites of large mammals . today in africa , birds known as ox - peckers make their living by feeding on ticks . it appears to be a viable life - style . but as the ox - peckers show , both ticks and blood - feeding ectoparasites and large mammals occur in africa . again we are left with the question , why did blood - feeding bats not appear in the old world tropics ?
8 . to meet their energy needs , vampire bats need to drink about an ounce of blood at every meal , meaning they consume half their body weight during each 20 to 30 minute feeding session . their bodies have adapted to lighten that load , and their stomach lining rapidly absorbs much of the blood’s water content and sends it to the kidneys so it can be excreted . the bats can process their meal so quickly that they may begin disposing of it before they’re even finished with it , and start urinating just a few minutes into the feeding .
blood - feeding is a risky business , particularly for a warm - blooded animal . among bats , the vampires are exceptional because they spend so much time caring for their young . young common vampires nurse for up to nine months , three months longer than flying foxes , which are many times their size , and at least six months longer than most other bats . female common vampire bats show no seasonal pattern of reproduction . but even though they may have young at any time of the year , the long period of nursing means that each female produces just one young a year .
3 . when the bats feed , they use their teeth to shear away hair or feathers from a small spot and then cut into their victim’s flesh with their sharp incisors . ( according to zoologists at chicago’s field museum , even the teeth on old , preserved bat skulls in museum collections are sharp enough to cut someone handling them carelessly . ) rather than actively suck the blood from the wound like their namesakes , the bats let the physics of capillary action do the work . they lap at the blood and specialized grooves on their lips , tongues , and / or roof or their mouths suction it up . a protein in the bats’ saliva called a plasminogen activator prevents the blood from clotting and keeps it flowing freely while they drink .
10 . vampire bats have a few different tools for finding their food . they have well - developed senses of smell and , despite bats’ reputation , keen eyesight . they’ve also got heat - seeking faces —their wrinkly , leaf shaped noses are loaded with nerves that are , in turn , loaded with proteins that are sensitive to the infrared radiation given off by warm - blooded animals . they also have finely - tuned hearing and specialized neurons that react only to the sound of breathing . they can even distinguish the breathing sounds made by different individuals , and may be able to remember the unique sonic components of an individual animal’s breathing , allowing them to return to the same reliable source of blood night after night .
2 . other bats with less grisly diets got a bad rap from european explorers in the americas . the europeans had heard stories about blood - drinking bats and encountered native people and livestock that had been bitten in the night and , without any real knowledge of the animals’ diets , began labeling different bats as vampires willy nilly , usually applying the term to bigger and / or uglier ones . bats that lived on insects or even fruit were assumed to be vampires thanks to their appearance , and the association stuck when they were scientifically described and saddled with names like vampyrum spectrum and pteropus vampyrus . meanwhile , when a naturalist finally got his hands on an actual vampire , d . rotundus , no one one believed his assertions that it drank blood , and he made no mention of it in his description .
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distribution in texas . from southern texas southward to eastern peru and brazil . known from texas on the basis of one female taken may 24 , 1967 from an abandoned railroad tunnel 19 km west of comstock , val verde county .
this species seems to be reproductively active throughout the year . pregnant females have been reported from mexico and central america in march , july , august , october , and november . the number of embryos per female is normally one , but one female captured july 8 in chiapas , mexico , contained two nearly full - term ( crown - rump length 34 mm ) embryos . the reproductive condition of the female captured in texas was not recorded .
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justification : this species is listed as least concern as it is widespread , relatively tolerant to a range of habitats , and is unlikely to be declining rapidly enough to qualify under a more threatened category .
this species ranges from southern tamaulipas ( mexico ) to colombia , venezuela , ecuador , peru , bolivia , and brazil ( except the central amazon basin ) ; a single vagrant individual has also been reported from southern texas , usa ( simmons 2005 ) . its altitudinal range goes from lowlands to 1 , 900 m ( reid 2009 ) .
this species is uncommon and local , but widespread ( emmons and feer 1997 ) . they roost either alone or in small groups of 12 or less , rarely numbering over 40 to 50 individuals ( uieda 1987 ) . in one study , d . ecaudata was observed to be more solitary and did not gather into groups when in the presence of other bats in a cave . they have a structured society in which they build strong social bonds with other bats in the colony . very rare in belize ( miller pers . comm . ) .
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