humboldt 's hog-nosed skunk , also known as the patagonian hog-nosed skunk ( conepatus humboldtii ) is a type of hog-nosed skunk indigenous to the open grassy areas in the patagonian regions of argentina and chile .

humboldt ' s hog - nosed skunk

hog - nosed skunks are found in southern north america , central america and portions of south america . there are several distinct species : molina ' s hog - nosed skunk , the striped hog - nosed skunk , humboldt ' s hog - nosed skunk and the american hog - nosed skunk ( which includes eastern hog - nosed and western hog - nosed skunks ) .
humboldt ' s hog - nosed skunk - conepatus humboldtii humboldt ' s hog - nose skunk is found in argentina and chile . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes
picture of the striped hog - nosed skunk by washington l . s . vieira , licensed under
weylan shaw ( author ) , humboldt state university , brian arbogast ( editor ) , humboldt state university .
the hog - nosed skunk has an interesting evolutionary history among skunk species . according to natural history magazine :
all hog - nosed skunks live in the americas . the north american species ranges farther north than any other member of the genus , living in mexico and the united states as far north as colorado . the other species reside in central and south america . striped hog - nosed skunks live as far north as southern mexico and as far south as northern peru and eastern brazil . the range of molina ' s and humboldt ' s hog - nosed skunks overlaps . molina ' s hog - nosed skunks live throughout central south america , while humboldt ' s skunks live exclusively in chile and argentina .
molina ' s hog - nosed skunk - conepatus chinga molina ' s hog - nosed skunk is found in argentina , bolivia , brazil , chile , paraguay , peru , and uruguay . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes
the humboldt ' s hog - nosed skunk , patagonian hog - nosed skink is listed as least concern ( lr / lc ) , lowest risk . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species
a young / baby of a humboldt is called a ' kit ' . a humboldt group is called a ' surfeit or stink ' .
the pelts of hog - nosed skunk were exported a great deal between 1960 and 1980 . the pelts of
in the wild . however , similar species of hog - nosed skunk have lived up to 7 years in captivity .
hog - nosed skunks eat primarily insects and small mammals , particularly rodents . for this reason , farmers find their presence beneficial as they prey on pests that destroy crops . some have a more specialized diet - - striped hog - nosed skunks prefer to hunt and eat termites , while molina ' s skunks favor spiders and beetles . these skunks are solitary , nocturnal creatures , foraging at night and returning to dens or burrows during the day . molina ' s hog - nosed skunks are more territorial , while humboldt ' s hog - nosed skunks tend to roam more and never return to the same den twice .
hog - nosed skunks generally prefer open grasslands , scrublands and forests . striped hog - nosed skunks ' habitat depends on the season . during the rainy season when food is more plentiful , they tend to stay in deciduous forests , but during the dry season , they expand into more open territory in search of food . molina ' s hog - nosed skunks prefer foraging in open canyon and steppe areas , though they retreat to forests to rest . while humboldt ' s hog - nosed skunks also prefer open grasslands , they often forage near the barns and sheds of human dwellings .
the amazonian hog - nosed skunk , striped hog - nosed skunk is listed as least concern ( lr / lc ) , lowest risk . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species
american hog - nosed skunk - conepatus leuconotus [ in ] the american hog - nosed skunk is found from southeastern texas , southern arizona and southern new mexico south through central america to northern nicaragua . source : audubon guides intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
hog - nosed skunks have a broad , bald snout much like that of a pig . like their namesake , the hog - nosed skunk uses its strong sniffer to root around in the ground for food , which includes grubs , beetles and insect larvae . combined with long , sharp claws and a powerful upper body , hog - nosed skunks are powerful diggers .
hog - nosed skunks grow to about 2 feet long on average , and weigh between 5 and 10 pounds . in addition to their distinctive noses , skunks in this genus have coarser fur than skunk species . the fur is mostly black , with white stripes that differ in pattern depending on the species . humboldt ' s hog - nosed skunks have one or two white stripes down their sides . the same two white stripes are present for molina ' s hog - nosed skunks , but their tails are almost completely white . striped and north american hog - nosed skunks have a single white stripe running down their backs , but striped skunks ' single stripe splits into two , with their tails covered with short black and white hairs .
never returned to the same den during the day . patagonian hog - nosed skunks forage exclusively in green grassy areas .
striped hog - nosed skunk - conepatus semistriatus the striped hog - nosed skunk is found in belize , brazil , colombia , costa rica , ecuador , honduras , mexico , nicaragua , panama , peru , and venezuela . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes
patagonian hog - nosed skunks are found in chile and argentina from 38 to 42 degrees south to the strait of magellan .
patagonian hog - nosed skunks primarily eat insects . they may however feed on small mammals , shrubs , and fruit in addition to insects .
an ancestor of hog - nosed skunks and a spotted skunk - like form appeared in the early pliocene records of mexico . shortly after that , the hog - nosed skunks managed to migrate into south america , taking advantage of a newly formed land bridge connecting north and south america . this is part of a major geologic event called the great american biotic interchange , or gabi , and hog - nosed skunks were among the earliest carnivores to expand to the south .
like many skunk species , hooded skunks have more than just one name . this species is sometimes called the long - tailed mexican skunk , southern skunk , white - sided skunk or zorillo .
the eastern spotted skunk is the only skunk that can climb trees , according to the adw .
humans carry their babies for 9 months , but that’s nothing compared to these amazing creatures .
hooded skunk - mephitis macroura most of the hooded skunk ' s diet is made up of insects . source : audubon guides intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
pygmy spotted skunk - spilogale pygmaea the pygmy spotted skunk is found along the pacific coast of mexico .
hog - nosed skunks have bare noses from all the rooting around they do when hunting for food to eat . ( photo : patagonian stock ae / shutterstock )
they all stink , but there ' s much more to the skunk world than just the black - and - white stripes of pepé le pew .
the american hog - nosed skunk is not only among the largest skunk species at more than 2 feet long and weighing up to 10 pounds , it is also the only species that lacks the familiar white medial bar between the eyes . the all - black face and distinctive nose make this type of skunk easy to identify .
hog - nosed skunks primarily eat insects and prey that are considered crop pests , so they can be particularly beneficial to have on a farm or in a garden .
very little is known about this particular species of hog - nosed skunk ( e . g . population density , mating system , etc . ) . more research into the natural history of this species is required for complete understanding .
the eastern hog - nosed skunk is the largest of all the skunk species , according to the animal diversity web ( adw ) . it typically grows to 27 . 56 to 31 . 50 inches ( 70 to 80 cm ) and weighs 4 . 41 to 9 . 91 lbs . ( 2 to 4 . 5 kg ) .
the striped hog - nosed skunk is quite the solitary little mammal . being both loners and nocturnal , their mating habits and reproduction cycles are not widely documented . it is assumed that these are similar to that of other skunk species , which means that mating generally occurs in the spring and results in one litter of 2 - 5 offspring per year . they most likely retreat underground or into some type of den or burrow to give birth . the lifespan of this animal is not known for longevity , and at this time the striped hog - nosed skunk does not appear on any endangered species or conservation lists .
patagonian hog - nosed skunks are solitary creatures that are active mainly at night . home ranges of individual skunks may overlap and range from 9 . 7 ha to 16 . 4 ha . during the daylight hours
mueller , jennifer .
facts about the hog nose skunks
accessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken
) , also referred to as the amazonian hog - nosed skunk , is a neotropical mammal . this means that they are generally found in central and south america , from southern mexico continuing south eastwards into peru and eastern brazil . the striped hog - nosed skunk is similar in size to an average domestic house cat , perhaps slightly smaller . their size is about 57 cm ( 22 inches ) in length with an average weight of 1 . 6 kg ( 3 . 5 lbs ) , and the male of the species is generally larger than the female .
mueller , jennifer .
facts about the hog nose skunks .
animals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / hog - nose - skunks - 7452 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .
there are four species of spotted skunk , all of which are found from central america north into canada . two species , the eastern spotted skunk and the pygmy spotted skunk , are considered to be vulnerable to extinction .
mueller , jennifer . ( n . d . ) . facts about the hog nose skunks . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / hog - nose - skunks - 7452 . html
lasts approximately 9 weeks . patagonian hog - nosed skunks bear 3 to 7 altricial young . the reason for such a small litter is believed to be the relatively small number of mammae possessed by the females . female patagonian hog - nosed skunks have 3 pair of mammae , as opposed to other species of skunks , which may have more . young are not “weaned” in the traditional sense , but simply stop nursing when able to take in a regular diet .
a young / baby of a striped hognosed skunk is called a ' kit ' . a striped hognosed skunk group is called a ' surfeit or stink ' .
there are reports that hog - nosed skunks in the andes are immune to the venum of pit vipers . this might indicate an historic case of predation on these skunks by snakes which is no longer of importance , or it may indicate that the skunks prey on pit vipers .
striped skunk - mephitis mephitis the striped skunk is black with two broad white stripes on back . source : audubon guides intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
western spotted skunk - spilogale gracilis the western spotted skunk is found in the western united states . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes
this type of skunk is probably the most commonly known . found throughout north america from central mexico into canada , the striped skunk is content living anywhere from the most pristine wilderness to the heart of urban centers . it ' s black - and - white markings are familiar and even fear - inducing to those who have had an unfortunate run - in with its spray .
no skunk species is currently endangered , according to the international union for conservation of nature . except for one , all are listed on the union ' s red list of threatened species as
least concern .
the pygmy spotted skunk is listed as vulnerable due to and ongoing population loss estimated to be more than 30 percent over the past three generations of the species .
has no real natural predators , although certain species of skunks have been preyed upon by raptors such as great - horned owls . the lack of natural predators may be in fact due to the skunk’s ability to emit a powerful smelling musk out of anal glands on its rear end .
before spraying , a skunk will often charge at an attacker , stomp its front legs or hiss .
stink badgers were only recently classified as part of the skunk family . ( photo : nicoolay / istockphoto )
western spotted skunk - spilogale gracilis the western spotted skunk is black , with horizontal white stripes on its neck and and shoulders . source : audubon guides intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
the striped skunk is found across most of southern canada , all over the united states and in northern mexico .
striped skunk - mephitis mephitis the striped skunk is found throughout most of the united states . it is also found in canada and mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes
skunk are one of four wild animals considered to be primary carriers of the rabies virus , according to the humane society .
in appearance , the striped hog - nosed skunk is similar to the common skunk found in north america with some slight differences . their coat is predominately black in color with the white stripe forming at the back of their necks and extending down their back where it divides into two stripes . the tail is black and white but not as bushy as that of other species and their coat is very coarse , lacking the qualities for which the north american skunk is valued . the nose is long and extends into a pig - like
snout
which is used to root in the earth , and the front feet have strong sharp claws for digging . like all skunks , they have anal glands which are capable of spraying a foul - smelling musk when threatened .
the skunk’s most memorable trait is its smell . when frightened , skunks will shoot a smelly , oily substance from a gland underneath their tails with a range of up to 10 feet ( 3 meters ) , according to national geographic . the scent from this gland can last for days , but isn’t harmful . most animals leave skunks alone unless they can’t find other prey . before spraying , a spotted skunk will do a handstand on its front paws and aim its tail without taking its eyes off its attacker .
habitat use for patagonian hog - nose skunks ranges from grass and shrub land to rocky outcroppings . they may also be found around human dwellings ( e . g . houses , sheds , etc . ) .
the spray is an oily liquid that the skunk can shoot up to 10 feet . it ' s so powerful that it can induce vomiting and can temporarily blind anyone unfortunate enough to get spritzed in the eyes . the stink lasts for days and is next to impossible to get out . ask a dog owner whose pet got sprayed , and they ' ll confirm how tough it is to wash away .
alina bradford is a contributing writer for live science . over the past 16 years , alina has covered everything from ebola to androids while writing health , science and tech articles for major publications . she has multiple health , safety and lifesaving certifications from oklahoma state university . alina ' s goal in life is to try as many experiences as possible . to date , she has been a volunteer firefighter , a dispatcher , substitute teacher , artist , janitor , children ' s book author , pizza maker , event coordinator and much more .
despite the “badger” label , these smelly critters fall squarely in the skunk family . their appearance is part of the misnomer , since they lack a long bushy tail like other skunk species . instead , they have a similar look to badgers with their robust , stocky body shape and stumpy tails .
hooded skunk - mephitis macroura the hooded skunk is found in el salvador , guatemala , honduras , mexico , nicaragua , and in the united states in southwestern texas , southwestern new mexico , and southeastern arizona . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes
a terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5° n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .
english - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers
eastern spotted skunk - spilogale putorius eastern spotted skunks are good climbers . source : audubon guides intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
has a bare , broad , projecting face that lacks the thin white line down the middle . this allows it to be easily distinguished from similar species of skunk .
not all skunks come with stripes . this adorable species sports a black - and - white dappled coat that , while technically isn ' t spotted , is the source of this variety ' s name . rather than the ventral stripes of other species , spotted skunks have stripe - like patches of white in patterns distinct to each individual .
jennifer mueller began writing and editing professionally in 1995 , when she became sports editor of her university ' s newspaper while also writing a bi - monthly general interest column for an independent tourist publication . mueller holds a bachelor of arts in political science from the university of north carolina at asheville and a juris doctor from indiana university maurer school of law .
striped skunk - mephitis mephitis striped skunks are nocturnal . they spend the day sleeping in underground burrows . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes
there is more variety in the skunk family than you may have suspected . going far beyond the familiar waddling , black - and - white striped critter roaming many suburban backyards , there are a wide variety of lesser - known skunk species — including two found in the malay islands of southeast asia . but they all have two things in common : an infamously unmistakable aroma and a single ancestry source .
these small stinkers are found in the united states , canada , south america and mexico . stink badgers , which were recently considered part of the skunk family , are found in indonesia and the philippines .
the markings of the coat are used to warn predators . if they ignore this warning the skunk will lift up his tail and raising the hairs making it look bigger . he grinds his teeth and stomps his front paws on the floor . most predators leave it at that , but the persistent one is in for a nasty surprise . the skunk aims his anal glands towards the attacker and sprays quite accurately a yellow , oily foul smelling fluid onto his goal . a skunk can spray 10 up to 16 . 4 feet . the coat pattern serves as a warning to predators . should they ignore the warning , the skunk flares his tail , spreads out the tail hair , grinds his teeth and will stomp on the ground with his front legs . most predators will leave it at this , but the single enemy that remains gets a nasty surprise . the skunk points the anal glands on the attacker and sprays a yellow , oily , smelly liquid . it can spray nine to sixteen feet , but the vapor that is released can carry up to thirty three feet away . the smell will hang around for a long time and can be smelled from afar . however , the skunk is very sparse with his fluid , since he has only enough for five or six attacks and it takes a few weeks before the liquid is replaced . only the american eagle owl , which has a poor sense of smell , is a formidable natural enemy of the skunk . the vast majority ends up becoming the victims of automobiles though .
hooded skunks get their name from the cap of long fur on the top of their heads and the backs of their necks , which can look almost like a furry cape . they have color pattern variations , including a single wide , white dorsal stripe ( pictured here ) , or they may be entirely black except for the white hood and some white on the tail . this skunk has a longer tail and softer fur than its striped skunk cousins .
the striped skunk ( mephitis mephitis ) is the best known skunk and also the most common skunk kept as a pet . this species natural range is almost completely in north america . they inhabit a variety of ecological niches ; deserts , forests , prairies , agricultural landscapes and suburban sites . the striped skunks head to vent length is between 13 to 23 . 5 inches and weighs 4 . 4 to 13 . 3 lbs . the tail length is between 7 to 15 . 7 inches . in general males are a heavier build than females . the striped skunk has black fur with two wide white stripes running along the sides of the back . the shoulders and nape of the neck are also white . the amount of white varies per individual ; some are almost entirely black but there are also near white animals . on the face there is a narrow white stripe . the tail is long haired and fluffy .
eastern spotted skunk - spilogale putorius eastern spotted skunks are found throughout much of the eastern united state south through central america to el salvador . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes
according to pbs ,
dna and evidence from the fossil record suggest that the mephitidae family derived from a single common ancestor about 30 to 40 million years ago . the descendants of this ancient skunk have evolved into 12 of the stinkiest and most intriguing species on the planet .
despite the smelly trouble they can sometimes cause , striped skunks — and all skunk species — are quite beneficial . they have an omnivorous diet and help with everything from keeping insects like grasshoppers , beetles , crickets and wasps in check to spreading seeds of fruits and berries and cleaning up fallen fruit .
the hooded skunk is found from the southwestern united states all the way down to costa rica . this species can be found in a variety of habitats , according to the university of michigan .
hooded skunks can live in several habitats , from dry lowlands to boreal forests or plateaus , and many habitats in between . these skunks may be found in high - elevation ponderosa pine forests , deciduous forests , forest edges , riparian zones , rocky canyons , grasslands , pastures , and arid desert lowlands . in oaxaca , mexico , where they are the most common skunk species , they prefer grasslands and marshes over scrublands .
it is not permitted in most european countries to descent skunks ( or any other mammal ) and is not necessary . a skunk will , if well socialized , not use his anal glands . only very young skunks lack full control over their anal glands and may
leak
. well cared for skunks have a neutral smell and often take on the smell of their surroundings . this is because the coat can absorb odors due to a special hair structure . a skunk that sleeps in straw will smell like straw and when they sit a while in the lap of someone wearing perfume it will , after a few minutes , smell like that perfume . a well cared for skunk doesn ' t smell as unpleasant as you might think . . . descented skunks , however , may be imported and sold . note that if the descenting procedure isn ' t followed out correctly they might loose control of the small remainders of their anal glands and have a slight
skunkie
odor .
until recently , skunks were considered part of the mustelid family , related to weasels , otters and badgers . molecular analysis has shown that skunks should be recognized as a single family , mephitidae , according to the adw . also , stink badgers , which occur in indonesia and the philippines , have just recently been considered part of the skunk family .
explorers reported as early as the 16th century that native americans kept skunks in and around their villages . the first western settlers also welcomed skunks around their farms to kill off pests such as mice and rats . by breeding skunks on fur farms since the mid - 19th century quite a lot of colors and markings have been bred . there are brown , gray , apricot and white skunks . when the fur market collapsed after the american civil war ( 1861 - 1865 ) , the fur breeders have focused on the pet industry . artis was the first dutch zoo in 1939 that had skunks in their collection . since the 70 ' s they have also been kept as pets in the netherlands .
the oldest known fossil remains of a skunk is found in germany ( europe ) and has been dates back to 12 million years ago . up to 1997 the skunks were considered as members of the weaselfamily ( mustelidae ) . but recent dna research has put them in their own family , the skunks ( mephitidae ) . the family has 12 members devided in 4 genera .
a skunk is an omnivore . the natural diet consists of rodents , insects , lizards , eggs of ground - nesting birds , amphibians , vegetables , fruits and berries . the striped skunk is a solitary nocturnal animal , is largely crepuscular and nocturnal , and they sleep during the day in a quiet corner . it does not hibernate , but he goes into winter rest in cold regions . in the fall they grow a thick fat layer , to come through the food - poor winter months to come . often several skunks spend their winter rest together in a den . sometimes they use an existing shelter such as a tree or a hollow space between the rocks . occasionally they dig their own den . striped skunks sometimes use hollow walls and crawl spaces as an accommodation . in general , winter dens and maternity dens are underground , others are above ground .
the mating season is from february to april . gestation lasts 62 to 66 days , including the prolonged gestation of 19 days . the skunk gets 3 - 9 young per litter and they are born in may . at birth the kits are blind and covered with peach - like fuzz . the characteristic striped markings are already clearly recognizable . after six to seven weeks the young are weaned and go with the mother on the hunt . they live up to 3 to 6 years in the wild and 6 to 10 years in captivity .
like its skunk relatives , and true to its name , the stink badger can spray a foul - smelling secretion as a form of self - defense . for the sunda stink badger , this is the second tack it takes when threatened . its first strategy is to play dead like an opossum . when it is forced to squirt a predator , it can spray the secretion only about 6 inches . the palawan stink badger , on the other hand , has a far more noxious smelling secretion which it can spray up to a meter away and will do so as the first line of defense . in other words , they’re not to be trifled with .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
while many authors have traditionally considered skunks a subfamily ( mephitinae ) within mustelidae , recent molecular evidence indicates that skunks do not lie within the mustelid group and should be recognised as a single family , mephitidae ( wozencraft 2005 ) .
justification : this species is listed as least concern because it is widespread in an area of relatively little - encroached habitat and it is common , sometimes occurring at high densities ( cofré and marquet 1999 ) .
the species is found in southern argentina and adjacent parts of chile ( redford and eisenberg 1989 ) .
olrog and lucero ( 1981 ) state that it is locally common in argentina . there is some indication that the numbers of c . humboldtii have decreased ( broad et al . 1988 ) , but the numbers killed each year in patagonia are not known and unpublished data show that population levels have been stable from 1989 to 1993 . population density value estimated for chile is 89 individuals / km² ( cofré and marquet 1999 ) .
the pelts of c . humboldtii were exported a great deal between 1960 and 1980 although of lesser value than other conepatus species . in 1983 , c . humboldtii was protected against export in argentina and chile . these animals are apparently still used in the pet trade ( chapman and feldhamer 1982 ) .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
is approximately 50 to 60 cm in length counting the tail which is 15 to 18 centimeters in length . these animals weigh between 1100 to 4500 g . both males and females are black and may have 1 or 2 stripes down the side of their bodies . they are sexually dimorphic with the males being slightly larger .
undergoes similar development as other mustelidae . at birth young weigh approximately one ounce . growth to adulthood usually takes up to 3 months ( chapman and feldhammer 1982 ) .
( chapman and feldhamer , 1982 ; fuller , et al . , 1987 )
the parental care of this species has not been described . however , other skunks give birth to altricial young , which are kept in a den or nest until they are able to walk about . the mother provides the young with food in the form of milk , and protection .
communicates by bodily gestures to ward off potential danger . this may be stamping its feet or raising its rear in the air . like other skunks , it is known to eject a foul smelling secretion from its anal glands if threatened . little is known of mating behavior of
probably affects populations of insects and other small mammals it preys upon . to the extent that it digs in the soil for burrowing or to locate its insect prey , this species probably also helps to aerate the soil .
was protected against export in argentina and chile . these animals are apparently still used in the pet trade .
living in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
found in coastal areas between 30 and 40 degrees latitude , in areas with a mediterranean climate . vegetation is dominated by stands of dense , spiny shrubs with tough ( hard or waxy ) evergreen leaves . may be maintained by periodic fire . in south america it includes the scrub ecotone between forest and paramo .
in mammals , a condition in which a fertilized egg reaches the uterus but delays its implantation in the uterine lining , sometimes for several months .
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
this terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains , either without vegetation or covered by low , tundra - like vegetation .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
the business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets .
a terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .
a grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .
to cite this page : shaw , w . 2002 .
conepatus humboldtii
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
classification from integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) selected by c . michael hogan - see more .
kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
patagonianskunkki
to
conepatus humboldtii gray , 1837
.
c . michael hogan marked
range description
as visible on the
conepatus humboldtii gray , 1837
page .
c . michael hogan marked
range description
as trusted on the
conepatus humboldtii gray , 1837
page .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
urltoken
double - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .
if words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .
if phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .
we ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .
spanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .
or conepatus humboldtii is listed on the iucn red list ( 1996 ) as lower risk / least concern .
if is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .
enter your log in email address and well send you a link to reset your password .
this image can ' t be licensed for personal use ( e . g . personal prints ) .
sorry , this image isn ' t available for this licence . please refer to the license restrictions for more information .
on the alamy prints site ( powered by art . com ) choose your frame , the size and finish of your photo .
by clicking ok , you ' re confirming your use isn’t personal ( e . g . personal prints ) .
the species is found in southern argentina and adjacent parts of chile ( redford and eisenberg , 1989 ) .
enter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .
one dancer wears a black and white zebra body suit with a painted face . women enter in animal print with skulls as hair pieces
changes to represent habitats e . g . warm wash in the café to cool wash in the penguin section
can ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .
during dry seasons they can be predominately found in deciduous forests , shrub woodlands , and occasionally grasslands . they tend to avoid desert areas and thickly wooded forests , preferring more sparsely wooded areas . during the wet season , the skunks tend to be more selective , sticking to higher levels of elevation where food is plentiful . the omnivorous creatures feed on insects , fruit and eggs , invertebrates , and small vertebrates such as lizards and small mammals .
black - and - white striped skunks are the most well - known , but they have some adorable stinky cousins . ( photo : globalp / istockphoto )
those 12 species fall into five distinct types of skunks . here they are , each beneficial to their ecosystems and surprisingly cute in their own smelly way .
striped skunks are perhaps the most familiar species in north america . ( photo : bildagentur zoonar gmbh / shutterstock )
spotted skunks have a particularly beautiful coat pattern . ( photo : action sports photography / shutterstock )
spotted skunks grow to be one to two feet in length and are agile climbers , often taking to the trees and walking along branches , which is why they ' re sometimes called tree skunks . taking advantage of a diverse diet , spotted skunks will happily feast on fruits and other easy foods , but also will go after tougher prey such as snakes .
while forests and shrub - covered areas offer a great habitat , spotted skunks are content setting up dens around homes , farms and other places where it might be easy to have a run - in with this cute but stinky creature . luckily they give plenty of warning , including stomping and rising up to walk on their front feet .
hooded skunks have a ' hood ' of white fur on their heads and down their necks . ( photo : dmitrij rodionov , dr / wikimedia commons )
there are two species of stink badger — the palawan stink badger , or pantot , and the sunda stink badger , or teledu . they’re found on the western islands of the malay archipelago where they root around for invertebrates , eggs , worms and other goodies under the cover of night .
check out a stink badger in action as it moves around looking for grub ( literally ! ) in the middle of the night .
jaymi heimbuch ( @ jaymiheimbuch ) focuses on wildlife conservation and animal news from her home base in san francisco .
the black - footed cat may be tiny , but it will walk 20 miles in pursuit of prey .
humpback whales have been witnessed foiling killer whale hunts from antarctica to the north pacific .
try our newsletter for optimistic innovations , seasonal recipes , strong communities and the smartest ways to lead a sustainable lifestyle .
atacama desert . cactus and other rare plants show their best appearance during the blooming season after the occasional winter rain . | pinterest | desert cact…
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
javascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .
average measurements ( in mm ) : femur length 56 . 8 , humerus length 46 . 7 , radius length 39 . 1 , skull length 63 . 3 , tibia length 57 . 0
estimated body mass : 666 . 4 g based on femur length , humerus length , and tibia length
skunks are small , furry animals with black and white stripes . some skunks are striped , and some are spotted or have swirl patterns on their fur . no matter the pattern , the black - and - white coloring is a warning sign to anyone who may harm this small creature . they pack a wallop of a defense mechanism — noxious odors produced from their well - developed scent glands .
skunks are typically around the size of house cats . they grow to 8 to 19 inches ( 20 to 48 centimeters ) long and weigh around 7 ounces to 14 lbs . ( 198 grams to 6 kilograms ) . their tail adds another 5 to 15 inches ( 13 to 38 cm ) to their length .
skunks live in forest edges , woodlands , grasslands and deserts . they typically make their homes in abandoned burrows , but will also live in abandoned buildings , under large rocks and in hollow logs .
it is important to remember that most skunks are not aggressive and won’t harm humans unless they are threatened , according to the humane society .
skunks are nocturnal and forage for food while most animals and humans sleep . though you typically see skunks by themselves , they gather to mate . a group of skunks are called a surfeit .
skunks are omnivores , which means they eat both meat and vegetation . their diet consists of plants , insects , larvae , worms , fruit , eggs , reptiles , small mammals and fish .
little is known about the biology of stink badgers , according to the adw .
female skunks give birth every year . their gestation period often lasts around two months and they give birth to two to 10 offspring at a time .
baby skunks are called kits . kits are blind when born , since their eyes are sealed shut until around the age of 3 weeks , according to the san diego zoo . they are weaned at 2 months old . after they are weaned , they leave the den and at to 10 to 12 months old they are ready to have their own kits .
skunks have very short lives and often live only around three years . in captivity they can live a little longer , usually seven to eight years .
there are four species of spotted skunks . western spotted skunks ( pictured ) extend from central mexico through the western united states to british columbia ; southern spotted skunks occur from central mexico south to central costa rica ; eastern spotted skunks are found from eastern canada , down the appalachians to northeast mexico .
poachers tried to kill rhinos in south african reserve . instead , a pride of lions killed them .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
home | wild files | n . h . animals | animals a - z | watch online
there are 12 species of in this family . skunks are found in north , central , and south america . stink badgers are found in indonesia and the philippines .
members of this family are black , brown , or gray and have white stripes or spots . skunks and stink badgers are about the size of a domestic cat and have squat bodies ; bushy tails ; and powerful , stubby legs . they have a gland under their tails that emits a spray with strong odor . this spray is used to warn away predators . in addition to smelling bad , this spay also causes a stinging sensation .
skunks and stink badgers are nocturnal and spend the day in a burrow or den or hidden under rocks or a log . they have strong front claws that help them dig into the soil for food . they are omnivores and eat vegetation , insects , larvae , worms , small birds , eggs , small mammals , and reptiles . skunks and stink badgers are solitary , although some species may gather together in a den in cold weather .
least concern near threatened vulnerable endangered critically endangered extinct in wild extinct status and range is taken from icun redlist . if no status is listed , there is not enough data to establish status .
palawan stink - badger - mydaus marchei the palawan stink - badger is found in the philippines . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes
palawan stink - badger - mydaus marchei unlike most species in this family , the palawan stink - badger is diurnal . that means it is active during the day . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes
sunda stink - badger - mydaus javanensis the sunda stink - badger is found on the indonesian islands of sumatra , java , borneo , and north natuna islands . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes
the legislation governing the keeping of skunks varies from country to country . please refer to your local laws .
our privacy / cookie policy contains detailed information about the types of cookies & related technology on our site , and some ways to opt out . by using the site , you agree to the uses of cookies and other technology as outlined in our policy , and to our terms of use .
note : depending on which text editor you ' re pasting into , you might have to add the italics to the site name .


fascioloides magna , also known as giant liver fluke , large american liver fluke or deer fluke , is trematode parasite that occurs in wild and domestic ruminants in north america and europe .

adult flukes occur in the liver of the definitive host and feed on blood .

mature flukes measure 4 to 10 cm in length × 2 to 3.5 cm in width , and have an oval dorso-ventrally flattened body with oral and ventral sucker .

the flukes are reddish-brown in colour and are covered by tegument .

as with other digenean trematodes , the life cycle includes intramolluscan phase in snails .

the parasite is currently distributed in wild ruminants in north america and europe , including austria , canada , czechia , croatia , germany , hungary , italy , poland , serbia , slovakia , and usa .

fascioloides magna

giant liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) , an important liver parasite of ruminants .
foreyt wj , leathers cw . experimental infection of domestic goats with fascioloides magna .
distribution of potential intermediate hosts for fasciola hepatica and fascioloides magna in montana , usa .
susceptibility of bighorn sheep ( ovis canadensis ) to experimentally - induced fascioloides magna infections .
experimental infection of lymnaeid snails in wisconsin with miracidia of fascioloides magna and fasciola hepatica .
efficacy of triclabendazole against natural infections of fascioloides magna in wapiti . - pubmed - ncbi
predilection site of fascioloides magna is the liver , occasionally the lungs and the intestine .
life history and biology of fascioloides magna ( trematoda ) and its native and exotic hosts .
describe the pathophysiology of fascioloides magna ( the large american liver fluke ) infections in cattle .
a natural infection of fascioloides magna in a llama ( lama glama ) . - pubmed - ncbi
fascioloides magna ( bassi , 1875 ) in feral swine from southern texas . - pubmed - ncbi
sequences of primers used to amplify fragments of fascioloides magna mitochondrial genome . ( docx 13 kb )
molecular characterization of fascioloides magna ( trematoda : fasciolidae ) from south - western poland . . .
adult stage of the giant liver fluke , fascioloides magna . the photo was taken by martin kašný .
kennedy mj , acorn rc . moraiko dt . survey of fascioloides magna in farmed wapiti in alberta .
summary of statistical parameters for 11 microsatellite loci of fascioloides magna from europe . ( docx 26 kb )
wherefrom and whereabouts of an alien : the american liver fluke fascioloides magna in austria : an overview .
distribution of potential intermediate hosts for fasciola hepatica and fascioloides magna in montana , usa . - pubmed - ncbi
susceptibility of bighorn sheep ( ovis canadensis ) to experimentally - induced fascioloides magna infections . - pubmed - ncbi
experimental infection of lymnaeid snails in wisconsin with miracidia of fascioloides magna and fasciola hepatica . - pubmed - ncbi
summary of statistical parameters for 11 microsatellite loci of fascioloides magna from north america . ( docx 31 kb )
recovery of fascioloides magna ( digenea ) population in spite of treatment programme ? screening of ga . . .
prevalence of fascioloides magna in galba truncatula in the danube backwater area east of vienna , au . . .
lankester mw . parelaphostrongylus tenuis ( nematoda ) and fascioloides magna ( trematoda ) in moose of southeastern manitoba .
mule deer ( odocoileus hemionus ) and elk ( cervus elaphus ) as experimental definitive hosts for fascioloides magna .
fascioloides magna ( a , a ) and fasciola hepatica ( b , b ) , adults and eggs .
diagnosis and therapy of liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) infection in fallow deer ( dama dama ) in serbia .
effect of fascioloides magna ( digenea ) on fecundity , shell height , and survival rate of pseudosuccin . . .
the origin of the giant liver fluke , fascioloides magna ( trematoda : fasciolidae ) from croatia determ . . .
impact of the giant liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) on elk and other ungulates in banff and kootney national parks .
fascioloides magna , the giant liver fluke , parasite of cattle , sheep and other livestock . biology , prevention and control
fascioloides magna - the giant liver fluke - parasite of cattle , sheep and other livestock . biology , prevention and control
dutson vj , shaw jn , knapp se . epizootiologic factors of fascioloides magna ( trematoda ) in oregon and southern washington .
wherefrom and whereabouts of an alien : the american liver fluke fascioloides magna in austria : an overview . - pubmed - ncbi
foreyt wj . hunter rl . clinical fascioloides magna infection in sheep in oregon on pasture shared by columbian white - tailed deer .
mule deer ( odocoileus hemionus ) and elk ( cervus elaphus ) as experimental definitive hosts for fascioloides magna . - pubmed - ncbi
diagnosis and therapy of liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) infection in fallow deer ( dama dama ) in serbia . - pubmed - ncbi
pursglove sr , prestwood ak , ridgeway tr , hayes fa . fascioloides magna infection in white - tailed deer of southeastern united states .
. in : the giant liver fluke , fascioloides magna : past , present and future research . springerbriefs in animal sciences . springer , cham
and figure s2 . models of historical gene flow of fascioloides magna populations tested in migrate and estimates of relative population sizes . ( docx 218 kb )
foreyt wj , todd ac . development of the large american liver fluke , fascioloides magna , in white - tailed deer , cattle , and sheep .
erhardová - kotrlá b : the occurence of fascioloides magna ( bassi , 1875 ) in czechoslovakia . prague : academia ; 1971 : 1 - 124 .
primer pairs and multiplex panels for 11 microsatellite loci applied in fascioloides magna genotyping ( modified according to minárik et al . 2014 ) . ( docx 19 kb )
prevalence of fascioloides magna in red deer in southwestern slovakia in the respective years during the period of 2005–2015 . n – number of examined red deer , np – number of red deer infected with f . magna , % – prevalence of fascioloidosis
to cite this page : nguyen , s . 2011 .
fascioloides magna
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
active ingredients with efficacy against flukes are usually called flukicides or fasciolicides . the following anthelmintics have reported efficacy against fascioloides magna in livestock ( mainly cattle , sheep , goats ) :
comparison of a + t content of mitochondrial genomes of fascioloides magna ( fm ) , fasciola hepatica ( fh ) and fasciola gigantica ( fg ) . ( docx 20 kb )
infection with fascioloides magna ( digenea ) causes serious damage to liver tissue in definitive hosts represented by ruminants , especially cervids . the distribution of f . magna includes the indigenous areas in north america , and the areas to which f . magna was introduced - central europe , southeast europe , and italy . the north american intermediate host of f . magna , the freshwater snail . . . [ show full abstract ]
distribution of intermediate hosts of fascioloides magna based on baker ' s ( 1911 ) division of north american regions embracing natural drainage areas , and after dunkel et al . ( 1996 )
faltýnková a , horáčková e , hirtová l , novobilský a , modrý d . scholz t . is radix peregra a new intermediate host of fascioloides magna ( trematoda ) in europe ?
a young , female llama ( lama glama ) was euthanized following the onset of hindleg paresis and paralysis . live trematodes , identified as fascioloides magna , were identified from the liver of this animal . this represents the first report of f . magna in a llama .
špakulová m , rajský d , vodňanský j , sokol j : giant liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) , an important liver parasite of ruminants . bratislava : parpress ; 2003 : 61 .
population structure and genetic interrelationships of giant liver fluke fascioloides magna from all enzootic north american regions were revealed in close relation with geographical distribution of its obligate definitive cervid hosts for the first time .
comparative analysis among mt genomes of f . magna , fa . hepatica and fa . gigantica
examination of definitive hosts and determination of f . magna / f . hepatica adults / eggs
analyses of population size changes . wilcoxon sign - rank tests for heterozygosity excess in native and introduced areas of fascioloides magna under a two - phase model ( tpm ) and stepwise mutation model ( smm ) from bottleneck and coalescent estimates of theta ( θ ) for source and introduced f . magna populations
in last few years , a great effort has been made to understand genetic interrelationships of european and north american populations of giant liver fluke fascioloides magna ( trematoda , fasciolidae ) . in europe , spatial distribution of this parasite is evidently dynamic and ongoing process since new f . magna populations have constantly been emerging . most recently , occurrence of f . magna in red . . . [ show full abstract ]
for the first time , radix labiata was confirmed as the snail host for f . magna under natural conditions and , together with the finding of f . magna infection in cattle , we can expect further transmission of f . magna from wildlife to livestock in localities shared by these hosts .
for dead - end hosts such as cattle or horses , most infections with fascioloides magna remain without clinical symptoms . the massive cysts in the liver tissue can impair the liver function . and the livers are condemned at slaughter .
the large american liver fluke , fascioloides magna , is an economically relevant parasite of both domestic and wild ungulates . f . magna was repeatedly introduced into europe , for the first time already in the 19th century . in austria , a stable population of f . magna has established in the danube floodplain forests southeast of vienna . the aim of this study was to determine the genetic diversity . . . [ show full abstract ]
the complete f . magna mt genome sequence is 14 , 047 bp . the gene content and arrangement of the f . magna mt genome is similar to those of fasciola spp . , except that trn e is located between trn g and the only non - coding region in f . magna mt genome . phylogenetic relationships of f . magna with selected trematodes using bayesian inference ( bi ) was reconstructed based on the concatenated amino acid sequences for 12 protein - coding genes , which confirmed that the genus fascioloides is closely related to the genus fasciola ; the intergeneric differences of amino acid composition between the genera fascioloides and fasciola ranged 17 . 97–18 . 24 % .
organization of the mitochondrial genome of fascioloides magna . the scales are approximate . all genes are transcribed in the clockwise direction , using standard nomenclature . “ncr” refers to the only non - coding region in f . magna data . the a + t content is shown for each gene or region of the mt genome and represented by colour
n a number of f . magna specimens from the respective usa state or canadian ( ca ) province
schematic presentation of the most possible scenarios of migration routes of f . magna on both continents using migrate
marinkovic d . nesic v . 2008 . zlatibor , serbia , and changes on the liver of fallow deer ( dama dama ) caused by american giant liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) infection . the proceedings of savetovanje veterinara srbije , 20 .
the first preventative measure against fascioloides magna is is to keep livestock from sharing pastures with deer . if this is not possible , in endemic regions keeping the pastures dry will reduce the suitable habitats for infected snails , e . g . :
choquette lp , gibson gg , simard b . fascioloides magna ( bassi , 1875 ) ward , 1917 ( trematoda ) in woodland caribou , rangifer tarandus caribou ( gmelin ) , of northeastern quebec , and its distribution in wild ungulates in canada .
fascioloides magna is a flatworm parasite native to north america . its final hosts are deer , moose , and related cervids , but it can infect cattle , sheep , goats , horses , buffaloes , etc . if they share the pastures with wild cervids .
phylogenetic relationships of fascioloides magna and other trematodes . tree inferred from the concatenated amino acid sequence dataset for 12 protein - coding genes from 19 trematodes was performed by bayesian inference ( bi ) . gyrodactylus derjavinoides ( nc _ 010976 ) was chosen as the outgroup
juhásová ľ , bazsalovicsová e , králová - hromadová i , karamon j . a genetic structure of novel population of fascioloides magna from poland , podkarpackie province , indicates an expanding second european natural focus of fascioloidosis . acta parasitol . 2016 ; 61 : 790–5 .
dunkel , a . m . , rognlie , m . c . , johnson , g . r . , & knapp , s . e . ( 1996 ) . distribution of potential intermediate hosts for fasciola hepatica and fascioloides magna in montana , usa .
representatives of the trematode family fasciolidae are responsible for major socio - economic losses worldwide . fascioloides magna is an important pathogenic liver fluke of wild and domestic ungulates . to date , only a limited number of studies concerning the molecular biology of f . magna exist . therefore , the objective of the present study was to determine the complete mitochondrial ( mt ) genome sequence of f . magna , and assess the phylogenetic relationships of this fluke with other trematodes based on the mtdna dataset .
no . if livestock is infected with stomach flukes , they are not contagious for humans , neither through contact , nor after consuming meat , milk or blood of contaminated animals , nor through the feces . the reason is that fascioloides magna is not parasitic for humans .
for aberrant hosts such as sheep and goats , infection with fascioloides magna is mostly fatal , usually about 6 months after infection , often without previous clinical signs . excessive fluke migration leads to strong bleeding and peritonitis , heavy damage to the liver tissue and subsequent fibrosis .
for the natural definitive hosts , i . e . various deer species , infections with fascioloides magna are mostly benign , without clinical symptoms , although the animals may be weakened ( weight loss , lethargy , depression , etc . ) . nevertheless , massive infections can be fatal .
rehbein s , hamel d , reindl h , visser m , pfister k . fascioloides magna and ashworthius sidemi – two new parasites in wild ungulates in germany . in : program & abstracts of european multicolloquium of parasitology xi . cluj - napoca , romania . 2012 . p . 565 .
fascioloides magna is a parasitic flatworm found within the livers of infected deer and other ruminants . adult liver flukes are flat , oval , purple - gray in color , and up to 8 cm ( 3 . 15 in ) long and 3 cm ( 1 . 2 in ) wide .
the high - resolution melting ( hrm ) method , recently optimized as a reliable technique for population study of the european fascioloides magna populations , was applied to determine an origin of f . magna individuals from croatia . the structure and frequency of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit i ( 439 bp ; cox1 ) haplotypes of 200 croatian flukes coming from 19 red deer ( cervus elaphus . . . [ show full abstract ]
fascioloides magna is a pathogenic fluke introduced to europe ca 140 years ago . as it is spreading over the continent , new intermediate and definitive hosts might be involved in transmission of the parasite . in europe , several studies reported potential new intermediate snail hosts ( radix spp . ) for f . magna , and also several cases of fascioloidosis of wild and domestic animals were published . . . . [ show full abstract ]
this means that if a flukicide fails to achieve the expected efficacy , chance is very high that it is not due to resistance but either the product was used incorrectly , or it was unsuited for the control of fascioloides magna . incorrect use is the most frequent cause for failure of antiparasitic drugs .
during the past decade , fascioloides magna , the large american liver fluke , has spread within free - living deer in wetlands of the danube in lower austria . the aim of this study was to determine the current infection rates with f . magna and other digenean parasites in the intermediate host snail galba truncatula from risk areas in lower austria . a total of 3444 g . truncatula were collected and . . . [ show full abstract ]
fascioloides magna is a pathogenic fluke introduced to europe ca 140 years ago . as it is spreading over the continent , new intermediate and definitive hosts might be involved in transmission of the parasite . in europe , several studies reported potential new intermediate snail hosts ( radix spp . ) for f . magna , and also several cases of fascioloidosis of wild and domestic animals were published . however , the data based on molecular and histological analyses confirming these findings remained unreported . this study aims to refer to unique findings of f . magna in european snails and domestic animals ( the first observation in the czech republic in the last 30 years ) and demonstrate the use of molecular techniques in determination of f . magna .
fascioloides magna ( trematoda : fasciolidae ) is an important liver parasite of a wide range of free - living and domestic ruminants ; it represents a remarkable species due to its large spatial distribution , invasive character , and potential to colonize new territories . the present study provides patterns of population genetic structure and admixture in f . magna across all enzootic regions in north america and natural foci in europe , and infers migratory routes of the parasite on both continents .
the giant liver fluke , fascioloides magna , is a possible contributing factor to moose ( alces alces ) declines in north america , but evidence linking f . magna infection directly to moose mortality is scarce . this review identifies knowledge gaps about the transmission and impact of f . magna infection on moose and proposes new directions for research and management of this parasite . we suggest that the importance of intermediate snail hosts has been largely neglected in current management discussions and warrants greater emphasis . the intermediate hosts responsible for f . magna transmission likely vary by region and recent genetic evidence suggests that f . magna was restricted to several isolated refugia during cervid extirpation events in north america . this distributional history represents several coevolutionary and pathological implications for definitive hosts of f . magna . we suggest that f . magna infections are most ecologically significant as they relate to sublethal impacts and multiple parasitic infections . in assessing infection risk on landscapes , most models rely heavily on monitoring white - tailed deer ( odocoileus virginianus ) , but this approach only measures risk indirectly . the reliability and accuracy of models would probably improve if snail habitat in ephemeral wetlands was included as a predictor variable .
development of the deer liver fluke , fascioloides magna , was studied in seven domestic goats , each experimentally inoculated with 250 metacercariae . six infected goats died between 89 and 195 days ( mean 139 ) after inoculation . infection did not develop in the seventh goat . mortality was the result of unrestricted fluke migration before maturation or encapsulation of the flukes . a total of 144 f magna ( mean intensity of 24 . 0 ) were recovered from inoculated goats , representing 8 . 2 % of the metacercariae administered . growth rate of f magna in goats was similar to that in cattle , white - tailed deer , and sheep .
infection with fascioloides magna ( digenea ) causes serious damage to liver tissue in definitive hosts represented by ruminants , especially cervids . the distribution of f . magna includes the indigenous areas in north america , and the areas to which f . magna was introduced—central europe , southeast europe , and italy . the north american intermediate host of f . magna , the freshwater snail pseudosuccinea columella ( lymnaeidae ) , is an invasive species recorded in south america , the caribbean , africa , australia , and west and southeast europe . in europe , galba truncatula is the snail serving for transmission , but p . columella has potential to become here a new intermediate host of f . magna . little is known about interactions between f . magna and p . columella . in this study , the susceptibility of p . columella ( oregon , usa ) to the infection by a single miracidium of the czech strain of f . magna and the influence of f . magna on snail fecundity , shell height , and survival were evaluated . the data show that the oregon strain of p . columella is a highly suitable host for the czech strain of f . magna , with the infection rate of 74 % . in addition , a negative effect on survival rate of infected snails was recorded only in the late phase of infection . the infection was accompanied by a major reduction in egg mass production and by a decrease in the number of eggs per egg mass . the shell height of infected snails did not significantly differ from that in unexposed controls .
fascioloides magna is up to 100 mm long , 2–4 . 5 mm thick , 11–26 mm wide , and oval ; it is distinguished from fasciola spp by its large size and lack of an anterior projecting cone . it is found in domestic and wild ruminants ; deer are the reservoir host . the life cycle resembles that of fasciola spp .
nucleotide differences were also found in ribosomal rna genes : between f . magna and fa . hepatica ( rrn l , 18 . 3 % ; rrn s , 22 . 2 % ) and between f . magna and fa . gigantica ( rrn l , 16 . 6 % ; rrn s , 21 . 4 % ) as well as in trna genes ( 16 . 3 % between f . magna and fa . hepatica and 16 . 0 % between f . magna and fa . gigantica ) . meaningful sequence comparisons of ncrs in mt genomes of the three fasciolid trematodes is not possible , because there is only one ncr present in f . magna mt genome , while in both fa . hepatica and fa . gigantica there are two ncrs .
this monograph presents complex data on fascioloides magna from all aspects of its research ( general information , distribution , spectrum of hosts ) and summarizes the latest information on molecular structure of informative genes which were recently applied in resolving taxonomy and biogeography of this veterinary important parasite . the giant liver fluke , fascioloides magna , is important liver parasite of free - living and domestic ruminants . due to its biology , distribution , medical impact , and invasive character , this liver fluke attracts attention of wide spectrum of specialists – veterinary doctors , hunters and farmers , as well as scientists . the parasite utilizes wide range of free living and domestic ruminants as definitive hosts , with various pathological impacts ranging from moderate infections towards lethal effects . fascioloides magna is of north american origin where it occurs in five enzootic regions . it was introduced to europe along with its deer hosts in 19th century and it has established three permanent natural foci . the giant liver fluke represents an outstanding model for studying the origin , spatial distribution , migratory routs , and invasion processes of introduced species .
infection with fascioloides magna , the large american liver fluke , was diagnosed in two moose ( alces alces ) and six wapiti ( cervus elaphus ) from central saskatchewan . this is believed to be the first record of the parasite in the province . fecal samples collected from wild wapiti at five sites in the commercial forest zone in saskatchewan contained eggs believed to be those of f . magna . trematode eggs were not found in feces from five captive herds of wapiti in the province , nor in samples from wild wapiti in moose mountain provincial park . operculate eggs were found in feces of wild wapiti from cypress hills , but these were believed to be from trematodes other than f . magna . the distribution and significance of f . magna in canada , based partially on responses to a mail questionnaire , are reviewed .
experimental infections of two different populations of lymnaea fuscus in france and sweden , with a czech isolate of fascioloides magna were carried out to determine if this lymnaeid species enables parasite larval development . species identification of both snail populations was performed using the morphology of the copulatory organ , and also confirmed by sequencing of the internal . . . [ show full abstract ]
the present study determined the complete mt genome sequence of the pathogenic liver fluke f . magna and revealed its close relationship with the species of fasciola . the complete mt genome data of f . magna provides a resource for further investigations of the phylogeny , epidemiology , biology and population genetics of the family fasciolidae and other trematodes .
the infected bulls came from a south bohemian biofarm with restricted therapeutic intervention and ideal natural condition for transmission of f . magna , e . g . , wet pastures , natural streamlet and no effective fences . erhardová - kotrlá [ 1 ] carried out detailed research in the same locality and marked this locality as f . magna free after 6 cattle postmortem examinations and 282 examinations of the red deer faecal samples . therefore , our results indicate that f . magna can spread in the czech republic .
in this paper two unique field findings of f . magna are described : larval stages of f . magna in the intermediate host r . labiata , and adult worms in the “non - specific definitive host” bos primigenius f . taurus ( highland cattle ) ; the latter case is the first report of fascioloidosis in the czech republic in the last 30 years . moreover , we refer to a unique case of co - infection of the same individual definitive host by f . magna and f . hepatica .
however , commercial anthelmintic products may not include label claim against fascioloides magna in some countries . as for other fluke species , migrating immatures are the most harmful ; therefore efficacy against these stages is essential . products without efficacy against immature flukes will not protect livestock from migrating flukes and need to be administered more frequently . triclabendazole is the active ingredient with the highest efficacy against immature stages .
two unique records of snail intermediate hosts ( r . labiata ) and mammalian definitive hosts ( bulls of highland cattle ) naturally infected with f . magna are reported in our study . molecular techniques were used to confirm host / parasite determination ; on this basis the adults of f . magna were discriminated from f . hepatica presented in the same liver . in addition , species identity of the morphologically uniform fasciolid eggs was proved . the prevalence of f . magna in r . labiata was comparable to some findings of f . magna in g . truncatula and , therefore , r . labiata might represent a potential vector of f . magna in localities ecologically unsuitable for g . truncatula ( e . g . localities with acid soils ) . ability of the parasite to be transmitted from wildlife to livestock represents a serious risk , especially for farmers breeding the animals less tolerant to f . magna infection ( e . g . , goats and sheep ) , and those animals whose are for some reason ( e . g . ecological farming ) under restrictions in terms of anthelmintic treatment . therefore , the danger of f . magna transmission should be taken into account in farm management .
the giant liver fluke , fascioloides magna , is a veterinary important liver parasite of free living and domestic ruminants . this originally north american parasite was introduced along with its cervid hosts to europe where it has established three permanent natural foci - in northern italy , central and southern parts of the czech republic and the danube floodplain forests . the first record on . . . [ show full abstract ]
. . . it may parasitize various wild and domestic herbivores . in the area of central europe this fluke can be found mainly in cervids - like red deer ( cervus elaphus ) and fallow deer ( dama dama ) ( kasny et al . , 2012 ) . fascioloides magna originated from north america , where it occurs in five major enzootic regions ( pybus , 2001 ) . . . .
. . . as noticed above , goats are aberrant hosts in which f . magna infection is lethal within 6 months , and it is not patent ( foreyt and leathers 1980 ; foreyt and todd 1976 ) . however , few authors rarely observed adult flukes of f . magna , including the presence of the eggs in the feces , in sheep ( foreyt 1990 ; swales 1935 ) . in our study , the appearance of f . magna eggs in the feces of one goat confirmed these former results . . . .
fascioloides magna is a digenean parasite of various wild ruminants . it was originally introduced to europe from north america in the 19th century and first recorded in the wild in austria in 2000 at fischamend , southeast of vienna . later , several cases were detected in the danube backwater region between vienna and bratislava . the lymnaeid snail galba truncatula is known to act as . . . [ show full abstract ]
fascioloides magna parasitizes in a broad spectrum of final hosts , mainly free living and domestic ruminants . final hosts of giant liver fluke are divided into three types ( definitive , dead - end and aberrant ) according to interrelationships between the parasite and the host , the ability of fluke to reach maturity and produce eggs , pathological changes within the host organism , and the potential . . . [ show full abstract ]
. . . the giant liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) is a liver parasite which infects a variety of wild and domestic ruminants in north america and europe ( swales , 1935 ; erhardová - kotrlá , 1971 ) . on this last continent , fascioloidosis occurs currently in austria , croatia , the czech republic , hungary , italy , serbia and slovakia ( králováhromadová et al . , 2011 ) . . . .
two snails of r . labiata naturally infected with f . magna were found ; mature cercariae and daughter rediae were observed . maturity of cercariae was checked by histological methods , however , their ability to encyst was not confirmed . co - infection of f . magna and fasciola hepatica in the liver of two highland cattle bulls was proved . adult fasciolid flukes producing eggs were found in the liver pseudocysts ( f . magna ) and the bile ducts ( f . hepatica ) . identification of intermediate hosts , intramolluscan stages , adult flukes and eggs was performed by sequencing the its2 region . connection of f . magna pseudocysts with the gut ( via the bile ducts ) was not confirmed by means of histological and coprological examinations .
fascioloides magna ( bassi , 1875 ) ( fasciolidae ; digenea ; trematoda ) is a large visceral parasite of ruminants originating from north america . due to the international wild animal trade , f . magna was introduced to europe in the later half of the 19 th century , probably with the white - tailed deer ( odocoileus virginianus ) [ 1 ] and wapiti ( cervus elaphus canadensis ) [ 2 ] ; the parasite adapted to the local hosts ( e . g . red deer , fallow deer ) and started to spread . recent reports from at least six countries in central europe can be found [ 3 - 9 ] .
a diagnosis can be made at necropsy by identifying f . magna within the liver of an infected animal . deer liver fluke infections can also be diagnosed by identifying fluke eggs within the feces .
the present study revealed a complex picture of the population genetic structure and interrelationships of north american and european populations , global distribution and migratory routes of f . magna and an origin of european foci .
section of radix labiata hepatopancreas with fascioloides magna rediae and immature ( a ) , mature ( b ) cercariae . stained with hematoxylin and eosin . hp , hepatopancreas tissue ; c , cercaria ; r , redia ; t , tegument of redia ; a , acetabulum ; os , oral sucker ; tc , tail of cercaria ; cgp , cystogenous gland products . white arrowheads point to cercarialcystogenous glands . black arrowheads point to cercarial cystogenous products released from the glands .
between 1971 and 1975 , fascioloides magna was found in 46 of 67 ( 69 % ) feral swine ( sus scrofa ) in southern texas . flukes were recovered from swine in areas where f . magna commonly has been recovered from white - tailed deer and cattle . one to 12 flukes were recovered from each infected animal . their presence was indicated by black hematin pigment on the liver and various other internal organs . eggs were not detected in the gallbladder or feces of infected animals although mature flukes and eggs were recovered in the livers suggesting that , like cattle , feral swine can be infected but are aberrant hosts for the parasite and do not disseminate eggs .
the determination of f . magna mt genome sequence provides a valuable resource for further investigations of the phylogeny of the family fasciolidae and other trematodes , and represents a useful platform for designing appropriate molecular markers .
the presence of american liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) in croatian wild ruminant species was detected for the first time in january 2000 . at the same time , the problem of adequate parasitological monitoring and treatment appeared in the captive deer population . quarantine and health screening protocols , as well as migration and transportation influence had to be evaluated in red deer husbandry . non - invasive methods were introduced to estimate the prevalence of f . magna in the semi - farm rearing system . coprological analysis has been performed on 264 faecal samples . the most effective antiparasitic treatment was implemented on herd and individual treatment . treatment was extended to the free - ranging population of deer in the same region .
the datasets supporting the conclusions of this article are included within the article and its additional files . the complete mt genome sequence of f . magna is deposited in the genbank database under the accession number kr006934 .
fascioloidosis of wild and domestic ruminants is caused by giant liver fluke , fascioloides magna ( trematoda ; fasciolidae ) . in slovakia , the parasite is present in the danube floodplain forests permanent focus for almost 30 years . here we provide data on 11 - year survey of f . magna acquired from 137 red deer ( cervus elaphus ) hunted in the southwestern hunting grounds ( districts komárno and dunajská streda ) . almost 47 % of all examined deer , including males , females and fawns , were infected with f . magna . during the studied period , the prevalence ranged between 33 . 3 % ( 2009 ) and 63 . 6 % ( 2007 ) . prevalence of fascioloidosis varied between sexes and age categories ; while the lowest overall prevalence was detected in females ( 33 . 3 % ) , higher values were documented for red deer males ( 50 . 6 % ) and fawns ( 43 . 3 % ) . a presence of giant liver fluke in studied regions of southwestern slovakia deserves future attention and ongoing monitoring due to a possible threat of f . magna infection of domestic ruminants in overlapping regions .
. . . the giant liver fluke , fascioloides magna ( bassi , 1875 ) , introduced to europe in the 19th century from north america , is an important parasite of wild and domestic ruminants ( swales 1935 , erhardová 1961 , erhardová - kotrlá 1971 ) . red deer ( cervus elaphus ) , fallow deer ( dama dama ) and roe deer ( capreolus capreolus ) are common european definitive hosts of the fluke ( erhardová 1961 , erhardová - kotrlá 1971 ) . . . .
the veterinary important parasite of ruminants , giant liver fluke fascioloides magna ( trematoda : fasciolidae ) , isolated from liver of farmed fallow deer ( dama dama ) from podkarpackie province ( southeastern poland ) was genotypized by mitochon - drial cytochrome c oxidase ( cox1 ) and nicotinamide dehydrogenase ( nad1 ) markers . the data on this newly emerged population were compared with mitochondrial haplotypes of recently detected polish population of f . magna from lower silesian wilderness ( southwestern poland ) and with european populations of the parasite from all three natural foci ; northern italy , czech republic and the danube floodplain forests . the flukes from podkarpackie province were found to be genetically identical with flukes from czech republic and lower silesian wilderness in poland . it is evident that central and southwestern czech republic , recognized as one of the endemic area of f . magna in europe , has been enlarging and parasite has been invading several novel localities in poland .
pathological changes in bovine liver caused by f . magna infection . a , macroscopic photo of dissected liver tissue ; b , microscopic photo – section of lesion with eggs and inflammatory infiltrate of polymorphonuclear leukocytes , stained with hematoxylin and eosin ; c , microscopic photo – section of fibrotic portobiliar space and adjacent liver parenchyma , stained with green gomori trichrome . p , pseudocyst ; lp , liver parenchyma ; e , egg of f . magna ; ipmn , infiltrate of polymorphonuclear leukocytes ; isl , inner space of lesion ; mr , migratory route through parenchyma with pigment deposits caused by f . magna juvenile worms ; flt , fibrotic liver tissue .
b metacercariae of f . magna were found on the wall of petri dish after dissection of experimentally infected r . labiata ( pankrác 2013 , unpublished ) , but experimental infection of a definitive host was not performed .
giant liver fluke has established permanent natural foci on two continents . north america represents the original continent of the parasite occurrence , while europe is the continent where f . magna was introduced along with its cervid hosts . in north america , f . magna occurs in five enzootic regions across the united states and southern canada : ( 1 ) the northern pacific coast ; ( 2 ) the rocky . . . [ show full abstract ]
in august 1992 , six mule deer ( odocoileus hemionus hemionus ) fawns and four elk ( cervus elaphus ) calves ( n = 2 ) or yearlings ( n = 2 ) each were inoculated orally with 50 , 250 , or 2 , 000 metacercariae of the liver fluke fascioloides magna to evaluate their potential to serve as definitive hosts . animals were maintained for up to 403 days . three mule deer each inoculated with 50 metacercariae survived the infection and shed eggs in feces ; thus mule deer can function as definitive hosts for f . magna . the other three mule deer inoculated with 50 ( n = 1 ) or 250 ( n = 2 ) metacercariae died from fluke infection on days 91 , 150 , and 162 days postinoculation , respectively , and only immature f . magna were recovered . one elk calf inoculated with 2 , 000 metacercariae died from fluke infection 44 days after inoculation . the remaining three elk , each inoculated with 250 metacercariae , survived infection , and two of the three shed eggs in feces . the third elk contained only one immature f . magna at necropsy . the prepatent period in mule deer and elk was approximately 6 to 7 months .
three captive rocky mountain bighorn sheep ( ovis canadensis canadensis ) , consisting of a female lamb , a yearling ram , and a 2 1 / 2 - yr - old castrated ram were inoculated orally with 50 ( n = 1 ) or 100 ( n = 2 ) metacercariae of fascioloides magna in november 1991 . all three sheep died from fluke infection on post - inoculation days 104 , 140 , and 197 , respectively . numbers of f . magna recovered were 3 ( 3 % ) , 18 ( 36 % ) , and 21 ( 21 % ) . all dukes were immature and were recovered from liver ( n = 36 ) , lungs ( n = 2 ) , or peritoneal spaces ( n = 4 ) . two white - tailed deer ( odocoileus virginianus ) , each were inoculated orally with 100 metacercariae at the same time as the bighorn sheep . eggs of f . magna were detected in the feces of the deer on postinoculation days 199 and 211 , respectively . both deer remained healthy for the year - long experiment . thus , bighorn sheep are susceptible to infection with f . magna and are likely to die within approximately 6 months of exposure .
discussion : fascioloides magna , the large american liver fluke or deer liver fluke , is a common parasite of elk . the flukes are usually confined to the fibrotic cysts in the liver and , except for causing some liver damage , are of little clinical consequence . in this case , aberrant migration of the immature flukes was observed in the spinal cord and was considered a likely cause of the reported hind limb paralysis prior to death . the emaciation of this animal was considered to be due to marked gastrointestinal parasitism .
. . . several studies on susceptibility of stagnicolid species to f . magna have already been reported . in north america , both s . palustris and s . palustris nuttuliana were shown as suitable intermediate hosts of f . magna ( swales , 1935 ; griffiths , 1962 ) . however , l . palustris has also been synonymised with nearctic stagnicolid species such as hinkleyia ( stagnicola ) elodes ( burch , 1989 ) in the past . . . .
at the nucleotide level , sequence differences in protein - coding genes ranged from 13 . 1 to 24 . 2 % ( between f . magna and fa . hepatica ) and from 12 . 8 to 26 . 2 % ( between f . magna and fa . gigantica ) , with cox 1 , nad 1 , nad 4l and cyt b being the most conserved genes , and nad 6 , nad 5 and nad 2 being the least conserved genes among those three species . at the amino acid level , sequence differences ranged from 9 . 2 to 25 . 4 % between f . magna and fa . hepatica , and from 8 . 4 to 27 . 8 % between f . magna and fa . gigantica : cox 1 , cyt b , nad 4l and nad 1 were the most conserved protein - coding genes , while nad 6 , nad 2 and nad 5 were the least conserved .
the complexity of the life cycle of fascioloides magna and its ability to invade new region is ensured by the presence of suitable intermediate hosts , in particular aquatic pulmonate mollusks , in which larval development of the parasite takes place . this chapter summarizes intermediate snail hosts of giant liver fluke specific in north america and europe . in north america , six species of the family lymnaeidae were found to be naturally infected with f . magna ( lymnaea caperata , lymnaea modicella , stagnicola palustris nuttalliana , pseudosuccinea columella , galba bulimoides techella and fossaria parva ) . in europe , galba ( syn . lymnaea ) truncatula , radix labiata and radix peregra were found to be naturally infected . besides natural infections , number of snail species were experimentally infected with f . magna in order to determine their potential to serve as the intermediate hosts of giant liver fluke . the mature cercariae able to develop into infective metacercariae stages , were detected in snails of the genera lymnaea and pseudosuccinea ( family lymnaeidae ) in north america and in lymnaeid genera galba , lymnaea , omphiscola , pseudosuccinea and stagnicola in europe . it is evident , that broader spectrum of aquatic mollusks is susceptible to f . magna infection and may serve as its potential intermediate hosts .
. . . later , kašný et al . ( 2012 ) provided an extensive monitoring of fascioloidosis in the czech republic , which showed a regular occurrence of the parasite in the south - western part of the country . besides , f . magna was detected also close to the german and polish border in the western and northern part of the czech republic that more strongly supported the assumption of a high risk of spread of f . magna to the neighbouring european countries ( kašný et al . 2012 ) . the presented result on close genetic interrelationships between f . magna from poland and the czech republic indicate that the czech focus of fascioloidosis has probably been much larger that previously expected . . . .
while the eggs of f magna resemble those of fasciola hepatica , this is of limited use ; eggs usually are not passed by cattle and sheep and probably not by alpacas and llamas . recovery of the parasites at necropsy as well as differentiation of f hepatica is necessary for definitive diagnosis . when domestic ruminants and deer share the same grazing , the presence of disease due to f magna should be kept in mind . mixed infections with f hepatica are seen in cattle .
the prevalence of f . magna - infected r . labiata in sedliště was 0 . 18 % ( similarly low prevalence from the same locality has been reported by faltýnková et al . [ 16 ] ) , and the prevalence of infected g . truncatula snails was 64 % ( 100 % in 2011 ) ; such prevalence rate is quite unusual ( e . g . [ 14 ] ) and it indicates a high contamination of the locality by f . magna eggs .
. . . fascioloides magna , known as the large american liver fluke , giant liver fluke or deer fluke , is an important digenetic trematode of the family fasciolidae [ 3 , 4 ] . this species , which is of north america origin [ 5 , 6 ] and invasive in european countries [ 7 ] , has high potential to colonize new geographic territories ( a variety of wild and domestic ungulates [ 3 , [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] ) , and can establish expanding populations from a natural epidemic focus through translocated hosts [ 5 , 6 , 11 ] . migration of f . magna immature flukes within the host body often leads to profound damage to the liver and other organ tissues [ 8 , 12 ] , causing economic losses worldwide [ 13 ] . . . .
. . . a wide spectrum of mammals can be infected with f . magna ; these animals can generally be divided into three groups with respect to compatibility of the host and the parasite , and pathological impact of the fluke [ 11 , 23 , 24 ] . successful completion of the f . magna life cycle with eggs released via bile ducts to the host intestine is enabled in
specific definitive hosts
such as red deer ( cervus elaphus ) , fallow deer ( dama dama ) and roe deer ( capreolus capreolus ) [ 1 , 11 ] . infection with f . magna is tolerated by red deer and fallow deer which can survive , usually with hardly distinguishable symptoms , severe infection by hundreds of flukes . . . .
( bassi , 1875 ) , the large liver fluke of ruminants in canada with observations on the bionomics of the larval stages and the intermediate hosts , pathology of fascioloidiasis magna , and control measures . can j res 1935 , 12 , 177–215 .
. . . since p . columella is a common snail in european greenhouses adapting to the central european climatic conditions [ 22 ] , potential risk of f . magna transmission via this snail can not be excluded [ 20 ] . a wide spectrum of mammals can be infected with f . magna ; these animals can generally be divided into three groups with respect to compatibility of the host and the parasite , and pathological impact of the fluke [ 11 , 23 , 24 ] . successful completion of the f . magna life cycle with eggs released via bile ducts to the host intestine is enabled in
specific definitive hosts
such as red deer ( cervus elaphus ) , fallow deer ( dama dama ) and roe deer ( capreolus capreolus ) [ 1 , 11 ] . . . .
liver flukes are parasites . parasites are organisms that live on or in another organism for survival purposes and contribute nothing or harm the organisms they parasitize . effective control of any parasite requires some knowledge about them , including what they are , where they come from and how they live . the fluke we are concerned about on canadian elk farms is the giant liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) . it is a very large parasitic flat worm which lives as an adult in a thick - walled cyst within the liver of elk and deer . the adult liver fluke averages about 2 inches long and 1 inch wide .
fourteen free - ranging adult wapiti ( cervus elaphus nelsoni ) were captured in banff national park , alberta ( canada ) and held in captivity near edmonton . a 24 % suspension of triclabendazole at doses of 30 to 100 mg / kg body weight was drenched into the rumen of eight females and four males . two male wapiti were used as untreated controls . animals were killed and examined at 4 ( n = 3 ) , 6 ( n = 4 ) , or 8 ( n = 4 ) wk after treatment . efficacy was 90 % against immature fascioloides magna collected 4 wk after treatment and 98 % against adult flukes collected 4 , 6 or 8 wk after treatment . all 32 flukes recovered from control wapiti were active and apparently healthy . treatment at 50 to 60 mg / kg is recommended against f . magna in wapiti . a protocol for treating infected wapiti is outlined .
. . . the czech focus of fascioloidosis was restricted to the above mentioned regions of the country until the finding of novobilský et al . ( 2007 ) who reported the presence of f . magna in the south - western border of the czech republic indicating a threat of its possible spread into germany . later , kašný et al . ( 2012 ) provided an extensive monitoring of fascioloidosis in the czech republic , which showed a regular occurrence of the parasite in the south - western part of the country . besides , f . magna was detected also close to the german and polish border in the western and northern part of the czech republic that more strongly supported the assumption of a high risk of spread of f . magna to the neighbouring european countries ( kašný et al . 2012 ) . . . .
geographic origin of fascioloides magna from southwestern slovakia analyzed in current study . 1 – vojka nad dunajom , 2 – bodíky , 3 – číčov , 4 – trávnik , 5 – klížská nemá , 6 – holiare , 7 – tôň , 8 – zemianska olča , 9 – vel’ké kosihy , 10 – okolicná na ostrove , 11 – zlatná na ostrove , 12 – calovec , 13 – chotín , 14 – svätý peter , 15 – modrany , 16 – bátorové kosihy , 17 – búč , 18 – kravany nad dunajom , 19 – svätý juraj , pereš . the respective localities were visualized using the diva - gis available from urltoken