the fine-rayed pearly mussel or round combshell , epioblasma personata , is an extinct species of freshwater mussel in the family unionidae .

it was endemic to the drainages of the tennessee river and ohio river in the united states .

little is known about the habitat of this species beyond its preference for medium-sized rivers .

it appears to have been particularly sensitive to water quality degradation , and its populations diminished quickly after industrialization .

no live individuals have been seen since the 1924 .

fine - rayed pearly mussel

the fine - rayed pigtoe pearly mussel or fine - rayed pigtoe ( fusconaia cuneolus ) is a species of bivalve in the unionidae family .
u . s . fish and wildlife service . 1984 .
fine - rayed pigtoe pearly mussel recovery plan .
u . s . fish and wildlife service , atlanta .
the fine - rayed pearly mussel or round combshell , epioblasma personata , is an extinct species of freshwater mussel , an aquatic bivalve mollusk in the family unionidae , the river mussels . this species was endemic to the united states , its natural habitat rivers . it became extinct due to habitat loss ; not collected for more than a century , by 1983 it . . .
fine - rayed pigtoe pearlymussel .
beacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken
fine - rayed pigtoe pearlymussel .
beacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken
medium - sized shell , yellow - green to light brown with numerous fine green rays .
the fine - rayed pigtoe occupies shallow riffles and shoals of freshwater streams and rivers . it buries itself in the stream bottom in gravel or compacted sand but is rarely found in pools . it displays a higher tolerance for muddy bottoms than most other freshwater mussels .
in the late twentieth century , this mussel was found at nearly 30 sites in the clinch river and its smaller tributaries between cedar bluff , virginia , and kelly branch , tennessee . since 1970 , the fine - rayed pigtoe has been collected from the elk and paint rock rivers , which are tributaries of the tennessee river above muscle shols , alabama . the mussel ' s former range and habitat suggests that additional populations may be located on other tributary streams of the tennessee river in tennessee and alabama .
a list of synonyms for this species can be found on the mussel project web site ( graf and cummings 2011 ) .
endemic to the southern appalachian mountains , the fine - rayed pigtoe pearly mussel was first described in 1840 from the holston river , where it occurred in the river ' s north fork in washington county , virginia , downstream to grainger county , tennessee . it was subsequently documented in big moccasin creek in scott county , virginia ; the powell river from lee county , virginia , downstream to union county , tennessee ; clinch creek , emory river , and popular creek from clinchport , virginia , downstream to roane county , tennessee ; and in the clinch river from tazewell county , virginia , downstream to the norris reservoir in claiborne county , tennessee .
contact jay cordeiro ( jay _ cordeiro @ natureserve . org ) for a complete list of freshwater mussel taxa sorted by flow regime .
the fine - rayed pigtoe pearlymussel , fusconaia cuneolus , is of medium size , up to 2 . 5 in ( 6 . 4 cm ) in length . this cumberlandian species is distinguished by the many fine green rays that radiate over the yellowish green to light brown background of its ovoid shell . the hinged end of the shell is rounded , while the front margin is straight . the shell surface has a smooth , satiny appearance and is indistinctly patterned with growth lines . the inner shell surface is white .
dennis , s . d . 1981 .
mussel fauna of the powell river , tennessee and virginia .
sterkiana 71 : 1 - 7 .
construction of dams and multi - purpose reservoirs across the former range of the fine - rayed pigtoe have altered the free - flowing character of these rivers . such impoundments produce siltation , fluctuating water temperatures , changes in water acidity , and lowered oxygen content . impoundments also fragment the range of the species into isolated populations , which are then unable to interbreed .
french , john r . p . , iii . november , 1990 .
the exotic zebra mussel : a new threat to endangered freshwater mussels .
endangered species technical bulletin 15 ( 11 ) .
in the early twentieth century it was discovered in the tennessee river and its smaller tributaries at and below knoxville . it is believed that the mussel has been extirpated from former locations in the little and sequatchie rivers .
strayer , d . 1983 . the effects of surface geology and stream size on freshwater mussel ( bivalvia , unionidae ) distribution in southeastern michigan , u . s . a . freshwater biology 13 : 253 - 264 .
campbell et al . ( 2005 ) found this species to be closely related to fusconaia cor , but held it up as distinct . a list of synonyms for this species can be found on the mussel project web site ( graf and cummings 2011 ) .
this species is sensitive to changes in water quality and has declined due to impoundments , siltation , and pollution . the remnant population in the powell river may be threatened by oil and gas drilling and coal mining ( neves 1991 ) . the clinch river population was reduced by toxic discharges and spills prior to 1972 . the invasion of the asian clam , and the possible invasion of the zebra mussel , also threaten remaining populations . reasons for decline listed in the recovery plan include : impoundment , siltation , and pollution ( usfws 1984 ) .
based on the separation distances outlined herein , for freshwater mussels in standing water ( or backwater areas of flowing water such as oxbows and sloughs ) , all standing water bodies with either ( 1 ) greater than 2 km linear distance of unsuitable habitat between ( i . e . lotic connections ) , or ( 2 ) more than 10 km of apparently unoccupied though suitable habitat ( including lentic shoreline , linear distance across water bodies , and lentic water bodies with proper lotic connections ) , are considered separate element occurrences . only the largest standing water bodies ( with 20 km linear shoreline or greater ) may have greater than one element occurrence within each . multiple collection or observation locations in one lake , for example , would only constitute multiple occurrences in the largest lakes , and only then if there was some likelihood that unsurveyed areas between collections did not contain the element . for freshwater mussels in flowing water conditions , occurrences are separated by a distance of more than 2 stream km of unsuitable habitat , or a distance of more than 10 stream km of apparently unoccupied though suitable habitat . standing water between occurrences is considered suitable habitat when calculating separation distance for flowing water mussel species unless dispersal barriers ( see separation barriers ) are in place . several mussel species in north america occur in both standing and flowing water ( see specs notes ) . calculation of separation distance and determination of separation barriers for these taxa should take into account the environment in which the element was collected . juvenile mussels do not follow this pattern and juveniles are typically missed by most standard sampling methods ( hastie and cosgrove , 2002 ; neves and widlak , 1987 ) , therefore juvenile movement is not considered when calculating separation distance .
historically , this species was widespread in tributaries of the tennessee river system in tennessee ( above the mussel shoals area ) , virginia , and alabama including the tennessee , flint , paint rock , elk , nolichucky , clinch , emory , powell , holston , north fork holston rivers ; big moccasin creek ( virginia ) , poplar creek ( tennessee ) , bear creek ( alabama ) , limestone creek ( alabama ) , hurricane creek ( alabama ) , and little river ( tennessee ) ( usfws 1984 ) . it currently persists in portions of the clinch and powell rivers , the north fork of the holston , and in the paint rock river . the largest population resides in the clinch river , but it is reproductively isolated from the powell river population ( neves 1991 ) . it has been extirpated from tennessee river proper with a population extant in paint rock river in alabama ( mirarchi et al . 2004 ) .
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turgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , p . m . mikkelsen , r . j . neves , c . f . e . roper , g . rosenberg , b . roth , a . scheltema , f . g . thompson , m . vecchione , and j . d . williams . 1998 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks . 2nd edition . american fisheries society special publication 26 , bethesda , maryland : 526 pp .
this species was historically placed in the genera dysnomia and plagiola ( johnson , 1978 ) .
this species is globally extinct . it was recorded historically from the clinch river in the headwaters of the tennessee river system , the white river ( wabash tributary ) , and in the lowe wabash river at posey co . , indiana , as well as the ohio river in cincinnati .
due to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to
this species is globally extinct . it is recorded historically from the clinch river in the headwaters of the tennessee river system , the white river ( wabash tributary ) , and in the lower wabash river at posey co . , indiana , as well as the ohio river in cincinnati ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . in tennessee , it is known historically from the clinch river and from the cumberland river near priestly shoals , davidson co . ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . in alabama , it was historically distributed throughout the tennessee river but has not been reported since the river was impounded ( mirarchi , 2004 ) . in kentucky , it formerly occurred in the green and ohio rivers ( cicerello and schuster , 2003 ) . in illinois , it was formerly distributed in the wabash river ( cummings and mayer , 1997 ) . in ohio , it foremerly occurred in the ohio river in cincinatti ( watters , 1995 ) .
all alabama museum records were collected at muscle shoals but it probably ranged across northern alabama with the most recent material from 1924 ( williams et al . , 2008 ) . in ohio , it historically occurred from the ohio river at cincinnati and scioto river at columbus ( watters et al . , 2009 ) .
this species has not been collected since before the 20th century ( iucn , 1996 ) .
this species has not been collected since before the 20th century ( iucn , 1996 ) . it historically occurred inthe ohio , tennessee , cumberland , and wabah rivers ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . in teh cumberland river it ranged upstream to near the mouth of the stones river ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . it occurred in most of the tennessee river drainage , from headwaters in eastern tennessee to the mouth of the tennessee river but a paucity of museum material suggests it was rare ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . all alabama museum records were collected at muscle shoals but it probably ranged across northern alabama with the most recent material from 1924 ( williams et al . , 2008 ) .
( zero ( no occurrences believed extant ) ) this species is globally extinct . it is recorded historically from the clinch river in the headwaters of the tennessee river system , the white river ( wabash tributary ) , and in the lower wabash river at posey co . , indiana , as well as the ohio river in cincinnati ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . in tennessee , it is known historically from the clinch river and from the cumberland river near priestly shoals , davidson co . ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . in alabama , it was historically distributed throughout the tennessee river but has not been reported since the river was impounded ( mirarchi , 2004 ) . in kentucky , it formerly occurred in the green and ohio rivers ( cicerello and schuster , 2003 ) . in illinois , it was formerly distributed in the wabash river ( cummings and mayer , 1997 ) . in ohio , it foremerly occurred in the ohio river in cincinatti ( watters , 1995 ) .
little is known about the former habitat of this species except that it was riverine .
occurrences are based on some evidence of historical or current presence of single or multiple specimens , including live specimens or recently dead shells ( i . e . , soft tissue still attached and / or nacre still glossy and iridescent without signs of external weathering or staining ) , at a given location with potentially recurring existence . weathered shells constitute a historic occurrence . evidence is derived from reliable published observation or collection data ; unpublished , though documented ( i . e . government or agency reports , web sites , etc . ) observation or collection data ; or museum specimen information .
separation barriers within standing water bodies are based solely on separation distance ( see separation distance - suitable , below ) . separation barriers between standing water bodies and within flowing water systems include lack of lotic connections , natural barriers such as upland habitat , absence of appropriate species specific fish hosts , water depth greater than 10 meters ( cvancara , 1972 ; moyle and bacon , 1969 ) or anthropogenic barriers to water flow such as dams or other impoundments and high waterfalls .
use the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .
zoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .
burch , j . b . 1975a . freshwater unionacean clams ( mollusca : pelecypoda ) of north america . malacological publications : hamburg , michigan . 204 pp .
howard , a . d . 1915 . some exceptional cases of breeding among the unionidae . the nautilus 29 : 4 - 11 .
johnson , r . i . 1978 . systematics and zoogeography of plagiola ( = dysnomia = epioblasma ) , an almost extinct genus of freshwater mussels ( bivalvia : unionidae ) from middle north america . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology , 148 ( 6 ) : 239 - 320 .
lefevre , g . and w . t . curtis . 1912 . studies on the reproduction and artificial propogation of fresh - water mussels . bulletin of the bureau of fisheries 30 : 102 - 201 .
mirarchi , r . e . , et al . 2004a . alabama wildlife . volume one : a checklist of vertebrates and selected invertebrates : aquatic mollusks , fishes , amphibians , reptiles , birds , and mammals . university of alabama press : tuscaloosa , alabama . 209 pp .
moyle , p . and j . bacon . 1969 . distribution and abundance of molluscs in a fresh water environment . journal of the minnesota academy of science 35 ( 2 / 3 ) : 82 - 85 .
strayer , d . l . 1999a . use of flow refuges by unionid mussels in rivers . journal of the north american benthological society 18 ( 4 ) : 468 - 476 .
strayer , d . l . and j . ralley . 1993 . microhabitat use by an assemblage of stream - dwelling unionaceans ( bivalvia ) including two rare species of alasmidonta . journal of the north american benthological society 12 ( 3 ) : 247 - 258 .
van der schalie , h . 1938a . the naiad fauna of the huron river in southeastern michigan . miscellaneous publication of the museum of zoology , university of michigan 40 : 7 - 78 .
watters , g . t . 1992a . unionids , fishes , and the species - area curve . journal of biogeography 19 : 481 - 490 .
williams , j . d . , a . e . bogan , and j . t garner . 2008 . freshwater mussels of alabama & the mobile basin in georgia , mississippi , & tennessee . university of alabama press , tuscaloosa , alabama . 908 pages .
williams , j . d . , m . l . warren , jr . , k . s . cummings , j . l . harris , and r . j . neves . 1993b . conservation status of freshwater mussels of the united states and canada . fisheries 18 ( 9 ) : 6 - 22 .
cicerello , r . r . and g . a . schuster . 2003 . a guide to the freshwater mussels of kentucky . kentucky state nature preserves commission scientific and technical series 7 : 1 - 62 .
cummings , k . s . and c . a . mayer . 1997 . distributional checklist and status of illinois freshwater mussels ( mollusca : unionacea ) . pages 129 - 145 in : k . s . cummings , a . c . buchanan , c . a . mayer , and t . j . naimo ( eds . ) conservation and management of freshwater mussels ii : initiatives for the future . proceedings of a umrcc symposium , october 1995 , st . louis , missouri . upper mississippi river conservation committee , rock island , illinois .
parmalee , p . w . and a . e . bogan . 1998 . the freshwater mussels of tennessee . university of tennessee press : knoxville , tennessee . 328 pp .
watters , g . t . 1995a . a field guide to the freshwater mussels of ohio . revised 3rd edition . ohio department of natural resources , division of wildlife , columbus , ohio . 122 pp .
watters , g . t . , m . a . hoggarth , and d . h . stansbery . 2009b . the freshwater mussels of ohio . ohio state university press : columbus , ohio . 421 pp .
williams , j . d . , a . e . bogan , and j . t . garner . 2008 . freshwater mussels of alabama & the mobile basin in georgia , mississippi & tennessee . university of alabama press : tuscaloosa , alabama . 908 pp .
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bogan , a . e . , dyer , e . , soulsby , a . - m . , whitton , f . , mcguinness , s . , de silva , r . , milligan , h . t . , kasthala , g . , herdson , r . , thorley , j . , mcmillan , k . & collins , a .
has been assessed as extinct . it was recorded historically from the clinch river in the headwaters of the tennessee river system , the white river ( wabash tributary ) , and in the low wabash river at posey co . , indiana , as well as the ohio river in cincinnati . this species is known from shells only , no live individuals have been observed .
this species is globally extinct . it is recorded historically from the clinch river in the headwaters of the tennessee river system , the white river ( wabash tributary ) , and in the lower wabash river at posey co . , indiana , as well as the ohio river in cincinnati ( parmalee and bogan 1998 ) . in tennessee , it is known historically from the clinch river and from the cumberland river near priestly shoals , davidson co . ( parmalee and bogan 1998 ) . in alabama , it was historically distributed throughout the tennessee river , but has not been reported since the river was impounded ( mirarchi 2004 , williams
. 2008 ) . in kentucky , it formerly occurred in the green and ohio rivers ( cicerello and schuster 2003 ) . in indiana , it was formerly distributed in the wabash river ( cummings and mayer 1997 ) . in ohio , it formerly occurred in the ohio river in cincinatti ( watters 1995 ) .
this species has not been collected since the early 20th century ( iucn 1996 ) . it historically occurred in the ohio , tennessee , cumberland , and wabah rivers ( parmalee and bogan 1998 ) . in the cumberland river , it ranged upstream to near the mouth of the stones river ( parmalee and bogan 1998 ) . it occurred in most of the tennessee river drainage , from headwaters in eastern tennessee to the mouth of the tennessee river , but a paucity of museum material suggests it was rare ( parmalee and bogan 1998 ) . all alabama museum records were collected at muscle shoals , but it probably ranged across northern alabama with the most recent material from 1924 ( williams et al . 2008 ) .
this species presumably occurred in shoal habitat , primarily in large rivers ( parmalee and bogan 1998 ) .
this species presumably became extinct due to habitat loss and degradation ( a . bogan pers . comm . 2010 ) .
williams et al . ( in press ) lists this species as extinct according to the afs assessment .
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endangered b2ab ( i , ii , iii , iv ) ver 3 . 1
richman , n . , dyer , e . , soulsby , a . - m . , whitton , f . , kasthala , g . , mcguinness , s . , de silva , r . , milligan , ht , herdson , r . , thorley , j . , mcmillan , k . , collins , a . , offord , s . & duncan , c .
justification : fusconaia cuneolus has been assessed as endangered under criterion b2ab ( i , ii , iii , iv ) . the species currently only occurs in four remaining fragmented locations , with an estimated area of occupancy of no more than 500 km 2 . because of its sensitivity to changes in water quality , the species has and continues to decline , in terms of reductions in area of occupancy , extent of occurrence , quality of habitat and number of sub - populations , due to river impoundments , siltation , and pollution . it is likely that this species will qualify for critically endangered a2ac once sufficient population information is established .
this species occurs in shoal habitats of creeks and rivers . historical distribution data suggest that it occurred in smaller streams than many other species of the genus . it prefers stable gravel substrates in moderate current ( williams
. 2008 ) , and was recorded as inhabiting clear , high gradient streams in firm cobble and gravel substrates ( neves and moyer 1988 ) .
bruenderman and neves ( 1993 ) detailed the life history of the species in the clinch river , southwestern virginia . it is a short - term brooder , apparently spawning in early may , with females gravid from mid - may through early august . developing embryos are bound in conglutinates and change color from pink to orange to light peach as they mature . however , mature glochidia are discharged in a loose , gelatinous matrix instead of well - defined conglutinates . fecundity was assessed in one gravid female , which contained approximately 113 , 000 embryos . glochidia were recovered from stream drift as early as late may and as late as mid - august . ortmann ( 1921 ) reported a similar gravid period for the species , from mid - may through mid - july ( williams
( tennessee shiner , cyprinidae ; bruenderman and neves 1993 ) . additional species found to serve as glochidial hosts in laboratory trials are
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this species is a short - term breeder , reproducing in the spring ( tachytictic ) . for more about the reproduction and diet of freshwater mussels , see the upland combshell ( epioblasma metastriata ) entry .
although this species was thought to have disappeared from its original collection site in the holston river , four freshly dead specimens were collected along the river in 1982 at cloud ford , tennessee . industrial and chemical pollution from upstream at saltville , virginia , has severely degraded the water quality there . live specimens have yet to be found but may indeed exist . recent surveys in other upper tennessee river tributaries , such as the nolichucky , french broad , flint , and buffalo rivers , failed to locate specimens .
from 1975 to 1981 , surveys of the powell river located populations at buchanan ford and mc - dowell shoal in tennessee , and at fletcher ford in virginia . water quality in this river has also deteriorated significantly due to strip mining , coal - washing runoff , and discharge of municipal wastes .
increased stream turbidity , caused by soil erosion and industrial runoff , reduces light penetration , which affects the growth of aquatic vegetation and decreases the population of fish hosts . suspended solids can be fatal to mussels . dead and dying mussels are often found with silt clogging their gills . mussels are very susceptible to agricultural and industrial pollutants , particularly heavy metals , which become concentrated in their tissues .
u . s . fish and wildlife service regional office , division of endangered species 1875 century blvd . , suite 200 atlanta , georgia 30345 urltoken
u . s . fish and wildlife service regional office , division of endangered species 300 westgate center dr . hadley , massachusetts 01035 - 9589 telephone : ( 413 ) 253 - 8200 fax : ( 413 ) 253 - 8308 urltoken
bogan , a . e . , and p . w . parmalee . 1983 . tennessee ' s rare wildlife : the mollusks . tennessee wildlife resources agency , tennessee department of conservation , and tennessee natural heritage program , university of tennessee press , knoxville .
carter , l . j . 1977 .
chemical plants leave unexpected legacy in two virginia rivers .
science 198 : 1015 - 1020 .
imlay , m . j . 1982 .
use of shells of freshwater mussels in monitoring heavy metals and environmental stresses : a review .
malacology review 15 : 1 - 14 .
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aiptasia diaphana , the yellow aiptasia or glasrose , is a species of sea anemone native to shallow waters in the temperate eastern atlantic ocean and the mediterranean sea .

it has been introduced into the red sea .

aiptasia diaphana

sexual plasticity and self - fertilization in the sea anemone aiptasia diaphana . - pubmed - ncbi
development of self - fertilized gametes of the anemone aiptasia diaphana ( scale bars = 10 µm ) .
trioecy , a unique breeding strategy in the sea anemone aiptasia diaphana and its association with sex steroids .
red sea aiptasia - x - guaranteed , reef - safe elimination of aiptasia .
trioecy , a unique breeding strategy in the sea anemone aiptasia diaphana and its association with sex steroids . - pubmed - ncbi
berghia the natural solution berghia nudibranchs are the natural solution for aiptasia anemones . they eat solely aiptasia .
field populations of aiptasia diaphana forming a dense “carpet” on anchor rigs of an abandoned net pen fish farm 1 . 8 km offshore .
frequency of oocytes atresia among hermaphrodites and females in a . diaphana age - groups .
berghia devouring an aiptasia these berghia nudibranchs have overpowered an aiptasia anemone as they consume it from the bottom up .
7 . the method of claim 1 , wherein said at least one stinging capsule is from a nematostella vectensis , rhopilema nomadica and aiptasia diaphana .
16 . the method of claim 9 , wherein said at least one stinging capsule is from a nematostella vectensis , rhopilema nomadica and aiptasia diaphana .
22 . the method of claim 17 , wherein said at least one stinging capsule is from a nematostella vectensis , rhopilema nomadica and aiptasia diaphana .
for information on sea anemone predators , and the chemical and physical methods of aiptasia removal and control , see : aiptasia pests - getting rid of glass anemones .
they can be preyed upon by peppermint shrimp , most butterflyfsh and aiptasia eating nudibranchs .
big & small berghia eating aiptasia berghia nudibranchs will sometimes gang up on an aiptasia anemone to eat it . pictured are 1 / 8
to 1 / 2
berghia .
1 / 4
berghia eating an aiptasia this 1 / 4
berghia nudibranch is eating a good sized aiptasia anemone . berghia can consume an entire anemone in an hour .
there are 17 species in the aiptasia genus . the species that are well known are the
the will thrive in bright light , but even under poor lighting aiptasia anemones will survive .
all species of the aiptasia genus are easy to care for . aiptasia anemones , though very small , have proven quite hardy and durable . they have the ability to reproduce rapidly in saltwater aquariums where there are plenty of nutrients and good lighting . aiptasia can reach plague proportions in captivity . some aquarists use aiptasia in their refugiums to take out nutrients from the water .
( of adamsia diaphana ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
eat only one thing : the dreaded aiptasia anemone . because they will only eat aiptasia , they are guaranteed 100 % reef safe ! you can learn more about the berghia nudibranch from our
genus is a member of the aiptasiidae family and currently contains 12 species . general common names all the various aiptasia anemones are known by are aiptasia , glassrose anemone , rock anemone , devil ' s plague , aiptasia anemone , pest anemone , and sometimes by this misspelling , aptasia .
berghia eating berghia nudibranchs frequently form a
dog pile
around larger aiptasia when they eat .
citation : schlesinger a , kramarsky - winter e , rosenfeld h , armoza - zvoloni r , loya y ( 2010 ) sexual plasticity and self - fertilization in the sea anemone aiptasia diaphana . plos one 5 ( 7 ) : e11874 . urltoken
aiptaisa means beautiful , and they can be . . . but they can be also reek havoc on reef tanks ! meet the aiptasia sea anemone species and discover the pros and cons of aiptasia in captivity
any - they will thrive in bright light , but even under poor lighting aiptasia anemones will survive .
your source for hungry aiptasia anemone eating berghia nudibranchs , saltwater fish , and live corals for sale .
( of actinia diaphana rapp , 1829 ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of aiptasiomorpha diaphana ( rapp , 1829 ) ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of cribrina diaphana ( rapp , 1829 ) ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
an unusual mechanism of sex differentiation was observed to occur in the populations of asexually produced sea anemone a . diaphana , giving rise to males , females , and hermaphrodites . the ontogenetic patterns were associated with sex steroid profiles , revealing an original sexual system in a . diaphana pedal lacerates , the first to be reported in the phylum cnidaria .
there are various ways to reduce and control aiptasia populations . sea anemone predators provides a natural , biological method of controlling and possibly eliminating aiptasia anemones . one of the best known methods is using nudibranchs to eat glass anemones . of all the sea anemone predators , the nudibranch berghia verrucicornis is a great choice because it only feeds on aiptasia .
two berghia nudibranchs berghia nudibranchs are captivating creatures . these two berghia can consume a large aiptasia anemone in an hour .
using aiptasia in refugiums to take out nutrients can be effective , yet it can also be risky if any parts of an aiptasia migrates to the main tank . in a refugium , use screening to prevent free floating aiptasia from migrating to your main tank . be sure to have all of your pumps covered . most good quality pumps have guards on them .
using aiptasia in refugiums to take out nutrients can be effective , yet it can also be risky if any parts of an aiptasia migrates to the main tank through the filtration . in a refugium use screening to prevent free floating aiptasia from migrating to your main tank . be sure to have all of your pumps covered . most good quality pumps have guards on them .
this berghia nudibranch appears to be looking at the camera , but it is actually trolling for an aiptasia anemone to eat .
to reduce and control pesky aiptasia in your saltwater aquarium , biological approaches such as fish that eat aiptasia or crabs , shrimps , nudibranchs to eat glass anemones , and more can be used . also various manufactured chemicals and household products can be used .
regular and time consuming manual removal is often required so that an aquarium is not overrun by dense populations of aiptasia . there are various ways to reduce and control aiptasia populations . sea anemone predators provides a natural , biological method of controlling and possibly eliminating aiptasia anemones . other methods include chemical removal and the more risky method of physical removal . there are important considerations when using either of these two methods .
regular and time consuming manual removal is often required so that an aquarium is not overrun by dense populations of aiptasia . other methods of aiptasia control include chemical removal and the more risky method of physical removal . there are important considerations when using either of these two methods .
i would like to purchase a quantity of aiptasia for my berghia nudibranch . if you have some available , please respond . bobtc100 @ urltoken
they generally eat zooplankton , but will always accept other food particles . predators include peppermint shrimp , most butterflyfsh , and aiptasia eating nudibranchs .
common names aiptasia anemones are known by in general include glassrose anemone , glass anemone , pale anemone , rock anemone , trumpet anemone , brown glass anemone , small rock anemone , yellow anemone , tube anemone , aiptasia anemone , devil ' s plague , pest anemone , and aptasia .
propagating aiptasia anemones is fairly easy , just feed it and it will multiply . anemones in general can multiply by sexual and asexual means . aiptasia will multiply asexually by fission , which is where a tiny bit of tissue detached from the foot quickly develops into a new and complete anemone .
the eye of the berghia you can actually see the tiny black eyes of this berghia nudibranch . berghia nudibranch only has eyes for aiptasia anemones .
on the other hand , being easy to grow in the laboratory , makes aiptasia specimens ideal in the scientific world . the aiptasia species are a model system for research and study of their unique adaptations . they are being researched extensively both for medical uses and to learn about their ocean environment .
growth rate and sexual size dimorphism of a . diaphana age - groups . a ) growth ( weight increase ) of a . diaphana lacerates . the points represent the biomass ( mg dry weight = mg dw ) mean ± se of six to eight replicates . each replicate is an average dw of three individuals sampled from the same growing chamber . b ) sexual size dimorphism as indicated by pedal disk diameter presented as mean ± se . numbers inside the bars are the sample sizes .
( of aiptasia saxicola andrès , 1881 ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
corals and other anemones are the invertebrates most affected by aiptasia pests . unless you are keeping small rock anemones in a refugium to help control nutrients , they need to be removed as soon as possible . once aiptasia gets a foothold , manual removal to keep populations in check , may very well become an ongoing activity .
a . diaphana age homogeneous populations . a ) pedal lacerates attached to a mesh fabric after the removal of adult sea anemones . b ) homogeneous population at the age of 4 wk developed from pedal lacerates . c ) sea anemones aged 4–12 wk .
aiptasia grow like weeds , take over the reef tank , and are very hard to control ! a variety of approaches include chemical controls to using sea anemone predators .
it is unknown how long they live , but they do reproduce quickly . a mature aiptasia anemones can produce dozens of juveniles in a single day if well fed .
the aiptasia has a pedal disc or ' foot ' with which it attaches to the substrate . if tank conditions are not ideal aiptasia use their
foot
to move along the substrate . they will contract the circular muscles of the foot and push forward , or they may crawl on their side , moving about 4 cm per hour . aiptasia will often opt to simply disconnect and float around , or swim by moving in a spiral motion , until they find a new spot to adhere too .
propagating aiptasia anemones is fairly easy , just cut a piece off and it will grow . anemones in general can multiply by sexual and asexual means . aiptasia will multiply asexually by fission , which is where a tiny bit of tissue detached from the foot quickly develops into a new and complete anemone . aiptasia anemones will tolerate their own
clones
, and these anemones are very prolific . this is why it is very difficult to physically remove these anemones from a rock . any remaining tissues quickly multiply into to new specimens .
don ' t let the pretty white center fool you , this trumpet anemone is just another species of aiptasia ! one of the most dreaded
hitchhikers
next to the mantis shrimp , the trumpet anemone can reach plague proportions in a short time . some natural ways to eliminate them are peppermint shrimp , aiptasia eating nudibranchs and various butterflyfish , especially the copperbanded butterflyfish .
aiptasia , often called
weedy
anemones , are found in tropical and temperate waters around the globe . they live in a relatively wide range of salinities , temperatures , and other water quality conditions .
ade - 1 , a new inotropic na ( + ) channel toxin from aiptasia diaphana , is similar to , yet distinct from , known anemone na ( + ) channel toxins .
nesher n . , shapira e . , sher d . , moran y . , tsveyer l . , turchetti - maia a . l . , horowitz m . , hochner b . , zlotkin e . biochem . j . 451 : 81 - 90 ( 2013 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]
distribution of sexes in a . diaphana age - groups during reproductive development . five reproductive states were characterized histologically : nonreproductive ( white bars ) , undifferentiated ( gray bars ) , hermaphrodite ( tan bars ) , male ( blue bars ) , and female ( red bars ) . n = number of specimens examined .
to most saltwater aquarists aiptasia are considered a nuisance . they pose great difficulties to a reef environment as they harm other tank mates and quickly overgrow the environment . their rapid reproduction makes them extremely difficult to control .
saltwater aquarists don ' t usually buy glass anemones , but aiptasia is available alive from supply companies for research and scientific study . aquarists generally acquire them as hitchhikers , arriving with live rock or attached to the base of corals .
the typical reef environment is best for these anemones . like most anemone species , they need live rock or some other solid material they can attach to . aiptasia are hardy aquarium anemones that can survive even in dark conditions and will flourish in poor water - quality environments rich in organic nutrients . water changes of 10 % bi - monthly or 20 % a month are typical for most anemones , but with aiptasia , the more nutrients you have the happier it will be .
( of aiptasia saxicola andrès , 1881 ) den hartog , j . c . & van der land , j . ( 2000 - 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
the small rock anemone has a pedal disc or ' foot ' with which it attaches to the substrate . if tank conditions are not ideal they will use their “foot” to move along the substrate . aiptasia anemones do this by contracting the circular muscles of the foot and pushing forward , or they may crawl on their side , moving about 4 cm per hour . often aiptasia will simply opt to disconnect and float around , or swim by moving in a spiral motion , until they find a new spot to adhere too .
anemones are called
rock anemones
because they are found along rocky shorelines , and often dubbed
glass anemones
due to their bodies being somewhat translucent . this pretty rock anemone is also known as the glass rose anemone , trumpet anemone , and yellow aiptasia .
aiptasia is an anemone that saltwater hobbyists don ' t purchase , rather they are accidentally introduced into a saltwater system as a hitchhiker on live rock or attached to the base of corals . unless planning to cultivate this anemone , you would not knowingly purchase live rock or corals with aiptasia on it . however , they can be difficult to see . they are small and will quickly retract when disturbed , hiding inside small crevices and holes in the rock . they can hide for weeks or even months until conditions are suitable before coming out .
aiptasia anemones will tolerate their own “clones” , and these anemones are very prolific . this is why it is very difficult to physically remove these anemones from a rock . any remaining tissues quickly multiply into to new specimens . sexual reproduction has not been described for the species .
small rock anemones are durable and problems are pretty minimal unless your lighting , water movement , and feeding is inadequate . then your anemone will detach to look for “better conditions . ” with better conditions , they can quickly multiply . having a quickly expanding population of aiptasia then becomes the problem .
their body form is the polyp . it is composed of a pedal disc or ' foot ' with which the aiptasia attaches to the substrate . it has a smooth , elongated body column with an oral disc on top . this disk has a mouth with many long stinging tentacles surrounding it .
a two - stage pathway for sex differentiation in a . diaphana lacerates . stage 1 : sexually undifferentiated individuals differentiate equally to either males or hermaphrodites . stage 2 : primary males progress with spermatogenesis and spermiation , whereas hermaphrodites undergo sex allocation in which one gender becomes the dominant gender in the polyp and the other gender represses and often disappears . hermaphrodites that undergo sex allocation may finally become males , females , or mature as hermaphrodites ( i . e . , trioecy ) .
the glass anemone is a carnivore . in the wild aiptasia derive nutrition from their symbiotic alge , zooxanthellae , as well as from the water around them . they use their tentacles to capture organic matter that floats by , then insert the food into their mouths for ingestion . they generally eat zooplankton , but will always accept other foot particles .
do water changes of 10 % monthly or 20 % every other month . they will flourish in poor water - quality environments that are rich in organic nutrients . for most anemones , typical water changes are 10 % twice a month or 20 % a monthly , but with aiptasia , the more nutrients there are , the happier it will be .
genets ( n = 4 ) of a . diaphana were cultured in the indoor system described above ( figure 4 ) , set up to emulate ambient seasonal conditions ( i . e . , light and temperature amplitude ) of the natural reproductive season . spawning was temporally controlled by shifting the photoperiod and water temperature ( as described above ) to match the ambient shifts that occur during the natural gametogenic period during peak reproduction the mesenteries , visible via the transparent body column , were milky white in appearance in males and an orange color in females .
levels of vertebrate - like sex steroids , including progesterone ( a ) , testosterone ( b ) , and estradiol ( c ) , associated with sex differentiation and maturation processes ( d ) in a . diaphana age - groups . steroid levels are expressed as mean ± se of six to eight replicates . each replicate represents three individuals sampled from the same chamber . differences in steroid levels between the weeks were tested using one - way anova , and a tukey hsd test was used for post hoc comparisons . lowercase letters ( a–e ) indicate significant ( p < 0 . 05 ) difference between means .
small rock anemones are easy to care for and they are quite hardy and durable . they have the ability to reproduce rapidly in saltwater aquariums where there are plenty of nutrients and good lighting . some aquarists use aiptasia in their refugiums to take out nutrients from the water . keeping them in a screened off area of the refugium , they will feed on excess nutrients , thus improving water quality .
any substrate is fine as these anemones will inhabit all levels of the tank . they need the same type of lighting found in a typical reef , and moderate lighting is suggested . they will thrive in bright light , but even under poor lighting aiptasia anemones will survive . they prefer a low - to - moderate water movement , but any type of movement is fine , just not stagnant water .
this is yet another anemone that is considered an undesirable addition to a reef tank ! the small rock anemone , also called the rose glass anemone is slightly different from the standard aiptasia in that it has more color , being brown to a pinkish brown instead of clear or gray . whatever color it is , it needs to go ! when you see one , do your best to get rid of it before it reproduces !
the small rock anemone is a carnivore , but these anemones are also equipped with nutritional alternatives for their well - being . in the wild aiptasia derive nutrition from their symbiotic algae , zooxanthellae , as well as from the water around them . they use their tentacles to capture organic matter that floats by , then insert the food into their mouths for ingestion . they generally eat zooplankton , but will always accept other foot particles .
the name aiptasia means
beautiful
. although these little anemones are unpopular with reef hobbyists because of their ability to take over the aquarium , they really can be quite nice looking . they are smaller anemones that only get to be about 1
( 3 cm ) in diameter and 3 - 4
( 7 . 5 - 10 cm ) tall depending on the species . most specimens are actually much smaller then that too .
aiptasia anemones are found in shallow waters along protected coasts and along intertidal rocky or mangrove lined shorelines . they will also form dense colonies in areas of shallow water , sometimes so dense they look like solid sheets . they are found alone attached to rubble , mangrove roots , dead corals , and other hard substrates . they occur in deep water too , where there is good tidal action . all species are commonly found with live rock .
aiptasia anemones don ' t have a very good reputation with saltwater hobbyists . they have strong stings and don’t “play nice” with other corals and fish . they use venomous cells , nematocyst found in their tentacles , to sting corals and fish . they can reach plague proportions in the aquarium or a reef tank , wreak havoc on the other inhabitants . they are very hard to get rid of and have been known to take over a reef aquarium by quickly reproducing while stinging and killing other tank invertebrates .
the weedy aiptasia is an anemone that saltwater hobbyists don ' t purchase , rather they are accidentally introduced into a saltwater system as a hitchhiker on live rock or attached to the base of corals . they are able to out compete other species in the reef tank . when disturbed they eject dangerous white stinging threads , or acontia . by using venomous cells or nematocyst found in their tentacles , they sting and push other inhabitants away from their
turf
. they have strong stings that can harm , and even kill other corals and fish .
sizes of aiptasia pallida anemones used in this study , quantified as means of three measurements of the body column of each anemone . bold dashes represent medians , open circles represent anemones without gonads , and asterisks represent anemones with gonads . body column diameter was larger in symbiotic anemones than in aposymbiotic anemones for both males and females ( mann–whitney u tests , p < 0 . 001 ) . sample size : n = 9 aposymbiotic females , n = 18 aposymbiotic males , n = 27 symbiotic females , and n = 15 symbiotic males . abbreviations : apofem = aposymbiotic female , apomale = aposymbiotic male , symfem = symbiotic female , symmale = symbiotic male
daly , m . ; fautin , d . ( 2018 ) . world list of actiniaria .
van der land , j . ; den hartog , j . h . ( 2001 ) . actiniaria , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 106 - 109 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
fishelson , l . , 1971 . ecology and distribution of the benthic fauna in the shallow waters of the red sea . marine biology , 10 / 2 : 113 - 133 . [ details ]
fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
discover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research every time .
department of zoology , george s . wise faculty of life sciences , tel aviv university , tel aviv , israel
department of zoology , george s . wise faculty of life sciences , tel aviv university , tel aviv , israel , israel oceanographic and limnological research , national center for mariculture , eilat , israel
editor : ryan l . earley , university of alabama , united states of america
copyright : © 2010 schlesinger et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : this work was funded by ramot ( horowitz foundation ) tel aviv university . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
forming a dense “carpet” on anchor rigs of an abandoned net pen fish farm 1 . 8 km offshore .
a ) a dissected anemone illustrating the morphology of the gonads along the mesenteries ( m ) of the polyp . b ) histological section of a female gonad showing well developed oocytes with visible germinal vesicles and nucleoli . c ) histological section of a male gonad showing well developed spermaries . d ) histological section of a hermaphrodite gonad showing well developed oocytes ( o ) alongside interspersed spermaries ( s ) at various stages of development . bar corresponds to 200 µm in b and to 100 µm c and in d .
in laboratory culture , the rate of asexual reproduction was affected by controlled seasonal variations . under june–august ( summer ) temperature–photoperiod conditions genets propagated ca . one order of magnitude more ramets ( time = 77 d , n = 255±27 ) than under december – march ( winter ) conditions ( t = 78 d , n = 23±12 ) . the rate of asexual reproduction differed significantly between the summer and winter treatments ( 2 way anova and tukey ' s hsd test , df = 1 fseason 83 . 61 ; p < 0 . 05 ) . accordingly , each founder genet that produced 255 ramets ( individuals resulting from asexual reproduction ) during summer and in turn produces at least 20 additional ramets during winter can , theoretically , produce over 5 , 000 ramets ( 20 winter x 255 summer ) over a one - year period .
microscopic analysis of ramets ( n = 304 ) sampled from six different laboratory - reared genet lines ( g 1 – g 6 ) , each founded by one individual of a known sex , revealed that the male phenotype was preserved throughout the experiment in one genet ( g 5 ) ( table 1 , figure 2 ) . the other five genets gave rise to both female and male phenotypes , with a skewed female / male ratio in favor of the founder sex ( table 1 ) . in addition , ramets derived from one female genet ( g 2 ) , included not only males and females but also seven hermaphroditic individuals ( table 1 ) .
gametes spawned by g 2 ( n = 3 spawn dates and g 3 ( n = 2 spawn dates ) genet lines self - fertilized . similarly , gametes spawned by g 1 cross - fertilized with gametes of g 5 ( n = 4 spawn dates ) . zygotes derived from “selfing” and out - crossing developed into swimming planula larvae . the embryos underwent “chaotic” cleavage . on d - 4 post - spawning , nematocysts had developed in all planulae ( figure 3 ) .
( a ) released non fertilized oocyte ( sem ) . ( b ) late cleavage stage showing asynchronous “chaotic” cleavage ( sem ) . ( c ) blastula from animal pole perspective , note small micromeres . ( c ' ) blastula from the vegetal pole perspective , showing large yolky macromeres at the vegetal pole ( sem ) . ( d ) prawn chip stage . ( e ) gastrula . the blastopore is marked by an arrow . ( sem ) . ( f ) swimming planula , nematocysts marked by arrowhead ( light micrograph ) .
the culture cell ( 4 ) is placed within a sedimentation chamber ( 6 ) which in turn is encompassed by a water jacket ( 8 ) . a light source ( 18 ) is positioned above the culture cell . a pump ( 20 ) is fixed to a wall in the sedimentation chamber ( 6 ) and connected to the culture cell inlet port ( 15 ) . sediment is drained from the chamber via a waste outlet ( 22 ) connected to the bottom of the chamber . culture temperature is controlled by the water jacket ( 8 ) , using a water chiller ( 24 ) and a thermostat regulated heater ( 26 ) . the legs ( 10 ) of the culture tank stand on the tank ' s bottom ( 12 ) , and water outlets ( 14 ) are interspersed around the top of the cell in the water jacket tank ( 16 ) . scale bar = 20 cm .
to ascertain the rate of pedal laceration ( asexual reproduction ) of this anemone under laboratory conditions , we simultaneously tested the effect of summer ( june – august ) and winter ( december – february ) photoperiod and temperature amplitude as recorded in the eastern mediterranean ( 32°24′9n , 34°50′5e ) . data were obtained from the wise observatory astronomical calendar and medatlas / 2002 database , medar group 2002 ) . culture temperature was controlled by a water jacket ( figure 4 ) , using a 4 m 3 h −1 water circulation pump , a thermostat regulated water chiller and thermostat regulated heaters [ 43 ] – [ 44 ] .
photo - period was controlled as described above , by weekly calibration of light : dark period , following wise observatory astronomical calendar data . temperature amplitudes in the culture systems were calibrated weekly using the water - jacket temperature control system i . e . , regulated heaters and chillers , to follow the seasonal temperature amplitude ( medatlas / 2002 , medar group 2002 database figure s2 ) . six ramets from three genet lines ( two ramets from each genet ) were removed and settled on new substrata , each in a separate , sterilized culture tank . thus , each genet was simultaneously exposed to two different temperature and photoperiod regimes ( three culture tanks under summer conditions and three under winter conditions ) . feeding regime , light quality and intensity , current character and water exchange were uniform in all culture tanks . the number of ramets in each culture tank was counted after 77–78 days following settlement of each founder . data were analyzed using student ' s t test for significance .
eastern mediterranean ( 32°24′9n , 34°50′5e ) temperature amplitude based data obtained from medatlas / 2002 database , medar group 2002 .
we would like to thank dr . eran brockovich and varda wexler for their help with the figures .
conceived and designed the experiments : as ekw . performed the experiments : as raz . analyzed the data : as ekw hr raz yl . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : hr yl . wrote the paper : as ekw hr raz yl .
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urticina means nettle , a stinging plant . like all sea anemones they do have a sting , but the urticina cold water sea anemones have much more . . . being very beautiful they are known as flowers of the sea !
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i ' d love to give your clam a new house . i have 110g reef tank set up 25 hrs . he ' d love it !
is fast at disappearing if disturbed . but this quick maneuver is just one of its fast tricks . it is quite small , at only about 1 . 2
( 3 cm ) tall , but is also very fast at reproducing . the
anemones are found in shallow waters along protected coasts and along intertidal rocky shorelines . they are found alone attached to rubble , live rock , dead corals , and other hard substrates . they will also form dense colonies in areas of shallow water , sometimes so dense they look like solid sheets . they occur in deep water too , where there is good tidal action .
the small rock anemones are solitary and found at depths of 6 1 / 2 to 9 feet ( 2 - 3 m ) . they live on vertical walls in small quiet harbors and in large pools .
the small rock anemone is quite small , only getting up to about 1 . 2
( 3 cm ) tall . it is unknown how long
anemones can live , but they do reproduce quickly . mature specimens can produce dozens of juveniles in a single day if they have plenty of nutrients .
the number of small rock anemones can reach plague proportions in captivity . in some aquariums they will reproduce faster than in others , but the exact reason is unknown . they do seem to reproduce faster in environments high in nutrients and detritus . this anemone , as well as any species of
, is generally regarded as a pest . they can be difficult to control and / or eliminate once they get a foothold .
although anemones are not as dependent on calcium as stony corals , magnesium and calcium is still needed to keep the ph and alkalinity stable and within the correct parameters . additions of trace elements are suggested . phosphates should be kept around 0 . 03 or less .
380 . 0 - 450 . 0 ppm - helps to balance alkalinity . aim for 420 ppm , or 385 ppm if you are using seachem calcium .
7 . 0 - 11 . 0 dkh - ( 2 . 5 to 3 . 9 meq / l ) aim for 10 dkh ( 3 . 5 meq / l ) for reef tanks .
1 , 250 . 0 - 1 , 350 . 0 ppm - test magnesium levels and adjust before checking calcium .
the small rock anemone is quite small , so it can readily be kept in a nano tank of just 1 - gallon or more , however , the tank should be completely cycled . the typical reef environment is best for these anemones . like most anemone species , they need live rock or some other solid material they can attach to .
the small rock anemones are aggressive , and ideally , they are best kept in their own tank . they have strong stings that can harm , and even kill other corals and fish . saltwater hobbyists don ' t purchase these anemones , rather they are acquired accidentally as
hitch - hikers
on live rock or with other corals . they are very hard to get rid of and have been known to take over a reef aquarium .
they can reproduce quickly and will tolerate their own kind , but they are able to out compete other species in the reef tank . when disturbed they eject dangerous white stinging threads , or acontia . also , by using the venomous cells , the nematocyst found in their tentacles , they sting and push other inhabitants away from their “turf . ” they don ' t host clownfish .
have determined that individuals are dioecious , meaning that individuals are of separate sexes .
alf jacob nilsen and svein a . fossa , reef secrets : starting right , selecting fishes & invertebrates , advanced biotope techniques , t . f . h publications inc . , 2003
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schlesinger a 1 , kramarsky - winter e , rosenfeld h , armoza - zvoloni r , loya y .
department of zoology , george s . wise faculty of life sciences , tel aviv university , tel aviv , israel .
pmid : 20686700 pmcid : pmc2912375 doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0011874
armoza - zvuloni r 1 , kramarsky - winter e 2 , loya y 2 , schlesinger a 3 , rosenfeld h 2 .
national center for mariculture , israel oceanographic and limnological research , eilat , israel department of zoology , tel aviv university , ramat aviv , tel aviv , israel the h . steinitz marine biology laboratory , the interuniversity institute for marine sciences of eilat , eilat , israel rachelarmoza @ gmail . com .
department of zoology , tel aviv university , ramat aviv , tel aviv , israel .
the h . steinitz marine biology laboratory , the interuniversity institute for marine sciences of eilat , eilat , israel .
< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =
/ manual / evidences
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
help pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .
you are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .
< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the ‘basket’ to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the ‘correct annotation’ for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the ‘protein existence’ evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
cardioactive peptide that acts on voltage - gated sodium channels ( hnav1 . 5 / scn5a ) and voltage - gated potassium channels ( kv ) ( pubmed :
) . the activity on sodium channels consists of inhibition on sodium current inactivation with no significant effect on current activation . this effect may be caused by direct interaction of the toxin with sodium channel site - 3 ( pubmed :
) . the activity on potassium channels consists of a significant increase of the amplitude of the transient component of the potassium current , shifting the current threshold to more negative membrane potentials . these effects are concentration - dependent and reversible and may be due to a direct interaction between the toxin and the voltage - sensing domain of the channel ( pubmed :
) . physiologically , this toxin increases the amplitude of cardiomyocyte contraction and slows the late phase of the twitch relaxation velocity with no induction of spontaneous twitching . it increases action potential duration of cardiomyocytes with no effect on its threshold and on the cell resting potential . on insects , it shows neurotoxic activity to the blowfly larvae s . falculaty , causing an immediate spasm that progressed to body contraction and paralysis .
< p > manually curated information for which there is published experimental evidence . < / p > < p > < a href =
/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000269
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
, function , paralytic dose , subcellular location , mass spectrometry , 3d - structure modeling .
the sea anemone toxin ade - 1 modifies both sodium and potassium currents of rat cardiomyocytes .
nesher n . , zlotkin e . , hochner b . biochem . j . 461 : 51 - 59 ( 2014 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]
has no hemolytic activity on human erythrocytes . has no effect on the shape , color and configuration of cardiomyocytes ( pubmed :
< p > the < a href =
urltoken
> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =
urltoken
> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > manually curated information that is based on statements in scientific articles for which there is no experimental support . < / p > < p > < a href =
/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000303
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > manually validated information which has been imported from another database . < / p > < p > < a href =
/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000312
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the ‘taxonomic identifier’ or ‘taxid’ . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides information on the location and the topology of the mature protein in the cell . < p > < a href = ' / help / subcellular _ location _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides information on the disease ( s ) and phenotype ( s ) associated with a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / pathology _ and _ biotech _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> ' pathology and biotech ' < / a > section describes the lethal dose ( ld ) , paralytic dose ( pd ) , effect dose ( ed ) or lethal concentration ( lc ) of a protein toxin . < p > < a href = ' / help / toxic _ dose ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
is 16 . 91 + - 5 . 78 µg / kg into blowfly larvae ( s . falculata ) .
< p > this section describes post - translational modifications ( ptms ) and / or processing events . < p > < a href = ' / help / ptm _ processing _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘ptm / processing’ section denotes the presence of an n - terminal signal peptide . < p > < a href = ' / help / signal ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> ptm / processing < / a > section describes a propeptide , which is a part of a protein that is cleaved during maturation or activation . once cleaved , a propeptide generally has no independent biological function . < p > < a href = ' / help / propep ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘ptm / processing’ section describes the extent of a polypeptide chain in the mature protein following processing . < p > < a href = ' / help / chain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ptm / processing
: / help / ptm _ processing _ section section describes the positions of cysteine residues participating in disulfide bonds . < p > < a href = ' / help / disulfid ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > manually curated information which has been propagated from a related experimentally characterized protein . < / p > < p > < a href =
/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000250
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides information on the tertiary and secondary structure of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / structure _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘family and domains’ section provides information about the sequence similarity with other proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ similarities ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =
urltoken
> length < / a > and < a href =
urltoken
> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =
urltoken
> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =
urltoken
> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is in its mature form or if it represents the precursor . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ processing ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘sequence’ section reports information derived from mass spectrometry experiments done on the entire protein or on biologically active derived peptide ( s ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / mass _ spectrometry ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘entry information’ section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘entry information’ section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called ‘primary ( citable ) accession number’ . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >