oleria onega , the onega clearwing or onega glasswing , is a species of butterfly of the nymphalidae family .

it is found from colombia to southern peru .

the wingspan is about 52 mm .

the larvae feed on solanum species .

the young larvae are transparent and consume their egg shell before beginning to feed on the host plant .

after each moult the caterpillar consumes its shed skin .

full-grown larvae are grey , with a yellow line along the length of the body on each side .

oleria onega

genetic ( rapd ) diversity between oleria onega agarista and oleria onega ssp . ( ithomiinae , nymphalidae , lepidoptera ) in north - eastern peru
genetic ( rapd ) diversity between oleria onega agarista and oleria onega ssp . ( ithomiinae , nymphalidae , lepidoptera ) in north - eastern peru .
genetic ( rapd ) diversity between oleria onega agarista and oleria onega ssp . ( ithomiinae , nymphalidae , lepidoptera ) in north - eastern peru | springerlink
oleria onega is found from colombia to peru and s . w . brazil .
oleria onega janarilla flies in ecuador and south east colombia ( d’abrera 1984 ) .
genetic ( rapd ) diversity between oleria onega agarista and oleria onega ssp . ( ithomiinae , nymphalidae , lepidoptera ) in north - eastern peru . - pubmed - ncbi
ef - 1a - elongation factor - 1 alpha - oleria onega ssp . 2 - 1173 - ef - 1a gene & protein
oleria comprises of about 50 known species , recognisable from the distinctive venation of the hindwings .
in common with all other ithomiines , females of oleria onega normally lay their eggs directly on the underside of leaves of their foodplants . in the case of onega the preferred foodplant is solanum mite , although other species including s . anceps , s . angustialatum and s . uleanum are also used .
a beautiful glasswing butterfly ( oleria onega ) emerges from its metallic chrysalis . i set up the time - lapse this morning with a canon 100mm macro lens while performing experiments on this species in peru .
o . onega agarista behaved as expected , always laying their eggs on solanum ; but onega ssp . nov laid them instead on rocks , stems , dead leaves and other substrates up to a metre distant from the foodplants .
in common with most other ithomiines , lateral and altitudinal migrations of oleria species are triggered by seasonal changes in humidity .
> tr | d5grj3 | d5grj3 _ 9neop elongation factor - 1 alpha ( fragment ) os = oleria onega ssp . 2 - 1173 ox = 672486 gn = ef - 1a pe = 4 sv = 1 idialwkfetakfyvtiidapghrdfiknmitgtsqadcavlivaagtgefeagiskngq trehallaftlgvkqlivgvnkmdsteppyseprfeeikkevssyikkigynpaavafvp isgwhgdnmleastkmpwfkgwqverkegkaegkcliealdailpparptdkalrlplqd vykiggigtvpvgrvetgvlkpgtivvfapanittevksvemhhealqeavpgdnvgfnv knvsvkelrrgyvagdsknsppkgaadftaqvivlnhpgqisngytpvldchtahiackf aeikekvdrrsgkstednpksiksgdaaivnlvpskplcveafqefpplgrfa
in 2002 gallusser published research findings following a study of 2 onega subspecies found near tarapoto in peru . the two colonies are very close to each other , o . onega agarista being found on the relatively cool wet ne slope of the cerro escalera mountain range , while subspecies o . onega
ssp . nov
( as yet unnamed ) is found on the hot sunny sw slope .
oleria onega agarista felder and felder and oleria onega ssp . nov . are two ithomiinae subspecies from north - eastern peru , that differ for some morphological and behavioural traits . two contact zones are known near the town of tarapoto : ahuashiyacu , where both subspecies cohabit but do not seem to hybridise , and estero ( near the village of shapaja ) , where they apparently hybridise . genetic differences between the two subspecies and between populations were investigated with random amplified polymorphic dna ( rapd ) markers . both cluster and principal coordinates analyses ( ccoa and pcoa ) performed using these data , provided a clear but weak discrimination between the two subspecies . genetic diversity is much higher within the populations than between them . moreover , the geographically more distant populations are grouped together by the genetic data . morphological traits on the wing patterns of the hybrids are intermediary between the two butterflies subspecies , while rapds data place them closer to o . onega agarista than to o . onega ssp . the individuals of the ahuashiyacu population are clearly separated into two groups , those of o . onega ssp . and o . onega agarista , by both morphology and rapds data . moreover , none of those individuals show rapd similarity with the hybrids , suggesting that hybridisation has not occurred in this population .
oleria onega agarista felder and felder and oleria onega ssp . nov . are two ithomiinae subspecies from north - eastern peru , that differ for some morphological and behavioural traits . two contact zones are known near the town of tarapoto : ahuashiyacu , where both subspecies cohabit but do not seem to hybridise , and estero ( near the village of shapaja ) , where they apparently hybridise . genetic differences between the two subspecies and between populations were investigated with random amplified polymorphic dna ( rapd ) markers . both cluster and principal coordinates analyses ( ccoa and pcoa ) performed using these data , provided a clear but weak discrimination between the two subspecies . genetic diversity is much higher within the populations than between them . moreover , the geographically more distant populations are grouped together by the genetic data . morphological traits on the wing patterns of the hybrids are intermediary between the two butterflies subspecies , while rapds data place them closer to o . onega agarista than to o . onega ssp . the individuals of the ahuashiyacu population are clearly separated into two groups , those of o . onega ssp . and o . onega agarista , by both morphology and rapds data . moreover , none of those individuals show rapd similarity with the hybrids , suggesting that hybridisation has not occurred in this population .
males of most oleria species visit eupatorium , from which they acquire pyrrolizidine alkaloids which they pass to the females during copulation , and which is believed to be essential for the production of viable eggs .
i started the inventory of the butterflies of sangay national park in 2006 . since that time we make all our data available on this site as soon as we get them , even though incomplete , particularly re . identification . so they are everybody’s data , and so we need your help , of you who are familiar with the butterflies from ecuador and from the andes , because : - our data are incomplete , there are butterflies that we could not identify , and obviously there will be mistakes in our work , so your comments will prove very helpful , - and maybe you know of interesting butterflies that have been collected in the park area ? and these data would be priceless . thanks
i am particularly grateful for guiding me through difficult groups , and identifying many specimens , to : - maurizio bollino , for papilionidae and pieridae , and more particularly catasticta and leodonta that he is presently revising , - pierre boyer , one of the very best experts on andean butterflies and an outstanding fieldworker , - ernst brockmann for hesperiidae , and more precisely pyrrhopygini , eudaminae ans dalla , - robert busby and christophe faynel for lycaenidae another incredibly complex family , - bernard hermier who spent hundreds of hours helping us on hesperridae , an extremely difficult group for which there is very little documentation , - tomasz pyrcz , from warsaw jagìellonskiego university , for pronophilini , a challenging group particularly important in sangay np , and for which he is the leading expert in the world - fabio vitale , for heliconiidae and , more important , ithomiidae , another baffling group , - et keith r willmott , who is about to publish a book on the butterflies of ecuador , and who is so kind as to share with us his amazing knowledge of the butterflies from this country .
more recenlly andree salk made his expertise in riodinidae available to us ; we highly value it as it is a family for which we were rather helpless . jean - claude petit e . mail : rhopalducy @ urltoken
the ithomiini comprises of 376 known species , although it is likely that at least another 30 will be discovered in the near future . all are confined to the neotropical region .
are unpalatable to birds , and are consequently mimicked in appearance by many other species . these include other unpalatable species ( müllerian mimics ) , not only from the ithomiinae but also from several other butterfly families . there are also a large number of edible species ( batesian mimics ) which have evolved similar patterns . birds have the ability to memorise butterfly patterns and so learn to avoid eating noxious species , but are also fooled into ignoring similarly marked edible species .
ithomiines are characterised by having small eyes , slender abdomens and long drooping antennae that lack distinct clubs . males have a plume of long androconial scales or
hair pencils
on the costa of their hindwings . these are hidden from view when the butterflies are at rest , but are displayed when the wings are held open during courtship . other ithomiine characteristics include a very slow and deep wing beat , and a preference for inhabiting the darkest recesses of the forest understorey .
there are basically 2 types of ithomiine . the first type are the black and orange - banded
tigers
, many of which are mimicked by other species due to their unpalatability to birds . the second type are the
glasswings
, recognised by their transparent or translucent wings , prominent veins , and orange wing margins . many genera contain examples of both of these types , and in some cases an individual species may produce adults of both forms according to location .
most novices find the ithomiini very difficult to identify . using only the patterns to identify species is very unreliable because there are so many similar species . also many species produce a variety of different colour forms according to locality and season . the best approach therefore is to use the hindwing venation and other anatomical features to identify the genus , and to then look at the wing patterns to short - list the likely species .
the butterflies are varied in their habitat requirements - most species occur in lowland rainforests , many others specialise in cloudforest habitats , and a few occur in deciduous forests .
this species is associated primarily with wet tropical rainforest habitats , and is most often found in shady damp areas in the vicinity of rivers or streams , at altitudes between 200 - 800m .
gallusser suspected that the different oviposition strategy was influenced by egg predation , and found that the main threat came from ectatomma ants , which were common on the sw slope , but entirely absent from the ne slope . she also noted that partial deforestation and path clearance on the sw slope allowed more sunlight to penetrate , so that eggs laid on solanum in these situations would be easier for predators to locate . the implication is that ssp . nov is evolving different egg - laying behaviour as a direct result of human interference in its habitat .
as part of the research , gallusser moved eggs from one site to another , and from one substrate to another , and studied the survival rates of 400 eggs on both mountain slopes . she found that on the sw slope , eggs positioned away from solanum had a much higher survival rate than those on the plants . laboratory and field studies however failed to provide observations of predation , even when the eggs were offered directly to the ants , so it seems possible that the mere presence of the aggressive ants on the foodplants may be enough to discourage the females from ovipositing , forcing them to lay elsewhere .
the eggs are white , oval , and laid singly , although several may be dotted about in close proximity by one or more females . the eggs hatch after about 3 days .
when newly hatched the caterpillar is transparent . it consumes its egg shell before beginning to feed on the foodplant . after each moult it consumes its shed skin , leaving only the chitinous head capsule remaining . when fully grown it is grey with a yellow line along the length of the body on each side . it takes only about 12 days from hatching to being ready to pupate .
the chrysalis is pale green with shiny metallic golden reflections . the abdominal segments are compressed , and there is a dorsal hump . the overall impression is of a small leaf dripping with rain . the butterfly emerges after about a week .
the lifecycle from egg to adult takes about 3 weeks to complete , so in theory up to 17 generations could be produced annually . however during the dry season reproductive activity is minimal . during this period the adults aggregate with numerous other ithomiine species in small pockets within the forest . in brazil and ecuador for example i have found several such aggregations along the beds of small dry streams , where as many as 100 ithomiines of up to 10 different species could be found aestivating among the stilt - like rootlets of palms .
the adults are normally found in small
leks
of up to a dozen butterflies .
the males fly very slowly and almost incessantly around the lek area , only pausing to settle for a moment here and there , at which time they slowly fan their wings , probably to aid dissemination of pheromones from the androconial
hairs
on their wings .
females visit various flowers for nectar and pollen - the latter may be essential in the production of eggs and the maintenance of ovaries , as has been demonstrated to be the case with heliconiines . females also receive proteins during sperm transfer .
gravid females fly very slowly , periodically dipping down to investigate solanum plants . having found the foodplant they then spend 2 or 3 minutes testing it , using olfactory sensors on their legs , antennae and abdomens , to determine whether it is solanum mite or another related species .
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origin : evolved as an inedible species to birds and other vertebrate predators , this unique butterfly finds sanctuary inhabiting the darkest areas of the forest understorey .
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ayres , d . r . , d . garcia - rossi , h . g . davis & d . r . strong , 1999 . extent and degree of hybridization between exotic (
) in california , usa determined by random amplified polymorphic dna ( rapd ) . mol . ecol . 8 : 1179–1186 .
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barton , n . h . & g . m . hewitt , 1985 . analysis of hybrid zones . ann . rev . ecol . syst . 16 : 113–148 .
barton , n . h . & g . m . hewitt , 1989 . adaptation , speciation and hybrid zones . nature 341 : 497–503 .
buerkle , c . a . , r . j . morris , m . a . asmussen & l . h . rieseberg , 1999 . the likelihood of homoploid hybrid speciation . heredity 84 : 441–451 .
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guadagnuolo , r . , d . savova - bianchi & f . felber , 2001a . gene flow from wheat (
host . ) , as revealed by rapd and microstaellite markers . theor . appl . genet . 103 : 1–8 .
guadagnuolo , r . , d . savova - bianchi & f . felber , 2001b . search for evidence of introgression of wheat (
l . ) in central and northern europe , using isozymes , rapd and microsatellite markers . theor . appl . genet . 103 : 191–196
guadagnuolo , r . , d . savova - bianchi & f . felber , 2001c . specific genetic markers for wheat , spelt , and four wild relatives : comparison of isozymes , rapd ' s , and wheat microsatellites . genome 44 : 1–12 .
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huff , d . r . , r . peakall & p . e . smouse , 1993 . rapd variation within and among natural populations of outcrossing buffalograss , ( buchloë dactyloides ( nutt . ) engelm ) . theor . appl . genet . 86 : 927–934 .
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megalagrion xanthomelas ( orangeblack hawaiian damselfly ) is a species of damselfly in the family coenagrionidae that is endemic to hawaii .

its natural habitats are rivers and shrub-dominated wetlands .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

megalagrion xanthomelas

david eickhoff marked
megalagrion xanthomelas
as trusted on the
megalagrion xanthomelas
page .
david eickhoff set
megalagrion xanthomelas
as an exemplar on
megalagrion xanthomelas selys 1876
.
damselfly species that co - occur on oahu include megalagrion nigrohamatum nigrolineatum , megalagrion hawaiiense , and megalagrion oceanicum in kane ' ohe bay ; megalagrion nigrohamatum nigrolineatum , megalagrion hawaiiense , megalagrion oceanicum , and megalagrion leptodemas on the windward side ; megalagrion nigrohamatum nigrolineatum , megalagrion hawaiiense , and megalagrion xanthomelas on the leeward / pearl harbor side ( englund , 2005 ) .
megalagrion xanthomelas sã©lys - longchamps . the taxonomic status of this species is accepted as valid .
isolation and characterization of 16 polymorphic microsatellite loci in the endemic hawaiian damselfly megalagrion xanthomelas ( odonata : coenagrionidae ) .
odonata specialist group 1996 . megalagrion xanthomelas . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 10 august 2007 .
isolation and characterization of 16 polymorphic microsatellite loci in the endemic hawaiian damselfly megalagrion xanthomelas ( odonata : coenagrion . . . - pubmed - ncbi
research into habitat management would be valuable . breeding and translocation efforts are being pursued ; successful translocation of m . xanthomelas into regions of restored habitat could be a model for other threatened megalagrion species .
englund , r . 1998 . response of the orangeblack hawaiian damselfly ( megalagrion xanthomelas ) , a candidate threatened species , to increases in stream flow . bishop museum occasional papers 56 : 19 - 24 .
u . s . fish and wildlife service . 2003 . candidate assessment and listing priority assignment form - megalagrion xanthomelas . u . s . fish and wildlife service , pacific islands office . 22 pp .
polhemus , d . a . 1996 . the orangeblack hawaiian damselfly , megalagrion xanthomelas ( odonata : coenagrionidae ) : clarifying the current range of a threatened species . bishop museum occasional papers 45 : 30 - 53 .
reston d . j . , englund r . a . , and mcshane m . k . k . 2007 . translocation and monitoring efforts to establish a second population of the rare megalagrion xanthomelas ( sã©lys - longchamps ) on o’ahu , hawai’i ( zygoptera : coenagrionidae ) .
englund , r . a . 2001 . long - term monitoring of one of the most restricted insect populations in the united states , megalagrion xanthomelas ( selys - longchamps ) , at tripler army medical center , oahu , hawaii ( zygoptera : coenagrionidae ) . odonatologica 30 ( 3 ) : 225 - 263 .
englund , r . a . 2001 . long - term monitoring of one of the most restricted insect populations in the united states , megalagrion xanthomelas ( selys - longchamps ) , at tripler army medical center , oahu , hawaii ( zygoptera : coenagrionidae ) . odonatologica , 30 ( 3 ) : 255 - 263 .
megalagrion xanthomelas is endemic to the islands of nihau , oahu , lanai , molokai , maui , hawaii , and possibly kauai . m . xanthomelas is extirpated on maui and kauai , and was believed to have been extirpated on oahu until the discovery of a single population in 1994 . its limited habitat and small scattered populations may affect long - term stability . the species is susceptible to the effects of habitat loss and introduced species . research should focus on habitat management and protection , control of invasive species , and translocation efforts .
microsatellite loci have been isolated from two species of endemic hawaiian damselflies , megalagrion xanthomelas and m . eudytum , that are of conservation concern . sixteen polymorphic loci were characterized in 32 m . xanthomelas from one population on molokai and one on hawaii island . the total number of alleles per locus ranged from two to 16 and observed population heterozygosity ranged from 0 . 0 to 0 . 963 . eleven of these loci amplified successfully in m . eudytum as well . these loci will be used to further conservation efforts and infer genetic consequences of pleistocene glaciations .
evenhuis , n . , d . polhemus , s . swift , k . arakaki , and d . preston . 1995 . a study of the biology of the orangeblack hawaiian damselfly ( megalagrion xanthomelas ) , with special reference to conservation of the population at tripler army medical center , oahu , hawaii . bishop mus . tech . rep 8 . 81 pp .
moore , n . w . 1983 . territorial behaviour in the genus megalagrion mclachlan ( zygoptera : coenagrionidae ) . odonatoligica 12 ( 1 ) : 87 - 92 .
polhemus d . a . 1993 . damsels in distress : a review of the conservation status of hawaiian megalagrion damselflies ( odonata : coenagrionidae ) . aquatic conservation 3 ( 4 ) : 343 - 349 .
englund r . a . 1999 . the impacts of introduced poeciliid fish and odonata on the endemic megalagrion ( odonata ) damselflies of oahu island , hawaii . journal of insect conservation . 3 : 225 - 243 .
polhemus , d . a . 1994b . a revision of the hawaiian damselflies in the genus megalagrion ( odonata : coenagrionidae ) . unpublished report to u . s . fish and wildlife service , pacific islands office .
polhemus , d . a . , h . oppenheimer , f . starr , and k . martz . 1999 . notable rediscoveries of megalagrion species on maui ( odonata : coenagrionidae ) . bishop museum occasional papers 59 : 27 - 29 . p
polhemus , d . a . 2007 . biology recapitulates geology : the distribution of megalagrion damselflies on the ko ' olau volcano of o ' ahu , hawai ' i . bishop museum bulletin in cultural and environmental studies 3 : 233 - 246 .
moore , n . w . and w . c . gagne . 1982 . megalagrion pacificum ( mclachlan ) - a preliminary study of the conservation requirements of an endangered species . reports of the odonata specialist group , iucn 3 : 1 - 5 .
this species was historically common and abundant in a variety of lowland habitats through the 1970s , after which populations declined . recent surveys have found populations on the islands of hawaii , lanai , molokai , mauai , and oahu . m . xanthomelas was extirpated on kauai and was thought to be extinct on oahu until a single remnant population was found on the grounds of the at the tripler army medical facility ( englund 2001 ) . additional populations are localized on : lanai ( artificial pond at koele ) ; molokai ( mouths of pelekunu and waikolu streams , palaau wetlands on the south coast ) ; mauai ( ukumehame stream , and near anchialine pools at la perouse bay ; polhemus et al . 1999 ) ; and in coastal wetlands on hawaii ( anaehoomalu bay , hawa bay , hilea stream , hilo , honokohau , kiholo bay , ninole springs , onomea bay , and whittington beach ; polhemus 1995 ) .
nymphs reach up to 18 - 20 mm ( 0 . 7 - 0 . 8 in . ) in length . they have three flattened leaf - like gills at the tip of the abdomen ; the gills are longer than the combined length of the last five segments of the abdomen , and each comes to a small point at the tip ( polhemus & asquith 1996 ) .
necessary actions include monitoring known populations and searching for new ones , habitat protection , and removal of invasive species .
daigle , j . 2000 . the distribution of the odonata of hawaii . bulletin of american entomology 6 ( 1 ) : 1 - 5 .
hawaiian terrestrial arthropoda checklist . 2nd edition . 1994 . nishida , g . m . ( ed . ) hawaii biological survey , contribution no . 94 - 04 . bishop museum . honolulu , hawaii . 287 pp .
mcpeek , m . a . 1990 . behavioral differences between enallagma species ( odonata ) influencing differential vulnerability to predators . ecology 71 : 1714 - 1726 .
polhemus , d . a . 1995 . new heteroptera and odonata ( insecta ) records and range extensions in the hawaiian islands . bishop museum occasional papers 42 : 42 - 43 .
polhemus , d . a . and asquith , a . 1996 . hawaiian damselflies . a field identification guide . bishop museum press , honolulu .
selys - longchamps , e . 1876 . synopsis des agrionines , 5me legion : agrion . bull . acad . royal belgique , ( ii ) 41 ( 2 , 3 ) : 1 - 282 . as referenced : in zimmerman , e . c . 1948 . insects of hawaii , vol . 2 . apterygota - thysanoptera . university of hawaii press , honolulu .
u . s . fish and wildlife service . 2007 . species assessment for the orangeblack hawaiian damselfly . available online .
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gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .
the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .
a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .
endemic to the islands of oahu , lanai , molokai , maui and hawaii , hawaiian islands .
destruction of wetlands by resort development ; alteration of stream terminal reaches for agriculture ; introduced poeciliid fishes .
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nishida , g . m . , ed . 1994a . hawaiian terrestrial arthropoda checklist . second edition . hawaii biological survey , contribution no . 94 - 04 . bishop museum : honolulu , hawaii . 287 pp .
populations have decreased from common presence on all main hawaiian islands to 25 populations on four islands with total number of individuals estimated to exceed 1 , 000 . decline strongly associated with introduction of predatory fish and crayfish which remain a threat . coastal wetland populations on hawaii are locally abundant , but oahu population is definitely at risk .
due to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to
historically known from all the main hawaiian islands except kahoolawe ( 6 localities on oahu , 5 on molokai , 1 on maui , 4 on hawaii , and unspecified on kauai ) ( pohlmeus , 1996 ) . until recently , the last report on oahu was in 1935 ( williams 1936 ) and it was believed extinct on this island until 1993 , when a very small population was discovered existing in pools of an intermittent stream at the tripler army medical facility . this is the only known population of this species on oahu . its range is now reduced to 25 populations on oahu , lanai , molokai , and hawaii islands ( usfws , 2003 ) .
the number of individuals across all 25 populations probably exceeds 1 , 000 . a study of the single remnant oahu population ( evenhuis et al . 1995 ) indicated that the number of individuals observed at the site ranged between 20 and 100 based on multiple visits .
the number of individuals across all 25 populations probably exceeds 1 , 000 . a study of the single remnant oahu population ( evenhuis et al . 1995 ) indicated that the number of individuals observed at the site ranged between 20 and 100 based on multiple visits . surveys in the tripler army medical center ( oahu , hawaii ) stream indicated a robust population with numbers varying from 17 to 162 ( englund , 2001 ) .
the species is quite rare on oahu , localized on lanai and molokai , but locally abundant in coastal wetlands on hawaii . given its relatively broad breeding habitat requirements , recovery should be fairly easy if the significant threats to the species were incontrovertably identified and controlled . although the species as a whole receives a lower global ranking than some of the other hawaiian damselflies , the oahu population is definitely at risk .
although extensive surveys have already been conducted , the habits of this species may allow it to survive in small isolated pockets . continued survey is necessary to identify any other extant populations then those already identified .
transplants are necessary to maintain genetic diversity ( see englund , 2001 ) but previous transplants have been unsuccessful due to predators . mitigation water flow ponds are the primary reason why the tripler army medical center ( oahu , hawaii ) population still remains and has not been extirpated , although flaws in their design have are apparent ( englund , 2001 ) .
( 1000 - 5000 square km ( about 400 - 2000 square miles ) ) historically known from all the main hawaiian islands except kahoolawe ( 6 localities on oahu , 5 on molokai , 1 on maui , 4 on hawaii , and unspecified on kauai ) ( pohlmeus , 1996 ) . until recently , the last report on oahu was in 1935 ( williams 1936 ) and it was believed extinct on this island until 1993 , when a very small population was discovered existing in pools of an intermittent stream at the tripler army medical facility . this is the only known population of this species on oahu . its range is now reduced to 25 populations on oahu , lanai , molokai , and hawaii islands ( usfws , 2003 ) .
the males are black with red markings on the thorax , the first 3 , and last 3 segments of the abdomen . the females have similar color patterning , but with tan rather than red coloration . more detailed descriptions and color photos are available in polhemus and asquith ( 1996 ) .
immature eats primarily aquatic diptera larvae , such as midges and mosquitos . both stages are opportunistic and readily accept any moving prey within right size range .
the biology of the species has been studied for oahu ( evenhuis , et al . 1995 ) , and reviewed by polhemus ( 1996 ) for all islands , but more detailed studies are needed for populations on hawaii island , many of which live in mixohaline environments . research is needed to understand the actual threats to the species .
within catchments there are likely no significant barriers to movement of sexually mature adults between microhabitats , with even extensive sections of inappropriate waterway or major obstructions to flow being readily traversed by adults within the flight season .
the few studies determining area of adult foraging habitat surrounding breeding sites have indicated a range of 30 meters to 300 meters [ see briggs ( 1993 ) for enallagma laterale ; corbet ( 1999 ) for nesciothemis nigeriensis and calopteryx haemorrhoidalis ; beukeman ( 2002 ) for calopteryx haemorrhoidalis ; and samways and steytler ( 1996 ) for chorolestes tessalatus ] . as a result , an element occurrence should include the breeding site and surrounding pond or upland habitat extending 500 m in a radius from the breeding site .
use the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .
cordeiro , j . ( 2005 ) ; nishida , gordon m . reviewed by polhemus , dan a . ( 1997 )
zoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .
englund , r . a . 2005 . threats to native aquatic diversity in hawai ' i and the pacific , and challenges in their conservation . phd . dissertation , university of hawai ' i . 202 pp .
gagne , w . c . and f . g . howarth . 1982 . assessment of endangered and threatened status of hawaiian arthropods . report to u . s . fish and wildlife service , pacific islands office , honolulu , hawaii .
harwood , p . d . 1976 . dragonflies ( odonata ) observed in hawaii in 1973 and 1974 . proceedings of the hawaiian entomological society 22 : 251 - 254 .
paulson , d . r . , and s . w . dunkle . 2009 . a checklist of north american odonata including english name , etymology , type locality , and distribution . originally published as occasional paper no . 56 , slater museum of natural history , university of puget sound , june 1999 ; completely revised march 2009 . online . available : urltoken
polhemus , d . and a . asquith . 1996 . hawaiian damselflies : a field identification guide . hawaii biological survey handbook , bishop museum press , honolulu , hawaii . 122 pp .
u . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 1998 . category and listing priority forms .
williams , f . x . 1936a . biological studies in hawaiian water - loving insects . part ii order odonata . proceedings of the hawaiian entomological society 9 ( 2 ) : 273 - 349 .
zimmerman , e . c . 1948b . odonata . pages 321 - 385 in insects of hawaii . volume 2 . univeristy of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii .
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ridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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department of biology , bucknell university , lewisburg , pa 17837 , usa , department of ecology and evolutionary biology , cornell university , corson hall , ithaca , ny 14853 , usa .
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global range : ( 1000 - 5000 square km ( about 400 - 2000 square miles ) ) historically known from all the main hawaiian islands except kahoolawe ( 6 localities on oahu , 5 on molokai , 1 on maui , 4 on hawaii , and unspecified on kauai ) ( pohlmeus , 1996 ) . until recently , the last report on oahu was in 1935 ( williams 1936 ) and it was believed extinct on this island until 1993 , when a very small population was discovered existing in pools of an intermittent stream at the tripler army medical facility . this is the only known population of this species on oahu . its range is now reduced to 25 populations on oahu , lanai , molokai , and hawaii islands ( usfws , 2003 ) .
non - migrant : no . all populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations .
locally migrant : no . no populations of this species make local extended movements ( generally less than 200 km ) at particular times of the year ( e . g . , to breeding or wintering grounds , to hibernation sites ) .
locally migrant : no . no populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km .
comments : immature eats primarily aquatic diptera larvae , such as midges and mosquitos . both stages are opportunistic and readily accept any moving prey within right size range .
note : for many non - migratory species , occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations .
comments : the number of individuals across all 25 populations probably exceeds 1 , 000 . a study of the single remnant oahu population ( evenhuis et al . 1995 ) indicated that the number of individuals observed at the site ranged between 20 and 100 based on multiple visits .
reasons : populations have decreased from common presence on all main hawaiian islands to 25 populations on four islands with total number of individuals estimated to exceed 1 , 000 . decline strongly associated with introduction of predatory fish and crayfish which remain a threat . coastal wetland populations on hawaii are locally abundant , but oahu population is definitely at risk .
comments : the species is quite rare on oahu , localized on lanai and molokai , but locally abundant in coastal wetlands on hawaii . given its relatively broad breeding habitat requirements , recovery should be fairly easy if the significant threats to the species were incontrovertably identified and controlled . although the species as a whole receives a lower global ranking than some of the other hawaiian damselflies , the oahu population is definitely at risk .
biological research needs : the biology of the species has been studied for oahu ( evenhuis , et al . 1995 ) , and reviewed by polhemus ( 1996 ) for all islands , but more detailed studies are needed for populations on hawaii island , many of which live in mixohaline environments . research is needed to understand the actual threats to the species .
needs : transplants are necessary to maintain genetic diversity ( see englund , 2001 ) but previous transplants have been unsuccessful due to predators . mitigation water flow ponds are the primary reason why the tripler army medical center ( oahu , hawaii ) population still remains and has not been extirpated , although flaws in their design have are apparent ( englund , 2001 ) .


ctenosaura quinquecarinata , commonly known as the club tail iguana or the five-keeled spiny-tailed iguana is a species of lizard in the family iguanidae endemic to central america .

ctenosaura quinquecarinata

cyclura quinquecarinata gray 1842 : 59 enyaliosaurus quinquecarinatus — gray 1845 : 192 cyclura ( ctenosaura ) quinquecarinata — cope 1870 : 161 ctenosaura ( enyaliosaurus ) quinquecarinata — bocourt 1874 ( in : duméril & bocourt ) ctenosaura quinquecarinata — boulenger 1885 : 198 ctenosaura quinquecarinata — günther 1885 : 58 ctenosaura quinquecarinata — bailey 1928 enyaliosaurus quinquecarinata — smith & taylor 1950 : 76 enyaliosaurus quinquecarinatus — peters & donoso - barros 1970 enyaliosaurus quinquecarinatus — gicca 1983 ctenosaura quinquecarinatus — liner 1994 ctenosaura quinquecarinata — köhler 2000 : 75 ctenosaura ( enyaliosaurus ) quinquecarinata — köhler et al . 2000 ctenosaura praeocularis hasbún & köhler 2009 ctenosaura praeocularis — malone et al . 2017
tanya higgins added the english common name
club tail iguana
to
ctenosaura quinquecarinata gray 1842
.
cyclura sp . ; iguana iguana ; sauromalus sp . ; iguana delicatissima ; cyclura rileyi ; cyclura ricordii ; cyclura pinguis ; cyclura nubila ; cyclura cychlura ; cyclura cornuta ; cyclura collei ; cyclura carinata ; ctenosaura similis ; ctenosaura quinquecarinata ; ctenosaura pectinata ; ctenosaura palearis ; ctenosaura oedirhina ; ctenosaura hemilopha ; ctenosaura defensor ; ctenosaura clarki ; ctenosaura bakeri ; ctenosaura acanthura ; conolophus subcristatus ; conolophus pallidus ; amblyrhynchus cristatus ; sauromalus obesus ; sauromalus australis ; sauromalus varius ; sauromalus hispidus ; sauromalus slevini ; sauromalus klauberi ; sauromalus ater ; ctenosaura sp . ; iguana sp . ; conolophus sp . ; dipsosaurus sp . ; brachylophus sp . ; amblyrhynchus sp .
tanya higgins added the english common name
five - keeled spiny - tailed iguana
to
ctenosaura quinquecarinata gray 1842
.
mitochondrial dna phylogeography of the mesoamerican spiny - tailed lizards ( ctenosaura quinquecarinata complex ) : historical biogeography , species status and conservation .
burré , g . 2004 . bastardierung zwischen ctenosaura quinquecarinata und c . oaxana . iguana rundschreiben 17 ( 1 ) : 17 - 21
huy , a . 2008 . erfahrungen und nachzucht des fünfkiel - schwarzleguans ( ctenosaura quinquecarinata ) . iguana rundschreiben 21 ( 2 ) : 5 - 9
mitochondrial dna phylogeography of the mesoamerican spiny - tailed lizards ( ctenosaura quinquecarinata complex ) : historical biogeography , species st . . . - pubmed - ncbi
at least two species , ctenosaura pectinata and ctenosaura similis , have been introduced into the united states in southern texas and miami , florida .
hasbun , c . r . & g . köhler 2001 . on the identity of the holotype of ctenosaura quinquecarinata ( gray 1842 ) . senckenbergiana biologica 81 : 247 - 255
ctenosaura quinquecarinata is known from isolated subpopulations in pacific versant nicaragua and northwestern costa rica . extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 km² and area of occupancy is less than 500 km² .
köhler , g . 1995 . freilanduntersuchungen zur morphologie und lebensweise des fünfkiel - schwarzleguas ctenosaura quinquecarinata am isthmus von thuantepec , mexico . herpetofauna 17 ( 97 ) : 21 - 26 - get paper here
this is a male san esteban island spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura conspicuosa ) .
distribution : not listed for honduras and el salvador by köhler ( 2000 ) . not listed for honduras by wilson & mccranie ( 2002 ) . not in mexico and el salvador fide huy ( 2008 ) . not in oaxaca fide mata - silva et al . 2015 . burré ( 2004 ) described hybridization between ctenosaura oaxacana and ctenosaura quinquecarinata .
köhler , g . & c . r . hasbun 2001 . a new species of spiny - tailed iguana from mexico formerly referred to ctenosaura quinquecarinata ( gray 1842 ) ( reptilia , squamata , iguanidae ) . senckenbergiana biologica 81 : 257 - 267
hasbun , c . r . ; gomez , a . ; kohler , g . ; lunt , d . h . 2005 . mitochondrial dna phylogeography of the mesoamerican spiny - tailed lizards ( ctenosaura quinquecarinata complex ) : historical biogeography , species status and conservation . molecular ecology 14 ( 1 ) : 3095 - 3107 .
ctenosaura is a lizard genus commonly known as spinytail iguanas or ctenosaurs . the genus is part of the large lizard family , iguanidae and is native to mexico and central america .
bailey , j . w . 1928 . a revision of the lizards of the genus ctenosaura . proc . us natl . mus . 73 : 1 - 55 . - get paper here
hasbún , carlos roberto and gunther köhler 2009 . new species of ctenosaura ( squamata , iguanidae ) from southeastern honduras . journal of herpetology 43 ( 2 ) : 192 - 204 - get paper here
gutsche , alexander ; frank köhler 2008 . phylogeography and hybridization in ctenosaura species ( sauria , iguanidae ) from caribbean honduras : insights from mitochondrial and nuclear dna . zoosystematics and evolution 84 ( 2 ) : 245 - 253
the world record sprint speed for lizards ( 21 . 5 miles / h or 34 . 6 km / h ) was attained by the costa rican spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura similis ) . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]
köhler , g . ; w . schroth & b . streit 2000 . systematics of the ctenosaura group of lizards ( reptilia : sauria : iguanidae ) . amphibia - reptilia 21 ( 2 ) : 177 - 191 - get paper here
kelly paul is a hobbyist with a lifelong interest in reptiles . he has bred more than two dozen species , including six ctenosaura . he has been a guest speaker at several events , including the international herpetological symposium . email him at blueghostreptile @ urltoken .
malone , catherine l . ; víctor hugo reynoso , larry buckley 2017 . never judge an iguana by its spines : systematics of the yucatan spiny tailed iguana , ctenosaura defensor ( cope , 1866 ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 115 : 27 - 39 - get paper here
ctenosaura care is universal . . . . . . . . there are many resources available if you do the reasearch . . . . . . . you keep one on sand and you ' ll end up with cteno jerky though . . . . . . .
the genus ctenosaura represents the most diverse group of iguanas with 15 currently recognized species and at least two unrecognized species . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] these species inhabit lowland dry forests , below 1 , 200 metres ( 3 , 900 ft ) elevation , on both coasts of mexico and central america . [ 3 ] all species of ctenosaura fall within one of seven clades . [ 3 ] distributions of these clades fall geographically within well established areas . [ 3 ] closely related species show allopatry whereas species from divergent clades show sympatry . [ 3 ]
spiny - tailed iguanas are gaining popularity in the u . s . , with increasing numbers being bred in captivity . wild - caught spiny - tails are also available , most commonly the club - tailed iguana ( c . quinquecarinata ) . there are also introduced populations of the black spiny - tailed iguana ( c . similis ) and mexican spiny - tailed iguana ( c . pectinata ) in florida , and many of these two species are sold in the pet trade .
justification : ctenosaura quinquecarinata has an extent of occurrence less than 5 , 000 km² ( en b1 ) and an area of occupancy less than 500 km² ( en b2 ) . total population size is not known , but it is thought that there may be fewer than 2 , 500 mature individuals . the population is severely fragmented : probably 10–15 isolated subpopulations ( en b1a + 2a ) and is threatened by declining area and quality of habitat as a result of deforestation and regular burning of habitat ( en b1b ( iii ) + 2b ( iii ) ) . the species is also collected for the international pet trade ( en b1b ( v ) + 2b ( v ) ) . the population is expected to decline by at least 30 % over the next ten years if current rates of habitat loss continue .
lots of ctenosauras are from tropical dry forests . this species in particular is from very hot areas where it is very dry in nicaragua and costa rica . a small group will be fine in a 48x24x24 with peat and sand mixture as a substrate and some branches for them to bask ( 110 - 115f ) . larger species of ctenosaura are born omnivorous turning almost completely herbivorous as adults , it is believed by some people that smaller species ( like yours ) stay omnivorous throughout their entire life .
spiny - tailed iguanas ( ctenosaura spp . ) are native to hot and dry areas of mexico and central america . they can make great pets or display animals . despite laws to protect them , most spiny - tailed iguana populations are declining in the wild due to hunting , loss of habitat and poaching for the pet trade . every effort should be made to purchase captive - born - and - bred animals because they generally are hardier and less skittish , and purchasing them helps take pressure off wild populations .
type locality : unknown . restricted to tehuantepec , oaxaca , by bailey 1928 .
praeocularis : honduras ; type locality : cerro las mesitas , 10 km east of sabanagrande toward nueva armenia , montegrande , departamento francisco morazán , honduras , 800 m elevation , 13°46 . 43’n , 86°11 . 83’w .
note : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .
holotype : bmnh 1946 . 8 . 30 . 48 holotype : smf 79520 , an adult male , collected 8 august 1999 by carlos roberto hasbún . field tag number h4 [ praeocularis ]
alberts , a . c . ; carter , r . l . ; hayes , w . k . & martins , e . p . ( eds . ) 2004 . iguanas - biology and conservation . university of california press , 356 pp .
arakelyan , marine s . ; felix d . danielyan , claudia corti , roberto sindaco , and alan e . leviton 2011 . the herpetofauna of armenia and nagorno - karabakh . ssar , salt lake city , 154 pp . [ isbn : 978 - 0 - 916984 - 84 - 7 . ]
boulenger , g . a . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( natural history ) . vol . 2 , second edition . london , xiii + 497 pp . - get paper here
buckley , larry j . ; kevin de queiroz , tandora d . grant , bradford d . hollingsworth , john b . iverson ( chair , < br / > stesha a . pasachnik , and catherine l . stephen ( iguana taxonomy working group , itwg 2016 . a checklist of the iguanas of the world ( iguanidae ; iguaninae ) . herp . cons . biol . 11 ( monograph 6 ) - get paper here
cope , e . d . 1870 . seventh contribution to the herpetology of tropical america . proc . amer . philos . soc . 11 : 147 - 169 [ 1869 ] - get paper here
cope , e . d . 1886 . on the species of iguaninae . proc . amer . philos . soc . 23 ( 122 ) : 261 - 271 - get paper here
gicca , d . f . 1983 . enyaliosaurus quinquecarinatus . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 329 : 1 - 2 . - get paper here
gray , j . e . 1842 . description of some new species of reptiles , chiefly from the british museum collection . zoological miscellany 2 : 57 - 59 . - get paper here
gray , j . e . 1845 . catalogue of the specimens of lizards in the collection of the british museum . trustees of die british museum / edward newman , london : xxvii + 289 pp . - get paper here
günther , a . c . l . g . 1885 . reptilia and batrachia . biologia centrali - américana . taylor , & francis , london , 326 pp . [ published in parts from 1885 - 1902 ; reprint by the ssar 1987 ] - get paper here
hidalgo , h . n . 1980 . enyaliosaurus quinquecarinatus ( gray ) and leptodeira nigrofasciata günther in el salvador . herpetological review 11 : 42 - 43 - get paper here
köhler , g . 2000 . reptilien und amphibien mittelamerikas , bd 1 : krokodile , schildkröten , echsen . herpeton verlag , offenbach , 158 pp .
köhler , g . 2008 . reptiles of central america . 2nd ed . herpeton - verlag , 400 pp .
mccranie , james r . 2015 . a checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of honduras , with additions , comments on taxonomy , some recent taxonomic decisions , and areas of further studies needed . zootaxa 3931 ( 3 ) : 352–386 - get paper here
rohde , h . 1989 . zur pflege von enyaliosaurus quinquecarinatus ( gray 1842 ) . sauria 11 ( 2 ) : 11 - 13 - get paper here
savage , j . m . 2002 . the amphibians and reptiles of costa rica : a herpetofauna between two continents , between two seas . university of chicago press , 934 pp . [ review in copeia 2003 ( 1 ) : 205 ]
solís , j . m . , l . d . wilson , and j . h . townsend . 2014 . an updated list of the amphibians and reptiles of honduras , with comments on their nomenclature . mesoamerican herpetology 1 : 123–144 - get paper here
sunyer , javier 2014 . an updated checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of nicaragua . mesoamerican herpetology 1 ( 2 ) : 186–202 . - get paper here
ulber , t . & h . rohde 1989 . zur nomenklatur , verbreitung und zum aggressionsverhalten von enyaliosaurus quinquecarinatus . sauria 11 ( 3 ) : 21 - 22 - get paper here
villa , r . j . , and n . j . scott 1967 . the iguanid lizard enyaliosaurus in nicaragua . copeia 1967 ( 2 ) : 474 - 476 - get paper here
werning , h . 2003 . ein neuer schwarzleguan und eine schlangengattung aus mittelamerika . reptilia ( münster ) 8 ( 40 ) : 12 - 13 - get paper here
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
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endangered b1ab ( iii , v ) + 2ab ( iii , v ) ver 3 . 1
total population size is not known , but perhaps is less than 2 , 500 mature individuals . the population is fragmented into 10–15 isolated subpopulations .
tropical dry forest ( holdridge 1967 ) from 0–250 m asl . the species is semi - arboreal , preferring rocky terrain and using hollow branches and rocks as retreats .
habitat loss through deforestation and regular burning of habitat , and collection for the international pet trade .
this species currently is not under any legal protection and is not known to occur within any protected areas . conservation actions recommended include further surveys for the species , research into genetics and life history , management and monitoring of the wild population and its habitat . it is also recommended that a population viability analysis be carried out for this species .
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the number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .
over the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .
the number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .
overall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .
the reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .
currently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .
the reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .
the reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .
continent : middle - america distribution : s mexico ( from the vicinity of tehuantepec westward to puerto escondido and eastward to juchitan , oaxaca ) , nicaragua ( chontales , matagalpa , jinotega , boaco , managua , granada ) , el salvador , nw costa rica ( guanacaste ) type locality : unknown . restricted to tehuantepec , oaxaca , by bailey 1928 .
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i recently picked up one of these guys at a reptile show , ( impulse buy , shame on me ) but i am having a hard time finding consistent care information on these iguanas .
the gentleman who sold it to me gave me a brief run down of what it eats , it ' s temperament , adult size , etc . . . basically , he said it was going to be a more tropical ( and speedy ) version of my beardie .
but as i started looking around for info to set - up a permanent habitat for it ( it ' s in a generic quarantine enclosure currently ) i ' m finding a wide variety of information . stuff like one saying it should be on calcium sand , another saying repti - bark , another saying eco dirt , all of which are different substrates . or that it ' s semi - arboreal and should have something to climb on and then others saying it ' s strictly ground dwelling and needs deep substrate to burrow in . that a 20gal is sufficient , then another saying anything under a 40gal is too small . you know , basically a big mash of conflicting information .
i just want to get started on setting up an enclosure that will make my iguana healthy and happy . that ' s the most important , after that . . . any personal experience with this species is also welcome and appreciated .
yea , i kind of figured the sand was an idiot answer , they don ' t come from areas with arid temps or sand . but i ' m still finding the care sheets and answers widely varied between the species . even on the reptile forums , they can ' t agree with each other . . . oi !
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but i neeed tacos . i need them or i will explode . that happens to me sometimes
hah ! i ' ve always had some kind . . . i ' ve got a corn snake , beardie and a customer dumped a dumpy tree frog off on me last week . ( i have everything . . . 3 chinchillas , a cat , aquatics , scorpions , etc . xd )
actually some ctenos come from dry places where sandy soils are everywhere and some species even dig burrows to rest and lay eggs . however your species doesant dig except for egg laying purpouses and yes a sand only soil is a no - no . however if you want to create a naturalistic setup you can mix play sand , peat and clay based dirt to create a good substrate . your is one of the smallest ctenos , a semi - arboreal setup you can easily create with plywood would be great . this is a mostly hands off critter as you may already noticed , most are very shy and they can take a long time to trust you . the diet is basically a herbivorous one which you can complement with live insects such as giant mealworms and roaches . go to urltoken for great ideas on setup construction and as well for key food items for the herbivorous part of the diet .
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the species range in size ( total length , including the tail ) from about 12 . 5 centimetres ( 4 . 9 in ) to well over 1 metre ( 39 in ) . the distinctive feature of this genus is the presence of enlarged , spiny scales on the tail .
ctenosaurs are generally omnivorous , feeding on fruits , flowers , foliage , and small animals .
mexico , central america , and colombia . introduced to the us in florida .
frost , d . e . and r . e . etheridge ( 1989 ) a phylogenetic analysis and taxonomy of iguanian lizards ( reptilia : squamata ) . univ . kansas mus . nat . hist . misc . publ . 81
frost , d . r . , r . etheridge , d . janies and t . a . titus ( 2001 ) total evidence , sequence alignment , evolution of polychrotid lizards , and a reclassification of the iguania ( squamata : iguania ) . american museum novitates 3343 : 38 pp .
garland , t . , jr . 1984 . physiological correlates of locomotory performance in a lizard : an allometric approach . am . j . physiol . 247 ( regulatory integrative comp . physiol . 16 ) : r806 - r815 . pdf
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as yellow mexican spiny - tails mature , they exhibit increasing amounts of yellow coloration .
spiny - tailed iguanas range in size from the small yucatan spiny - tailed iguana ( c . defensor ) , which reaches an overall length of 10 inches , to the black spiny - tail , which can grow to 5 feet .
spiny - tailed iguanas can be long lived , easily living to 15 years of age . many male spiny - tails can live up to 25 years of age or more .
caging requirements for spiny - tailed iguanas vary depending on the species and size of spiny - tailed iguana you keep . below are my recommended minimum enclosure sizes for a single spiny - tail or a pair . smaller spiny - tailed iguanas measuring less than 18 inches in overall length : 36 inches long , 24 inches wide , 24 inches tall spiny - tails with lengths of 18 to 40 inches : 4 feet long , 24 inches wide , 24 inches tall larger species , such as the black spiny - tailed iguana : 6 feet long by 24 inches wide by 30 inches tall .
spiny - tailed iguanas are sun - loving saurians . outdoor enclosures are great for them . indoor enclosures should have full - spectrum bulbs running two - thirds to the entire length of the enclosure , in addition to a basking bulb ( or two , depending on the size of the cage ) at one end . to provide maximum health benefit from the full - spectrum lights , basking shelves or other sites should be situated no more than 10 inches from the bulb ( s ) . the ambient temperature in the enclosure should be between 75 and 85 degrees fahrenheit with basking areas reaching 95 to105 degrees .
i use cypress mulch substrate with my spiny - tails . i live in arizona where it is very hot and dry , and i mist their enclosures in the morning to replicate the high morning humidity of their natural habitat . rabbit pellets can also be used , but do not mist these . provide plenty of branches and / or corkboard for your spiny - tails to climb on . various hide spots , such as cork bark hollows of appropriate size , should also be provided . i like to include live edible plants , such as hibiscus , of which both the flowers and leaves are edible , in my spiny - tail enclosures . purchase plants at least 30 days before you plan to use them , as many systemic pesticides and fertilizers may remain active in the plants and soil for at least 30 days .
water misting is my preferred method of watering , particularly for baby spiny - tails , as they will drink the droplets off the plants . i also keep a water dish inside the enclosure ; be sure it’s heavy enough so it doesn’t tip over . misting into the water dish can help draw your spiny - tails’ attention to it . do not mist if you use rabbit pellets as a substrate .
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department of biological sciences , university of hull , hull , hu6 7rx , uk .
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the threats they face include severe habitat degradation by human development and invasive species , as well as harvesting for human use . because iguanas are important seed dispersers for many native plants , their protection is vital to ecosystem health .
through partnerships with government agencies , conservation organizations , and research institutions , the iucn ssc iguana specialist group guides and implements immediate and effective conservation measures for iguanas worldwide .