theretra latreillii ( pale brown hawk moth ) is a moth of the family sphingidae .

it is found in most of asia , including borneo , china , hong kong , the philippines , taiwan and also in the tropical regions of australia .

theretra latreillii

theretra latreillii ( macleay , [ 1826 ] ) = sphinx latreillii macleay , [ 1826 ] .
resembling a small theretra rhesus but forewings conspicuously less elongate and hindwings more rounded apically . very similar to theretra latreillii latreillii but forebasitarsus with outer row of spines single and dorsal lines of abdomen more or less plainly marked . forewing upperside similar to theretra latreillii latreillii but postmedian and submarginal oblique lines clearly visible .
theretra javanica rothschild , 1894 ; novit . zool . 1 ( 1 ) : 76 ; tl : java
[ replaced in the maluku islands by t . latreillii prattorum ; and in new guinea , australia , the bismarck archipelago and the solomon islands by the nominotypical subspecies . ]
theretra obliterata rothschild , 1894 ; novit . zool . 1 ( 1 ) : 74 ; tl : sierra leone
synonymized with chaerocampa latreillii by miskin , 1891 , proc . roy . soc . qd 8 : 17 . reinstated as a species by semper , g . , 1896 , in semper , c . , reise archipel philipp . 2 : 398 . resynonymized with theretra latreillei [ sic ] as a subspecies by rothschild & jordan , 1903 , novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 773 , who nevertheless stated ( p . 772 ) that the two subspecies of latreillii intergrade completely .
synonymized with theretra alecto by rothschild & jordan , 1903 , novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 777 .
theretra orpheus pelius rothschild & jordan , 1903 ; novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 787 ; tl : cameroons
theretra manilae ; [ hmw ] ; eitschberger , 2000 , neue entomologische nachrichten , 48 : pl . 14 , f . 3a - b
theretra hausmanni eitschberger , 2000 ; neue entomologische nachrichten , 48 : 101 , pl . 14 , f . 1a - b , 2a - b
theretra orpheus scotinus rothschild & jordan , 1915 ; novit . zool . 22 ( 2 ) : 294 , pl . 20 , f . 6 ; tl : ilesha , south nigeria
theretra nessus ; moore , 1882 , lepid . ceylon 2 ( 1 ) : 22 , pl . 86 , f . 1 ; rothschild & jordan , 1903 , 765 ; [ hmw ]
theretra natashae paukstadtorum eitschberger , 2000 ; atalanta 31 ( 3 / 4 ) : 497 , pl . xxii , f . 1 ; tl : lombok , w . slope of mt . rinjani ( 3726m ) , baun bussuk
theretra mercedes eitschberger , 2002 ; neue ent . nachr . 53 : 55 , pl . 2 , f . 1 - 3 , pl . 3 , f . 1 - 3 ; tl : indonesia , sumabwa , nusa tenggara barat , tembora mts . , 925m
kirby believed that freyer , 1845 , neu beiträge schmett . 5 : 34 ( cited as 1843 ) , had described a homonymous sphinx cretica , for which kirby proposed theretra freyeri as the new substitute name . however , freyer clearly referred back to a description by treitschke , 1834 , in ochsenheimer , die schmett . europa 10 ( 1 ) : 138 , which itself was a german translation of the original description of sphinx cretica by boisduval 1827 , mém . soc . linn . paris 6 : 118 , and which was referenced as such by treitschke on p . 135 . thus there was no homonym in need of replacement and theretra freyeri is an unnecessary replacement name .
chaerocampa [ sic ] lucasii walker , 1856 , list specimens lepid . insects colln br . mus . 8 : 141 . type locality : north india ; [ bangladesh , ] silhet [ sylhet ] .
wingspan : 64 - - 86mm . head and body drab , antenna , front of head and sides of thorax paler ; abdomen with no black side patches and no stripes . forewing drab with six discal lines , the first nearly always dilated near apex of cell ; a black basal patch at inner margin more or less vestigial ; a black speck at end of cell . hindwing smoky - black , paler towards anal angle . underside buff or vinaceous - buff . cavity at end of first segment of palpus partly concealed by irregular scaling . external row of spines of first protarsal segment double , at least at base .
the moth starts feeding before dark and frequently comes to light ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .
in metro - manila , the philippines , this synanthropic species has been reported as being active at daybreak and during rainy weather , when it has been observed to drink from water puddles next to roads ( dvo & rcaron ; ák , 2014 ) .
china : iii ( guangxi ) ; iv - vii ( hong kong ) ; v ( guangdong ) ; vii ( guangdong ) ; viii ( hainan ; guangxi ) ; ix - x ( hong kong ) . taiwan : v - x ( hualien hsien ) ; vii ( tainan ) ; viii ( nantou hsien ) ; ix ( kaohsiung ) .
kendrick ( 2002 ) states that this species is multivoltine in hong kong , occurring from april until late july , and from mid september until mid october .
ovum : bright grass - green , slightly oval ( 1 . 3 x 1 . 5mm ) , shiny and smooth ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .
larva : full - fed 60mm , width 11 mm . ; horn 5 mm . according to bell & scott ( 1937 ) , in the first instar head yellow , body greenish - yellow ; horn very long , straight , shiny black in colour . in the second instar , head yellowish - green , body shiny green . there is a small dull purplish dorso - lateral eye - spot on segment 5 , and a whitish dorso - lateral stripe from 5 to base of horn . latter black with red base . in the third instar , green dotted with yellow ; dorso - lateral stripe yellow . by the fourth instar , dorsum with white dots ; the eye - spot with pupil black in front , red behind , the red portion containing a yellow inverted comma - shaped marking , the whole edged narrowly with blue and then black . the dorso - lateral stripe edged above with purple on segments 11 and 12 . horn pale greenish - brown dorsally , still paler ventrally , with small black tubercles .
in the fifth and final instar , head with dorsal line slightly depressed on vertex ; clypeus one - half length of head , apex acute , basal angles rounded ; apex of false clypeus forming a wide gothic arch over apex of true clypeus , reaching to two - thirds length of head ; labrum nearly half as long as clypeus , tapering frontad , longitudinally ridged ; ligula as long as labrum ; cutting - edge of mandible obscurely toothed . surface of head dull , under a lens seen to be transversely wrinkled . body as in others of the genus , dull and smooth , segments 5 and 6 not much swollen . horn of medium length , stout at base , tapering gently till near the tip , where it suddenly narrows to a point . basal half of horn straight and rising vertically , distal half bent sharply downwards ; surface dull and covered with small tubercles .
in the green form , head green , labrum , ligula and basal segment of antenna green , other segments of antenna soiled white ; mandible green with tip narrowly brown ; eyes brown . body grass - green with encircling rows of coalescing dots around each secondary ring on segments 5 to 12 , whitish above the dorso - lateral stripe , yellow below it . there is a narrow black dorsal stripe on 2 to 5 ; a dorso - lateral eye - spot on 5 coloured as in the fourth instar , but when nearly full - fed the yellow comma - shaped mark disappearing . there is a yellow suffusion between the eye - spot over the dorsum ; a narrow white dorso - lateral stripe from 6 to base of horn . horn green ; legs red . spiracles elongate - oval , fuscous , the ends shortly yellow , the whole edged narrowly with black and then yellow .
in the dark - coloured form the head is dark brown dotted with paler brown ; labrum and ligula brown ; basal segment of antenna whitish , other segments reddish ; mandible yellow , tip shortly brown . body dark chocolate - brown , the transverse dots paler brown with black dots between them ; the ocellus as in the green form ; the dorso - lateral stripe formed of pink dots on segments 4 and 5 , missing on 6 to 10 , pink on 11 and 12 . horn dusky black , the tip shortly yellowish ; legs yellow with a black patch on each segment and a black line down the outer side ; venter of 2 to 4 pale brown edged broadly with dark brown .
pupa : 50mm , width 11mm , tongue - case projecting 2 mm . in front of head . of a pinkish bone - colour , wing - case paler , head and thorax suffused with greenish and speckled profusely with brown except on a broad dorsal stripe , which is only lightly speckled . there is a broad dark brown dorsal stripe from segment 4 to 12 ; abdomen with a broad brown spiracular and a narrow brown ventral stripe , the sides and venter speckled with brown , the segment of a circle behind spiracle of 2 black , other spiracles bone - colour , the central slit with a dark reddish - brown rim ; cremaster brown .
the tongue - case not very prominent , semicircular in side - view . antenna slightly longer than proleg , which reaches to about one - third the distance to tip of wing - case , mid - leg to two - thirds ; a narrow coxal piece is present . surface dull , head , thorax and wing - case slightly shiny ; head and thorax very shallowly , irregularly corrugate . abdomen finely transversely wrinkled ; front bevel of segment 9 transversely lined . spiracle of 2 a narrow slit lying between the hind margin of 2 and the straight , slightly raised front margin of 3 ; from the raised front margin of 3 a small area shaped like a segment of a circle projects posteriad , its surface depressed posteriad ; remaining spiracles elongate - oval , the central slit lying in a narrower , raised oval . cremaster triangular , flattened , tip , broadly truncate , ending in two short , widely separated teeth ; segment 14 shallowly axially hollowed under base of cremaster .
larval hostplants . saurauia tristyla ( actinidiaceae ) , melia azedarach ( meliaceae ) , ampelopsis brevipedunculata and ampelopsis cantoniensis ( vitaceae ) in hong kong ( tennent , 1992 ) , as well as impatiens ( david l . mohn , pers . comm . 2002 ) . also impatiens , lagerstroemia , vitis and begonia in india ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .
in metro - manila , the philippines , larvae have been found on various species of cayratia ( dvo & rcaron ; ák , 2014 ) .
china : zhejiang ( ningbo ) ; yunnan ( gaoligong shan ) ; fujian ( fuzhou ; longqi shan ) ; guangdong ( dinghushan ; ? ? wa - sha - tai ; guangzhou ) ; hong kong ( kowloon ) ; guangxi ( bamian , jiajiu shan ; liuzhou ) ; hainan ( chengmai ; weining ) .
taiwan : hualien hsien ( taroko national park ) ; tainan ; kaohsiung ; nantou hsien ( puli ) ; taipei ( jingmei ) ; taipei hsien ; ? ? koannania .
from southeast pakistan ( rafi et al . , 2014 ) , the western ghats ( india ) and sri lanka north to nepal and northeastern india , east to southern china and taiwan , and southeast though indochina as far east as the philippines , sulawesi and the eastern lesser sunda islands .
this page contains information about pale brown hawk moths that we found in the brisbane area , queensland , australia .
the pale brown hawk moth caterpillars have two colour form , brown and green . the brown form has the dark brown and white waves patterns on the body .
the green form caterpillar is the same body shape , green in colour and less patterns on the body .
all of them have the curved horn on its tail and the eyespots on the first abdominal segment .
with their eyes pattern on the first segment , they look like a small snake with large eyes . and their ' eyes ' blink ! ! when the caterpillar is feeding , its head extended , the eyes pattern is half folded and it look like the closed eyes . when disturbed , the caterpillar hide its head back into its body and this make the eyes pattern fully open . just look like a snake being waken up .
we found that when the caterpillar are young , which they are too small to mimic a snake , they have another standard posture when disturbed . we can not tell what it look like . most likely is something that their predators want to avoid , such as a paw .
the caterpillars start to turn into a pupa when they grow up to 90 - 100mm . they find a place on soil where covered with plants litter . they use their silk to hold those plants litter to form a small room and turn into a pupa inside . they take two days to turn from caterpillar into pupa .
about two weeks later , a moth comes out from the pupa . when it first comes out , their wings are very small . the moth has to find a vertical position to rest on quickly for their wings are expending . this take half a day for their wings to extend , dry and harden . we observed three pupa and all of them emerged at about 10 - 11 : 00pm .
from the close up picture , we can see the coils of the moths proboscis and imagine how long it is . this is the long tongue which the moth used to sip nectar from flowers while it is hovering .
the moth is pale brown in colour , with two dark brown lines of dots on each forewings . the thorax and the abdomen are the same pale brown colour . on its head there are the big brown eyes .
we found that their caterpillar also like to eat grape leaf . we have a small grape plant in our backyard . in later summer 2003 , we found five to six pale brown hawk moth caterpillars on the plant . two days later , all the grape leaves were gone .
if you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .
swedmark , b . 1964 ,
the interstitial fauna of marine sand
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clark , b . p . 1924 ,
new sphingidae
, proceedings of the new england zoological club , boston , vol . 9 , pp . 11 - 21
mell , r . 1922 , pp . xxii + 331 pp . , atlas 35 pls , 10 figs , 1 map , r . friedlander & son , berlin
moore , f . in horsfield , t . & moore , f . 1858 , vol . 1 , pp . v 278 iv 11 pp . 18 pls , wm . h . allen and co . , london
cornelius , p . f . s . 1992 ,
the azores hydroid fauna and its origin , with discussion of rafting and medusa suppression
, arquipélago . life & earth sciences , vol . 10 , pp . 75 - 99
moore , f . 1877 ,
the lepidopterous fauna of the andaman and nicobar islands
, proceedings of the zoological society of london , vol . 1877 , no . 3 , pp . 580 - 632 pls 58 - 60
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 177e8575 - e19c - 4a36 - ba14 - 12ad51f84ad5
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 4b0ebb72 - 7047 - 4ed5 - 85ad - 4c25fdbf0413
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 2b133032 - 8105 - 4c2e - 9c75 - d355f1a87ba8
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 371252
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florina tutt , 1903 ; ent . rec . j . var . 15 : 76 ; ts : choerocampa japonica boisduval
balkans , sw . asia , se . asia , oriental tropics - sulawesi , japan , hong kong . see [ maps ]
theretro alecto intermissa gehlen , 1941 ; ent . z . 55 : 185 - 186
iran , turkey , greece , sw . asia - oriental tropics - sundaland , lesser sundas , hong kong . see [ maps ]
cechenena sumatrensis joicey & kaye , 1917 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 20 ( 118 ) : 307 ; tl : sumatra , langkat
south africa , e . africa , w . africa , rhodesia . see [ maps ]
japan , s . korea , indo - australian tropics - new south wales , hong kong . see [ maps ]
chaerocampa [ sic ] pallida miskin , 1891 ; proc . r . soc . qd 8 ( 1 ) : 18 ; tl : brisbane
chaerocampa [ sic ] insularis swinhoe , 1892 ; cat . het . mus . oxford ( 1 ) : 18 ; tl : ceram , ké
chaerocampa [ sic ] amara swinhoe , 1892 ; cat . het . mus . oxford ( 1 ) : 21 , pl . 1 , f . 9 ; tl : mysol , aru
chaerocampa [ sic ] tenebrosa moore , 1877 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1877 ( 3 ) : 595
choerocampa prunosa butler , [ 1876 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1875 ( 4 ) : 622
japan , indo - australian tropics - new caledonia , hong kong , hawaii ( introduced ) . see [ maps ]
586x900 ( ~ 63kb ) male female oppadake , okinawa , ryukyu , japan , 8 - 90 , photo © s . shuichi haupt
indo - australian tropics - solomons , hong kong , japan . see [ maps ]
panacra natalensis rothschild , 1894 ; novit . zool . 1 ( 1 ) : 79 , pl . 5 , f . 13 ; tl : natal
choerocampa pallicosta walker , 1856 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 8 : 145
chaerocampa [ sic ] potentia druce , 1894 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 13 : 169 ; tl : mexico
chaerocampa [ sic ] bisecta moore , 1857 ; in horsfield & moore , cat . lep . ins . mus . east india coy 1 : 278 , pl . 11 , f . 5 , 5a
panacra mira swinhoe , 1892 ; cat . het . mus . oxford ( 1 ) : 13 [ ? ] , pl . 1 , f . 6 ; tl : cape york
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
histoire naturelle des insectes . species général des lépidoptéres hétérocéres . tome premier . sphingides , sésiides , castnides
zuträge zur sammlung exotischer schmettlinge , vol . 3 [ 1824 - ] 1825 [ - 1831 ]
systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum clases , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , symonymis , locis . tomis i . 10th edition
in king , narrative of a survey of the intertropical and western coasts of australia . 2 vols . in king ,
beiträge zur fauna sinica ( ii ) . biologie und systematik der südchinesischen sphingiden . zugleich ein versuch einer biologie tropischer lepidopteren überhaupt
a catalogue of the lepidopterous insects in the museum of the hon . east - india company in horsfield & moore ,
des ritters carl von linné königlich schwedischen leib - arztes u . u . vollständiges natursystem nach der zwölften lateinischen ausgabe und nach anleitung des hollän - dischen houttuynischen werks mit einer ausfürlichen erklärung ausgefertigt
die macrolepidopteren des amurgebiets . i . theil . rhopalocera , sphinges , bombyces , noctuae in romanoff ,
wallengren , 1858 nya fjärilslägten - nova genera lepidopterorum öfvers . vet . akad . förh . 15 : 75 - 84 , 135 - 142 , 209 - 215
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
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format summary genbank genbank ( full ) fasta asn . 1 xml insdseq xml tinyseq xml feature table accession list gi list gff3
db = nuccore | term = % 22theretra % 20latreillii % 22 | query = 1 | qty = 3 | blobid = ncid _ 1 _ 145107044 _ 130 . 14 . 18 . 34 _ 9001 _ 1531165133 _ 929635444 _ 0meta0 _ s _ megastore _ f _ 1 | ismultiple = false | min _ list = 5 | max _ list = 20 | def _ tree = 20 | def _ list = | def _ view = | url = / taxonomy / backend / subset . cgi ? | trace _ url = / stat ?
finds sub - sequence or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching region . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .
barcode of life data systems ( bolds ) stats public records : 0 specimens . . .
usually a shrub , to 7 m . leaves : petiole short or 0 ; . . .
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holotype ♂ tanzania : kikese hills , 8 . xii . 2006 [ smcr ] .
large brown caterpillar approx 5cm long , with pink and white eye spots . defensive stance : front half of its body reared up . if i got a little too close with the macro lens it retracted its head a little and the ' eye spots ' closed .
holotype ♂ east timor : north of the island , near to the island of joco , tutuala , 8 - 16 . ii . 2004 ( a . crampette ) ( bold bc - hax2741 ) [ coll . haxaire ] .
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curators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .
species catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .
the hawkmoth fauna of pakistan ( lepidoptera : sphingidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi
rafi ma 1 , sultan a 2 , kitching ij 3 , pittaway ar 4 , markhasiov m 5 , khan mr 6 , naz f 7 .
national insect museum , institute of plant and environmental protection , national agricultural research centre , park road , islamabad 45500 , pakistan . ; email : a _ rafiam @ yahoo . com .
national insect museum , institute of plant and environmental protection , national agricultural research centre , park road , islamabad 45500 , pakistan . ; email : amirsultan _ 2000 @ yahoo . com .
department of life sciences , natural history museum , cromwell road , london sw7 5bd , uk . ; email : i . kitching @ nhm . ac . uk .
cabi , nosworthy way , mongewell , wallingford , oxon , ox10 8de , uk . ; email : t . pittaway @ cabi . org .
department of entomology , faculty of agriculture , university of poonch , rawalakot , azad jammu and kashmir , pakistan ; email : unknown .
national insect museum , institute of plant and environmental protection , national agricultural research centre , park road , islamabad 45500 , pakistan . ; email : unknown .


gracilidris pombero is a species of ant in the genus gracilidris .

described by wild and cuezzo in 2006 , the species is endemic to the south american countries of argentina , brazil and paraguay .

gracilidris pombero

the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see gracilidris pombero for further details
gracilidris pombero occurs in open areas , and is typically collected in places with some degree of human disturbance .
the only extant member of the genus ; see the gracilidris identification section for characters that separate this ant from other genera .
abstract : the dolichoderine ant genus gracilidris and its sole species , g . pombero , are recorded for the first time for colombia from populations from the foothills of the colombian amazon basin . comments and hypotheses about the biogeography of the genus are discussed .
resumen : el género dolicoderino de hormigas gracilidris y su única especie , g . pombero , son registrados por primera vez para colombia , de poblaciones provenientes del piedemonte de la cuenca amazónica colombiana . algunos comentarios e hipótesis sobre la biogeografía del género son discutidos .
in guarani mythology , pombero is a mythical humanoid creature that is nocturnal , and this is a reference to the ants nocturnal behaviour .
in guarani mythology , pombero is a mythical humanoid creature that is nocturnal , and this is a reference to the ants nocturnal behaviour . [ 1 ]
the records of gracilidris for rio grande do sul represent the southernmost register of the genus in the neotropics and the first for the pampa biome .
pombero is a mythical nocturnal figure in guaraní folklore . the name is applied here as a noun in apposition in reference to the nocturnal activity pattern of this species .
etymology pombero is a mythical nocturnal figure in guarani folklore . the name is applied here as a noun in apposition in reference to the nocturnal activity pattern of this species .
natural history : the colombian specimens of gracilidris pombero came from the western foothills of the colombian amazon basin . all specimens of g . pombero were collected in mixed environments highly disturbed by man , as a result of logging and the introduction of livestock grazing . puerto arango sites are open grassland areas ( traditional grazing system ) where the vegetation is predominantly brachiaria humidicola ( rendle ) schweick ( poaceae alt . gramineae ) ; san juan del barro sites are for silvopastoral systems consisting primarily of pasture with scattered shrubs .
material examined : gracilidris pombero . 9 workers ( w ) . colombia : caquetá : florencia . municipio puerto arango . 1°30’29 . 4”n 75°32’57 . 3”w . vi . 2008 . sanabria , c . leg ( 8w ) ; san juan del barro . 1°25’43 . 3”n 75°29’30 . 3”w . vi . 2008 . sanabria , c . leg . ( 1w ) .
wild and cuezzo ( 2006 ) - body proportions and color vary geographically among populations of g . pombero . in particular , specimens from paraguay and argentina are darker and have relatively shorter appendages than brazilian specimens .
guerrero , r . j . ; sanabria , c . 2011 . the first record of the genus gracilidris ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) from colombia . revista colombiana de entomología 37 : 159 - 161 . pdf
guerrero , r . j . & sanabria , c . ( 2011 ) . the first record of the genus gracilidris ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) from colombia . rev . colomb . entomol . , 37 : 159 - 161 .
the collection records of gracilidris pombero indicate that it inhabits low scrub forests of the type found in cerrado and chaco habitats . the specimens from maranhão were collected at a sardine bait in cerrado scrub forest near the edge of a soybean field . the specimen from bahia , brazil was collected in a small primary forest fragment in a cocoa plantation . the mato grosso , brazil collection was from grazed cerrado , and the paraguayan type series came from a lightly grazed copernicia alba palm forest in the humid chaco .
feitosa , r . m . , dröse , w . , podgaiski , l . r . & mendonça , m . s . jr . 2015 . first record of the dolichoderine ant genus gracilidris wild & cuezzo ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) from southern brazil . sociobiology 62 , 296 - 299 ( doi : 10 . 13102 / sociobiology . v62i2 . 296 - 299 ) .
gracilidris ants are probably nocturnal , which may partly explain their rarity in collections . at the type locality , single foraging workers were collected at dusk and after dark on two separate nights , and visual searches and baits during the day at the same location did not yield any workers . in the field , workers appear elongate , their gaster held horizontally , and their movements are smooth and deliberate .
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a new species of fish , pseudoliparis swirei , published in zootaxa ( 4358 : 161 - 177 ) by gerringer , m . e et al . was voted among top 10 new species described in 2017 .
a new species of madagascan crickets described by mustafa ünal and george beccaloni in zootaxa was featured in a national geographic story . well done mustafa and george !
a new species of wolf spider , lycosa aragogi , is named after aragog—the famous fictional spider from “harry potter” book series by j . k . rowling . the new species is similar to the animatronic puppet version of the character used in the film “harry potter and the chamber of secrets” , which is actually based on a wolf spider . the naming of the new species is dedicated to the 20th anniversary of harry potter book series .
mariah o . pfleger , r . dean grubbs , charles f . cotton , toby s . daly - engel
identification of nipaecoccus ( hemiptera : coccomorpha : pseudococcidae ) species in the united states , with descriptions of nipaecoccus bromelicola sp . n . and the male of n . floridensis beardsley
the following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .
wild & cuezzo , 2006 : 62 , figs . 1 - 11 ( w . ) paraguay .
unless otherwise noted the text for the remainder of this section is reported from the publication that includes the original description .
others ( n = 14 ) : hl 0 . 80–0 . 93 , hw 0 . 62–0 . 71 , sl 0 . 89–1 . 08 , fl 0 . 72–0 . 99 , lht 0 . 89 - 1 . 14 , pw 0 . 47 - 0 . 57 , wl 1 . 16 - 1 . 46 , oi 4 . 0 - 6 . 9 , si 138 - 154 , ci 76 - 81 .
head in full frontal view longer than broad ( ci 76–81 ) and quadrate - oval in shape . lateral margins evenly convex and the head no wider posterior to than anterior to the eyes . compound eyes large ( oi 4 . 0–6 . 9 ) , consisting of 130–150 ommatidia , situated near the longitudinal midpoint of the head in full frontal view . anterior clypeal margin usually bearing a single straight , short , forward - projecting median seta , a longer pair of setae just lateral of the midline that are about half the length of the masticatory margin of the mandibles , and an irregular number ( 2–6 ) of small setae lateral to these . mandibular dentition variable but usually as follows : strong apical tooth , a smaller subapical tooth , a small third tooth , a strong fourth tooth , and the remaining 3 teeth small , spaced more or less evenly along the masticatory margin and separated from each other by 1 - 3 denticles . basal angle of the mandible indistinct and bearing 2 - 4 denticles .
dorsal surfaces of ant head , mesosoma , and metasoma devoid of erect setae , except abdominal segment 6 which bears a pair of setae oriented posteriorad . entire surface of body including legs , antennal scapes , and the proximal half of the mandibles covered in a dense , fine pubescence . pubescence also contains fine appressed hairs twice as long as the adjacent hairs , and evenly spaced about as far apart as their length over the body and appendages . these can be difficult to see without the correct lighting , and are most visible on the gaster . ventral surfaces of the mesosoma , coxae , and metasoma with a few erect setae . integument shagreened , ant appearing dull to lightly shining but never opaque .
color varying from body and appendages dark brown ( paraguay , bahia , maranhão ) , to head and gaster light brown with the mesosoma and petiole testaceous ( sao paulo , mato grosso ) . trochanters , tarsi and ventrum of petiole lighter than body , light brown to almost white .
holotype . worker . paraguay , pte . hayes : 5k se pozo colorado . 140m . 23º33 . 129’ s 58º45 . 853’ w , 5 . xii . 2002 , a . l . wild acc . no . # 1766 ( ibnp ) .
paratypes . series of 20 workers , same data as holotype , acc . nos . # 1734 , 1736 , 1766 ( alwc , the natural history museum , california academy of sciences , ifml , los angeles county museum of natural history , museum of comparative zoology , musee d ' histoire naturelle genève , museu de zoologia da universidade de sao paulo , university of california , davis , national museum of natural history ) .
meurer , e . , l . d . battirola , j . h . c . delabie , and m . i . marques . 2015 . influence of the vegetation mosaic on ant ( formicidae : hymenoptera ) distributions in the northern brazilian pantanal . sociobiology . 62 : 382 - 388 . doi : 10 . 13102 / sociobiology . v62i3 . 359
wild , a . l . and f . cuezzo . 2006 . rediscovery of a fossil dolichoderine ant lineage ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) and a description of a new genus from south america . zootaxa 1142 : 57 - 68 . pdf
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wild & cuezzo , 2006 pdf : 62 , figs . 1 - 11 ( w . )
wild , a . l . & cuezzo , f . , 2006 , rediscovery of a fossil dolichoderine ant lineage ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) and a description of a new genus from south america . , zootaxa 1142 , pp . 57 - 68 : 62 - 66 , ( download )
wild , a . l . , 2007 , a catalogue of the ants of paraguay ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . , zootaxa 1622 , pp . 1 - 55 : 24 , ( download )
2 times found in humid chaco , 0 times found in cerrado , 0 times found in pantanal .
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rediscovery of a fossil dolichoderine ant lineage ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) and a description of a new genus from south america .
additional material examined argentina : santiago del estero : copo national parq . ( 5 w , ifml ) . brazil : bahia : ilheus , cepec , specimen not directly examined , ( photographic internet record , # 4830 : http : / / research . amnh . org / entomology / social _ insects / tempcepecline . html , available in 2002 and apparently offline as of august 2005 ) . maranhao : balsas , gerais de balsas 08 ° 34 ’ s 46 ° 42 . 6 ’ w xi . 1999 - iii . 2000 , brandao et al ( 2 w , mzsp ) . mato grosso : mpio . varzea grande , souza lima , 25 . i . 1985 , j . c . trager ( 3 w , mzsp ) . sao paulo : agudos , xii . 1957 , c . gilbert ( 2 w , mzsp ) .
1 biologist . grupo de investigación en insectos neotropicales . instituto de investigaciones tropicales - intropic . universidad del magdalena . carrera 32 n° 22 - 08 , santa marta , magdalena , colombia . current address : programa de doctorado en zoología . instituto de zoología y ecología tropical . universidad central de venezuela . caracas , venezuela . robertojoseguerreroflorez @ urltoken . corresponding author .
2 biologist . grupo biología , ecología y manejo de hormigas . facultad de ciencias . departamento de biología . universidad del valle . campus universitario meléndez , santiago de cali , valle del cauca , colombia .
key words : ants . biodiversity . caquetá . colombian amazon . grazing systems .
palabras clave : hormigas . biodiversidad . caquetá . amazonas colombiano . pasturas ganaderas .
vouchers were deposited in the following collections and institutions ( abbreviations in parentheses ) : california academy of sciences , san francisco , california , u . s . a . ( casc ) ; instituto de ciencias naturales , universidad nacional de colombia , bogotá d . c . , colombia ( icn ) ; museo de entomología de la universidad del valle , santiago de cali , valle del cauca , colombia ( meuv ) .
bolton , b . ; alpert , g . ; ward , p . s . ; naskrecki , p . 2006 . bolton´s catalogue of ants of the world : 1758 - 2005 . harvard university press , cambridge , ma , usa . cd - rom . [
cuezzo , f . 2000 revisión del género forelius ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) . sociobiology 35 : 197 - 277 . [
dubovikoff , d . a . ; longino , j . t . 2004 . a new species of the genus bothriomyrmex emery , 1869 ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) from costa rica . zootaxa 776 : 1 - 10 . [
fernández , f . ; sendoya , s . 2004 . list of neotropical ants ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . biota colombiana 5 : 3 - 109 . [
fernández , f . ; guerrero , r . 2008 . technomyrmex ( formicidae : dolichoderinae ) in the new world : synopsis and description of a new species . revista colombiana de entomología 34 : 110 - 115 . [
gen . n . and ravavy gen . n . ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . zootaxa 2118 : 37 - 52 . [
( formicidae : dolichoderinae ) from the dry forest of colombia . zootaxa 1958 : 51 - 60 . [
hooghiemstra , h ; van der hammen , t . 2001 . desarrollo del bosque húmedo neotropical en el neógeno y en el cuaternario : la hipótesis de los refugios . in : llorente - bousquets , j . & j . morrone ( eds . ) , introducción a la biogeografía en latinoamérica . unam , méxico , pp 129 - 136 . [
hoorn c . 2006 . the birth of the mighty amazon . scientific american 294 : 40 - 47 . [
species group : evidence for two broadly sympatric species . contributions in science ( natural history museum of los angeles county ) 412 : 1 - 16 . [
trees : taxonomy , colony structure , and behavior . p . 271 - 288 . in : huxley , c . ; cutler , d . ( eds . ) . ant - plant interactions . oxford university press , oxford , uk . 601p . [
longino , j . t . 1991b . taxonomy of the cecropia - inhabiting azteca ants . journal of natural history 25 : 1571 - 1602 . [
( polygonaceae ) . journal of hymenoptera research 5 : 131 - 156 . [
shattuck , s . o . 1992 . generic revision of the ant subfamily dolichoderinae . sociobiology 21 : 1 - 181 . [
ward , p . s . ; brady , s . g . 2009 . rediscovery of the ant genus amyrmex kusnezov ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) and its transfer from dolichoderinae to leptanilloidinae . zootaxa 2063 : 46 - 54 [
ward , p . s . ; brady , s . g . ; fisher , b . l . ; schultz , t . r . 2010 . phylogeny and biogeography of dolichoderine ants : effects of data partitioning and relict taxa on historical inference . systematic biology 59 : 342 - 362 . [
wild , a . l . ; cuezzo , f . 2006 . rediscovery of a fossil dolichoderine ant lineage ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) and a description of a new genus from south america . zootaxa 1142 : 57 - 68 . [
( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . university of california publications in entomology 126 : 1 - 151 . [
wilson , e . o . 1985 . ants of the dominican amber . 3 . the subfamily dolichoderinae . psyche 92 : 17 - 37 . [
transversal 24 no . 54 31 of 405 , edificio volterra , bogotá , colombia . apartado aéreo 11366 , bogotá , colombia . tel . : ( 57 - 1 ) 3472320 . fax : ( 57 - 1 ) 2126209 . publicaciones @ urltoken
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rodrigo m . feitosa , william drose , luciana regina podgaiski , milton mendonça jr .
costa - milanez , c . b . , lourenço - silva , g . , castro , p . t . a . , majer , j . d . & ribeiro , s . p . ( 2014 ) . are ant assemblages of brazilian veredas characterised by location or habitat type ? braz . j . biol . , 74 : 89 - 99 . doi : 10 . 1590 / 1519 - 6984 . 17612
instituto brasileiro de geografia e estatística [ ibge ] . 2004 . mapa de biomas e de vegetação . retrieved from : urltoken ( accessed date : 23 january , 2015 ) .
overbeck , g . e . , müller , s . c . , fidelis , a . , pfadenhauer , j . , pillar , v . d . , blanco , c . c . boldrini , i . i . , both , r . & forneck , e . d . ( 2007 ) . brazil’s neglected biome : the south brazilian campos . perspect . plant ecol . evol . syst . , 9 : 101 - 116 .
pillar , v . p . , müller , s . c . , castilhos , z . m . s . & jaques , a . v . a . ( 2009 ) . campos sulinos - conservação e uso sustentável da biodiversidade . brasília : ministério do meio ambiente , 403 p .
prado , d . e . & gibbs , p . e . ( 1993 ) . patterns of species distributions in the dry seasonal forests of south america . ann . mo . bot . gard . , 80 : 902 - 927 .
ward , p . s . , brady , s . g . , fisher , b . l . & schultz , t . r . ( 2010 ) . phylogeny and biogeography of dolichoderine ants : effects of data partitioning and relict taxa on historical inference . syst . biol . , 59 : 342 - 362 .
wild , a . l . & cuezzo , f . ( 2006 ) . rediscovery of a fossil dolichoderine ant lineage ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) and a description of a new genus from south america . zootaxa , 1142 : 57 - 68 .
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wild , a . l . and f . cuezzo . 2006 . rediscovery of a fossil dolichoderine ant lineage ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) and a description of a new genus from south america . zootaxa 1142 : 57 - 68 . issn : 1175 - 5334 pdf
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animals are multicellular , eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom animalia ( also called metazoa ) . all animals are motile , meaning they can move spontaneously and independently , at some point in their lives . their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop , although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their lives . all animals are heterotrophs : they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance .
most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the cambrian explosion , about 542 million years ago . animals are divided into various sub - groups , some of which are : vertebrates ( birds , mammals , amphibians , reptiles , fish ) ; molluscs ( clams , oysters , octopuses , squid , snails ) ; arthropods ( millipedes , centipedes , insects , spiders , scorpions , crabs , lobsters , shrimp ) ; annelids ( earthworms , leeches ) ; sponges ; and jellyfish .
a noun ( from latin nōmen , literally meaning
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) is a word that functions as the name of some specific thing or set of things , such as living creatures , objects , places , actions , qualities , states of existence , or ideas . linguistically , a noun is a member of a large , open part of speech whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause , the object of a verb , or the object of a preposition .
lexical categories ( parts of speech ) are defined in terms of the ways in which their members combine with other kinds of expressions . the syntactic rules for nouns differ from language to language . in english , nouns are those words which can occur with articles and attributive adjectives and can function as the head of a noun phrase .
word classes ( parts of speech ) were described by sanskrit grammarians from at least the 5th century bc . in yāska ' s nirukta , the noun ( nāma ) is one of the four main categories of words defined .
the ancient greek equivalent was ónoma ( ὄνομα ) , referred to by plato in the cratylus dialog , and later listed as one of the eight parts of speech in the art of grammar , attributed to dionysius thrax ( 2nd century bc ) . the term used in latin grammar was nōmen . all of these terms for
noun
were also words meaning
name
. the english word noun is derived from the latin term , through the anglo - norman noun .


the mountain treeshrew ( tupaia montana ) is a treeshrew species within the tupaiidae .

it is endemic to borneo and inhabits montane forests in sarawak and sabah .

the first specimen was described by oldfield thomas and was part of a zoological collection from northern borneo obtained by the british museum of natural history .

mountain treeshrew

the mountain treeshrew , tupaia montana , belongs to scandentia , a group of mammals endemic to southeast asia . it is very abundant in mountain forest in north and central borneo ( map ) .
mountain treeshrew ( tupaia montana ) is an bornean endemic . filmed by teet sirotkin at mt . kinabalu during avifaunas trip march 2016 .
yan wong changed the thumbnail image of
file : nicobar treeshrew ( tupaia nicobarica nicobarica ) . jpg
.
munshi - south j , bernard h , emmons l . behavioral monogamy and fruit availability in the large treeshrew (
madras treeshrew ( anathana ellioti ) in the satpura national park , pachmarhi ( david v . raju , 2016 ) .
the madras treeshrew ( anathana ellioti ) , also known as the indian treeshrew , is a species of treeshrew in the monotypic genus anathana found in the hill forests of central and southern india . the genus name is derived from the tamil name of moongil anathaan ( literally
bamboo squirrel
) and the species name is after sir walter elliot of the indian civil services in madras .
the carnivorous pitcher plant genus nepenthes grows in nutrient - deficient substrates and produce jug - shaped leaf organs ( pitchers ) that trap arthropods as a source of n and p . a number of bornean nepenthes demonstrate novel nutrient acquisition strategies . notably , three giant montane species are engaged in a mutualistic association with the mountain treeshrew , tupaia montana , in which the treeshrew defecates into the pitchers while visiting them to feed on nectar secretions on the pitchers ' lids .
munshi - south j . extra - pair paternity and the evolution of testis size in a behaviorally monogamous tropical mammal , the large treeshrew (
treeshrews have good vision , which is binocular in the case of the more arboreal species . most are diurnal , although the pen - tailed treeshrew is nocturnal .
treeshrews have good vision , which is binocular in the case of the more arboreal species . most are diurnal , although the pen - tailed treeshrew is nocturnal .
this mountain treeshrew was too hungry to just leave after being released , as our hands smelled like banana and other baits we use , the animal started licking and biting them . it was after this desperate behaviour that we decided to fed the animal as a compensation for the time spent on the trap . this is a rare behaviour as usually most animals quickly run away when we release them .
treeshrews are omnivorous , feeding on insects , small vertebrates , fruit , and seeds . most are diurnal , although the pen - tailed treeshrew ( ptilocercus lowii ) is nocturnal .
main characteristics mountain tree shrews have a slender build and a long tail . they have well developed senses of hearing , smell and vision . habitat mountain tree shrews are found in indonesia and malaysia . diet mountain tree shrews are omnivores and they feed on a variety of insects , small vertebrates , fruit and seeds . breeding after a gestation period of approximately 50 days , a litter of 3 - 4 young are born . at birth the young are blind and hairless , but they are able to leave the nest when they are a month old . tree shrews reach sexual maturity at around 4 months old and they generally breed throughout the year with no defined breeding season . subspecies subspecies of the mountain tree shrew include : tupaia montana baluensis tupaia montana montana interesting facts tree shrews have the highest brain to body mass ratio of any animal , even higher than humans . tupaia comes from the malay word
tupai
which means squirrel . similar animals golden - bellied tree shrew horsfield ' s tree shrew common tree shrew northern tree shrew mindanao tree shrew nicobar tree shrew palawan tree shrew slender tree shrew
the pen - tailed treeshrew in malaysia is able to consume large amounts of naturally fermented nectar ( with up to 3 . 8 % alcohol content ) the entire year without it having any effects on behaviour .
in 2008 , researchers found that the pen - tailed treeshrew in malaysia was able to consume large amounts of naturally fermented nectar of up to 3 . 8 % alcohol content the entire year without having any effects on behavior .
the pen - tailed treeshrew in malaysia is able to consume large amounts of naturally fermented nectar ( with up to 3 . 8 % alcohol content ) the entire year without it having any effects on behaviour . [ 8 ]
sirdesai , v . , m . ali , and m . s . r . shad . 2013 . crested hawk - eagle nisaetus cirrhatus feeding on madras treeshrew anathana ellioti . indian birds 8 ( 1 ) : 13 .
collins , p . m . and tsang , w . n . ( 1987 ) . growth and reproductive development in the male treeshrew ( tupaia belangeri ) from birth to sexual maturity . biology of reproduction 37 ( 2 ) : 261–267 .
the fossil record of treeshrews is poor . the oldest putative treeshrew , eodendrogale parva , is from the middle eocene of henan , china , but the identity of this animal is uncertain . other fossils have come from the miocene of thailand , pakistan , india , and yunnan , china , as well as the pliocene of india . most belong to the family tupaiidae , but some still - undescribed fossils from yunnan are thought to be closer to the pen - tailed treeshrew . named fossil species include prodendrogale yunnanica , prodendrogale engesseri , and tupaia storchi from yunnan , tupaia miocenica from thailand , and palaeotupaia sivalicus from india .
the fossil record of treeshrews is poor . the oldest putative treeshrew , eodendrogale parva , is from the middle eocene of henan , china , but the identity of this animal is uncertain . other fossils have come from the miocene of thailand , pakistan , india , and yunnan , china , as well as the pliocene of india . most belong to the family tupaiidae , but some still - undescribed fossils from yunnan are thought to be closer to the pen - tailed treeshrew . named fossil species include prodendrogale yunnanica , prodendrogale engesseri , and tupaia storchi from yunnan , tupaia miocenica from thailand , and palaeotupaia sivalicus from india . [ 15 ]
the fossil record of treeshrews is poor . the oldest putative treeshrew , eodendrogale parva , is from the middle eocene of henan , china , but the identity of this animal is uncertain . other fossils have come from the miocene of thailand , pakistan , india , and yunnan , china , as well as the pliocene of india . most belong to the family tupaiidae , but some still - undescribed fossils from yunnan are thought to be closer to the pen - tailed treeshrew ( ptilocercus ) . named fossil species include prodendrogale yunnanica , prodendrogale engesseri , and tupaia storchi from yunnan , tupaia miocenica from thailand , and palaeotupaia sivalicus from india ( ni and qiu 2012 ) .
this species of treeshrew is not particularly arboreal and spends much of its time on the ground or clambering about on rocky terrain in the search of insects and seeds . [ 13 ] it is easily separated from the squirrels in the field by the shape and color of the tail and the upward curve in which it is held when walking about .
the treeshrews ( or tree shrews or banxrings ) are small euarchont mammals native to the tropical forests of southeast asia . they make up the families tupaiidae , the treeshrews , and ptilocercidae , the pen - tailed treeshrew , and the entire order scandentia . the 20 species are placed in five genera . treeshrews have a higher brain to body mass ratio than any other mammals , including humans , but high ratios are not uncommon for animals weighing less than a kilogram .
the channel between palawan and borneo is about 145 m deep . during the middle pleistocene , sea levels were 160 m lower than today , and the islands were connected . during the last ice age ( late pleistocene ) , sea level was approximately 120 m below current levels , and palawan was separated from ice age borneo by a narrow channel . palawan has always remained separated from the rest of the philippines . palawan is long and narrow , consisting of a steep mountain range whose highest point is 2 , 085 m ( mt . mantalingajan ) . more than 45 percent of palawan consists of mountains with slopes greater than 30 percent ( davis et al . 1995 ) .
the treeshrews ( or tree shrews or banxrings [ 2 ] ) are small euarchontoglire mammals native to the tropical forests of southeast asia . they make up the families tupaiidae , the treeshrews , and ptilocercidae , the pen - tailed treeshrew , and the entire order scandentia . the 20 species are placed in five genera . treeshrews have a higher brain to body mass ratio than any other mammal , including humans , [ 3 ] but high ratios are not uncommon for animals weighing less than a kilogram .
recently , it has been shown that several bornean nepenthes species demonstrate specialized nutrient acquisition strategies , which differ markedly from the ‘typical’ , arthropod - trapping strategy [ 5 ] , [ 6 ] . clarke et al . [ 7 ] and chin et al . [ 8 ] established that three giant montane pitcher plant species from borneo , nepenthes lowii hook . f . , n . rajah hook . f . and n . macrophylla ( marabini ) jebb & cheek , are engaged in an extraordinary mutualistic association with mountain treeshrews ( tupaia montana thomas ( scandentia ) ) , in which the treeshrews defecate into the nepenthes ' pitchers while visiting them to feed on carbohydrate rich secretions produced by glands on the pitchers ' lids .
the degree of development and / or modification of each pitcher component varies substantially among ( and even within ) nepenthes species 2 , 6 , 7 and recent research has demonstrated that unique modifications to pitcher structure possessed by several species play important roles in specialized nutrient acquisition strategies . 8 – 12 one such species , nepenthes lowii , demonstrates a remarkable nitrogen sequestration strategy , in which mountain tree shrews ( tupaia montana ) defecate into its pitchers while feeding on exudates secreted by glands on the inner surface of the pitcher lid . feces accounts for 57–100 % of foliar nitrogen in this species 13 and n . lowii “toilet pitchers” are ineffective arthropod traps . the large orifices and reflexed , concave lids of n . lowii pitchers induce t . montana to sit astride the pitcher whilst feeding , facilitating fecal deposition .
three species of nepenthes pitcher plants from borneo engage in a mutualistic interaction with mountain tree shrews , the basis of which is the exchange of nutritional resources . the plants produce modified “toilet pitchers” that produce copious amounts of exudates , the latter serving as a food source for tree shrews . the exudates are only accessible to the tree shrews when they position their hindquarters over the pitcher orifice . tree shrews mark valuable resources with feces and regularly defecate into the pitchers when they visit them to feed . feces represent a valuable source of nitrogen for these nepenthes species , but there are many facets of the mutualism that are yet to be investigated . these include , but are not limited to , seasonal variation in exudate production rates by the plants , behavioral ecology of visiting tree shrews and the mechanism by which the plants signal to tree shrews that their pitchers represent a food source . further research into this extraordinary animal - plant interaction is required to gain a better understanding of the benefits to the participating species .
several of palawan ' s endemic mammals are considered threatened . three endemic mammal species are considered endangered , including the calamian deer , a sunda tree squirrel ( sundasciurus juvencus ) ( recommended for delisting ; heaney et al . 1998 ) , and the palawan rat ( palawanomys furvus ) , which was collected only four times in 1962 . a subspecies of mouse deer , the balabac chevrotain ( tragulus napu nigricans ) , which is confined to balabac island , is also considered endangered . five endemic mammal species are considered vulnerable , including acerodon leucotis , the palawan treeshrew ( tupaia palawanensis ) , the palawan stink badger ( mydaus marchei ) , the palawan binturong ( arctictis binturong whitei ) , and a sunda tree squirrel ( sundasciurus rabori ) ( iucn 2000 ) .
the madras treeshrew is found on the indian subcontinent south of the ganges river . three subspecies have been described — a . e . ellioti of the eastern ghats , biligirirangan [ 8 ] and the shevaroy hills and other hills of southern india , a . e . pallida from central india primarily in madhya pradesh and raipur , and a . e . wroughtoni from the satpura range and the dangs near bombay . they have been reported within the western ghats ranges of wayanad ( periya ) [ 9 ] and mahabaleshwar . the northernmost record is from garhwa district of bihar . [ 10 ] little is known about the status of these populations as the distribution is patchy , but s . m . mohnot considered them as
common
in 1975 . [ 11 ]
this treeshrew is 16 . 0 to 18 . 5 cm long with a tail of 16 . 5 to 19 . 5 cm . the nominate race ( type locality : eastern ghats , madras . british museum 50 . 1 . 21 . 5 ) has the tail coloured like the back , the ground colour above being reddish - brown while the feet and hind legs are buff or ochraceous . the other two races have the tail coloured differently from the back . the race a . e . pallida ( type locality : manbhum , bengal , collected by robert cecil beavan british museum 66 . 12 . 28 . 2 ) has the colour of body above reddish - brown and the feet and hind legs grizzled buffy . race a . e . wroughtoni ( type locality : mandvi , surat , collected by r . c . wroughton british museum 96 . 11 . 7 . 1 ) has the colour of body above dull grizzled brownish and the feet and hind legs grizzled greyish . [ 4 ] some later workers lump all the three races . [ 5 ]
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justification : listed as least concern as it is common in montane regions of borneo , which remain mostly undisturbed , and although it may be undergoing localized declines , these are not likely to be sufficient to merit listing in a threatened category .
this is a bornean species , with a disjunct range across several isolated montane outcrops of sarawak and western sabah ( malaysia ) ; probably also found in northern kalimantan ( indonesia ) . although it has been trapped as low as 300 m ( medway 1977 ) , such records are very rare , and the species is most common above 600 m .
this species is very common in north - western borneo ( han et al . 2000 ) .
this species is found only in submontane and montane forest , but can tolerate disturbed forest . it is omnivorous , its diet consists predominantly in arthropods , sometimes substituted with fruit ( l . emmons 2000 ) .
a general threat for species living in montane borneo is loss of habitat due to deforestation for agriculture , such as the conversion of upland forests to vegetable farms ( k . h . han pers . comm . ) .
the species occurs in gunung niut nature reserve ( simons 1987 ) , gunung penrissen nature reserve ( medway 1977 ) - although it has not been found there recently in a survey by k . h . han ( pers . comm . ) - danau sentarum national park in western kalimantan ( jeanes and meijaard 2000 ) , crocker range national park and kinabalu park ( k . h . han pers . comm . ) . it has also been recorded from kayan mentarang national park ( i . maryanto pers . comm . ) . it is listed on cites appendix ii .
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borneo , sarawak , mt . dulit , 5 , 000 ft . ( 1 , 524 m ) .
mountains of sarawak and w sabah ( malaysia ) ; probably n kalimantan ( indonesia ) .
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]
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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , ©2005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of
information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
a uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all
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wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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experts across the globe have assessed over 79 , 800 species on the iucn red list - but more needs to be done . our goal is to assess 160 , 000 species by 2020 to guide vital conservation .
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cites is an international agreement between governments , aimed to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival .
diurnal , and very social , they feed on vegetable and animal material mainly on the ground . two pitcher plants , nepenthes lowii and n . rajah , have a mutualistic relation with tupaia montana : the plant offers the animal sugar on its pitchers and this tupaia uses the pitcher as lavatories , thus providing the plant with nutrients ( video 1 , video 2 ) .
sorenson , m . w . , & conaway , c . h . ( 1968 ) . the social and reproductive behavior of tupaia montana in captivity . journal of mammalogy , 49 ( 3 ) , 502 - 512 .
clarke , c . m . , bauer , u . , ch’ien , c . l . , tuen , a . a . , rembold , k . , & moran , j . a . ( 2009 ) . tree shrew lavatories : a novel nitrogen sequestration strategy in a tropical pitcher plant . biology letters , 5 ( 5 ) , 632 - 635 .
wells , k . , lakim , m . b . , schulz , s . , & ayasse , m . ( 2011 ) . pitchers of nepenthes rajah collect faecal droppings from both diurnal and nocturnal small mammals and emit fruity odour . journal of tropical ecology , 27 ( 04 ) , 347 - 353 .
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although called treeshrews , scandents are not true shrews and not all species are necessarily arboreal .
treeshrews serve important roles in the ecosystem , consuming fruit , seeds , insects and other invertebrates ( spiders , centipedes , millipedes , earthworms , etc ) , and in some cases even small vertebrates ( small mammals and lizards ) , and serving as food for snakes , birds of prey , and various wild cats , such as leopard cats and clouded leopards . they also may play a useful role in seed dispersal for plants with soft , juicy fruits . for humans , the diurnal behavior of most species allows them to add to the joy of observing them in nature .
tree shrews are slender animals . they have soft , grayish to reddish - brown fur . they have large orbits , and a well - developed and complete postorbital bar behind the orbit ( myers 2000 ) . treeshrews have good vision , which is binocular in the case of the more arboreal species . they have excellent hearing ( myers 2000 ) . treeshrews have poorly developed canine teeth , with the upper canines molar - like and the upper incisors canine - like ( myers 2000 ) . their overall dental formula is ( myers 2000 ; martin 1984 ) :
in some species , these animals are solitary , while in others , the animals live in pairs or in small family groups ( myers 2000 ) . they mark their territories using various scent glands , or urine , depending on the particular species . treeshrews are typically monogamous ( gi 2012 ) .
female treeshrews give birth to up to three young after a gestation period of 45 to 50 days , in nests lined with dry leaves inside tree hollows . the young are born blind and hairless , but are able to leave the nest after about a month . during this period , the mother provides relatively little maternal care , visiting her young only for a few minutes every other day to suckle them . treeshrews reach sexual maturity after around four months , and breed for much of the year , with no clear breeding season in most species ( martin 1984 ) .
tupaia tana has been known to spend little time in parental care prior to weaning ( less than five minutes every other day to nurse the young ) and yet after weaning spending a lot of time with the young ( miller 2007 ) .
the name tupaia is derived from tupai the malay word for squirrel ( nowak 1999 ) and was provided by sir stamford raffles ( craig 1849 ) . among other things , they eat the fruit of rafflesia , a genus of parasitic flowering plants found in southeastern asia and named after sir raffles , the leader of an 1818 expedition into the indonesia rain forest where they were found .
treeshrews have a higher brain to body mass ratio than any mammals , including humans ( gi 2012 ) .
treeshrews make up the families tupaiidae , the treeshrews , and ptilocercidae , the pen - tailed treeshrews , and the entire order scandentia . there are 20 species in 5 genera .
the classification of treeshrews has been , and remains , controversial . some argue that they are primitive primates , and properly belong in the primates order . however , treeshrews and primates do not appear to share any derived characteristics ( gi 2012 ) . genetic analysis do place them in proximity to the primates and they have been used as an alternative to primates in experimental studies of myopia , psychosocial stress , and hepatitis ( cao et al . 2003 ) .
↑ k . m . helgen ,
order scandentia ,
pages 104 - 109 in d . e . wilson , and d . m . reeder , eds . mammal species of the world , 3rd ed . ( baltimore : johns hopkins university press , 2005 ) . isbn 9780801882210 .
cao , j . , e . - b . yang , j . - j . su , y . li , and p . chow . 2003 . the tree shrews : adjuncts and alternatives to primates as models for biomedical research . j med primatol 32 : 123–130 . retrieved july 24 , 2012 .
craig , j . 1849 . a new universal etymological technological , and pronouncing dictionary of the english language . london : routledge , warnes , and routledge .
genome institute ( gi ) . 2012 . tupaia belangeri . the genome institute at washington university . retrieved july 24 , 2012 .
helgen , k . m . 2005 . pages 104 - 109 in d . e . wilson , and d . m . reeder , eds . , mammal species of the world , 3rd ed . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . isbn 9780801882210 .
janecka , j . e . , w . miller , t . h . pringle , f . wiens , a . zitzmann , k . m . helgen , m . s . springer , and w . j . murphy . 2007 . [ 1 ] molecular and genomic data identify the closest living relatives of primates ] . science 318 : 792–4 . pmid 17975064 .
martin , r . d . 1984 . tree shrews . pages 408 - 413 in d . macdonald , the encyclopedia of mammals . new york , ny : facts on file . isbn 0871968711 .
miller , e . 2007 . tupaia tana . animal diversity web . retrieved july 24 , 2012 .
morris , m . 2003 . tree shrews : order scandentia . angelfire . retrieved july 24 , 2012 .
myers , p . 2000 . scandentia . animal diversity web . retrieved july 19 , 2012 .
ni , x . , and z . qiu . 2012 . tupaiine tree shrews ( scandentia , mammalia ) from the yuanmou lufengpithecus locality of yunnan , china . swiss journal of palaeontology 131 ( 1 ) : 51 - 60 . retrieved july 24 , 2012 .
nowak , r . m . 1999 . walker ' s mammals of the world . johns hopkins university . isbn 0801857899 .
pettigrew , j . d . , b . g . jamieson , s . k . robson , l . s . hall , k . i . mcanally , and h . m . cooper . 1989 . phylogenetic relations between microbats , megabats and primates ( mammalia : chiroptera and primates ) . philosophical transactions of the royal society of london , series b , biological sciences 325 ( 1229 ) : 489–559 . retrieved july 24 , 2012 .
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dipterocarp forests carpet the borneo lowlands forming a green expanse composed of a high number of plant species . as many as 240 different tree species can grow within 1 hectare .
proboscis monkey ( nasalis larvatus ) . these monkeys are living highly specialized lives in the mangrove forest . endangered species . south - east asia .
large dipterocarpaceae tree , a popular timber species . segama forest reserve , sabah ( borneo ) , malaysia
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chin et al . 14 found that two other montane species from borneo , nepenthes rajah and nepenthes macrophylla , also trap tree shrew feces . detailed analysis of trap geometry revealed that these two species and n . lowii share a unique arrangement of trap characteristics that was not detected by earlier studies on the genus . this involves the production of pitchers with very large orifices , large , concave lids that are reflexed approximately 90° away from the orifice and lid glands that produce copious exudates . 14 the distance from the front of the pitcher orifice to the inner surface of the lid precisely matches the head + body length of t . montana , resulting in the tree shrews ' food source being positioned behind the pitcher orifice and ensuring that the animals ' hindquarters are positioned over the orifice while they feed on the lid gland exudates .
thus , n . lowii , n . macrophylla and n . rajah are all engaged in a mutualism with t . montana , the basis of which is the exchange of nutritional resources that are scarce in these species ' habitats . the interaction with t . montana is facilitated by trap geometry , but all three nepenthes species produce pitchers that differ substantially in structure , apart from the shared characteristics outlined above . 14 through a series of modifications to trap structure and geometry—none of which appears to have compromised their ability to trap arthropod prey— n . rajah and n . macrophylla benefit from a highly specialised nitrogen sequestration strategy that is not available to congeners other than n . lowii .
although clarke et al . 13 demonstrated that n . lowii derives nutritional benefit from t . montana feces , there are many facets of the association that have yet to be investigated and the discoveries of chin et al . 14 give rise to a number avenues for further research , several of which are discussed below .
kota kinabalu , sabah , malaysia : natural history publications ( borneo ) ; 1997 .
bonn hf , federle w . insect aquaplaning : nepenthes pitcher plants capture prey with the peristome , a fully wettable water - lubricated anisotropic surface .
bauer u , bohn hf , federle w . harmless nectar source or deadly trap : nepenthes pitchers are activated by rain , condensation and nectar .
kota kinabalu , sabah , malaysia : natural history publications ( borneo ) ; 2001 .
2nd edn . kota kinabalu , sabah , malaysia : natural history publications ( borneo ) ; 2009 .
clarke cm , kitching rl . swimming ants and pitcher plants : a unique ant - plant interaction from borneo .
moran ja , merbach ma , livingston nj , clarke cm , booth we . termite prey specialization in the pitcher plant
moran ja , clarke cm , hawkins bj . from carnivore to detritivore ? isotopic evidence for leaf litter utilization by the tropical pitcher plant
merbach ma , merbach dj , maschwitz u , booth we , fiala b , zizka g . mass march of termites into the deadly trap .
merbach ma , zizka g , fiala b , merbach d , booth we , maschwitz u . why a carnivorous plant cooperates with an ant—selective defense against pitcher - destroying weevils in the myrmecophytic pitcher plant
clarke cm , bauer u , lee cc , tuen aa , rembold k , moran ja . tree shrew lavatories : a novel nitrogen sequestration strategy in tropical pitcher plants .
chin l , moran ja , clarke c . trap geometry in three giant montane pitcher plant species from borneo is a function of tree shrew body size .
jacobs gh , neitz j . spectral mechanisms and color vision in the tree shrew (
collins nm . the distribution of soil macrofauna on the west ridge of gunung ( mount ) mulu , sarawak .
kato m , hotta m , tamin r , itino t . inter - and intra - specific variation in prey assemblages and inhabitant communities in nepenthes pitchers in sumatra .
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though called ' treeshrews ' , and despite having previously been classified in insectivora , they are not true shrews , and not all species live in trees . among other things , treeshrews eat rafflesia fruit .
among orders of mammals , treeshrews are closely related to primates , and have been used as an alternative to primates in experimental studies of myopia , psychosocial stress , and hepatitis . [ 4 ]
treeshrews are slender animals with long tails and soft , greyish to reddish - brown fur . the terrestrial species tend to be larger than the arboreal forms , and to have larger claws , which they use for digging up insect prey . they are
, feeding on insects , small vertebrates , fruit , and seeds . they have poorly developed canine teeth and unspecialised molars , with an overall
female treeshrews have a gestation period of 45 to 50 days and give birth to up to three young in nests lined with dry leaves inside tree hollows . the young are born blind and hairless , but are able to leave the nest after about a month . during this period , the mother provides relatively little maternal care , visiting her young only for a few minutes every other day to suckle them . treeshrews reach sexual maturity after around four months , and breed for much of the year , with no clear breeding season in most species . [ 5 ]
these animals live in small family groups , which defend their territory from intruders . they mark their territories using various scent glands or urine , depending on the particular species .
the name tupaia is derived from tupai , the malay word for squirrel , [ 6 ] and was provided by sir stamford raffles . [ 7 ]
however , the alternative placement of treeshrews as sister to both glires and primatomorpha cannot be ruled out . [ 14 ]
( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . pp . 104–109 .
cao , j ; yang , e . b . ; su , j - j ; li , y ; chow , p ( 2003 ) .
martin , robert d . ( 1984 ) . macdonald , d . , ed .
janecka , jan e . ; miller , webb ; pringle , thomas h . ; wiens , frank ; zitzmann , annette ; helgen , kristofer m . ; springer , mark s . ; murphy , william j . ( 2 november 2007 ) .
pettigrew jd , jamieson bg , robson sk , hall ls , mcanally ki , cooper hm ( 1989 ) .
foley , nicole m . ; springer , mark s . ; teeling , emma c . ( 19 july 2016 ) .
kumar , vikas ; hallström , björn m . ; janke , axel ( 1 april 2013 ) .
meredith , robert w . ; janečka , jan e . ; gatesy , john ; ryder , oliver a . ; fisher , colleen a . ; teeling , emma c . ; goodbla , alisha ; eizirik , eduardo ; simão , taiz l . l . ( 28 october 2011 ) .
zhou , xuming ; sun , fengming ; xu , shixia ; yang , guang ; li , ming ( 1 march 2015 ) .
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palawan represents a bridge between the sunda shelf and philippine bioregions and contains faunal elements from both , as well as it own unique elements . this ecoregion , though more intact than any other region in the philippines , is under great pressure from logging interests .
description location and general description this ecoregion includes the island palawan plus balabac , ursula island , and the calamian group . palawan itself is the sixth largest of the philippine islands . the climate of the ecoregion is tropical wet ( national geographic society 1999 ) . in northwest palawan , a dry season lasts from november to may while the wet season lasts from june to october ; the rest of the island experiences a short , one - to three - month dry season . the east coast becomes progressively drier than the west coast from north to south ( davis et al . 1995 ) .
vegetation types on palawan are diverse and include beach forest , tropical lowland evergreen dipterocarp rain forest , lowland semi - deciduous forest , montane forest , and ultramafic and limestone forest . beach forest merges with other forest types away from the coast and includes calophyllum inophyllum , canarium asperum var . asperum , pometia pinnata , palaquium dubardii , and ficus spp . ( davis et al . 1995 ) .
the lowland evergreen dipterocarp rain forest , which naturally occupies 31 percent of the island , is dominated by agalai spp . , dipterocarpus gracilis , d . grandiflorus , ficus spp . , tristania spp . , exocarpus latifolius , and swintonia foxworthyi . sygium spp . , dracontomelon dao , and pongamia pinnata are emergent . lianas and cycads are common . in southern palawan , a casuarina sp . dominates in the lowland forests ( davis et al . 1995 ) .
the eastern half of the island is in a rain shadow and contains moist semi - deciduous forests . soils are thin on the steeper slopes and support medium - sized trees ( up to 15 m tall ) , which shed their leaves during the march - may dry season . the rainy season is june - july . common tree species include pterocymbium tinctorium , pterospermum diversifolium , hymenodictyon spp . , and garuga floribunda ( davis et al . 1995 ) .
montane forests , found between 800 and 1 , 500 m , are dominated by tristania spp . , casuarina spp . , swietenia foxworthyi , and litsea spp . in the lower elevations . upper montane forest trees include agathis philippinensis , dacrydium pectinatum , podocarpus polystachyus , gnetum latifolium , cycas wadei , cinnamomum rupestre , nepenthes philippinensis , and angiopteris spp . ( davis et al . 1995 ) .
limestone forests are found on the islets surrounding palawan and over large areas in the southern portions of the island . represented are euphorbia trigona , aglaia argentea , and antidesma , drypetes , gomphandra , sterculia , pleomele , and begonia spp . ( davis et al . 1995 ) .
victoria peak , in south - central palawan , contains the largest region of ultramafic forest on the island . although many of the ultramafic tree species are shared with semi - deciduous forest , several species , including scaevola micrantha , brackenridgea palustris var . foxworthi , exocarpus latifolius , and phyllanthus lamprophyllus are believed to be heavy metal indicators ( davis et al . 1995 ) .
biodiversity features relative to the size of palawan , the ecoregion contains a rich fauna , including several groups that are not found in the rest of the philippines ( carnivores , pangolins , porcupines , and some insectivores ) ( heaney 1986 ) .
there are many endemic mammals in palawan , but nearly all the genera ( 96 percent ) are also found in borneo . of twenty - five indigenous nonvolant mammal species , eleven ( 44 percent ) are endemic to palawan , and the remainder are shared with borneo . therefore , the greater palawan region is rightly considered part of the sunda shelf bioregion rather than that of the philippines . the large number of endemic species but few endemic genera of palawan are consistent with a separation of borneo and palawan of approximately 160 , 000 ( since the middle pleistocene ) ( heaney 1986 ) . there are fifteen endemic or near - endemic mammals in greater palawan ( table 1 ) .
family species pteropodidae acerodon leucotis * cervidae axis calamianensis * sciuridae sundasciurus steerii * sciuridae sundasciurus moellendorfi * sciuridae sundasciurus rabori * sciuridae hylopetes nigripes * muridae chiropodomys calamianensis * muridae maxomys panglima * muridae palawanomys furvus * hystricidae hystrix pumila * sorcidae crocidura palawanensis * muridae haeromys sp . a * sciuridae sundasciurus hoogstraali * sciuridae sundasciurus juvencus * tupaiidae tupaia palawanensis *
the calamian deer ( axis calamianensis ) is found only in the calamian islands , where it survives in low densities on busuanga , calauit , and culion islands . the only protected area for this species was established to protect free - ranging african ungulates on calauit island ( wemmer 1998 ) .
as with mammals , philippine birds in general show a strong bornean affinity , and it is clear that the main pathway of asian immigration to the philippines was through palawan ; of 395 philippine breeding species , 137 ( 35 percent ) also breed in borneo . palawan birds exhibit strong differentiation at the subspecific level when compared with its nearest philippine neighbor , mindoro . this is in contrast to the other partial land bridge between borneo and the philippines , the sulu islands , which have not differentiated significantly from mindanao . borneo and palawan share twenty - three bird species that are not found in the rest of the philippines . the asian genera polyplectron , malacocincla , malacopteron , dinopium , aegithina , criniger , seicercus , and gracula are found only in palawan within the philippines ( dickinson et al . 1991 ) . the island forms an important bird migration route between borneo and the rest of the philippines for southern migrants ( davis et al . 1995 ) .
this ecoregion corresponds exactly with the palawan eba ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ) . the eba contains twenty restricted - range birds , seventeen of which are found nowhere else on earth and five of which ( palawan peacock - pheasant [ polyplectron emphanum ] , grey imperial - pigeon [ ducula pickeringii ] , blue - headed racquet - tail [ prioniturus platenae ] , falcated wren - babbler [ ptilocichla falcata ] , and palawan flycatcher [ ficedula platenae ] ) are considered vulnerable ( collar 1999 ) . all these vulnerable birds are dependent on lowland and hill forest ( collar et al . 1999 ; stattersfield et al . 1998 ) . there are twenty endemic or near - endemic bird species in the palawan ecoregion ( kennedy et al . 2000 ; table 2 ) .
the critically endangered philippine crocodile ( crocodylus mindorensis ) was historically found on the islands of luzon , mindoro , masbate , samar , jolo , negros , busuanga , and mindanao . busuanga contains one of the only remaining populations ( others are found on mindoro , negros , and mindanao ) . whereas the decline of the species was initially driven by overexploitation , habitat loss and human persecution are now the principal threats to the philippine crocodile . surveys in 1980 - 1982 revealed a total wild population of approximately 500 - 1 , 000 individuals , but current wild populations may be approximately 100 nonhatchlings . captive breeding efforts are being led by the crocodile farming institute , an entity of the philippine government ( ross 1998 ) .
a total of 1 , 522 ( davis et al . 1995 ) to 1 , 672 ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) vascular plants have been identified on palawan , and it is estimated that more than 2 , 000 species are present on the island . as detailed earlier , palawan has an extremely diverse range of vegetation types for the philippines . a small number of dipterocarps , an important timber tree group , are present on the island , as well as a variety of medicinal plants used by ethnic tribes and plants used in ceremony and as ornamentals ( davis et al . 1995 ) .
current status almost all of the philippines was once completely forested ( dickinson et al . 1991 ) . as of 1988 , palawan contained 7 , 410 km2 ( 54 percent ) of total forest remaining ( ssc 1988 ) . at the time this was the highest percentage of any of the philippines ' large islands .
later aerial surveys ( development alternatives 1992 ) indicated that significant reductions in closed - canopy forest cover had occurred since 1988 as a result of recent logging . as seen from the air , the lowlands and hillsides consist of slash - and - burn agriculture up to the edges of natural forest in the highlands . closed - canopy forest caps only the highest areas on the island .
palawan ' s forests are of low commercial value because of the small number of dipterocarps , and until the last twenty years palawan ' s forests were ignored in favor of the more valuable forests of luzon and mindanao . government logging regulations setting guidelines for minimum diameter , minimum rotation length , and replanting have been largely ignored ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) .
because of a generally high population density in other parts of the philippines , large numbers of shifting cultivators ( kaingineros ) are attracted to palawan to eke out a living on the hillsides of the island , and their cumulative impact is enormous ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) .
all of palawan was declared a fauna and flora watershed reserve , and this includes a variety of protected areas , including national parks , wilderness areas , experimental forests , forest research reserves , game refuges , wildlife sanctuaries , museum reservations and research sites , tourist zones , and marine reserves .
recent reports in the international press indicate ( and have been confirmed , l . heaney , pers . comm . , 2000 ) that the situation in palawan has stabilized , that large - scale logging has been halted , and that a balance is being achieved between economic development and conservation ; future monitoring will determine whether this is remains true .
types and severity of threats habitat destruction is the main threat to biodiversity in the philippines , and palawan , though currently in better condition , is no different . logging and shifting cultivation ( kaingin ) are cited as the primary forces of habitat conversion . logging takes many forms , from industrial scale to smaller - scale operations that use water buffalo to haul logs out of the forest . mangroves are used locally for firewood , dyes , and tannins ( davis et al . 1995 ) , and they are sometimes removed to make way for fishponds ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) .
hunting and the wild pet trade are also significant threats in palawan . leopard cats have been hunted for their pelts and are sold when kittens as pets ( heaney and regalado 1998 ) . the palawan binturong is hunted for meat and as pets , and the pangolin is hunted for its hide ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) . the palawan peacock - pheasant ( dickinson et al . 1991 ; collar et al . 1999 ) , blue - headed racquet - tail ( collar et al . 1999 ) , philippine cockatoos ( cacatua haematuropygia ) , and blue - naped parrots ( tanygnathus lucionensis ) ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) apparently are suffering greatly from the pet trade . the final destination for these birds often is the united states ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) .
ornamental plant collecting , especially for the orchids ( phalaenopsis amabilis and paphiopedilum argus ) , pitcher plants ( nepenthes spp . ) , palms ( veitchia merrillii ) , and aroids ( amorphophallus spp . and alocasia spp . ) threatens some plant populations ( davis et al . 1995 ) .
a valuable resin , known as manila copal , is collected from agathis dammara trees . this collection weakens the trees , and slackening production and disease combined with overexploitation are threatening the species ( davis et al . 1995 ; quinnell and balmford 1988 ) .