neuroterus numismalis is a gall wasp that forms chemically induced leaf galls on oak trees .

it has both bisexual and agamic ( parthenogenetic ) generations and forms two distinct galls on oak leaves , the silk button gall and blister gall .

the galls can be very numerous with more than a thousand per leaf .

neuroterus numismalis

sometimes called the
smooth spangle
gall . usually much less common that either neuroterus numismalis and neuroterus quercusbaccarum .
silk button galls ( neuroterus numismalis ) . chemically induced distortions on pedunculate oak ( quercus robur ) caused by the cynipid wasp neuroterus vesicator
oak silk - button spangle gall wasp ( neuroterus numismalis ) on oak ( quercus sp . ) .
andrew harrington / galls of silk button spangle gall wasp ( neuroterus numismalis ) on oak leaf . england , uk , europe
spangle galls on oak leaf created as a result of the plant ' s response to neuroterus numismalis wasp larvae . © power and syred . urltoken
small raised galls agent : neuroterus numismalis gall wasp ( sexual ) right : top of leaf gall showing radiating lines photo : 28th may 2013 .
georgette douwma / silk button spangle galls caused by the gall wasp ( neuroterus numismalis ) and common spangle galls caused by another ( neuroterus quercusbaccarumon ) on the underside of an english oak leaf ( quercus robur ) uk .
georgette douwma / silk button spangle galls caused by the gall wasp ( neuroterus numismalis ) on the underside of an english oak leaf ( quercus robur ) uk .
colin varndell / silk button galls on the underside of pedunculate oak leaf ( quercus robur ) caused by the gall wasp ( neuroterus numismalis ) . dorset , uk , september .
adrian davies / silk button spangle galls on an english oak ( quercus robur ) leaf caused by a gall wasp ( neuroterus numismalis ) , surrey , england , uk , september .
alongside spangle galls you may see silk - button galls , which look as if they’ve been woven from golden threads and are made by the asexual generation of the wasp neuroterus numismalis .
georgette douwma / silk button spangle galls caused by the gall wasp neuroterus numisalis and common spangle galls caused by the gall wasp neuroterus quercusbaccarumon on the underside of an english oak leaf ( quercus robur ) uk .
oyster gall agent : neuroterus anthracinus gall wasp ( asexual ) attached to midrib of leaf of english oak .
this gall ( note the discolouration near the tip of the leaf ) would seem to have been caused by the sexual generation of the silk button spangle gall wasp , neuroterus numismalis . for a view of the underside of this leaf and the gall see >
silk button gall wasp ( neuroterus numismalis ) creates 3mm diameter golden brown discs with a pronounced central depression on the underside of oak leaves in late summer - early autumn . the next generation in spring forms small oval galls on the male catkins and leaf margins .
georgette douwma / silk button spangle galls caused by the gall wasp ( neuroterus numisalis ) and common spangle galls caused by another gall wasp ( neuroterus quercusbaccarumon ) on the underside of an english oak leaf ( quercus robur ) uk .
georgette douwma / silk button spangle galls caused by the gall wasp ( neuroterus numisalis ) and common spangle galls caused by another gall wasp ( neuroterus quercusbaccarumon ) on the underside of an english oak leaf ( quercus robur ) uk .
duncan mcewan / silk button spangle galls on oak casued by wasp ( neuroterus albipes ) . scotland , uk , europe
catkin gall agent : neuroterus aprilinus ( asexual ) gall wasp on male catkins of english oak . photo : 9th may 2009 .
neuroterus numismalis is a gall wasp that has two generations per year . one being sexual and the other agamic ( all female and needs no male to reproduce ) . the sexual generation causes blister galls on oak leaves . whereas the agamic generation causes silk button galls on the underside of oak leaves .
chris o & apos ; reilly / silk button and common spangle galls of gall wasps { neuroterus spp } on oak leaf . uk
georgette douwma / silk button spangle galls caused by the gall wasp neuroterus numisalis on the underside of an english oak leaf ( quercus robur ) uk .
spangle galls are made by the grubs of the asexual generation of the gall - wasp neuroterus quercusbaccarum . each gall , containing a single wasp grub , falls from the tree in autumn and overwinters in leaf - litter .
early oogenesis in neuroterus baccarum l . has been traced . no doubleness is observed in the chromatin threads before the diffuse state , from which they emerge paired end - to - end . the ten bivalents are arranged in a characteristic parallel series on the metaphase plate . thereafter , lateral fusion occurs and , in the mature egg , the chromatin is present as a spindle - shaped mass .
a new gall in the uk 2006 . agent : neuroterus saliens gall wasp . left - sea anemone gall in female flower ( sexual generation ) photo : 13th may 2006 . right - galls 3mm . on midrib ( both surfaces ) and leaf petiole . photo : 15th october 2006 . ( asexual generation ) . both photographs taken from the same tree on hog hill . both generations on turkey oak .
common spangle gall wasp ( neuroterus quercusbaccarum ) causes yellowish gingery brown disc - like galls 3 - 4mm in diameter on the underside of oak leaves in late summer - early autumn . the galls drop to the ground in autumn and females emerge in spring to lay eggs on the male catkins . the next generation causes spherical fleshy galls 5 - 6mm in diameter on the catkins . these galls are yellowish green or reddish in colour and are known as currant galls .
smooth spangle galls ( neuroterus albipes ) . the galls are saucer - shaped , yellowish - green or pinkish - red discs without any hairs and up to 4mm in diameter . they form mainly on the underside of the leaf with each gall containing a single larva . pupation takes place during the winter while the galls are on the ground and females emerge in the spring . they lay eggs which give rise to small , oval , green galls which are attached to the leaf margins or the catkins . males and females emerge in may - june .
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it’s great to spend time in your yard , on your patio or putzing in your garden . time spent enjoying your efforts , but if not your hobby , another family members hobby . sitting on a swing , under a tree , watching two birds playing in a verdigras leaf bird bath . watching your children or grandchildren “ah” each time the solar lighting around them turns on and the garden becomes a magical playground . maybe compairing how tall the kids are aginst a pair of flamboyant flamingo stakes . time spent in a cotton padded swinging chair or a bradid hammock , just reading a good book .
urltoken has the right decor to make those times most memorable . we have bird feeders and bird feeding stations for all you bird feeders . we have bird feeders for your yard , bird feeding stations for your garden and bird feeder decor for your patio and deck . we have many shapes and sizes for just about any bird feeder need you might have . bird feeders for any occasion and color to match any decor . bird feeders that sit on the table , bird feeding stations that hang and bird feeders that could make a bird feeding city .
if it’s bird houses your interested in , we have them too . wooden bird houses , tall bird houses , short bird houses and bird houses in between . blue , green , red and yellow colored bird houses and many designes to match your bird house needs . we offer standing , hanging and table top versions . instead of that bird feeding city you could build a bird house town . of course some don’t like birds as much as they like frogs , or maybe they like both . urltoken has a frog for most occasions . solar powered frogs to light your way at nite or cutesy frog key holders to keep your spare key safe till you need it . maybe you are looking for simplicity , such as a frog on a mushroom . frog decor to match your uniqueness and if we don’t have it contact us and we will find the right frog for you .
how to build your own barbeque barbeques are a great way to enjoy time with your family and friends . the food is easy to prepare and it’s one of the only times when the man of the house takes over the chores . there are different shapes and sizes of bbq’s on the market . if you are barbeque fan though , you might just have to build your very own – it just requires a little knowhow and hard work ;
1 . decide where you want the barbeque hub to be placed . make sure it is away from trees , fences and anything that will catch fire if the wind catches the flames .
2 . don’t set your heart on a complex barbeque if your a rookie builder . you need something functional , not something that looks great but is of no use .
3 . once you have decided on where you want the barbeque to be , use your grills and measure the barbeque area . at this point , you might want to lay down your bricks and see if any of the bricks will need to be cut . for rookies , it is best to avoid this and widen your area if this is the case .
4 . clear the area of grass , stones and any other debris . dig for about 8 to 10 inches , add tamper and gravel and then pour in the cement . smooth the area and leave overnight to dry out .
5 . lay down your bricks again and check if you have done everything right . make sure the bricks at the end fit perfectly . if you need more help , mark where your bricks will go .
6 . before cementing your bricks , hose them down with water . mix the mortar and using the trowel lay down your bricks pressing gently into the mortar .
7 . continue building your wall and use the level to check that everything is even . make sure the barbeque sits at a comfortable height , and also make sure the grills are placed comfortably . you don’t want to burn yourself while checking the food on the lower grill etc .
8 . two grill racks are usually enough for a normal sized family . for the grill racks , place bricks in such a way that they jut out to form notches that can support the grills . remember not to place these together or too far apart .
9 . keep checking with the level , finish the final layer and using a hosepipe neaten the joints .
10 . if you want you can even build an additional place where you can cement a paving slab for a side table with a cupboard below for your charcoal and other things .
in hot summer days , we try our best to stay cool . there are various cooling methods we can employ depending upon the convenience , efficiency and budget . the shops are full of several appliances with a varying price range . each one has its benefits and disadvantages . to know which one is best for you , read on .
an ac acts really fast when it comes to cooling your home ( ps : avoid these mistakes ) . as soon as you switch it on , the ac unit brings the temperature down to a comfortable level within a few minutes . there are various types of air conditioners : window ac , split ac , ducted unit , portable ac etc .
a tower fan gently blows cool breeze on your body and helps you cool down . it does not cool the room . when air blows on your skin , the moist on your skin evaporates and leaves you with a cool feeling . it never brings down the temperature of the room .
a good night’s sleep is no luxury but necessity , and to sleep well , we need a comfortable atmosphere at night . we worry about the expense factor when purchasing an appliance . your hard - earned money should be invested for something good .
ac is considered to be luxury because of its price level . a basic unit costs no less than $ 100 . if you want an energy star rated product , the cost will go up . additional features add more to it .
a tower fan is lot cheaper than an ac . a simple unit comes only at $ 40 . additional features will cost more than that but it is always less than an ac .
an ac unit requires lot more energy than a tower fan . an ac drags in hot air , cools it and flushes out the cool air through vents . an air conditioner pulls more electricity to run this process .
a best tower fan needs only 2400 watts in an entire day , whereas , the same power is required every hour to run an ac . therefore , you can save a great deal of money if you are running a tower fan instead of an ac . energy star rated products are designed to consume less energy , however , they don’t come cheap
for an highest quality tower fan , take a look at this site , these guys have reviewed some great tower fans , which are great for cooling small - to medium - sized rooms .
air conditioners are heavier and bigger appliances , therefore , they produce more noise . though , these are designed to work quietly but some amount of noise does come from them . a tower fan operates softly without disturbing your sleep .
the air conditioners are generally non - portable . new versions of portable acs have been launched , however , these are not as efficient as the main stream ac machines . portability helps you to carry it wherever you want and enjoy the cool breeze but acs are not good for you if you want a portable home cooling appliance .
the tower fans are portable . you can fix a location or keep changing it , whatever suits you . the models are lighter , sleek and smooth , therefore , helps you save more space . the weight is easy for carrying purpose .
gone those days when only an ac would come with a remote control . the modern tower fans are also accompanied with remote control systems for an easy operation . you can easily operate , fix timers , change speed levels with the help of a remote .
i hope that after the comparison between tower fans and acs you would be able to decide which one is the best for you . tower fans are highly recommended if you want to save a great deal of money when purchasing the unit and also when running it . whereas , the acs are only good for cooling , but these do not help you save money .
the flowering process in the garden represents significant transformations in the development of the vegetable plants . in some cases it signals the start of the cropping process . in other cases it represents the end of the productive life of a plant . flowering can also be a used to time events or can be a warning sign for a gardener – a sign that we may have done something wrong , or are taking a risk .
many of the vegetables that we eat are in fact fruit or seeds – a fruit being roughly defined the part of the plant that contains the seeds . tomatoes , peppers , aubergines / eggplant , cucumbers , courgette / zucchini and squash are all technically fruit , some being eaten at the immature stage and others when fully ripe . runner bean and french / snap / green bean pods are immature fruit , with the peas , broad beans and sweet corn being immature seeds . all of these , and more , are dependent on flowers and pollination . if the flowers are delayed or there is not sufficient pollination , then there will be no crop – in most cases .
pollination occurs with the transfer of pollen from the male flower to the female flower , or from the male part to the female part within the same flower . this pollination is done by the wind , by insects or automatically within the flower , depending on the plant and the growing conditions .
there are very few plants in the vegetable garden that have male and female flowers on different plants . spinach is the most common with some plants being male and some plants being female . as we eat the leaves of this plant and not the fruit or seeds , pollination is not something for a grower to worry about , unless you want to save seeds . asparagus is another example , and the yield from male plants is apparently higher , so there may be an advantage to having more male plants .
some vegetables have separate male and female flowers on the same plant – called ‘imperfect’ flowers – and the pollen must be transferred between them by the wind or an animal . sweet corn is one of the few crops in a vegetable garden that rely on wind pollination to ensure a decent crop . courgettes / zucchini and the closely related squash and pumpkin are the most common and vibrant examples of plants that rely on insects – or humans – to produce a crop .
if you wanted to save seed for one variety of courgette , or if you wanted to specifically cross breed two different varieties , it is fairly easy to do with this manual pollination technique , so long as you can prevent insects from interfering in the process .
flowers are considered to be ‘perfect’ if they contain both the male and female parts within the same flower . this obviously simplifies pollination , but the process still occurs . peas and french / green / snap beans have perfect flowers in which the pollen laden stamen brushes past the female stigmas as the flower opens – this is a self pollination process . even though bees may visit the flowers , they are not needed in the process , and very rarely do they transfer pollen from one flower to the next . this makes seed saving very convenient – though breeding is a trickier task .
tomatoes also have perfect flowers and are self pollinating in most cases . all that is needed is for the pollen to be shaken onto the female part of the flower which is enclosed within the male part . this can be done by the wind shaking the plant , buy a buzzing insect landing on the flower , or by the gardener gently tapping or vibrating the individual flowers or the entire plant . in some of the larger beefsteak tomato varieties , the female stigma projects out of the flower a bit and can be cross - pollinated by insects carrying pollen from another flower .
unfortunately suitable bees do not regularly come into the polytunnel , so i tried doing the triggering myself with a tiny paint brush . by holding onto the top petal of each flower , i was able to insert the brush into the flower and gently pull down the lower part , pushing open the flower and hopefully triggering the pollination just as a bee would . this seems to have worked as pods are now starting to form . it is a tedious job but a simple one . given how big the runner beans become , taking a few minutes to trigger even a few dozen flowers each morning can ensure a bigger harvest than most families can eat or freeze .
warning sign the premature bolting of leaf plants is one of the key signals to a grower that things are not quite right for the plants . something is stressing them , and although there is little that a grower can do to reverse this bolting process , it is a good opportunity to learn about what might be done differently . sometimes it is simply weather conditions that are inappropriate for the plant , and a grower can choose to plant earlier , later or use different varieties and crops . bolting could also indicate that the plant felt too crowded , and did not have enough space above or below ground to grow any bigger . water stress , or lack of nutrients can also be a factor , both of which a grower can do something about – next time . bolting can also be caused by transplants that were not taken care of , were too long in the pots or modules , were not hardened off enough , or received rough treatment while being transplanted .
one of the other warning sighs about flowering is the potential danger of increasing the problems with weeds . an annual weed can can go from flower to the production of viable seeds in a very short period of time . even if you pull out a flowering weed and throw it into the compost , the plant may have enough energy left in its roots and leaves to produce viable seeds , which will then be spread across the garden with the compost – unless it is a hot enough compost . vegetable plants can also become problematic weeds if you let them produce seeds . it is common to see a few old kale plants in an allotment being allowed to flower . while this is a beautiful sight , and very beneficial for pollinating bees , each of these plants can produce thousands of seeds , which can become a major weed the next year – something that i am currently experiencing . remember , one year’s seeding requires seven years of weeding .
one final aspect is that the timing of the flowing of various ‘weeds’ and naturally occurring plants in the vicinity can be a very useful guide to when things could be sown or transplanted . for example , dandelions flower each spring , but at different dates , depending on the overall conditions such as weather , soil temperature , etc . this could be used a signal that conditions are right for sowing some early plants . this of course takes experience , but in the context of climate change , it is useful guide to the changes of the season and when tasks should be done , rather than relying or dates in the calendar . there is so much to observe and learn .
peas are not usually grown in protected gardens as they don’t like the heat and the space is usually considered too valuable for such a low yielding crop . but i decided to try growing some peas in the polytunnel in order to produce an early treat before anything would be available outside . summary :
the avola dwarf pea variety was used , which is supposed to produce an early crop from an overwintering or early spring planting . it is a round seeded variety and is supposed to grow 60cm tall . growing details include :
the plants were healthy in general , with no significant problems , though they grew taller than expected . the crop was a tasty and welcome treat , but yields were low and the crop was later than expected .
a total of almost 2 hours was spent on this crop , mostly on harvesting and setting up the supporting structure .
gfi for this crop is 18 servings / hour or 16 . 5 servings / m² .
this is at the low end of the scale , a very inefficient use of time and space .
a serving size was set at 50g , as they are usually eaten fresh and uncooked .
calculation does not include the ‘cost’ of the tunnel , water and other inputs .
the crop was relatively trouble free . one of the plants was damaged at base of a stem by an unknown pest . at the end of the cropping , some of the peas were eaten by a mouse .
growing the peas at the side of the tunnel was a mistake as it made it more difficult and time consuming to harvest the peas .
the peas grew to about 120cm tall , almost twice the expected height , causing them to outgrow the supporting structure , and making harvesting more difficult .
try sowing earlier for an earlier harvest , possibly even in november as an overwintering crop .
use a heavier cropping rather than a really early variety , which would produce over a longer period of time .
the end of harvest in the tunnel should ideally coincide with the start of harvest of overwintering peas outside , to ensure a continuity of supply , but this is dependent on weather .
peas are probably not as suitable as mangetout for protected cropping , given the difference in yield .
kohlrabi is an unusual vegetable . closely related to the cabbage and the turnip , the edible component is actually a swollen part of the stem , which is similar in texture and taste to a broccoli stem , but milder and sweeter . while it is a common crop in parts of europe , it is very much a novelty here in ireland , and i trialed it in the protected garden as a hunger gap crop .
the kohlrabi was grown in the same bed as carrots , beetroot , chard , turnip and radish , which were all to provide a crop before the summer crop of cucumbers and melons . a purple skin azur star variety was used with the following planting details :
total yield including leaves estimated at 1 . 4kg / m or 5 . 7kg / m2 .
a total of about 30 minutes was spent on this crop , most of it on the original sowing and filling in the gaps with transplants – including the time spent caring for and watering the tray of transplants .
gfi for this crop is almost 40 servings / hour or 20 servings / m² .
if leaves were eaten gfi would increase to 85 servings / hr or 45 servings / m² .
with full germination , gfi could increase to 70 servings / hr , 120 with leaves .
serving size set at 100g , not including a small amount of waste from peeling .
calculation does not include the ‘cost’ of the tunnel , water and other imputs .
beyond the poor germination of the original sowing – caused by either old seed or cool conditions – the crop was trouble free and quick to produce . there were no noticeable diseases or deficiencies , but one of the bulbs split , possibly due to inconsistent soil moisture . three plants ( 15 % ) failed to produce a useable bulb before the space was needed for other crops . the crop occupied a lot of space and the big leaves crowded out the slower growing carrots and beetroot .
gfi should be 70 servings / hour or 25 servings / m² with tender stems .
finally , a few cobs of sweetcorn were ready to harvest in the protected garden ! given the cool and damp context , it is unusual to be able to eat any locally grown sweetcorn , and quite remarkable to be eating it fresh as early as july – one of the benefits of growing food in a polytunnel . it may be early in the season , but it has been a very long wait for me .
i grew up in southern ontario , canada , near toronto , with a climate very suitable for growing corn – except for this year , with the droughts and heat wave seriously damaging many crops in the region . in the late summer many meals in our household were based around freshly harvested ‘corn on the cob’ , which had been purchased direct from a local farmer . it was a time of year that everyone eagerly anticipated , but the excellent quality of the sweetcorn spoiled me . unfortunately , or perhaps it is fortunate , i cannot tolerate the vacuum wrapped or frozen sweetcorn that is available for sale in ireland . i have gone without one of my favorite foods except when i happen to be back in canada during corn season . it has been 5 or 6 years , which is a long time to wait .
this year was the first time that i have successfully grown a decent sweetcorn crop here in ireland . i tried a few times outside in gardens and allotments , but never produced more than a few kernels on a tiny cob . yesterday , i harvested 3 medium sized cobs , mostly full of kernels ! of course , they were not as good as the corn i grew up on , but considering the context , they were very much appreciated .
in the last few decades , plant breeders have developed ‘super - sweet’ varieties , which store reasonably well . the older varieties , with their fuller flavor , do not keep as well , but grow better in irish conditions . the sugars in the kernels of these varieties start to convert to starch as soon as the cob is picked . even a few hours after harvesting , the flavor could have noticeably changed . for our meal last night , i followed the harvesting advice i learned as a kid :
heat a large pot of salted water , and when it is almost boiling walk out to the field / garden . pick the cobs you are going to eat , then run back to the kitchen . husk them quickly and boil them until just tender . eat immediately with salt and lots of butter .
water is one of the ways that copper may enter our bodies . the drinking of chlorinated water has been proved to an increased chance of developing colon cancer . therefore , you have to set up your hot water system carefully . the tankless water heaters are important part of the hot water system in our house . like most things involved in owning and caring for a home , tankless water heaters have always been full of promise and they are actually a lot more complex than you might think , especially when they were replacing an existing conventional water heater .
installation was often complicated and costly installation is always a nightmare for homeowners even manufacturers haven’t given up on the technology on improving the designs to make it easier to install . from the consumer reports , small tankless water heater can cost $ 120 - $ 350 for a unit and the installation can add $ 100 - $ 200 . while you will pay $ 800 - $ 3 , 000 or more a central tankless water heater , and the total cost will be increased up to $ 1 , 000 - $ 3 , 500 , includes the installation . how to reduce the cost of installation ? unless you’re well experienced in this line that you can install the unit by yourself , it’s smart to choose branded manufacturer because their advanced technology should make retrofit installations easier and less cost .
inconsistent water temperatures this is another big bigger problem for house use . tankless water heaters are designed for providing plenty of hot water as long as the flow is high enough . one of the main reasons why the tankless water heater can’t keep water temperatures due to the low water pressure . the low flow within your tankless unit results in shutting down the gas burner . the restriction in the hot water flow can cause inconsistent water temperatures as well because the mineral deposits block the shower head or faucet aerators . for the first situation , you should manually check the minimal required flow rate . the 2nd situation can be solved by cleaning every single of the unit .
drawbacks even the on - demand water heaters come are more efficient than standard heaters as these innovations , but they are not for every family . for example , one of the most important aspects to be taken care of when it comes to tankless water heaters is exhaust venting . if the unit can’t send out the high density heat , it could cause the heater to breakdown . regarding gas supply when you consider a tankless gas water heater . the same pressure and volume are important for heating water instantly by tankless water heaters . if you area doesn’t have natural gas supply because of the extremely cold incoming ground water or your new house has not set up propane supply , a tankless model might not for your needs .
do you suffer from back pain ? did you know that you can use herbal remedies to relieve back pain ? as people become more and more aware of the adverse side effects of painkillers and opioids , more and more are looking for alternatives to relieve pain . the good news is that there are many ways to ease the suffering without having to turn to prescription medication .
herbs can be used for the relief of back pain , so let us take a look at a few that can ease muscle pain and reduce inflammation .
cat’s claw cat’s claw can be taken orally as a tablet , capsule or by drinking it in a tea . it has anti - inflammatory properties and aids in reducing swelling . inflammation and swelling are often associated with back problems like joint inflammation , spinal arthritis and herniated discs . while this particular herb is very helpful to treat the symptoms , it should be used in moderation as it is very powerful can over stimulate the immune system .
boswellia boswellia is commonly available in tablet form and has high anti - inflammatory properties . boswellia works by blocking a substance called leukotrienes , known to attack joints , resulting in reduced motion and pain .
tumeric and ginger these two are very easy to add to your diet , they are delicious and in addition to their anti - inflammatory properties hold a range of other beneficial qualities .
valerian root valerian root has many beneficial properties and is commonly used to aid in anxiety and insomnia as it is relaxing . if you are experiencing muscle - related back pain , valerian can be a great way to ease the pain ; the relaxing properties extend to the muscles and aid to reduce nerve sensitivity . making it fantastic for conditions like muscle spasms , muscle injuries and other muscle related pain . valerian can cause drowsiness so is best taken at night .
white willow bark white willow bark can be taken as a tablet or prepared as a tea . this remedy has been in use for centuries to treat inflammation . it contains salicin , a chemical with properties similar to aspirin ( acetylsalicylic acid ) which aids in pain reduction . while white willow bark has multiple benefits , it should be used in moderation as an overdose can lead to increased inflammation and worsen your pain and potentially cause other health concerns .
there are many ways to treat the symptoms of back pain including the use of inversion therapy ( read inversion table reviews ) , floatation therapy and physiotherapy . however , the best way to treat the symptoms of back pain and ultimately arrive at a long - term solution is , in fact , to use a combination of treatments and observe the underlying causes of the condition .
back pain is often the result of many contributing factors including bad lifting habits , poor posture , too much time with electronic devices and poor diet . the best way to ensure the spinal health and all round wellbeing is to follow a healthy eating plan that includes all the essential nutrients , get regular exercise , develop good posture and plenty of good quality rest .
hey ! i realize it’s been a while since my last post . i have no excuses ! ok , i do have some , but i’ll save those for another post .
instead of excuses , i have some pictures from keukenhof for you ! hans and i finally visited yesterday . even though it’s just across the street , we’ve been putting off a visit because we were waiting for the tulips to really come out , and for the trees and bushes to get a bit leafier . but spring is running three weeks late this year due to the cold weather we’ve been having , and it’s just taking tooooooooooo long… . you might notice in the pictures that there are lots of tulips still to come out . but there are lots and lots of hyacinths ( they smell soooooooo yummy ) and more varieties of daffodils than i ever knew existed .
it’s also one of the most photographed places in the world . if you’re photo crazy , and you’re one of those people with a ginormous camera and even more ginormous lenses , this is the place you’ll want to use all that equipment . but you’ll see just as many people taking pictures with their ipads or with their phones on selfie sticks ! you gotta’ watch out for these people because they tend not to see past the ends of their own arms . i’m not sure everyone takes the time to enjoy the beauty of the flowers they’re photographing . but if ever there was a place to stop to smell the flowers… . .
keukenhof opened this year on march 20 and it closes on may 17 . i expect i’ll visit again before it closes . april 25th is the flower parade . the flower parade is a parade of floats decorated with bulb flowers . it goes along a 40km route , starting in a town called nordwijk at about 9am , and ends in haarlem at about 8 : 30pm . it’ll pass through lisse , and go by keukenhof , around 3 in the afternoon . i’ll be there with my point - and - shoot to get some pictures for you !
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the silk button galls are abundant on the underside of the oak leaves and can reach 3 mm across . this gall holds the agamic generation and looks like a thick , rolled edge disk with a deep central pit and gold hairs , there is no mark on the top of the leaf . it is a single cell gall holding one wasp and can be seen from august to october , until the leaves fall in autumn . the wasp larva will mature in august but remain in the gall on the ground throughout the winter , emerging the following year from february to april .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
blå punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och övriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan innehålla observationer som inte är validerade . kartan uppdateras var fjärde vecka .
i det avancerade verktyget kan man söka ut och få fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst län , i en viss biotop , substrat , som påverkas av en hotfaktor , eller som är knutna till en sk värdart , t ex trädet alm . dessa kan även kombineras .
söka fram arter som är rödlistade , knutna till alm , är beroende av död ved och som finns i kronobergs län .
söka fram arter som är rödlistade , lever i småvatten och som påverkas negativt av igenväxning .
defaultläget i verktyget är arter som är rödlistade 2015 och dessa är klassade på samtliga sökfaktorer . under fliken rödlistekategori kan man dock välja att även inkludera arter som inte är rödlistade . om man väljer att inkludera icke rödlistade arter behöver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte är klassade på samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanställning av vad som är komplett .
denna funktion används när du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka på deras namn . du kan också välja att använda knappen ”jämför arter” för att se bilder , kartor och kännetecken i en jämförelsevy .
du kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via släktträdet och där välja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat sätt att göra ditt urval är att använda fliken ”filtrera” , där du kan söka på olika egenskaper . ovanför listan med sökresultatet finns en knapp ”lägg i mitt urval” .
copyright 2008 - 2015 martin wendt , urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the
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the
b . britannica
hydroid buds and forms medusae by asexual reproduction . when these mature , sexual reproduction occurs , the fertilised eggs settle out and new hydroids are formed .
after mating , mass migrations occur with the females returning to the sea to release their fertilised eggs . an average female carries around 85 , 000 eggs .
the blister galls produce the males and females of the bisexual generation in mid - summer and the fertilised eggs result in the silk button gall generation .
the
b . muscus
hydroid buds and forms medusae by asexual reproduction . when these mature , sexual reproduction occurs , the fertilised eggs settle out and new hydroids are formed .
mating takes place in spring , and the females carry the fertilised eggs on their pleopods from march to july ; the larvae can be found in the plankton over most of the summer .
siboglinids are dioecious , with one gonad on each side of the trunk , within the body cavity . the fertilised eggs develop within the tubes , and hatch to produce small ciliated worm - like larvae .
like garden snails ,
mertensia
is hermaphroditic , reproducing sexually and occasionally asexually . eggs and sperm are ejected into the water and from the fertilised eggs ovoid larvae develop . the planktonic larvae of this species are long while adults grow up to .
most species reproduce sexually , but some populations are dominated by hermaphrodites which produce internally fertilised eggs . reproduction in
t . cancriformis
varies with latitude , with sexual reproduction dominating in the south of its range , and parthenogenesis dominating in the north .
it is formed by secretion of collateral glands , over 16 fertilised eggs are arranged in 2 rows of 8 each . they are found in genital pouch of female cockroach or mantis .
the krabi mouth - brooding betta probably feeds on insects , crustaceans , other small invertebrates and zooplankton . this fish is a paternal mouth brooder ; the male fish takes the fertilised eggs into his mouth and keeps them there until they hatch .
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crab spider attacking lackey moth caterpillar duke of burgundy fritillary butterfly hamearis lucina from abo marsh fritillaries euphydryas aurinia in cop duke of burgundy fritillary butterfly hamearis lucina undersid black - tailed skimmer orthetrum cancellatum female salad burnet poterium sanguisorba subsp . sanguisorba small heath butterfly coenonympha pamphilus on plantain dingy skipper butterfly erynnis tages with damaged wing marsh fritillaries euphydryas aurinia mating
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odd - shaped growths on the foliage , flowers , acorns and stems of oak trees are often caused by gall wasps .
are the host plants for more than 30 species of gall wasp . it is the larval stage of these insects that induce the plant to produce abnormal growths , known as galls , that enclose the developing larvae .
different species of gall wasp develop inside distinctive galls affecting various structures on the tree . oak gall wasps have complex life cycles , with alternating generations that are either sexual with males and females , or asexual with females only . the two generations often produce different types of gall on different parts of the tree , and in some species the two generations alternate between native and non - native species of oak .


metanastria is a genus of moth in the family lasiocampidae .

the species of the genus are found in europe , japan , china , south africa , throughout india , sri lanka , myanmar , java and borneo .

metanastria

metanastria ; godman & salvin , 1886 , biol . centr . - amer . , lep . heterocera 1 : 200
the original genus of description is given in brackets . lebeda metaspila walker ( megasoma ) lajonquierea deruna moore ( gastropacha ) lajonquierea poeciloptera grunberg ( metanastria ) lajonquierea mediofasciata grunberg ( metanastria ) kunugia xichangensis tsai & lu ( dendrolimus ) kunugia tamsi lajonquiere ( cyclophragma ) kunugia omeiensis tsai & lu ( dendrolimus ) kunugia ampla walker ( odonestis ) kunugia latipennis moore ( lebeda ) kunugia fasciata moore ( lebeda ) kunugia brunnea wileman ( metanastria ) kunugia burmensis gaede ( dendrolimus ) kunugia fulgens moore ( lebeda ) kunugia dora swinhoe ( metanastria ) kunugia sumatrae swinhoe ( metanastria ) kunugia basidiscata holloway ( cyclophragma ) kunugia placida moore ( lebeda ) kunugia lineata moore ( lebeda ) kunugia basimacula walker ( megasoma ) kunugia rectifascia holloway ( metanastria ) kunugia leucopicta tams ( metanastria ) kunugia gynandra swinhoe ( metanastria ) kunugia basinigra roepke ( cyclophragma ) kunugia divaricata moore ( gastropacha ) kunugia magellani lajonquiere ( cyclophragma ) chonopla modulata swinhoe ( kosala ) paradoxopla cardinalis holloway ( pseudophyllodes ) micropacha lidderdalii druce ( odonestis )
hardly a plague - more of a conference of cats , or perhaps a lobby of larvae ! these are lasiocampidae ( lappet moths ) of some description . in hong kong there are two species in the genus metanastria that exhibit this herding instinct , and young instars in paralebeda also are gregarious . i ' d be inclined to think these may also be a species of metanastria , or possibly lebeda . roger .
{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . metanastria aconyta cramer , 1777 . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .
pratt , p . d . , makinson , j . , purcell , m . , pogue , m . g . , rayamajhi , m . b . , center , t . d . rhodomyrtus tomentosa ( myrtales : myrtaceae ) : new host records for metanastria gemella ( lepidoptera : lasiocampidae ) and arna bipunctapex ( lepidoptera : lymantriidae ) . florida entomologist . 96 ( 2 ) : 641 - 642 . 2013 .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
scientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .
phalaena hyrtaca cramer , [ 1779 ] ; uitl . kapellen 3 ( 17 - 21 ) : 97 , pl . 249 , f . f
biologia centrali - americana ; or contributions to the knowledge of the fauna of mexico and central america . zoology . lepidoptera . heterocera
hübner , [ 1820 ] verzeichniss bekannter schmettlinge , 1816 - [ 1826 ] verz . bek . schmett . ( 1 ) : [ 1 - 3 ] , 4 - 16 ( 1816 ) , ( 2 ) : 17 - 32 ( 1819 ) , ( 3 ) : 33 - 48 ( 1819 ) , ( 4 ) : 49 - 64 ( 1819 ) , ( 5 ) : 65 - 80 ( 1819 ) , ( 6 ) : 81 - 96 ( 1819 ) , ( 7 ) : 97 - 112 ( 1819 ) , ( 8 ) : 113 - 128 ( 1819 ) , ( 9 ) : 129 - 144 ( 1819 ) , ( 10 ) : 145 - 160 ( 1819 ) , ( 11 ) : 161 - 176 ( 1819 ) , ( 12 ) : 177 - 192 ( 1820 ) , ( 13 ) : 193 - 208 ( 1820 ) , ( 14 ) : 209 - 224 ( 1821 ) , ( 15 ) : 225 - 240 ( 1821 ) , ( 16 ) : 241 - 256 ( 1821 ) , ( 17 ) : 257 - 272 ( 1823 ) , ( 18 ) : 273 - 288 ( 1823 ) , ( 19 ) : 289 - 304 ( 1823 ) , ( 20 ) : 305 - 320 ( 1825 ) , ( 21 ) : 321 - 336 ( 1825 ) , ( 22 ) : 337 - 352 ( 1825 ) , ( 23 - 27 ) : 353 - 431 ( [ 1825 ] )
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
shubhalaxmi , v , r c kendrick , alka vaidya , neelima kalagi , and alaka bhagwat . 2011 . inventory of moth fauna ( lepidoptera : heterocera ) of the northern western ghats , maharashtra , india . journal of the bombay … 108 , no . 3 : 183 - 205 . urltoken
enumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .
a catalogue of the moths of india / compiled by e . c . cotes and c . swinhoe . by cotes , e . c . s . . .
volume : 1 subject : moths - - india ; insects - - india ; sphingidae publisher : london : tayl . . .
inventory of moth fauna ( lepidoptera : heterocera ) of the northern western ghats , maharashtra , india .
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cashew , badam , moringa , sapota , jamun , guava , babul , shorea robusta , schima wallichii , nyctanthes arbor - tristis , mimusops elengi , madhuca longifolia , etc .
copyright © 2013 , icar - national bureau of agricultural insect resources . all rights reserved .
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confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
gunda subnotata walker ( bombyx ) antheraea rosieri toxopeus ( loepantheraea ) the use of the generic name ambulyx westwood in the sphingidae for species usually placed in oxyambulyx rothschild & jordan ( e . g . by diehl ( 1980 ) , d ' abrera ( 1986 ) ) follows fletcher & nye ( 1982 ) .
source : james a . duke . 1983 . handbook of energy crops . unpublished .
leaves contain 7080 % eucalyptol ( cineol ) . also includes terpineol , sesquiterpene alcohols , aliphatic aldehydes , isoamyl alcohol , ethanol , and terpenes ( morton , 1981 ) . tannin is not so copious in the leaves as of many other
species . the kino , containing 28 . 7 % kino - tannin and 47 . 9 % catechin contains the very antibiotic citriodorol ( watt and bryer - brandwijk , 1962 ) . verma et al . ( 1978 ) found 20 . 2 %
- pinene , and only 16 . 8 % cineole in the cv ' mysore ' . fresh leaves contain caffeic and gallic acids , dry leaves , ferulic and gentisic ( boukef et al . , 1976 ) , and quercetol , quercitrine , rutin , and a mixture of quercetol hyperoside and glaucoside . n - titriacontan - 16 , 18 - dione was identified as the compound responsible for antioxidant activity in the leaf wax ( osawa and namik , 1981 ) .
in large doses , oil of eucalyptus , like so many essential oils has caused fatalities from intestinal irritation ( morton , 1981 ) . death is reported from ingestion of 424 ml of essential oils , but recoveries are also reported for the same amount . symptoms include gastroenteric burning and irritation , nausea , vomiting , diarrhea , oxygen deficiency , , weakness , dizziness , stupor , difficult respiration , delirium , paralysis , convulsions , and death , usually due to respiratory failure ( duke , 1984b ) . reported to cause contact dermatitis ( brooker et al , 1981 ) . sensitive persons may develop urticaria from handling the foliage and other parts of the plant ( watt and bryer - brandwijk , 1962 ) .
reported from the australian center of diversity , bluegum , or cvs thereof is reported to tolerate narrower extremes of temperature and soil than many of the more tropical species . ( 2
the most extensively planted eucalypt species in the world . . . a total of 800 , 000 ha in dozens of countries . . . about half the world ' s plantation area is in portugal and spain ( little , 1983 ) . also cultivated in california , arizona , and hawaii .
ranging from cool temperate moist to wet through subtropical dry to moist forest life zones , bluegum eucalyptus is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 8 to 16 dm and annual temperature of ca 16 to 20°c . major successes have been in mild temperate climates and in cool highlands . elsewhere it fails ( nas , 1980a ) .
propagated by seed and basket transplants ca 6 mos old . no seed treatment is required . fresh seeds germinate well but deteriorate rapidly . the tree is readily established , easily reproducing from self - sown seed . in california , seed collections from a single tree exhibit wide variation ( 280 % ) in germinative capacity after a 30 - day germination period ( ag . handbook 450 ) . seedlings like the adults are susceptible to drought , fire , and frost . grasses need to be weeded , as the tree does not compete well with grasses ( nas , 1980a ) . tree grows rapidly and coppices readily ( reaching a meter or more in a few months ) .
usually grown on rotations of 515 years . in india ' s nilgiris , bluegum plantations are worked for fuel purposes on a 15 - year coppice ( c . s . i . r . , 19481976 ) .
has been reported from sites in italy , peru , portugal , and spain ( nas , 1980a ) . verma et al ( 1978 ) estimated essential oil yields between ca 40 and 45 kg / ha from 68 mt green leaves . completely dry leaves contain 1 . 27 % oil in the cv ' mysore ' . the wealth of india suggests 30 mt biomass / ha / yr in the nilgiris ( c . s . i . r . , 19481976 ) .
about 30 mt / ha biomass are reported . verma et al . ( 1978 ) calculated little more than 7 mt leaves per hectare , green , or 68 mt for the cv ' mysore ' , 34 mt dry leaves . in his compilation , cannell ( 1982 ) cites data on trees 9 . 5 years old , spaced at 2 , 196 trees / ha . the stem wood on a dm basis weighed 1958 mt / ha , the stem bark 511 , the branches 2 . 65 . 5 , the foliage 4 . 06 . 7 , for a total standing aerial biomass of 35110 mt / ha . the cai ( current annual increment ) of stem wood was 2 . 97 . 7 m
/ ha / yr , stem bark 0 . 71 . 5 , branches 0 . 50 . 7 , foliage 2 . 6ca 6 for a total aerial cai of 6 . 715 . 6 mt / ha / yr , the low figures representing unfertilized trees , the high reflecting ca 200 kg / ha n and 90 kg / ha p . these data were taken at victoria , australia ( 38°20 ' s , 146°20 ' e , elev . 150 m ) . the wood burns freely , leaving little ash , and carbonizes easily , making good charcoal . with calorific value of 4 , 800 kcal / kg , the heavy wood ( sp . grav . 0 . 81 . 0 ) is widely used for fuelwood and charcoal ( nas , 1980 ) . even the dead leaves and fallen bark are highly flammable . the charcoal is used for producer gas plants ( c . s . i . r . , 19481976 ) . cromer and williams ( austr . j . bot . 30 : 265 . 1982 ) report that it took 9 . 5 years to accumulate 30 mt / ha biomass unfertilized , but only 4 years in heavily fertilized plots .
actinopelte dryina , armillaria mellea , cercospora epicoccoides , c . eucalypti , corticium salmonicolor , cryptosporium eucalypti , cytospora australiae , c . eucalyptina , diaporthe medusaea , didymosphaeria circinnans , diplodia australiae , fomes applanatus , f . scruposus , fusarium oxysporum
aurantiacum , ganoderma lucidum , harknessia uromycoides , hendersonia eucalypticola , laetiporus sulphureus , macrophoma molleriana , macrophomina phaseoli , monochaetia desmazierii , mycosphaerella molleriana , pestalotia truncata , pestalotiopsis funerea , pezizella carneo - rosea , pezizella oenotherae , phellinus gilvus , phyllostica extensa , physalospora latitans , p . rhodina , p . suberumpens , polyporus gilvus , p . hirsutus , p . schweinitzii , p . sulphureus , p . versicolor , poria cocos , p . versipora , sclerotinia fuckeliana , septonema multiplex , septosporium scyphophorum , stereum hirsutum
foliage unpalatable to livestock . the oil rich wood is resistant to termites ( nas , 1980a ) .
agriculture handbook 165 . 1960 . index of plant diseases in the united states . usgpo . washington .
agriculture handbook 450 . 1974 . seeds of woody plants in the united states . forest service , usda . usgpo . washington .
boukef , k . , balansard , g . , lallemand , m . , and brenard , p . 1976 . study of flavonic heterosides and agylcones isolated from leaves of
brooker , s . g . , cambie , r . c . , and cooper , r . c . 1981 . new zealand medicinal plants . heinemann publishers , auckland .
browne , f . g . 1968 . pests and diseases of forest plantations trees . clarendon press , oxford .
c . s . i . r . ( council of scientific and industrial research ) . 19481976 . the wealth of india . 11 vols . new delhi .
cannell , m . g . r . 1982 . world forest biomass and primary production data . academic press , new york .
duke , j . a . and wain , k . k . 1981 . medicinal plants of the world . computer index with more than 85 , 000 entries . 3 vols .
list , p . h . and horhammer , l . 19691979 . hager ' s handbuch der pharmazeutischen praxis . vols 26 . springer - verlag , berlin .
little , e . l . jr . 1983 . common fuelwood crops : a handbook for their identification . mcclain printing co . , parsons , wv .
morton , j . f . 1981 . atlas of medicinal plants of middle america . bahamas to yucatan . c . c . thomas , springfield , il .
n . a . s . 1980a . firewood crops . shrub and tree species for energy production . national academy of sciences , washington , dc .
osawa , t . and namiki , m . 1981 . a novel type of antioxidant isolated from leaf wax of eucalyptus leaves . agr . biol . chem . 45 ( 3 ) : 735739 .
perry , l . m . 1980 . medicinal plants of east and southeast asia . mit press , cambridge .
verma , v . p . s . , shiva , m . p . , subrahmanyam , i . v . , and suri , b . k . 1978 . utilization of eucalyptus hybrid oil from forest plantations . indian forester 104 ( 12 ) : 846850 .
watt , j . m . and breyer - brandwijk , m . g . 1962 . the medicinal and poisonous plants of southern and eastern africa . 2nd ed . e . & s . livingstone , ltd . , edinburgh and london .
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encountered this plague of moth cats on a tree trunk . any idea what the species id is ?
roger c . kendrick ph . d . c & r wildlife , lam tsuen , tai po , n . t . , hong kong s . a . r . hk moths website : urltoken hk moths recording project on i - naturalist : urltoken hk moths flickr site : urltoken
thanks , roger for the information on the possible species id . it was a very interesting sight of so many cats squeezed side by side , as if they were trying to stay warm in this cold weather .
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s . cumini is a fast - growing tropical and sub - tropical tree preferring moist , riverine habitats , that is valued for its fruit , timber and as an ornamental and as such has been widely introduced from its native s . . .
formerly part of the genus , eugenia , s . cumini is now a clearly defined taxa in the genus syzygium . commonly known as jambolan it should not be confused with the rose apple ( syzygium jambos ) .
syzygium is a genus in the myrtaceae that includes a number of popular species cultivated for their colourful , edible fleshy fruit . it is a genus of perhaps 1000 species of trees or shrubs native to the old world tropics . the genus name syzygium is derived via latin from the greek syzygos , meaning yoked together , possibly referring to the paired leaves ( janick and paull , 2008 ) . other common names for s . cumini are black plum , damson plum , duhat plum , jamblang , jambolan plum , jamun , java plum , malabar plum and portuguese plum ( janick and paull , 2008 ) .
the more restricted native distribution as described by morton ( 1987 ) is accepted in this datasheet , who argued that other countries recorded as native , e . g . himalayan asia , south china , south east asian islands , east africa , eastern australia , etc . ( usda - ars , 2008 ) are actually due to introduction in pre - history . s . cumini is thus here accepted as only native to india , sri lanka and myanmar .
the distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .
. as a valuable fruit and forestry tree , it is likely to be further introduced .
s . cumini prefers moist locations and will tolerate waterlogging thus is commonly found on riverbanks , but it can also survive , but less well , on drier sites once established . in its native range it is commonly cultivated and thus found in and around homesteads and agricultural land . in the pacific where it has proved most invasive , it is generally a more lowland species such as in fiji , but may be found up to 700 m hawaii and has naturalised in inland forests in fiji ( pier , 2008 ) . it invades coastal bush and savanna in south africa ( sabonet , 2006 ) .
a jaman’ , with large oblong , dark - purple or bluish fruits , with pink , sweet pulp and small seeds , and ‘kaatha’ , with small acid fruits , and several named cultivars exist , especially in south - east asia .
it propagates easily from fresh seed , and coppices and resprouts readily . s . cumini begins bearing fruit when 8–10 years old . seeds lose their viability quickly after maturation .
seedlings grow slowly the first year , rapidly thereafter , and may exceeding 3 m in height after 2 years , reaching full size in 40 years . flowering occurs february - march in florida , usa , may–august in sri lanka , and july–august in java , indonesia , and the fruit ripens in april in french polynesia , may–june in the philippines , may - july in india and florida , late summer and autumn in hawaii , september - october in java , and november - december in sri lanka ( morton , 1987 ) . dry weather during flowering and fruiting will increase fruit production . fruits need to be harvested by hand as they ripen , requiring several collections over the season , with a crops of 700 fruits possible from a 5 - year - old tree , and the production of a large tree may be overwhelming to the average household .
warm average temp . > 10°c , cold average temp . > 0°c , wet all year
whichmay cause total defoliation . the leafminer , acrocercops phaeospora , can also be a major problem , idiocerus
( often dacus diversus in india ) , diseases recorded as found on s . cumini by inspectors of the florida department of agriculture are : black leaf spot ( asterinella puiggarii ) ; green scurf or algal leaf spot ( cephaleuros virescens ) ; mushroom root rot ( clitocybe tabescens ) ; anthracnose ( colletotrichum gloeosporioides ) ; and leaf spot caused by phyllosticta eugeniae . where invasive in florida , some trees are very susceptible to scale insects .
seeds are the most common means of dissemination , and these are known to be consumed and spread by animals , in hawaii , mynah birds and other frugivorous birds and perhaps occasionally by feral pigs ( sus scrofa ) ( pier , 2008 ) . many other birds and mammals are known to eat the fruit , including jackals and civets , and in australia they are a favourite food of bats ( morton , 1987 ) . being a riverine species , seeds are also likely to be dispersed locally by water . long - distance dispersal has been almost entirely due to intentional introduction as a fruit , timber and ornamental species .
s . cumini has a positive economic impact via the provision of nutritious fruit , timber and as a traded ornamental . no costs for the control of s . cumini are available .
the tree is venerated in south asia by buddhists and hindus . it is considered sacred to the hindu gods krishna and ganesha and is commonly planted near hindu temples ( morton , 1987 ) . where used as a street and ornamental tree , heavy fruiting can lead to masses of fruits littering pavements , roads and gardens , rapidly fermenting producing an unpleasant small and attracting insects , and as such many people want such trees replaced .
this large evergreen tree forms a dense cover and when forming a monoculture it can prevent other species from regenerating and growing , and although it is not an aggressive invader of undisturbed forest like the closely related s . jambos , it is known to prevent the reestablishment of native lowland forest .
it is a multipurpose tree which is highly valued for its medicinal uses , edible fruits , for fodder , for strong heavy timber and good fuelwood . it is mainly found as a home garden fruit tree , although it is also found wild in secondary forests . it is also a host plant of the tasar silkworm , and a good source of nectar for honeybees . it is a sacred tree to hindus and buddhists . seeds used to be traded for medicinal use until the end of the 1700s , when they were widely exported from india to malaysia and polynesia , and from the west indies to europe . the tree is grown as shade for coffee in india , and being wind - resistant is sometimes planted in dense rows as a windbreak , and if topped regularly , such plantings form a dense , massive hedge .
. the honey is of fine quality but ferments in a few months unless treated . the leaves have served as fodder for livestock and as food for tassar silkworms in india , having approximately 9 % crude protein . in zanzibar and pemba , tanzania , people use young shoots for cleaning their teeth . an essential oil distilled from leaves is used to scent soap and is blended with other materials in making inexpensive perfume . bark yields durable brown dyes of various shades depending on the mordant and the strength of the extract , and contains 8–19 % tannin being much used in tanning leather and preserving fishing nets .
syzygium species may appear similar to the untrained eye , and two other species are noted as invasive , s . jambos and s . malaccense , though may be separated by fruit colour ; the fruits of s . cumini being purplish - black when ripe whereas those of s . jambos are creamy yellow , tinged with pink . s . cumini can also be confused with the south african s . guineense ; but is distinguished by its longer leaves ( up to 150 mm ) with many closely spaced lateral veins , abruptly tapering leaf apex , oval to pear - shaped fruits , and much - branched sub - terminal inflorescence , usually arising from old leaf scars .
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a new species of gadirtha walker ( nolidae : collomeninae ) : a proposed biological control agent of chinese tallow ( triadica sebifera ( l . ) small ) ( euphorbiaceae ) in the united states -
pogue , m . g . 2014 . a new species of gadirtha walker ( nolidae : collomeninae ) : a proposed biological control agent of chinese tallow ( triadica sebifera ( l . ) small ) ( euphorbiaceae ) in the united states . zookeys . 382 : 13 - 25 .
sullivan , j . b . , pogue , m . g . 2014 . the prominent moth , disphragis notabilis schaus , in costa rica ( lepidoptera , notodontidae ) . zookeys . 421 : 21 - 38 .
pogue , m . g . 2014 . a review of the copitarsia decolora ( guenée ) species complex with a description of a new species of copitarsia ( hampson ) from chile ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . neotropical entomology . 43 ( 2 ) : 142 - 153 .
pogue , m . g . , ouellette , g . d . , harp , c . e . 2013 . a revision of the schinia volupia ( fitch ) species complex lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 3716 : 157 - 191 .
pogue , m . g . 2013 . revised status of chloridea westwood and [ duncan ] , 1841 for the heliothis virescens species group and the monophyly of schinia hubner [ 1818 ] using total evidence data ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . systematic entomology . 38 ( 3 ) : 523 - 542 .
metzler , e . h . , e . c . knudson , r . w . pool , j . d . lafontaine and m . g . pogue 2013 . a review of the genus ogdoconta butler ( lepidoptera , noctuidae , condicinae , condicini ) from north america north of mexcio with descriptions of three new species . zookeys . 264 : 165 - 191 .
pogue , m . g . 2013 . a review of the paectes arcigera ( guenée ) ( lepidoptera , eutellidae ) species complex . zookeys . 264 : 125 - 163 .
landolt , p . j . , jang , e . b . , carvalho , l . a . , pogue , m . g . 2011 . attraction of pest moths ( lepidoptera : noctuidae , crambidae ) to floral lures on the island of hawaii . hawaiian entomological society proceedings . 43 : 49 - 58 .
manrique , v . , diaz , r . , overholt , w . a . , pogue , m . g . , vitorino , m . 2012 . description and biology of paectes longiformis pogue , a new species from brazil ( lepidoptera : euteliidae ) as a potential biological control agent of brazilian peppertree in florida . biocontrol science and technology . 22 : 163 - 185 .
the aventiinae , boletobiinae , eublemminae , pangraptinae , phytometrinae , and scolecocampinae ( lepidoptera : noctuoidea : erebidae ) of great smoky mountains national park , u . s . a . -
pogue , m . g . 2012 . the aventiinae , boletobiinae , eublemminae , pangraptinae , phytometrinae , and scolecocampinae ( lepidoptera : noctuoidea : erebidae ) of great smoky mountains national park , u . s . a . zootaxa . 3153 : 1 - 31 .
pogue , m . g . 2011 . using dna barcoding and genitalia to place “leucochlaena” hipparis ( druce ) in spodoptera guenee ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 113 ( 4 ) : 497 - 507 .
pogue , m . g . 2011 . larval description of copitarsia incommoda ( walker ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 104 ( 6 ) : 1292 - 1296 .
dewaard , j . r . , mitchell , a . , keena , m . a . , gopurenko , d . , boyken , l . m . , armstrong , k . f . , pogue , m . g . , lima , j . , floyd , r . , hanner , r . , humble , l . m . 2010 . toward a global barcode library for lymantria ( lepidoptera : lymantriinae ) tussock moths of biosecurity concern . plos one . 5 ( 12 ) : 1 - 10 .
pogue , m . g . 2010 . a new species of schinia hübner from the southeastern united states ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zookeys . 52 : 57 - 64 .
pogue , m . g . 2010 . the acontiinae and eublemminae of great smoky mountains national park ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . zootaxa . 2499 : 1 - 20 .
pogue , m . g . , honey , m . , zilli , a . 2010 . new synonymy in a north american species of pyrrhia hübner , [ 1821 ] ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 112 ( 2 ) : 274 - 280 .
the hadeninae ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) of great smoky mountains national park , u . s . a . -
pogue , m . g . 2010 . the hadeninae ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) of great smoky mountains national park , u . s . a . . zootaxa . 2380 : 1 - 75 .
sanders , n . j . , pogue , m . g . , dunn , r . r . 2010 . noctuid moth diversity along a temperate elevational gradient : testing the role of environmental factors , mde , and rapoport ' s rule . ecography . p . 75 - 87 .
pogue , m . g . 2009 . three new cryptic species within the dargida procinctus ( grote ) complex ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : hadeninae ) from the neotropics . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 111 : 686 - 697 .
pogue , m . g . , simmons , r . 2008 . a new pest species of copitarsia hampson from the neotropical region feeding on asparagus and cut flowers ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 101 : 743 - 762 .
pogue , m . g . 2008 . rhodoecia hampson 1908 a new synonym of pyrrhia hubner [ 1821 ] 1816 ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 110 : 810 .
pogue , m . g . 2009 . a review of the tripudia quadrifera ( zeller ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) species complex . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 111 : 68 - 97 .
lavigne , r . j . , pogue , m . g . 2009 . ethology of omniablautus nigronotum ( wilcox ) ( diptera : asilidae ) in wyoming . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 111 : 1 - 6 .
pogue , m . g . 2007 . revision of the genus psectrotarsia dognin 1907 ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 1637 : 1 - 19 .
pogue , m . g . 2009 . lepidoptera biodiversity . in : foottit , r . , adler , p . , editors . insect biodiversity : science and society . 1st edition . blackwell science publishing . oxford , england . p . 263 - 293 .
pogue , m . g . , schaefer , p . w . 2007 . a review of potentially invasive species of lymantria hüebner [ 1819 ] ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : lymantriinae ) from subtropical and temperate regions of asia including the descriptions of three new species . forest health technology enterprise team . fhte : 1 - 223 .
pogue , m . g . 2006 . nomenclatural validation of four north american species of heliothinae ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . zootaxa . 1283 : 25 - 36 .
pogue , m . g . 2008 . inventory of the nolidae , erebidae , and noctuidae ( lepidoptera ) of plummers island , maryland . bulletin of the biological society of washington . ( 15 ) 107 - 120 .
pogue , m . g . 2006 . the noctuinae ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) of great smoky mountains national park . zootaxa . 1215 : 1 - 95 .
pogue , m . g . 2005 . the plusiinae of great smoky mountains national park ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . zootaxa . 1032 : 1 - 28 .
book review : butterflies of oklahoma , kansas , and north texas , by john m . dole , walter b . gerard , and john m . nelson -
pogue , m . g . 2005 . book review : butterflies of oklahoma , kansas , and north texas , by john m . dole , walter b . gerard , and john m . nelson . american entomologist . 51 : 117 .
pogue , m . g . 2004 . a new species of schinia hubner from riparian habitats along the colorado river in the grand canyon ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 788 : 1 - 4
pogue , m . g . , harp , c . e . 2004 . systematics of schinia chrysellus ( grote ) complex : revised status of schinia alencis ( harvey ) with a description of two new species ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 898 : 1 - 35
pogue , m . g . 2004 . characters to differentiate adult males of the corn earworm , helicoverpa zea ( boddie ) and the old world bollworm , helicoverpa armigera ( hübner ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . journal of economic entomology . 97 : 1222 - 1226
redescription of two , often - confused noctuid pests copitarsia decolora ( guenee ) and c . incommoda ( walker ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) -
simmons , r . b . , pogue , m . g . 2009 . redescription of two , often - confused noctuid pests copitarsia decolora ( guenee ) and c . incommoda ( walker ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 97 : 1159 - 1164 .
simmons , r . b . , scheffer , s . j . , pogue , m . g . 2004 . systematics of the copitarsia incommoda ( walker ) pest complex ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 97 ( 4 ) : 675 - 680 .
pogue , m . g . , harp , c . e . 2004 . a review of the schinia regia ( strecker ) species complex with a description of a new species ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 473 : 1 - 32
pogue , m . g . , harp , c . e . 2004 . a review of the schinia tertia ( grote ) species complex ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 473 : 1 - 32 .
a new species of schinia huebner ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) from texas , oklahoma , and louisiana . -
knudson , e . , bordelon , c . , pogue , m . g . 2003 . a new species of schinia huebner ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) from texas , oklahoma , and louisiana . . zootaxa . 382 : 1 - 7
systematics of schinia cupes ( grote ) complex : revised status of schinia crotchii ( hy . edwards ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) -
pogue , m . g . , harp , c . e . 2003 . systematics of schinia cupes ( grote ) complex : revised status of schinia crotchii ( hy . edwards ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 294 : 1 - 16 .
pogue , m . g . , harp , c . e . 2003 . revised status of schinia unimacula smith including morphological comaprisons with schinia obliqua smith ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . journal of lepidopterists society . 226 : 1 - 8 .
lalanne - cassou , b . , pogue , m . g . 2003 . deux nouveaux paratrachea des antilles ( lepidoptera , noctuidae , noctuinae ) . revue francaise d ' entomologie . 25 ( 4 ) : 157 - 164 .
identity of a sugar cane pest , scolecocampa mochisa ( schaus ) , in mexico , and a new generic synonym . -
revised status of the genus rolandylis gibeaux with descriptions of two new species of north american cochylini ( lepidoptera : tortricidae : tortricinae ) . -
a world revision of the genus spodoptera guenee ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . -
spodoptera ochreum ( hampton ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) : diagnosis , description of the female genitalia , and a new host record ( asparagus ) fromperu . -
resolution of the elaphria festivoides ( guenee ) species complex ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . -
misplaced catocala ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) holotypes from the e . a . browercollection . -