amolops gerbillus is a species of frog found in asia .

it is native to northern and northeastern india , tibet ( china ) , and myanmar , and possibly to bhutan and nepal .

its common names include yembung sucker frog and gerbil stream frog .

it is a semi-aquatic frog occurring in hill streams .

amolops gerbillus

amolops ( amolops ) gerbillus — dubois , 1992 , bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon , 61 : 321 .
amolops gerbillus — fei , ye , and huang , 1990 , key to chinese amph . : 165 .
dana campbell added the english common name
gerbil frog
to
amolops gerbillus ( annandale , 1912 )
.
dana campbell added the english common name
yembung sucker frog
to
amolops gerbillus ( annandale , 1912 )
.
dana campbell added the english common name
gerbil stream frog
to
amolops gerbillus ( annandale , 1912 )
.
dana campbell added the english common name
small - eared torrent frog
to
amolops gerbillus ( annandale , 1912 )
.
dana campbell added the english common name
gerbil ' s stream frog
to
amolops gerbillus ( annandale , 1912 )
.
the reported occurrence in myanmar of this species has now been attributed to amolops bellulus .
rana gerbillus — zhao and adler , 1993 , herpetol . china : 142 .
rana ( hylorana ) gerbillus — boulenger , 1920 , rec . indian mus . , 20 : 127 - 130 .
{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . amolops gerbillus ( annandale , 1912 ) . [ online ] bhutan biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .
{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . amolops gerbillus ( annandale , 1912 ) . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 9 , 2018 ] .
rana gerbillus annandale , 1912 , rec . indian mus . , 8 : 10 . holotype : zsic 16925 , according to dinesh , radhakrishnan , gururaja , and bhatta , 2009 , rec . zool . surv . india , occas . pap . , 302 : 69 . type locality :
yembung , abor foot - hills at an altitude of 1 , 100 . ft .
, arunachal pradesh , india ( in region claimed by china ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
frost , d . r . 2016 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 ( 31 march 2016 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .
justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .
this species is known from northeast india ( meghalaya , arunchal pradesh , assam , nagaland and west bengal ) . records in fei ( 1999 ) from xizang province near the border with india require confirmation . it is found at elevations of between 100 and 1 , 700m asl .
a semi - aquatic species found in hill streams . calling takes place on the stream banks and eggs are deposited on stones at the stream edge .
it is threatened by changes in water management ( dam construction ) and unspecified agricultural pollution .
this species has been recorded from dihang - dibang biosphere reserve and mouling national park ( arunachal pradesh , india ) . recent field studies including this species have been undertaken by roy ( 1999 ) , brodoli and borah ( 1998 - 2002 ) and chanda ( 1994 ) . it is protected by national legislation in india .
sushil dutta , mohammed firoz ahmed , saibal sengupta , debjani roy , sabitry bordoloi . 2004 .
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yembung sucker frog ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 97 ) .
gerbil stream frog ( das and dutta , 1998 , hamadryad , 23 : 64 ; dinesh , radhakrishnan , gururaja , and bhatta , 2009 , rec . zool . surv . india , occas . pap . , 302 : 68 ) .
small - eared torrent frog ( fei , 1999 , atlas amph . china : 232 ) .
gerbil frog ( chanda , 2002 , handb . indian amph . : 108 ) .
gerbil ' s stream frog ( mathew and sen , 2010 , pict . guide amph . ne india : 72 ) .
southern slope of himalayas in xizang ( china ) , northern and northeastern india ( sikkim , assam , meghalaya , nagaland , mizoram , manipur , west bengal , and arunachal pradesh ) and adjacent myanmar ; possibly in bhutan and nepal .
please note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .
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copyright © 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .
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this paper presents the state - of - the - knowledge on herpetofauna ( reptiles and amphibians ) of bhut . . .
we present the results of a rapid herpetofaunal inventory conducted in royal manas national park . . .
this report gives a summary of the status of amphibian study in bhutan and a checklist of amphib . . .
< a target = ' _ blank ' href = ' urltoken ' > iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . exported on 12 january 2012 < / a >
calling takes place on the stream banks and eggs are deposited on stones at the stream edge . eggs are laid on moist rocks . the tadpoles are also found clinging on rocks of the stream can move vertically or horizontally on wet rocks with the help of adhesive sucker .
describes reproductive physiology and behavior , including mating and life history variables . includes cues , strategies , restraints , rates .
describes average size , max , range ; type of size ( perimeter , length , volume , weight . . . ) .
depressed head and rounded snout . canthus rostralis is very distinct ; tympanum is distinct and round . fingers are slender , free and with a large disc at tip ; toes are with large disc , and toes are almost completely webbed . skin is feebly granulated . dorsally greenish , marbled with black . on the fore and hind limbs there are irregular pattern of alternate and pale cross bands . . tympanum is dark brown is colour . ventrally the skin is pale yellow or white
describes the general appearance of the taxon ; e . g body plan , shape and color of external features , typical postures . may be referred to as or include habit , defined as the characteristic mode of growth or occurrence associated to its environment , particularly for plants . comprising its size , shape , texture and orientation . example : tree , shrubs , herbs . may also be referred to include anatomy .
this species is found round the year , in and around hilly stream and waterfalls with rocky base . the species of frog can stick vertically on rocks and can easily move up the rock of the stream .
relations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment . variables of interest to ecologists include the composition , distribution , amount ( biomass ) , number , and changing states of organisms within and among ecosystems .
it occupies terrestrial and freshwater habitat . they are seen in numbers in the crevices of the rocks of the streams which are kept wet by sprinkling water of the stream .
general description of the sites where the species is found ( ecosystem , forest , environment or microhabitat ) . includes realm ( e . g terrestrial etc ) and climatic information ( e . g boreal ) ; also includes requirements and tolerances ; horizontal and vertical ( altitudinal ) distribution . also includes information referring to territorial extension of the individual or group in terms of its activities ( feeding , mating , etc . ) , associated mostly to vertebrates .
enumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .
dr . chandra barooah & lani sarma ( 2016 ) assam science technology and environment council .
includes abundance information ( population size , density ) and demographics ( e . g . age stratification ) .
describes the likelihood of the species becoming extinct in the present day or in the near future . population size is treated under population biology , and trends in population sizes are treated under trends . however , this is the preferred element if an object includes all of these things and details about conservation listings .
it is threatened by changes in water management ( dam construction ) , mining and unspecified agricultural pollution .
frost , darrel r . 2016 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 03 - 04 - 2017 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa .
diversity and distribution of herpetofauna and evaluation of their conservation status in the barail . . .
a herpetofaunal inventory of barail wildlife sanctuary and adjacent regions , assam , north - eastern indi . . .
an inventory of amphibian and reptiles from the barail wildlife sanctuary and its surroundi . . .
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frost , darrel r . 2004 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 3 . 0 ( 22 august , 2004 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa
amphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )
frost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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nectophrynoides laevis , the smooth forest toad , is a species of toad in the family bufonidae .

it is endemic to tanzania .

its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , subtropical or tropical low-altitude grassland and swamps .

a single specimen was collected in 2002 and it was first described in 2004 .

nectophrynoides laevis

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citation : - nectophrynoides laevis . malaysia biodiversity information system ( mybis ) . urltoken downloaded on 10 july 2018 .
iucn ssc amphibian specialist group 2014 . nectophrynoides laevis . the iucn red list of threatened species 2014 : e . t54840a16949825 . urltoken
this species is named for the latin ' laevis ' meaning smooth and referring to the skin surface .
extensive long term research in this area has identified more than 135 endemic species of plants , two endemic species of birds ( uluguru bush shrike and loveridges sunbird ) , six endemic species of amphibians ( hyperolius tornieri , nectophrynoides laevis , nectophrynoides cryptus , nectophrynoides pseudotornieri , scolecomorphus uluguruensis , probreviceps uluguruensis ) , two endemic species of reptiles ( typhlops uluguruensis , xyeledontophis uluguruensis ) and one endemic small mammal ( myosorex geata ) .
wake m . h . ( 1980 ) , «the reproductive biology of nectophrynoides malcolmi ( amphibia : bufonidae ) , with comments on the evolution of reproductive modes in the genus nectophrynoides » , copeia , 1980 , 193 – 209 .
this toad from the nectophrynoides genus is one of 15 amphibian species in tanzania that have been described for the first time . | frogs and toads | pinterest …
nectophrynoides laevis menegon , salvidio , and loader , 2004 , tropical zool . , 17 : 107 . holotype : bmnh 2000 . 233 , by original designation . type locality :
uluguru south forest reserve , uluguru mountains , morogoro region , eastern tanzania ( 7° 01′ - 7° 12′ s , 37° 36′—37° 45′ e )
.
cannatella d . c . and de sá r . o . ( 1993 ) , « xenopus laevis as a model organism» , syst . biol . , 42 , 476 – 507 .
weisz p . b . ( 1945 ) , «the normal stages in the development of the south african clawed toad , xenopus laevis » , anat . rec . , 93 , 161 – 169 .
species description : menegon m , salvidio s , loader sp 2004 five new species of nectophrynoides noble 1926 ( amphibia anura bufonidae ) from the eastern arc mountains , tanzania . trop . zool . 17 : 97 - 121
lamotte m . and xavier f . ( 1972a ) , «les amphibiens anoures à développement direct d’afrique . observations sur la biologie de nectophrynoides tornieri ( roux ) » , bull . soc . zool . france , 97 , 413 – 428 .
gurdon j . b . and hopwood n . ( 2000 ) , «the introduction of xenopus laevis into developmental biology : of empire , pregnancy testing and ribosomal genes» , int . j . devel . biol . , 44 , 43 – 50 .
landström u . , løvtrup - rein u . , and løvtrup s . ( 1975 ) , «control of cell division and cell differentiation by deoxynucleotides in the early embryo of xenopus laevis » , cell differ . , 4 , 313 – 325 .
the species authority is : menegon , m . , salvidio , s . , and loader , s . p . ( 2004 ) . “five new species of nectophrynoides noble 1926 ( amphibia anura bufonidae ) from the eastern arc mountains , tanzania . ”
lamotte m . and xavier f . ( 1972b ) , «recherches sur le développement embryonnaire de nectophrynoides occidentalis angel , amphibien anoure vivipare . 1 . les principaux traits morphologiques et biométriques du développement» , ann . embryol . morphogen . , 5 , 315 – 340 .
dettlaff t . a . and rudneva t . b . ( 1975 ) , «the clawed frog xenopus laevis daudin» , in : t . a . dettlaff ( ed . ) , objects of developmental biology , nauka , moscow , pp . 392 – 441 [ in russian ] .
this medium - sized nectophrynoides is known only from the uluguru north forest reserve within the uluguru mountains of eastern tanzania and is considered endangered . its large hands and feet , expanded toe tips , fingers webbed at the base , indistinct parotid glands , and lack of a tympanum make it distinguishable from other species of the genus .
del pino e . m . , steinbeisser h . , hoffmann a . , dreyer c . , campos m . , and trendelenburg m . f . ( 1986 ) , «oogenesis in the egg - brooding frog gastrotheca riobambae produces large oocytes with fewer nucleoli and low rna content in comparison to xenopus laevis » , differentiation , 32 , 24 – 33 .
a medium - sized nectophrynoides with short slender limbs . the dorsum is light , with dark sides . many individuals have a dark mid dorsal stripe . the tympanum is clearly visible . parotid glands are raised with dark edges and are longer than they are wide . toe and finger tips are not expanded and may be rounded or slightly pointed . fingers are webbed only slightly at the base . toes are partially webbed ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .
resembling a small n . viviparus in body shape but lacking tympanum , massive parotoids and glands on limbs . it is easily distinguished from n . poyntoni , n . vestergaardi , n . minutus and n . tornieri by the absence of a tympanum . differing from n . wendyae , n . frontierei and n . cryptus in having expanded tips of fingers ( the latter two species occasionally have a weakly discernible tympanum , outlined under the skin ) . n . laevis can be distinguished from n . pseudotornieri by its shorter hindlimbs ( sul / hindlimb = 1 . 20 versus 1 . 12 in n . pseudotornieri holotype ) , the absence of hand webbing , and clearly raised parotoid glands , which are longer than the horizontal diameter of the eye . n . asperginis differs from n . laevis in having rounded finger tips , absence of parotoids , and by being smaller with dark dorsolateral bands ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .
a medium - sized nectophrynoides with a broad head , protruding eyes and large hands and feet relative to other members of the genus . the dorsum is light brown with irregular darker brown markings . this species lacks a tympanum . the parotid glands are present , but small and indistinct . they are located in the scapular region and are shorter than the length of the eye . the toe tips are expanded and the tips of some of the digits are truncate . fingers are webbed at the base . toes are partially webbed ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .
while vitamin a deficiency is relatively well recognized in amphibians , hypervitaminosis a is also described in the literature . although many studies describing hypervitaminosis a are in amphibians deliberately given excess vitamin a for experimental purposes , this condition can arise in captive amphibians supplemented with too much vitamin a . for example , hypervitaminosis seems to frequently occur in x . laevis that are fed mammalian liver tissue or whole rodent pups , both of which have relatively high vitamin a levels compared to typical invertebrate feeder species [ densmore and green , 2007 ] . the effects of excess dietary vitamin a may affect the skin ( causing ulceration or excess shedding ) and liver ( causing fibrosis or hepatocellular degeneration ) , as well as weight loss [ pessier , 2013 ] .
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frost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 27 january 2014 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 january 2014 ) .
justification : listed as data deficient since it has only recently been discovered , and there is still very little information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements .
this species is known only from uluguru south forest reserve , in the uluguru mountains in eastern tanzania . the altitude of this locality is not known , but it is likely to be greater than 2 , 000 m asl .
there is no information on its population status as it is known only from a single specimen collected in april 2002 .
there is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species . it could be a species of montane forest , or montane grassland , or possibly high - altitude swamps . the details of its breeding biology are unknown , but it is assumed to be ovoviviparous , like other member of its genus , with internal fertilisation before giving birth to tiny toadlets .
the threats that this species might face are unknown , although much of uluguru south forest reserve is very remote and faces few threats .
uluguru south forest reserve is the only protected area that this species is known from so far , but this area is not generally managed for biodiversity conservation . targeted searches are required to determine the distribution of this species . further research is also needed into the population status , ecology , threats , and use and trade of this species . it is listed on cites appendix i .
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this website will serve as a gateway for information regarding african amphibian species , where participants will write and edit species pages , upload images , and maintain bibliographic resources . the goal of this website is to develop an authoritative , community - driven resource for information on african amphibians . we expect this to be a key resource for both the public and experts in the field , including those who may not have access to original descriptions , taxonomic changes , and updates of species distributions from scientific journals . in addition to serving as a stand - alone resource , this scratchpad will feed content directly into the encyclopedia of life ( eol ) and amphibiaweb .
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listed as data deficient since it has only recently been discovered , and there is still very little information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements .
* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .
will find all uses of
hyl . . .
anywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .
will find all uses of
. . . hyla
anywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla
will find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor
interprets this as
lithobates or pipiens
so will find the union of all records that contain either
lithobates
or
pipiens
: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens
interprets this as
lithobates and pipiens
so will return all records that have the character string
lithobates pipiens
anywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .
smooth forest toad ( channing and howell , 2006 , amph . e . afr . : 110 ) .
known only from the type locality ( uluguru south forest reserve , 2000 m elevation , uluguru mountains , morogoro region , eastern tanzania ) .
channing and howell , 2006 , amph . e . afr . : 110 , provided an account . harper , measey , patrick , menegon , and vonesh , 2010 , field guide amph . e . arc mts . tanzania and kenya : 136–137 , provided a brief account .
please note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .
for access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .
copyright © 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .
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cites is an international agreement between governments , aimed to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival .
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amphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )
frost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
in : iucn 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2010 . 1 . < www . iucnredlist . org >
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this species is known only from uluguru south forest reserve , in the uluguru mountains in eastern tanzania ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
the male holotype , the only known specimen , measured 24 . 8 mm in snout - vent length ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .
this species lacks a tympanum . the dorsum is light gray with irregular dark markings and is smooth with small warts . parotid glands are twice as long as their width . a very small amount of webbing is present on the toes . fingers lack webbing . finger tips are expanded and slightly truncate . a thin dark line runs along the center of the ventral surface . a pale vertebral stripe was present on the single individual collected ; however this is a trait that varies among individuals in other species ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .
there is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species . it could be a species of montane forest , or montane grassland , or possibly high - altitude swamps . the altitude of the type locality is also not known , but it is likely to be greater than 2 , 000 m ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
there is no information on its population status as it is known only from a single specimen collected in april 2002 ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
the details of its breeding biology are unknown , but it is assumed to be ovoviviparous , like other member of its genus , with internal fertilisation before giving birth to tiny toadlets ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
the iucn red list ( 2010 ) categorizes this species as data deficient since it has only recently been discovered , and there is still very little information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
the threats that this species might face are unknown , although much of uluguru south forest reserve is very remote and faces few threats ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
uluguru south forest reserve is the only protected area that this species is known from so far , but this area is not generally managed for biodiversity conservation ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
named for the latin ' pseudo ' meaning false or seeming , indicating the species overall similarity to n . tornieri .
this species is known only from the uluguru north forest reserve on the eastern slopes of the northern part of the uluguru mountains , eastern tanzania . it appears to have a very restricted distribution ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
the body appears dark brown dorsally . the dorsum is finely marbled with different shades of brown . the sides are slightly darker than the dorsum with more contrasted and extensive marbling . hands and feet are lighter in colour . the belly is creamy with sparse condensation of melanophores mainly on throat and limbs . in the living specimen the dorsum and head were light brown . iris was gold ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .
the holotype , a male , measured 25 . 0 mm , and the single paratype , a female , measured 29 mm from snout to urostyle ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .
resembling n . tornieri in body shape but substantially larger . easily distinguished from n . tornieri , n . poyntoni , n . vestergaardi , n . minutus and n . viviparus by the absence of tympanum . differing from n . wendyae , n . cryptus and n . frontierei in having expanded tip of fingers ( the two latter species sometimes also have a weakly discernible tympanum under the skin ) . n . laevi s has shorter hindlimbs ( sul / hindlimb = 1 . 20 versus 1 . 12 in n . pseudotornieri holotype ) , lacks hand webbing and has clearly raised parotoid glands , longer than the horizontal diameter of the eye . n . asperginis has rounded finger tips , is smaller with dark dorsolateral bands , and has a more developed webbing ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .
this species is known only from tall , submontane rainforest between 1080 and 1345 m ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
there is no information on the population status of this species as it is known from only two specimens , collected in 1996 and 2000 ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
hides under logs during the day and perch on vegetation approximately 1 m off the ground at night ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .
reproduction is assumed to be similar to that of other species in the genus with internal fertilization and live birth ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .
the iucn red list ( 2010 ) categorizes this species as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 km 2 , all individuals are in fewer than five locations , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat on the uluguru mountains , tanzania ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
the submontane forest on the eastern slopes of the uluguru mountains has been extensively cleared , mainly due to agricultural encroachment , wood extraction , and expanding human settlements ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
it occurs in the uluguru north forest reserve , but this area is not generally managed for biodiversity conservation and is in need of improved management . further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
the uluguru mountains are one of the blocks within the eastern arc range , and consistently rank in the top three of the blocks in terms of overall species values ; many species are endemic just to this area .
forest habitat on the uluguru mountain range has been reduced from over 300 km 2 to around 220 km 2 over the past 50 years , and is now largely confined to a number of forest reserves – the two largest being uluguru north forest reserve ( 83 . 57 km 2 ) and uluguru south ( 172 . 93 km 2 ) – both of which contain significant biodiversity .
the uluguru mountains are also of critical importance for the provision of water to the ruvu river , especially during the dry season . water flows from the ruvu have been declining over the past 50 years and hence better protection for the remaining forests in the watershed of this river might help reverse this situation and thereby improve the situation for millions of people in dar es salaam .
forty four eastern arc endemic vertebrates are also found in the uluguru mountains . some species are confined to only one or other of these reserves . many of these species are regarded as threatened with extinction .
the two dense forest endemic birds of the ulugurus have been studied to a significant degree in recent years . a census of the uluguru bush shrike in year 2000 indicated there were at least 1 , 200 pairs of this bird , mainly in uluguru north forest reserve , with some in the degraded public land forest outside the reserve . a further survey in 2006 showed that the bird also occurs on the eastern flanks of the uluguru south forest reserve , and hence the bunduki gap is a real conservation issue for the long term survival of this forest dwelling bird .
loveridge’s sunbird is another endemic bird of the uluguru mountains , where it is known from uluguru north , uluguru south and bunduki forest reserves . a census in year 2000 indicated a population range between 21 , 000 and 166 , 000 individuals ( with a median estimate of 37 , 000 individuals ) . as the species is found in all three of the higher altitude reserves on the ulugurus , then maintaining forest connection between them is important .
in 1955 the uluguru north and south reserves were joined by natural forest across the bunduki gap . over the past 50 years this forest has been cleared back to the reserve boundaries , creating a deforested gap of farmland .
a new nature reserve has been proposed that includes the uluguru north , uluguru south , bunduki frs and a strip of land in the bunduki corridor ( 106 . 5 ha ) that joins the three reserves . the total area of the proposed nature reserve is 24 , 115 . 09 ha . this nature reserve , if formally gazetted , would allow the forest vegetation of the bunduki gap to regenerate and re - establish the connection between the forests of the three reserves in the area .
doggart , n . , j . lovett , b . mhoro , j . kiure and n . burgess ( 2005 ) . biodiversity surveys in the forest reserves of the uluguru mountains , tanzania . wcst and tfcg , dar es salaam , tanzania . 200 pages . see
rodgers , w . a . & burgess , n . d . ( 2006 ) . the conservation of the uluguru mountains : learning lessons from the past . miombo 29 : 6 - 9 .
batulaine , g . ( 2007 ) . assessment of baseline ecological and socio - economic factors for forest restoration planning in the bunduki gap , uluguru mountain forests of tanzania . unpublished m . sc . thesis , sokoine university of agriculture .
this website and the report was funded and co - produced by the wildlife conservation society .
this species is named for wendy clarke , wife of the describer , barry clarke ( channing and howell , 2006 ) .
has rounded toes . in addition , the two species can be easily differentiated by their advertisement calls . from
, a species that also has rounded tips on its digits , the parotid gland shape , hind and forelimb ratios , and the dorsal pattern may all be used to discern these two species . from
, the focal species can be differentiated by the latter lacking large glands on the limbs and being smaller in size .
it is unclear if the coloration described by the species authority is in life or in preservative . the dorsal surface of the holotype specimen is primarily various shades of brown . scattered , darker blotches are common . a black stripe is present from the tip of the snout to the end of the parotid glands . a light brown mid - dorsal stripe with a black outline is present . beige coloration occurs on the sides of the head , the upper arms , and the dorsal surface in an upside - down “v” shaped marking , outlined in black . the dorsal glands have concentrations of melanophores on pale pink areas in the pattern of interrupted stripes . the ventral surface is gray with a few melanophores ( menegon et al . 2004 ) .
the dorsal pattern varies between specimens . the coloration may be mostly shades of brown , or many darker / black blotches may be present on the dorsal surface of the head , body and legs . dark , possibly interrupted , stripes may also run from the snout to the scapular parotoids or along the vertebral line ( menegon et al . 2004 ) .
) in the iringa region of southern tanzania at elevations of 1 , 200 m . the forest is located on the south - eastern slopes of the udzungwa mountains , which is part of the eastern arc mountain chain . the habitat of
is submontane rain forest . the emergent layer reaches 50 m in this area , and the canopy is 30 to 40 m high . this species , as well as
, was common along the mkalazi stream when it was described ( menegon et al . 2004 , menegon and salvidio 2005 ) .
is active during the evening on leaves 60 – 160 cm above the ground . during the day they could be found in hiding places under fallen trees and large pieces of wood ( menegon et al . 2004 ) .
is inferred to be an ovoviviparous or lecithotrophic species due to their small clutches of large , yolky eggs ( liedtke et al . 2014 ; menegon et al . 2004 ) . menegon et al . ( 2004 ) reported clutch sizes of 8 and 10 large , yolky eggs in dissected specimens .
. males call near streams and vegetation in the late afternoon or after sunset . the monophasic call consists of high - pitched notes in a series of pulse trains . each pulse lasts for 60 ms , and has a dominant frequency of 2 . 9 khz and a second harmonic is emphasized at 8 . 7 khz . the inter - pulse duration is 80 ms . a single pulse train has a duration of 1 s ( 6 - 8 pulses ) , and the interval between pulse trains is 2 . 5 - 3 . 5 s . the high frequency of the call may help distinguish the call from the noise of low frequency water turbulence .
, which is similar in size and shape , but can differentiated based on toe - tip shape and advertisement call ( menegon et al . 2004 ) .
is a hyper - endemic and very rare frog species from the uzungwa scarp forest reserve ( barratt et al . 2014 ) . it is listed as “critically endangered” on the iucn red list and is threatened by habitat loss . the
population is said to be declining , but this species may already be extinct ( iucn 2015 ) .
” was named in honor of professor john poynton ( menegon et al . 2004 )
barratt , c . , tonelli , e . , menegon , m . , doggart , n . , bowkett , a . , harris , w . e . , howell , k . , ngalason , w . , loader , s . ( 2014 ) . ' ' fragmented habitats and species : the challenges of amphibian conservation in tanzania today . ' '
. the iucn red list of threatened species 2015 : e . t54842a13323022 . urltoken downloaded on 15 june 2016 .
liedtke , h . c . , müller , h . , hafner , j . , nagel , p . , and loader , s . ( 2014 ) . ' ' interspecific patterns for egg and clutch sizes of african
menegon , m . , salvidio , s . , and loader , s . p . ( 2004 ) . ' ' five new species of
noble 1926 ( amphibia anura bufonidae ) from the eastern arc mountains , tanzania . ' '
melissa headley ( mheadley at rams . colostate . edu ) , colorado state university
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .
the species is named in honour of martin vestergaard , a danish zoologist , who first recognised the population as being an undescribed species .
this endangered toad is known only from the west usambara mountains in north - eastern tanzania . it can be distinguished by the presence of the a tympanum and continuous elongate parotid gland , as well as toe tips that are rounded rather than truncate .
the iucn red list ( 2010 ) categorizes this species as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 km2 , its distribution is severely fragmented , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat in the west usambara mountains , tanzania ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
it occurs in the university of dar es salaam ' s forest reserve at mazumbai , but additional protection of the habitat in the west usambara mountains is needed ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
in some parts of the west usambaras its habitat is probably being lost , especially due to agricultural encroachment , commercial logging , wood extraction , and expanding human settlements ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
it is assumed that populations are decreasing ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
it is probably terrestrial as some animals were found inside a rotten log ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
in preservative the body appears always bicoloured , with sides darker than dorsum . the pale brown colour appearance is the result of a mixture of a very pale surface together with very small condensations of melanophores . a light maxillary patch is usually present and may be conspicuous . outer edge of parotoid glands is darkened . a clearly raised glandular ridge on outer margin of eyelids is discernible . there is almost always a fine dark mid dorsal vertebral line from snout to urostyle present ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .
holotype , a female , measured 24 mm from snout to urostyle . females are larger in size ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .
this species is known only from the west usambara mountains in north - eastern tanzania . there are records from the shume - magamba forest reserve , the mazumbai forest reserve , and the ambangulu estate ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
all records have been from montane and submontane forest between 1230 and 2000 m , including in the ecotone between forest and ericaceous vegetation . the type series was collected in montane forest dominated by ocotea usambarensis and podocarpus sp . ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
there is little information available on its population status . however , the fact that 23 specimens have been found widely over the west usambara mountains , despite limited survey effort , suggests that it is not uncommon in suitable habitat within its small range ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
reproduction is assumed to be similar to that of other species in the genus with internal fertilization and live birth . one female was found containing 18 embryos ( menegon et al . , 2004 )
the iucn red list ( 2010 ) categorizes this species as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 km2 , all individuals are in fewer than five locations , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat on the uluguru mountains , tanzania ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
protozoa are of little consequence in laboratory rats in recent decades ( national research council , 1991 ; kohn and barthold , 1984 ) .
are nonpathogenic and produce no disease ; however , microscopists must be able to distinguish pathogenic from nonpathogenic species . the presence of nonpathogenic species indicates that the person has been exposed to fecal contamination .
do not always produce symptoms or they may remain after symptoms have resolved . asymptomatic individuals may serve as reservoirs for the infection . detection of a potentially pathogenic protozoan does not necessarily prove that the organism is causing the illness . patients may have diarrhea caused by other organisms , such as
, a urogenital flagellate , is also considered pathogenic , and may cause mild to severe vaginitis and other urogenital problems .
although many people worldwide are infected with e . histolytica , only a small percentage develop clinical symptoms . morbidity and mortality caused by e . histolytica vary , depending on geographic area , organism species ( e . histolytica vs e . dispar ) and the immune status of the patient .
( brumpt 1925 ) , which is noninvasive and does not cause disease . during the past several years , extensive work has been published related to the pathogenesis of
spp . the true role of this organism in terms of colonization or disease and the relevance of organism numbers require additional clarification . in studies of patients with irritable bowel syndrome , there are patients in whom the presence of
there is evidence to indicate there are several subtypes / strains / species , and there may be a relationship between subtype and pathogenicity , only some of which will be responsible for increased intestinal permeability and symptoms .
, group a and group b , associated with different degrees of virulence . group a appears to be more pathogenic and is associated with symptomatic infection . isoenzyme and molecular studies also support the differences between these two groups .
however , it appears there may be both pathogenic and nonpathogenic variants . evidence for two genetically distinct forms has been obtained using polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ) - restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of ribosomal genes .
is site - specific and usually cannot survive outside the urogenital system . after introduction , proliferation begins , with resulting inflammation and large numbers of trophozoites in the tissues and the secretions . nutrient acquisition and cytoadherence , immune system evasion and regulation of virulence genes are virulence factors associated with pathogenesis .
it appears that interference with trichomonads ' mucin receptors and proteinases may form a strategy to prevent colonization with this pathogenic flagellate .
some infections with b . coli produce no symptoms , while others cause symptoms with severe dysentery similar to that seen in patients with amebiasis . symptoms usually include diarrhea or dysentery , tenesmus , nausea , vomiting , anorexia and headache . insomnia , muscular weakness and weight loss have also been reported . diarrhea may persist for weeks to months prior to the onset of dysentery . there may be tremendous fluid loss , with a type of diarrhea similar to that seen in cholera or in some coccidial or microsporidial infections .
may penetrate the mucosa with cellular infiltration in the area of the developing ulcer , which may extend to the muscular layer . the ulcers may vary in shape , and the ulcer bed may be full of pus and necrotic debris . although the number of cases is small , extraintestinal disease has been reported ( peritonitis , urinary tract , inflammatory vaginitis ) .
acute malaria is a medical emergency demanding immediate diagnosis and treatment ; quinine or artemisinin derivatives , usually in combination with other antimalarial drugs , are effective .
african trypanosomiasis ( sleeping sickness ) is treated with toxic arsenical drugs ; the west african form responds to eflornithine .
south american trypanosomiasis ( chagas’ disease ) is a chronic condition that is difficult to treat .
leishmaniasis takes various forms ; the most dangerous is visceral leishmaniasis ( kala azar ) . antimonial compounds , antifungal drugs or miltefosine are used for treatment .
amoebiasis , giardiasis and trichomoniasis occur worldwide ; they usually respond to 5 - nitroimidazole drugs such as metronidazole .
, meaning animal , is a phylum comprising some of the morphologically simplest organisms of the animal kingdom . most species are unicellular , eukaryotic and microscopic in size ; most are free - living and motile , but some have commensalistic , mutualistic or parasitic relationships . approximately 10 , 000 of the described living species are parasitic .
infect most vertebrate and invertebrate species and have developed the capacity to adapt to living in most host organs .
, unlike almost all helminths , can replicate ( sexually , asexually or both ways ) within the host ' s body—a phenomenon that largely explains their survival , as well as the overwhelming infections that develop from single exposures .
. those of medical importance include organisms that infect blood and tissue and those capable of causing disease of the intestinal and urogenital tracts . the blood and tissue
, cryptosporidiosis , and trichomoniasis . this latter disease is confined to the urogenital system and is caused by
. the species of ciliate involved was not reported , and although a cutaneous route of infection was suspected , this could not be confirmed .
have been mentioned to occur in amphibians , but lesions are not as well - documented as they are in fish .
, however , appear to be missing some of the organelles you would expect to find in a typical eukaryote .
is an example of a eukaryotic protist that lacks mitochondria , peroxisomes , and has a very underdeveloped endomembrane system .
generates the atp energy it needs through an anaerobic metabolic pathway , located in the cytoplasm of the cell that relies on the use of enzymes that contain iron–sulfur ( fe–s ) cofactors . these
are involved in redox reactions and electron transport pathways that lead to atp synthesis . biosynthesis of the fe–s cofactor in turn , requires the activity of a highly conserved class of proteins known as
is a medically relevant parasitic protozoan that is responsible for diarrheal diseases that affect hundreds of thousands of people and animals worldwide . ingestion of food or water contaminated by
cysts leads to the infection of host organisms . once inside a host , the cyst opens up to release one or two
cycle . the trophozoites populate the intestine of the host , causing a variety of unpleasant symptoms and producing more cysts that are released to continue the cycle of infection and disease .
isc proteins are highly conserved from bacteria to humans . what are the implications of this statement ?
drugs used to treat giardia infections work by entering the cytoplasm of the trophozoite and disrupting atp production . why would such a drug be safe for use in humans and animals ?
( microsporidea now possibly grouped with fungi ) . relationships range from commensal to parasitic . many
poynton and whitaker , 2001 ; green et al . , 2003 ; pessier , 2002
can be transmitted through water and from aquatic vegetation or feeder fish to amphibians .
entamoeba cysts are swallowed and directly colonize the colon . trophozoites can spread to the kidney and liver . oodinium and trichodina are external parasites that affect the skin and gills of aquatic amphibians . ingestion of infected fly larvae is the likely source of plistophora myotropica in wild toads . trypanosoma infects the blood of wild amphibians and has an indirect life - cycle and is unlikely pathogenic .
signs of amebiasis include dehydration , anorexia , and emaciation . feces are loose and bloody ; vomiting may also occur . ascites may be noted with hepatic and renal involvement .
causes the skin and gills to become grayish in color . debilitation occurs in chronic cases . reddened gills and
and other ciliates . animals affected by trypanosomiasis may be asymptomatic or may die acutely .
entamoeba causes lesions of the colonic mucosa , suppurative nephritis , and hepatic abscesses . cysts may be found in the liver and kidney . splenomegaly is seen in amphibians that die acutely from trypanosomiasis . necropsy findings associated with plistophora include muscle atrophy and pale streaks in myofibers .
can be identified by fecal examination ( though difficult and often unrewarding ) , pcr , or colonic wash . skin scrapings and gill biopsies will demonstrate external
mg / kg po sid for 3–5 days ) . aquatic species may be treated with 50
mg / kg po sid ) . trypanosomiasis may respond to a quinine sulfate bath ( 30
min ) or acriflavin baths ( constant 0 . 025 % bath for 5 days ) . copper sulfate has also been used , but this compound can be toxic in some amphibian species and is not recommended (
) . all treatments may not lead to total resolution , but instead a decrease in parasitic burden .
affected animals should be separated from community groups ; they should be handled last , and equipment should not be shared . tanks should be cleaned and sanitized , and water should be changed more frequently . attention to the environment and prevention of reinfection are important considerations . vectors should be excluded from animal facilities (
incoming animals should be quarantined and evaluated for presence of disease and / or pathogenic organisms . food items and aquarium plants should be treated before introduction ( short salt bath followed by thorough rinsing and 1 - to 2 - h acriflavin bath ) . whenever possible , purchase colony - reared animals and food items from reliable sources .
subclinical infections of hemoparasites can confound hematologic and physiologic data . overt protozoal disease can decrease research populations and render data questionable . cryptosporidiosis infection of animal could cause health concerns for humans as well .
are a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide , either in developing or in western countries . some of those able to infect humans by the oral route have long been known to cause disease , but others are only now being increasingly recognized as pathogenic in immunocompromised hosts , especially in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome ( aids ) . they are very diverse in epidemiology , symptomatology , treatment , and preventive measures .
in immunocompetent hosts most infections are asymptomatic , but overt local or systemic symptoms may be present , which may be severe in some cases . however , protozoal infections are particularly troublesome , sometimes life - threatening , in immunocompromised patients .
, but sometimes more intense manifestations do occur , including abdominal cramps , flatulence , anorexia , vomiting , malabsorption , weight loss , and fever . in aids patients , insuperable chronic watery diarrhea with malabsorption and , eventually , wasting syndrome may be due to some of these parasites .
blood , pus , and mucus in stools are the result of invasion of the intestinal wall and common only in intestinal infection by entamoeba histolytica , which is also able to cause systemic infection , especially liver abscesses , manifested by fever , weight loss , abdominal pain , and hepatomegaly .
spp . and , while intestinal infection is thought to be asymptomatic , parasites in muscle may cause swelling and pain . microsporidia have only recently been recognized as human pathogens in aids and very few cases have been reported in non - aids patients .
to chemotherapy correlates roughly with metabolism and , accordingly , with species . several drugs are active against different
. for some of them , e . g . , diloxanide furoate , the exact mechanism of action is still uncertain . others , e . g . , metronidazole , are broad - spectrum antibiotics , interfering with the dna of susceptible infectious agents .
. most of these drugs are contraindicated in pregnancy and treatment of pregnant women often must be delayed until after delivery .
metronidazole is effective against most flagellates and amoebae and is an alternative choice in the treatment of balantidium coli . other nitroimidazoles ( tinidazole and ornidazole ) have similar activity and less untoward side - effects , including headache , metallic taste , nausea , vomiting , and diarrhea .
emetine and dehydroemetine have considerable side - effects , gastrointestinal and systemic , and are reserved only for extraintestinal amoebiasis . they are not active against e . histolytica in the bowel and diloxanide furoate , tetracycline , paramomycin , or iodoquinol must be added in order to treat simultaneous intestinal infection .
iodoquinol is also effective against dientamoeba fragilis ( sensitive also to paramomycin and tetracycline ) and is used as an alternative drug against balantidium coli . infections due to giardia intestinalis may be treated with quinacrine , metronidazole , or furazolidine . tetracycline is the drug of choice against b . coli and d . fragilis . iodoquinol must be used with great caution , as it may cause myelitis and optic atrophy . this is the reason why it is no longer available in most developed countries .
treatment of protozoal diseases in aids patients is far from satisfactory . there is no effective specific therapy for microsporidia or cryptosporidium spp . , perhaps the most common agent of infection of the bowel in aids . isospora belli and sarcocystis spp . respond poorly , if at all , to antifolates , which include co - trimoxazole , sulfadiazine , and pyrimethamine .
, foodborne and waterborne infections , although surely underestimated , seem rare . good sanitary conditions and personal hygiene are keystones in preventing these infections . protozoal cysts and oocysts differ in sensitivity to adverse conditions ( heat , desiccation , freezing , chlorination ) and some are amazingly resistant .
in countries with poor sanitary conditions , water should be boiled and uncooked vegetables and unpeeled fruits avoided , as they may have been washed with contaminated water . flies and other arthropods may also be vehicles for fecal contamination of food . but even when a visitor takes every possible precaution to avoid these infections , a local food handler , even in the best hotel , may be a cyst passer not aware of the elementary rules of personal hygiene .
for some species there are several possible animal reservoirs , which lessens the effectiveness of preventive measures . even for these species with humans as the only hosts , patients in some institutions , especially those who are mentally handicapped , are a difficult group to control . the occurrence of sexual transmission of some
by oral–anal and oral–genital sex is also considered important and is difficult to control .
and helminths have complex life cycles and have adapted to exist within the hostile environment of one and sometimes several hosts . the distribution of these infectious agents parallels the poor socioeconomic conditions in the developing world . however , with widespread travel , infections due to these agents are being seen more frequently in non - endemic settings . in addition , with the increasing number of immunosuppressed patients ( infected with human immunodeficiency virus [ hiv ] , or after transplant or chemotherapy ) worldwide , disease manifestations can be more frequent , severe , and aggressive . central to the clinician’s approach to the patient with a central nervous system ( cns ) infection with a protozoan or helminthic organism is a thorough travel history , and an increased index of suspicion . once such an infection is suspected , appropriate workup can be initiated .
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