diodon holocanthus , known commonly as the longspined porcupinefish or freckled porcupinefish among other vernacular names , is a species of marine fish in the family diodontidae .

long - spine porcupinefish

my dvd features long - spine porcupinefish and video from the king cruiser wreck .
the long - spine porcupinefish is a small species of porcupinefish that can be found in both endless ocean games .
long - spine porcupinefish dried 5 - 7 inches taxidermy real - $ 9 . 95 | picclick
long - spine porcupinefish populate coral reefs in warm waters throughout the indo - pacific region and the caribbean sea .
the long - spine porcupinefish has dark patches on its sides and back . it has long spines that protrude from all over its body , except for the fins and face .
common names for this fish include balloonfish , balloon porcupinefish , blotched porcupinefish , brown porcupinefish , freckled porcupinefish , hedgehog fish , and spiny puffer .
deadly long - spine porcupinefish . . looks like he ' s smiling ! | nature ' s beauty | pinterest | fish , aquariums and creatures
the long - spine porcupinefish has an elastic stomach , flexible skeletal structure , and stretchy skin , all which allow it to inflate like a balloon .
human interaction : long - spine porcupinefish is used in chinese medicine , and is captured at the surface with a hand net . it is poisonous if not prepared correctly .
the long - spine porcupinefish has powerful jaws with teeth joined together to form a beak . it uses that beak to crush the shells of the sea urchins and shellfish that it eats .
this long - spine porcupinefish ( diodon holocanthus ) or
balloonfish
on the seabed next to the king cruiser was missing its tail , but still able to swim around very fast .
the short spine porcupinefish are nocturnal feeders , feeding mainly on crustaceans , gastropods and sea urchins . hermit crabs are included in their diet .
round and covered with countless long spines , this fish has an endearing face with a small mouth and big eyes . its distinctive long spines evolved from scales .
a single long - spine porcupinefish can often be found under a zoom - mode glow near where the player has parked the gabbiano . sometimes , a glow with one of these fish in it will appear on the underside of the boat directly .
it has long spines that protrude from all over its body , except for the fins and face .
when frightened , the long - spine porcupinefish swallows a large amount of water and inflates a pouch by its stomach . by doubling in size and raising the spines all over its body , it attempts to intimidate its predators . some pieces of its skeleton are missing so as not to hinder its expanding .
a set of 4 long spines with their bases near dorsal - and anal - fin bases and their pointed ends extending over caudal peduncle . two very long spines ( longer than rays of pectoral fins ) in pectoral - fin axil ( ref 9680 ) .
the blackblotched porcupinefish occurs in tropical waters and is found on coral reefs , rocky reefs and inshore waters .
he longspined porcupinefish diodon holocanthus , is also known as the spiny ballonfish . they can be easily confused with the
this species has a very wide distribution and a genetic analysis is warranted . leis ( 1978 ) noted some differences in spine morphology between pacific and north atlantic specimens .
when it spawns , the female porcupinefish deposits thousands of eggs close to the ocean floor , which the male immediately fertilizes .
« a large number of species of porcupinefish are inedible : their viscera or skin often contains a toxin that is particularly dangerous to humans . »
light grey body with pale belly , immovable spines , short on head grading to long at rear , 2 - 4 round black blotches on side , pale pectoral fin base , and unspotted fins .
the unique features of this fish give it protection against predators . when threatened , the long - spine porcupinefish will fill its body with air or water , which makes its body swell like a balloon . this makes it too large to fit into the predator’s mouth . also when “inflated , ” the spines all over its body are fully extended , making it even less of a desirable meal to the predator . such a defense mechanism requires a flexible stomach , vertebrae , and sides . this structure could not have happened by chance , random processes , but was designed by the creator .
breeding : the longspine porcupinefish is not likely to spawn in the home aquarium . reproduction in this species is quite violent , with males biting females during spawning .
aquarium conditions : the aquarium of the longspine porcupinefish should be large — a 75 - gallon aquarium or larger is best . make sure to provide your longspine porcupinefish with some good hiding places , although they spend little time under cover once they acclimate . instead , they regularly have their snouts plastered against the glass looking for their food providers .
, also known as the porcupinefish . however , an easy way to tell these two apart ( without getting too close ) is by checking for spots on the fins :
the body of the balloonfish is covered in long , sharp spines that extend when the fish inflates by taking in water . all members of the family diodontidae are capable of inflation , and may also change in color when threatened .
care considerations : one thing to keep in mind is that longspine porcupinefish are very prone to diseases , often breaking out with cryptocaryon at the drop of a hat . apparently , the longspine porcupinefish can even harbor the cysts of this parasite , in a dormant state , in their internal organs . but if you drop the specific gravity for several weeks ( to around 1 . 012 ) , they should recover . one thing you should never do is to encourage your longspine porcupinefish to inflate . this causes the fish stress , and if it should ingest air it may have a difficult time belching it out . hopefully , the longspine porcupinefish will work it all , but there’s nothing the hobbyist can do in such circumstances .
physical description : the longspine porcupinefish has a bulbous head and a short tail . the body is covered with sharp spines that lay backwards until it inflates with water . the longspine porcupinefish inflates in this manner when threatened by predators . ( on occasion , you may see this fish inflate for no apparent reason as if practicing for those times when inflating might save its life ! )
the blackblotched porcupinefish has erectile spines on the head and body . like all members of the family , it can inflate its body with water , and turn itself into a very spiny ball .
difficulty : the longspine porcupinefish can be an easy fish to keep once you convince it to eat aquarium fare . most individuals , in time , will greedily accept chopped seafood , frozen krill and frozen preparations for marine carnivores . if you feed the longspine porcupinefish a varied diet , at least once a day , it will stay happy and healthy and could live more than a decade in your aquarium .
diodon holocanthus has large spots scattered about its light brown body and darker saddles . the longspine porcupinefish reaches a length of about 15 inches . its larger cousin d . hystrix ( known simply as the porcupinefish ) reaches a massive 28 inches in length . it is a more elongate diodon sp . that has numerous small spots ( much smaller than the size of the eye ) all over its body and tail .
leis , j . m . 2006 . nomenclature and distribution of the species of the porcupinefish family diodontidae ( pisces , teleostei ) . memoirs of museum victoria . 63 ( 1 ) : 77 - 90 .
with fun facts about more than 100 animals , this long - awaited aquarium guide includes beautiful pictures and reveals the incredible facts and design features that point to our amazing creator . this handy size guide is excellent for school field trips and family trips to your favorite aquarium !
it is similar to the freckled porcupinefish , diodon holocanthus , but the latter has much longer spines , particularly on the head , and the blotch on the top of the head is continuous between the eyes . ,
adult longspine porcupinefish are usually solitary and are only seen in pairs or groups during mating . they are often seen wedged into small crevices on the reef during the day and will sometimes inflate wedging themselves into the crevice . they are slow swimmers usually propelling themselves with their pectoral , dorsal and anal fins but they are capable of a faster burst of speed when they use their caudal fins . porcupinefish are more agile than they look and can change direction quickly .
“et phone home . ” that famous movie phrase comes to mind every time i come to face - to - face with a longspine porcupinefish , also known as the balloonfish . its large head and big eyes give it an alienlike appearance . the longspine porcupinefish is also a fish full of personality . in fact , it has more charm than a lot of the people i have met during my travels through life ! but this ocean - bound et is not suitable for everyone .
leis , j . m . 2006 ,
nomenclature and distribution of the species of the porcupinefish family diodontidae ( pisces , teleostei ) .
, memoirs of museum victoria , vol . 63 , no . 1 , pp . 77 - 90
if you have an acrylic aquarium , be aware that some longspine porcupinefish have been known to bite and cause scratches on the acrylic with their hard beaklike teeth . for a fish with teeth that can crush sea urchins and mollusk shells , scratching plastic is not that great a feat . acceptable water parameters for the longspine porcupinefish are a ph of 8 . 1 to 8 . 4 , specific gravity of 1 . 019 to 1 . 025 and a water temperature of 74 to 82 degrees fahrenheit .
begins to develop spines . the larvae metamorphosize after about 3 weeks ( flmnh ) . after this metamorphosis , fins and fin rays are present , the teeth are formed , and adult olive and brown coloring develops ( flmnh ) . dark spots appear on the belly , which may help camouflage the juveniles in floating sargassum from underwater predators such as the mahi mahi ( flmnh ) . the juvenile loses this underside spotting when it reaches the adult stage . at this point in development , spine elongation and body growth occur . the larval stage of
longspine porcupinefish have a light olive brown background color with brown or black dots across the body . light brown blotches are spread across the body . the eyes are prominent as with most nocturnal feeders and are covered with a blotch which runs across the head from eye to eye . the anal and dorsal fins are set back close to the caudal peduncle . usually the fins are a transparent yellow colour . when not inflated the spines lie flat on the body pointing backwards towards the tail .
, also known as the balloonfish or spiny puffer , can reach lengths from about 30 . 5 to 61 cm . it has dark patches along its sides and back , but perhaps its most telling feature is the long spines that protrude from all over its body , excluding the fins and face . the spines are actually modified scales , which lay flat against its body most of the time ( waikiki aquarium 1999 ) . in some relatives of the balloonfish , a toxic chemical , tetrodotoxin , is found in the skin and spines . however , only trace amounts of tetrodotoxin have been found in balloonfish , mainly concentrated in the ovaries ( chen and chou 1998 ) . in appearance ,
the longspined porcupinefish grow quite large and are messy eaters and therefore require a large aquarium . even with good filtration frequent water changes are necessary and any excess food should be vacuumed out . as saltwater fish go they are very hardy and easy to feed . because they are easy to catch they are also quite cheap . they have been kept in captivity for up to 15 years . as fish go they are intelligent and soon learn who feeds them and will swim up and down the side of the aquarium when they spot their feeder .
body a robust oval , inflatable ; head wide and blunt ; a pair of small barbels on chin ; eyes large ; nasal organ a flat short tentacle with 2 openings ; teeth fused into a strong , parrot - like beak with two plates that lack a front groove , large , opens widely at front ; gill opening a vertical slit before pectoral base ; pectorals large ; fins without spines ; no pelvic fins ; dorsal fin 13 - 14 ; anal fin rays 13 - 14 ; pectoral rays 22 - 25 ; body and head covered with numerous long ( > eye ) , erectible , 2 - rooted , slender , round spines ; 12 - 16 spines in an approximate row from top of snout to dorsal fin ; 12 - 15 spines between lower jaw and anus ; anterior middle spines on top of head longer than longest spines posterior to pectoral fins ; no spines on tail base .
greek , di = two + greek , odous = teeth ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 2 - 200 m ( ref . 5951 ) , usually 2 - 35 m ( ref . 40849 ) . subtropical ; 37°n - 39°s , 8°e - 55°w ( ref . 55210 )
circumtropical in distribution . western atlantic : canada ( ref . 5951 ) , florida , usa and the bahamas to brazil ( ref . 7251 ) . eastern atlantic : 30°n to 23°s ( ref . 6951 ) ; also south africa ( ref . 4423 ) . western indian ocean : southern red sea to madagascar , reunion and mauritius ( ref . 53568 ) . pacific ocean : southern japan south to lord howe island and east to the hawaiian and easter islands ( ref . 37816 ) . also from southern california , usa to colombia ( ref . 11482 ) and the galapagos islands ( ref . 5227 ) .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 50 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7251 ) ; common length : 15 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 55763 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 13 - 15 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 13 - 15 . pelagic juveniles with spots , particularly prominent on belly ; adults with dark blotches across back and spots between the blotches ; fins without spots ( ref . 4423 ) . 14 to 16 spines in an approximate row between snout and origin of dorsal fin ; with a large brown bar above and below each eye ; a broad transverse brown bar on occipital region of head ( ref . 13442 ) .
inhabit shallow reefs to open , soft bottoms . also in areas with rocky substrata . sometimes form groups ( ref . 9710 , 48637 ) . occur on open muddy substrates as well as on rich soft - bottom and coral reefs . juveniles often with floating sargassum rafts . young and sub - adults may form small groups ( ref . 48637 ) . benthopelagic ( ref . 58302 ) . juveniles pelagic to about 6 - 9 cm . solitary . feed on mollusks , sea urchins , hermit crabs , and crabs at night ( ref . 9680 ) . relatively poor swimmers ( ref . 9710 ) . used in chinese medicine ( ref . 12166 ) . captured at the surface using a hand net ( ref . 26165 ) .
leis , j . m . , 1984 . diodontidae . in w . fischer and g . bianchi ( eds . ) fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . western indian ocean fishing area 51 . vol . 2 . ( ref . 3393 )
) : 21 . 5 - 29 , mean 27 . 3 ( based on 2666 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5313 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 04467 ( 0 . 02239 - 0 . 08910 ) , b = 2 . 87 ( 2 . 68 - 3 . 06 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 9 ±0 . 2 se ; based on diet studies .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 27 of 100 ) .
porcupinefishes are slow - swimming , medium - sized fishes that are found mostly in shallow temperate and tropical marine waters . the teeth in both jaws are fused into a parrot - like
beak
. the family name diodontidae literally means ' two teeth ' . diodontids use these fused teeth and plates on the roof of the mouth to crush hard - bodied prey such as molluscs and sea urchins .
porcupinefishes are covered in spines . they can inflate their bodies into a ball - shape by swallowing water . the inflation of porcupinefishes is a defence mechanism , and as such there is no limit to the number of times an individual can inflate ( and deflate ) . if the fish inflates at the surface it is likely to ingest air , which can be difficult to expel . this can lead to death of the fish because it floats and cannot leave the surface . however , if the fish inflates under water , it ingests only water and has no problem deflating once the danger has passed .
the body is brown to grey above shading to white below . there are white - margined dark blotches on the back and sides , and the fins are normally unspotted .
the species is occurs in tropical waters of the indo - west and central pacific , from south africa , north to japan , south to australia and east to the marshall and society islands .
in australia it is known from the central coast of western australia , around the tropical north and south on the east coast to southern new south wales .
the map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . click on the map for detailed information . source : atlas of living australia .
allen , g . r . 1997 . marine fishes of tropical australia and south - east asia . western australian museum . pp . 292 .
hoese , d . f . , bray , d . j . , paxton , j . r . & g . r . allen . 2006 . fishes . in beesley , p . l . & a . wells . ( eds ) zoological catalogue of australia . volume 35 . abrs & csiro publishing : australia . parts 1 - 3 , pages 1 - 2178 .
randall , j . e . , allen , g . r . & r . c . steene . 1997 . fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . crawford house press . pp . 557 .
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the teeth of both the upper and lower jaws of this fish are fused , forming a solid , heavy beak . this beak makes cracking the shells of snails , sea urchins , and hermit crabs easy .
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these fish have large eyes , small mouths , and round bodies covered in spines . they are generally light - brown on the back and white on the belly . they can be seen year - round when they approach your boat .
although it is not poisonous like other blowfish , it has a distinctive means of self - defence . it swallows a large quantity of water , swelling its body and causing the spines that normally lie flat on its body to stick up . once it has gone into this defensive posture , a predator cannot attack without being pierced by the spines .
it has 400 - 600 spines , so it ' s probably a waste of time trying to count them .
these small fish appear in ciceros strait , around coordinates c - 2 and f - 5 .
these small creatures float around slowly and seemingly aimlessly . they puff up their bodies with poked or prodded , but they respond well to being fed .
in endless ocean 2 , the creatures under the zoom - mode glow at coordinates c - 2 are risky to attempt to find , as great white sharks patrol that area during the daytime . however , at night , the sharks move , leaving that space open to safely explore .
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eschmeyer , w . n . and fricke , r . ( eds ) . 2015 . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . updated 1 october 2015 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 1 october 2015 ) .
carpenter , k . e . , comeros - raynal , m . , harwell , h . & sanciango , j .
justification : this species is widely distributed and occurs over soft bottom and reef . there are no known major threats , therefore it is assessed as least concern .
diodon holocanthus is of minor commercial importance to the fisheries industry and aquarium trade ( miyasaka 1993 , fujita et al . 1997 ) . it is eaten in the ryukyu ' s and taiwan ( leis pers . comm . 2011 ) . it is also dried and sold as curios in parts of its range . there are reports that this species is toxic to humans , however this needs to be substantiated .
this errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .
( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2015 : e . t193817a115332473 .
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we spent 2 1 / 2 weeks scouring the wailea and makena beaches for snorkeling opportunities . the weather and sea conditions were variable and much more so than we have experienced in west maui . . . but we persisted , played it safe when the visibility was poor , and ended up seeing a lot of beautiful sealife . the beauty of snorkeling in maui is the . . .
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which is similar in looks but has much shorter spines and slightly different markings on the face . as with all pufferfish or blowfish , they have the ability to swallow water or air and inflate themselves . this enlarges them making it more difficult for predators to swallow them and furthermore raises the spines presenting an unpalatable looking meal .
as further protection they have a symbiotic relationship with types of bacteria such as pseudoalteromonas tetraodonis , which produces tetradotoxin which is a powerful neurotoxin .
they can grow up to 29 cm in length . the mouth is proportionally fairly large and if one observes them closely , the skin around the mouth is slightly wrinkled .
longspine porcupine fish are prolific spawners , the male pushes the female to the surface and large numbers of eggs are released and fertilized . after several days of floating near the surface the eggs hatch and the larvae are well formed . after three or so weeks the fins and teeth develop and the juveniles migrate to inshore areas when they have reached six to seven cm in length .
they are eaten in japan as sashimi and chirinabe in the notorious dish known as fugu . the tetradotoxin found in the fish is around 1200 times more poisonous than cyanide and the attraction is to put ones life in the hands of the chef who cuts the meat , hopefully leaving out the more poisonous parts which would certainly kill . if the chef gets it right a mild tingling and a feeling of euphoria will be felt .
in some areas the fish are blown up and sold as ornaments or as lamp shades . due to the increased controls on transporting such goods this practice is hopefully dying out .
while they do not eat other fishes in the wild , any crustacean and some corals are fair game for them . because their teeth continue growing throughout their life , they require hard foods to keep their teeth worn down . because of their solitary nature only one fish may be kept in a tank . if you have one you should not stress them to watch them puff up .
kingdom : animalia phylum : chordata class : actinopterygii order : tetraodontiformes family : diodontidae genus : diodon species : d . liturosus
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the species is exploited in the following sector ( s ) : - aquarium enthusiasts . - chemistry / pharmacy . used in the clothing , footwear or crafts industries for the manufacture of articles ( jewellery , etc . ) .
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wow , in our own dialect in e . samar , philippines we call it
otit
. thanks jellis !
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light olive to pale brown , shading to white ventrally ; small black spots on upper two - thirds of head and body ; a brown bar from above to below eye ; a broad brown bar across occipital region through eye , and another across middle of back ; a large oval brown blotch above each pectoral fin and another around dorsal - fin base ; fins pale , without spots .
circumtropical distribution ; southern california to the gulf of california to northern peru and all the offshore islands .
balloonfishes are circumtropical in distribution . these fish are found in the western atlantic from florida , usa to the bahamas and brazil , in the eastern atlantic around 30°n - 23°s , and in south africa . in the eastern pacific from hawaii to pitcairn and the easter islands , and from southern california , us to colombia and the galapagos islands . they are reef fish with a depth range of 2 - 100 m .
balloonfish are nocturnal predators , generally hiding in crevices in the reef during the day . the teeth are fused forming a strong , beak - like mouth for consuming snails , sea urchins , and hermit crabs . these fish are relatively poor swimmers .
juveniles are consumed by pelagic predatory fishes such as tuna and marine mammals such as dolphins . adults fall prey to sharks .
they reproduce via dioecism ( sexes are separate ) and fertilization is external with a spawning frequency of one clear seasonal peak per year .
resilience to fishing pressure : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years extinction vulnerability to fishing : low to moderate vulnerability ( 28 of 100 )
research diodon holocanthus » barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms
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balloonfishes , diodon holocanthus ~ marinebio . org .
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for all at last returns to the sea — to oceanus , the ocean river , like the everflowing stream of time , the beginning and the end .
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paulin , c . , stewart , a . , roberts , c . & mcmillan , p . 1989 ,
new zealand fish : a complete guide
, national museum of new zealand miscellaneous series , vol . 19 , pp . 1 - 279
ogilby , j . d . 1910 ,
on new or insufficiently described fishes
, proceedings of the royal society of queensland , vol . 23 , no . 1 , pp . 1 - 55
cuvier , g . l . 1818 ,
sur les diodons , vulgairement orbes épineux
, mémoires du muséum national d ' histoire naturelle , paris , vol . 4 , pp . 121 - 138 2 pls
compiled by roberts , c . d . ; paulin , c . d . ; stewart , a . l . ; mcphee , r . p . ; mcdowall , r . m . , king , c . m . ; roberts , c . d . ; bell , b . d . ; fordyce , r . e . ; nicol , r . s . ; worthy , t . h . ; paulin , c . d . ; hitchmough , r . a . ; keyes , i . w . ; baker , a . n . ; stewart , a . l . ; hiller , n . ; mcdowall , r . m . ; holdaway , r . n . ; mcphee , r . p . ; schwarzhans , w . w . ; tennyson , a . j . d . ; rust , r . ; macadie , i . 24 : phylum chordata : lancelets , fishes , amphibians , reptiles , birds , mammals , checklist of new zealand chordata . living lancelets , jawless fishes , cartilaginous fishes , and bony fishes . in : new zealand inventory of biodiversity volume 1 .
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f4c58bc8 - 1c3d - 4332 - b767 - 6ccedea9d3d1
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 8bf9220b - f30f - 4978 - abe9 - f63f4880bb35
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 444561
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habitat : lagoons , muddy bottoms , rocky bottoms , rocky reefs , soft bottom and shallow reefs .
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occurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed
abundance is calculated as the average number of individuals recorded per rls transect , where present .
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is distributed circumtropically throughout the world ( hobson 1974 ; flmnh ) . in the u . s . it is found along the pacific coast , the florida keys and hawaii ( hobson 1974 ; waikiki aquarium 1999 ) . it is widespread in the caribbean and eastern asia ( hobson 1974 ; flmnh ) .
adult balloonfish are found in relatively shallow areas of the ocean . they prefer grassy flats , coral reefs , and mangrove areas ( randall 1967 ; flmnh ; nagelkerken et . al 2000 ) . the larvae however , are found in the pelagic ( open water ) zone ( flmnh ) . they bob around in their shells for about 4 days before hatching ( flmnh ) .
balloonfish expand by swallowing mouthfuls of air or water when attacked by a predator . the balloonfish swallows air , when attacked by avian predators , or water , when attacked by piscine predators ( brainerd 1994 ) . after ingestion through the mouth , the air or water reaches the highly elastic stomach , which has been described as a
large dilatable sac with robust esophageal and pyloric sphincters
( rosen , 1912 ) . the stomach , which has lost its digestive function , plays a key role in the inflation process ( brainerd 1994 ) . in diodontidae , the stomach is a simple sac , whereas in tetraodontidae the stomach is divided into two parts by a pyloric sphincter . as the stomach expands , it pushes the peritoneal lining into the ample peritoneal space . the peritoneal cavity expands towards the head to the mandible and towards the tail to enclose the unpaired fins ( brainerd 1994 ) .
also facilitates inflation . because the balloonfish lacks pleural ribs and a pelvic girdle , expansion is not as strictly inhibited as in most fish . the vertebral column is also highly flexible . it bends in an arc towards the dorsal side of the fish , allowing
in addition to the elastic stomach , generous peritoneal space and skeletal structure , balloonfish skin is also specialized for inflation ( brainerd 1994 ) . the skin of
is highly elastic because of microfolds in the epidermis and collagen fibers of the dermis . these allow
to extend through 40 % of its initial length before it begins to stiffen ( brainerd 1994 ) .
reproduces through sexual processes , just like most other fish . sexual reproduction maintains genetic diversity within the species , which is important for preventing disease and adapting to changes in the environment over time . during spawning season , a male pushes a female to the surface and they immediately spawn ( flmnh ) . the round eggs float in the water . until they are 10 days old ,
larvae retain a thin shell covering , which is then lost ( flmnh ) . at this time ,
is yellow with red spots and well - developed functional mouth , eyes and gas bladder ( flmnh ) .
is threatened , it sucks water or air into its body , causing the dangerous spines to stick out at right angles from its body ( brainerd 1994 ) . the entire body swells two to three times in diameter as the stomach expands ( brainerd 1994 ) . it is not surprising that very few predators consume balloonfish .
the process of inflation is called an
anti - predatory defense mechanism
. this means that
demonstrates the most pronounced spherical shape of all pufferfish when inflated ( brainerd 1994 ) . the extremely inflated body shape also helps
avoid
gape - limited predators
. these are predators that can ' t open their mouths wide enough to swallow
when it is inflated . in hawaii , the only known predator of adult balloonfish is the tiger shark ( waikiki aquarium 1999 ) .
are fused , forming a solid , heavy beak ( hobson 1974 ; waikiki aquarium 1999 ) . this beak makes cracking the shells of snails , sea urchins and hermit crabs a breeze . with the help of its relatively large eyes ,
feeds at night on these delicacies of the coastal zone ( waikiki aquarium 1999 ) . as for catching its prey ,
certainly does not rely on speed . it is actually a slow - swimming predator ( waikiki aquarium 1999 ) . what
can do is maneuver into tricky positions using its pectoral , pelvic and anal fins . this is especially helpful in complex habitat such as coral reefs .
uses its tail primarily for steering and for occasional bursts of speed ( waikiki aquarium 1999 ) .
is a nocturnal predator and remains hidden during the day ( hobson 1974 ; waikiki aquarium 1999 ; flmnh ) . individuals have been observed resting near ledges and shallow caves of the rocky sea floor in the gulf of california and ledges or holes in the florida keys in the daytime ( hobson 1974 ) . in coral reefs around hawaii and the west indies ,
' main food source is pagurid crabs ( hermit crabs ) and prosobranch gastropods , which include familiar marine organisms such as abalones , limpets , top shells , periwinkles , boat shells , conchs , moon snails , and whelks ( hobson 1974 ; flmnh ; randall 1967 ; waikiki aquarium 1999 ) .
are however , a relatively common novelty for tourists on vacation in tropical areas ( flmnh ) .
the body of water between africa , europe , the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , and the western hemisphere . it is the second largest ocean in the world after the pacific ocean .
body of water between the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , australia , asia , and the western hemisphere . this is the world ' s largest ocean , covering about 28 % of the world ' s surface .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
structure produced by the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral polyps ( class anthozoa ) . coral reefs are found in warm , shallow oceans with low nutrient availability . they form the basis for rich communities of other invertebrates , plants , fish , and protists . the polyps live only on the reef surface . because they depend on symbiotic photosynthetic algae , zooxanthellae , they cannot live where light does not penetrate .
brainerd , e . l . , 1994 . pufferfish inflation : functional morphology of postcranial structure in diodon holocanthus ( tetraodontiformes ) .
chen , c . - y . and h . - n chou , 1998 . detection of tetrodotoxin by high performance liquid chromatography in lined - moon shell and puffer fish .
florida museum of natural history ( flmnh ) ,
balloonfish
( on - line ) . accessed october 18 , 2000 at urltoken .
hobson , e . s . , 1974 . feeding relationships of teleostean fishes on coral reefs in kona , hawaii .
nagelkerken , i . , m . dorenbosch , et al , 2000 . day - night shifts of fishes between shallow - water biotopes of a caribbean bay , with emphasis on the nocturnal feeding of haemulidae and lutjanidae .
randall , j . e . , 1967 . food habits of reef fishes of the west indies .
rosen , n . , 1912 . studies on the plectognaths . 2 . the air sac with notes on other parts of the intestines .
waikiki aquarium , january 1999 .
marine life profile : pufferfish
( on - line ) . accessed october 18 , 2000 at urltoken .
to cite this page : kenzie , j . 2000 .
diodon holocanthus
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
we parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .
greek , tragos = goat + greek , ichthys = fish ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 26 - 137 m ( ref . 58489 ) . tropical
indo - west pacific : northern australia and arafura sea . does not occur in southern australia or new zealand ( ref . 9680 ) .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 30 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3132 )
found on soft bottoms to at least 30 m ( ref . 9680 ) . presumably feeds on hard - shelled invertebrates ( ref . 9680 ) . frequently trawled but not marketed ( ref . 9680 ) .
allen , g . r . and r . swainston , 1988 . the marine fishes of north - western australia : a field guide for anglers and divers . western australian museum , perth . 201 p . ( ref . 3132 )
) : 23 . 2 - 28 . 2 , mean 26 . 9 ( based on 295 cells ) . phylogenetic diversity index ( ref .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 03090 ( 0 . 01311 - 0 . 07285 ) , b = 2 . 89 ( 2 . 68 - 3 . 10 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref .
) : 3 . 5 ±0 . 37 se ; based on food items .
underwater photography size : 14 . 2 mpixels ( 40 . 5 mb uncompressed ) - 4607x3072 pixels ( 15 . 3x10 . 2 in / 39 . 0x26 . 0 cm at 300 ppi )
life on white | urltoken - 38468 images of animals on a white background ( isolated on white ) for around 1175 different animal species .
38468 royalty free images online and around 1175 different animal species , for as low as : 9818 images not yet online ( raw pictures can be viewed upon request ) . 1526 images available in rights managed exclusively here .


otiorhynchus sulcatus , commonly known as the black vine weevil or simply vine weevil , is native to europe , but common in north america as well .

it is a pest of many garden plants .

otiorhynchus sulcatus

field attraction of the vine weevil otiorhynchus sulcatus to kairomones . - pubmed - ncbi
black vine weeveil ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ) - © can stock photo inc . / zollster
hans - martin braun added the german common name
breitmaulrüssler
to
otiorhynchus sulcatus germar
.
hans - martin braun added the german common name
gefurchter lappenrüssler
to
otiorhynchus sulcatus germar
.
hans - martin braun added the english common name
vine weevil
to
otiorhynchus sulcatus germar
.
andersen mn , 1991 . greenhouse weevil ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ) . gartneryrket , 81 ( 5 ) : 12 - 13
anon . , 1980 . black vine weevil ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ) - kansas - a new state record . cooperative plant pest report , 5 : 35 .
kacic s , vitanovic e , zanic k , katalinic m , 2009 . control of the ( otiorhynchus sulcatus f . ) weevil in protected cultivation . ( suzbijanje pipe ( otiorhynchus sulcatus f . ) u za ? ticenom prostoru . ) glasilo biljne za ? tite , 9 ( 3 ) : 153 - 157 . urltoken
backhaus gf , 1994 . biological control of otiorhynchus sulcatus f . by use of entomopathogenic nematodes of the genus heterorhabditis . acta horticulturae , no . 364 : 131 - 142
fregonese a , zandigiacomo p , 1992 . otiorhynchus sulcatus ( fabr . ) , a curculionid beetle damaging ornamental plants in nurseries . informatore agrario , 48 ( 35 ) : 73 - 77
b . bassiana was isolated from the adults of o . sulcatus in japan (
kovacevic z , 1971 . otiorhynchus species in yugoslavia and their geographic distribution . zast . bilja . , 1 - 103 .
westerman pr , zeeland mg van , 1989 . comparison of heterorhabditis isolates for control of otiorhynchus sulcatus at low temperatures . mededelingen van de faculteit landbouwwetenschappen , rijksuniversiteit gent , 54 ( 3b ) : 1115 - 1123
steiner wa , 1996 . melanization of steinernema feltiae filipjev and s . kraussei steiner in larvae of otiorhynchus sulcatus ( f . ) . fundamental and applied nematology , 19 ( 1 ) : 67 - 70 ; 11 ref .
baird cr , dorschner kw , nyberg cj , 1992 . biology of the black vine weevil otiorhynchus sulcatus on hop in idaho ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . journal of the entomological society of british columbia , 89 : 31 - 37
cross jv , burgess cm , 1997 . localised insecticide treatment for the control of vine weevil larvae ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ) on field - grown strawberry . crop protection , 16 ( 6 ) : 565 - 574 ; 17 ref .
lone rs la , clarke rg , 1981 . larval development of otiorhynchus sulcatus ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) and effects of larval density on larval mortality and injury to rhododendron . environmental entomology , 10 ( 2 ) : 190 - 191
maier ct , 1981 . reproductive success of the black vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus ( f . ) , fed different foliar diets and evaluation of techniques for predicting fecundity . environmental entomology , 10 ( 6 ) : 928 - 932
masaki m , ohmura k , ichinohe f , 1984 . host range studies of the black vine weevil otiorhynchus sulcatus ( fabricius ) ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . applied entomology and zoology , 19 ( 1 ) : 95 - 106
penman dr , scott rr , 1976 . impact of black vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus ( f . ) , on blackcurrants and strawberries in canterbury . new zealand journal of experimental agriculture , 4 ( 4 ) : 381 - 384
moorhouse er , charnley ak , gillespie at , 1992 . a review of the biology and control of the vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . annals of applied biology , 121 ( 2 ) : 431 - 454
moorhouse er , gillespie at , charnley ak , 1993 . selection of virulent and persistent metarhizium anisopliae isolates to control black vine weevil ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ) larvae on glasshouse begonia . journal of invertebrate pathology , 62 ( 1 ) : 47
westerman pr , zeeland mg van , 1994 . infectivity and pathogenicity of the insect parasitic nematodes heterorhabditis spp . and steinernema spp . for otiorhynchus sulcatus at different temperatures . bulletin oilb / srop , 17 ( 3 ) : 65 - 69
masaki m , ohto k , 1995 . effects of temperature on development of the black vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus ( f . ) ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . research bulletin of the plant protection service , 31 : 37 - 45 .
reibnitz c von , backhaus gf , 1992 . analysis of the incidence and control of otiorhynchus sulcatus in tree nurseries . results from a survey in lower saxony and schleswig - holstein . gesunde pflanzen , 45 ( 2 ) : 54 - 60
there are some weevles which cause damage in the horticulture and the amenities . an important pest species in the ornamentals is the vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus , while the rose beetle , phylloperta horticola , causes a lot of damage in the grassland .
shanks ch jr , chase dl , chamberlain jd , 1984 . resistance of clones of wild strawberry , fragaria chiloensis , to adult otiorhynchus sulcatus and o . ovatus ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . environmental entomology , 13 ( 4 ) : 1042 - 1045
gembauffe n , coremans - pelseneer j , tillemans f , hemptinne jl , 1990 . otiorhynchus sulcatus f . ( coleoptera , curculionidae ) alimentary choices . first results . mededelingen van de faculteit landbouwwetenschappen , rijksuniversiteit gent , 55 ( 2b ) : 541 - 544
schirocki a , hague ngm , 1994 . the effect of temperature on the susceptibility of the black vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus to different isolates of steinernema and heterorhabditis . bulletin oilb / srop , 17 ( 3 ) : 61 - 64 ; 6 ref .
saito t , ikeda f , 1983 . beauveria bassiana ( bals . ) vuill . isolated from the black vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus fabr . ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . japanese journal of applied entomology and zoology , 27 ( 4 ) : 307 - 308
tol rwhm van , 1993 . control of the black vine weevil ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ) with different isolates of heterorhabditis sp . and metarhizium anisopliae in nursery stock . proceedings of the section experimental and applied entomology of the netherlands entomological society , 4 : 181 - 186
colour illustration of leaf damage caused by adult o . sulcatus next to crescent - shaped larva and adult .
moorhouse er , fenlon js , gillespie at , charnley ak , 1992 . observations on the development , oviposition and fecundity of vine weevil adults , otiorhynchus sulcatus ( fabricius ) ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . entomologist ' s gazette , 43 ( 3 ) : 207 - 218
common name vine weevil scientific name otiorhynchus sulcatus plants affected ornamental plants and fruits , especially those grown in containers main symptoms adult weevils notch leaf margins ; grubs eat roots , causing plant death . most active adult weevils : spring to late summer ; grubs : summer to spring
kakouli t , schirocki a , hague ngm , 1994 . factors affecting the control of otiorhynchus sulcatus with entomopathogenic nematodes , in strawberries grown on raised beds . proceedings - brighton crop protection conference , pests and diseases , 1994 , vol . 2 . , 945 - 946 ; 3 ref .
casteels h , clercq rde , miduturi js , 1995 . phenological observations on the black vine weevil otiorhynchus sulcatus f . in belgium during the decade 1985 - 1994 . mededelingen - faculteit landbouwkundige en toegepaste biologische wetenschappen , universiteit gent , 60 ( 3a ) : 657 - 661 ; 12 ref .
mracek z , jiskra k , kahounova l , 1993 . efficiency of steinernematid nematodes ( nematoda : steinernematidae ) in controlling larvae of the black vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) in laboratory and field experiments . european journal of entomology , 90 ( 1 ) : 71 - 76
moorhouse er , gillespie at , charnley ak , 1994 . the influence of temperatures on the susceptibility of vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus ( fabricius ) ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) , larvae to metarhizium anisopliae ( deuteromycotina : hyphomycetes ) . annals of applied biology , 124 ( 2 ) : 185 - 193
doss rp , shanks ch jr , 1988 . the influence of leaf pubescence on the resistance of selected clones of beach strawberry ( fragaria chiloensis ( l . ) duchesne ) to adult black vine weevils ( otiorhynchus sulcatus f . ) . scientia horticulturae , 34 ( 1 - 2 ) : 47 - 54
, o . sulcatus is mainly ground - living , though it is occasionally found on herbaceous vegetation , less frequently on trees .
in south - central washington , usa , adults of o . sulcatus fed on the berry pedicels and cluster stems of concord grapes (
esbjerg p , 1977 . ear weevils ( otiorrhynchus sulcatus fabr . ) . manedsoversigt over plantesygdomme , 500 ( june 1977 ) : 56
clark ke , hartley se , brennan rm , jennings sn , mcmenemy ls , mcnicol jw , mitchell c , johnson sn , 2012 . effects of cultivar and egg density on a colonizing vine weevil ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ) population and its impacts on red raspberry growth and yield . crop protection , 32 : 76 - 82 . urltoken
h . bacteriophora has an active foraging strategy and occurs deep in the soil profile . it was effective against larvae of o . sulcatus , which occurs near roots . soil temperature influenced the results . at 22°c , the nematode killed o . sulcatus within 1 week . at 16°c , h . bacteriophora was not effective against larvae of o . sulcatus 2 weeks after treatment ( kaya et al . , 1993 ) .
listed fragaria vesca , saxifraga sp . , taxus baccata , rudbeckia laciniata , cyclamen persicum and vitis vinifera as food plants of o . sulcatus .
of eight varieties of raspberry assessed for five characters , glen clova was the most resistant to o . sulcatus ( anon . , 1975 ) .
tusnadi ck , merkl l , 1985 . recent damage by otiorrhynchus sulcatus f . in hungary . novenyvedelem , 21 ( 8 ) : 369 - 370
reibnitz c von , backhaus gf , 1994 . investigations on demand for biological control of otiorhynchus spp . and cost structure of production methods for entomopathogenic nematodes ( heterorhabditis ) . gartenbauwissenschaft , 59 ( 5 ) : 199 - 206
o . sulcatus was first detected in hawaii , usa , at kokee state park on the island of kauai , in march and april 1976 ( anon . , 1976 ) . o . sulcatus was first found in japan in 1981 in sunto gun , shizuoka prefecture ( masaki et al . , 1984 ) .
evenhuis hh , 1978 . bionomics and control of the black vine weevil otiorrhynchus sulcatus . mededelingen van de faculteit landbouwwetenschappen rijksuniversiteit gent , 43 : 607 - 611
lozzia gc , 1983 . otiorrhynchus sulcatus in cultivated flowers of the lake maggiore region . informatore fitopatologico , 33 ( 7 / 8 ) : 15 - 19
all otiorhynchus sulcatus adults are female and each can lay several hundred eggs during spring and summer . the eggs are brown and less than 1mm ( about 1 / 16in ) in diameter , making them very difficult to see in soil . larger yellowish - brown spherical objects seen in potting composts are likely to be controlled - release fertiliser pellets added by the nursery that raised the plants .
barratt bip , lauren dr , snelling cm , ferguson cm , 1989 . carbaryl for control of black vine weevil ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ( f . ) ) on rhododendrons . proceedings of the forty second new zealand weed and pest control conference , taranki country lodge , new plymouth , 8 - 10 august , 1989 . palmerston north , new zealand : new zealand weed and pest control society inc . , 262 - 265
in hungary , the adults of o . sulcatus attacked the flowers of rhododendron simsii and gerbera sp . leaving spots of excreta on them , but the leaves remained intact (
barratt bip , ferguson cm , jackson ta , harvey ic , 1989 . control of black vine weevil ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ( f . ) ) larvae with parasitic nematodes and fungal pathogens . proceedings of the forty second new zealand weed and pest control conference , taranki country lodge , new plymouth , 8 - 10 august , 1989 . palmerston north , new zealand : new zealand weed and pest control society inc . , 259 - 261
in the dordogne , france , suggestions for prevention of o . sulcatus attacks include the use of healthy plants , careful soil preparation and crop rotation ( felici , 1981 ) .
evenhuis hh , 1982 . control of the black vine weevil otiorrhynchus sulcatus ( coleoptera , curculionidae ) . mededelingen van de faculteit landbouwwetenschappen , rijksuniversiteit gent , 47 ( 2 ) : 675 - 678
stenseth c , vik j , 1979 . the effect of black polythene mulch on the development of otiorrhynchus sulcatus on strawberry plants . gartneryrket , 69 ( 912 / 914 ) : 7 pp .
nielsen dg , 1989 . minimizing otiorhynchus root weevil impact in conifer nurseries . insects affecting reforestation : biology and damage [ edited by alfaro , r . i . ; glover , s . g . ] victoria , canada ; forestry canada , pacific and yukon region , 71 - 79
three species of nematodes were tested in the field and greenhouse as potential biological control agents against o . sulcatus in british columbia , canada . heterorhabditis heliothidis at doses of from 5000 to 20000 infective stages per 50 ml water reduced the numbers of o . sulcatus on potted strawberry plants in the greenhouse by 83 - 97 % . an outdoor application of h . heliothidis at 500 and 5000 nematodes / litre of soil gave significantly better control of larvae of o . sulcatus on potted lodgepole pine trees ( pinus contorta ) than did a diazinon drench ( rutherford et al . , 1987 ) .
cone ww , 1963 . the black vine weevil , brachyrhinus sulcatus , as a pest of grapes in south central washington . journal of economic entomology , 56 ( 5 ) : 677 - 680 .
root weevils can be recognized by their short snouts , stout swollen bodies ( otiorhynchus looks almost ' inflated ' ) , elongate elbowed antennae and enlarged femur on all legs . all are parthenogenic . 8 - 11 mm in length . adults can live for three or more years and lay eggs each spring .
in berlin , germany , o . sulcatus larval damage to the roots of sansevieria trifasciata did not at first result in the visible withering of the leaves noticed on less sturdy plants , but it was severe (
skadow k , karl e , 1967 . injurious occurrence of o . sulcatus on sansevieria . nachrichtenblatt des deutschen pflanzenschutzdienstes , berlin , ( n . f . ) 21 ( 11 ) : 213 - 214 .
marchal m , 1977 . fungi imperfecti isolated from a natural population of otiorrhynchus sulcatus fabr . ( col . curculionidae ) . revue de zoologie agricole et de pathologie vegetale , 76 ( 4 ) : 101 - 108
bogatko w , labanowski g , 1993 . chemical control of the black vine weevil ( otiorrhynchus sulcatus f . ) on ornamental crops . journal of fruit and ornamental plant research , 1 ( 3 ) : 93 - 101
on strawberries in massachusetts , usa , the nematodes steinernema carpocapsae , s . glaseri and heterorhabditis bacteriophora caused 82 - 91 % mortality , when tested for control of o . sulcatus ( driesche and hauschild , 1987 ) .
) . in belgium , the time of appearance of o . sulcatus varied from year to year and was largely dependent on weather conditions ( temperature ) and type of culture ( open field , container culture or greenhouse ) (
bluel s , kaserer h , 1989 . investigations on the control of otiorrhynchus sulcatus f . on vines and ornamental plants . mitteilungen klosterneuburg , rebe und wein , obstbau und fruchteverwertung , 39 ( 3 ) : 124 - 129
a study in switzerland , showed that late instar ( l 4 - 6 ) o . sulcatus can encapsulate and melanize invasive juveniles ( ij ' s ) of steinernema feltiae and s . kraussei that enter their digestive tracts . dissection of o . sulcatus larvae , exposed at 9°c to nematode isolates found in the swiss alps , revealed up to nine melanized ij ' s in the mid - gut region . encapsulation of ij ' s occurred exclusively in insect larvae so that they died from the nematode treatment . the observed immune response in o . sulcatus larvae is therefore unimportant for the infectivity of s . kraussei and s . feltiae at 9°c ( steiner , 1996a ) .
thumb | fraßbild thumb | unterseite des adulten käfers der gefurchte dickmaulrüssler ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ) , auch breitmaulrüssler genannt , ist ein käfer aus der familie der rüsselkäfer ( curculionidae ) . die erwachsenen tiere ( imagines ) ernähren sich polyphag , hauptsächlich von blättern , knospen oder jungen pflanzentrieben von landwirtschaftlichen kulturen und zierpflanzen , während die larven an wurzeln fressen . bevorzugte pflanzengattungen und - arten sind beispielsweise erdbeeren , rhododendren , kirschlorbeer , pfaffenhütchen und eiben r . van tol , 2002 : fatal attraction . novel strategies for vine weevil control . academisch proefschrift . isbn 90 76894 21 3…
in central washington , usa , the larvae of o . sulcatus fed on the roots of concord grapes , first on the phloem tissue , girdling the roots , but the xylem was left intact , except in cases of severe injury (
in greenhouse trials there was 70 - 95 and 35 - 50 % control of o . sulcatus with 1000 infective juveniles / 250 ml pot of heterorhabditis sp . ( hf85 ) and s . carpocapsae ( s25 ) , respectively , in 10 - 20 days . the doses of s . carpocapsae had a significant effect , whereas contact days were significant for hf85 , a cold active strain , gave 99 % control of o . sulcatus while s . carpocapsae gave only 56 % control . in field experiments , 10 , 000 infective juveniles / plant of s . carpocapsae and heterorhabditis sp . gave 10 - 20 and 10 - 40 % control of o . sulcatus , respectively ( miduturi et al . , 1994 ) .
miduturi js , clercq r de , casteels h , grisse ade , 1994 . effect of temperature on the infectivity of entomopathogenic nematodes against black vine weevil ( otiorrhynchus sulcatus f . ) . parasitica , 50 ( 3 / 4 ) : 103 - 108
in laboratory studies , the effect of a range of temperatures ( 5 - 30°c ) on the infectivity of heterorhabditis sp . and steinernema carpocapsae against o . sulcatus was tested . an increase in temperature resulted in an increase in infectivity of both nematodes . a 100 % mortality of o . sulcatus was obtained when heterorhabditis sp . was kept at 20°c for 12 days . a maximum mortality of 65 % was obtained with s . carpocapsae at 20 and 25°c ( miduturi et al . , 1994 ) .
when o . sulcatus adults were fed on eight strawberry genotypes , the lowest number of fertile eggs were produced after feeding on totem . among eight red raspberry cultivars , the longest preoviposition periods were after feeding on leo and glen prosen . loganberry and the rubus idaeus ss . strigosus selection kilburne gave similar preoviposition periods to these cultivars . since both leo and glen prosen are r . occidentalis derivatives , it is suggested that this species might be of value in breeding for resistance to o . sulcatus ( cram and daubeny , 1982 ) .
the efficacy of two isolates of s . carpocapsae ( all biosys 25 and uk biosys 252 ) and two isolates of heterorhabditis ( uk isolate nemasys h and uk isolate fightagrub ) was investigated against o . sulcatus at a range of temperatures , on a temperature gradient plate . the temperature profiles for both steinernema isolates were similar ( 15 - 32°c ) , but the heterorhabditis isolates were dissimilar : nemasys h was more effective at 13 - 28°c , while fightagrub infected o . sulcatus larvae up to 35°c ( schirocki and hague , 1994b ) .
the influence of leaf pubescence on the resistance of 25 clones of beach strawberry to o . sulcatus was investigated in no - choice tests under greenhouse conditions . adults of the weevil fed significantly more on some clones than on others . fecundity was correlated with feeding . the density of simple hairs on the abaxial leaf surface varied significantly between clones , and hair density was negatively correlated with feeding by the beetle . the results suggest that leaf pubescence plays a role in the resistance of certain beach strawberry clones to feeding by o . sulcatus adults ( doss and shanks , 1988 ) .
in the netherlands , comparative studies of o . sulcatus and its predators in abandoned strawberry fields and in fields treated with insecticides indicated that carabid adults and larvae ( notably those of bembidion ustulatum which fed on eggs ) were active predators , but were unable to exert effective control in treated fields (
gordon sc , woodford jat , grassi a , zini m , tuovinen t , lindqvist i , mcnicol jw , 2003 . monitoring and importance of wingless weevils ( otiorhynchus spp . ) in european red raspberry production . bulletin oilb / srop [ proceedings of the iobc / wprs working group ' integrated plant protection in orchards ' subgroup ' soft fruits ' , dundee , scotland , 18 - 21 september , 2001 . ] , 26 ( 2 ) : 55 - 60 .
in washington , usa , it was thought that mowing off strawberry fields after harvest would reduce populations of o . sulcatus . in 1975 and 1976 , about 60 % of adults died after the foliage was mowed off and removed ; there was 0 - 12 % mortality in unmowed plots ( garth and shanks , 1978 ) .
exotic wingless weevils being found in several parts of the uk ( barclay mvl , the coleopterist 12 ( 2 ) : 41 - 56 , 2003 ) . otiorhynchus armadillo and o . salicicola are two european wingless weevils that have become established in britain . one species , o . armadillo , is a known pest of raspberry in northern italy and is a cause for concern . fortunately , as yet , there are no reports of this weevil in commercial raspberry plantations in the uk .
food preferences of o . sulcatus adults were studied in the laboratory at ld 16 : 8 with corresponding temperatures of 23 and 17°c and 80 % rh , using five plant species ( fragaria grandiflora , chenopodium album , senecio vulgaris , rhododendron ponticum and fuchsia spp . ) . r . ponticum was the least preferred plant , while strawberry was the most preferred (
in western france , three species of the nematode order rhabditida , one species of bacterium ( bacillus cereus ) and five species of deuteromycete ( metarhizium flavoviride , m . anisopliae , paecilomyces fumosoroseus , beauveria bassiana and b . brongniartii ) were isolated from o . sulcatus . m . anisopliae caused the highest rate of mortality ( 28 % ) by natural infection (
steinernema carpocapsae was applied to beds of euonymus fortunei in an urban park in philadelphia , usa to evaluate its potential for controlling o . sulcatus . although no significant difference was attributed to nematode treatments , weevil damage in non - irrigated beds was lower than in irrigated beds . irrigation management may be helpful for controlling this pest ( owen et al . , 1991 ) .
the biology of o . sulcatus in a commercial vineyard in coastal california , usa , was studied in 1984 - 86 . adult emergence began in the first week of april and continued until early july , with peaks in mid - to late may , but the pattern differed from year to year . oviposition began in mid - may and continued for 6 - 8 weeks (
the reproductive success of o . sulcatus fed different foliar diets was compared to evaluate the suitability of known and potential hosts for adults . foliar diets , arranged in order of decreasing fecundity , were taxus cuspidata , t . canadensis , kalmia latifolia and cornus florida . fecundity and length of preoviposition period were negatively correlated , indicating that the latter could be used to forecast potential fecundity (
in a study of weevil diversity and abundance during 3 consecutive years of sampling ( 1997 - 1999 ) in two vineyards in southern quebec , o . sulcatus was thought to represent the greatest potential threat based on adult abundance at one of the sites and the negative impact of this species in other wine - making regions in north america ( bouchard et al . , 2005 ) .
temperature profiles were obtained for two isolates of s . carpocapsae ( all and uk ) and two isolates of heterorhabditis ( nemasys - h and fightagrub ) against late - instar larvae of o . sulcatus . efficacy was clearly delineated for each isolate as : s . carpocapsae 14 - 33°c ; nemasys - h 14 - 28°c ; and fightagrub 14 - 33°c ( schirocki and hague , 1994a ) .
die gattung otiorhynchus stammt aus europa . der gefurchte dickmaulrüssler ist in regionen mit gemäßigtem klima endemisch . via import von pflanzenmaterial wurde er in verschiedene andere weltregionen verschleppt und breitete sich auf verschiedene pflanzenarten aus . in den usa , kanada , japan , neuseeland , südost - australien und tasmanien ist er heute ein bedeutender schädling . die erwachsenen tiere sind dämmerungs - oder nachtaktiv und leben an krautigen pflanzen oder kleineren gehölzen . dort treten sie von april bis oktober in erscheinung . die einschleppung des schädlings erfolgt oft mit dem substrat oder über getopfte pflanzen , von denen sie sich dann auf die verschiedenen pflanzenarten ausbreiten .
a commercial formulation of the entomophilic nematode h . bacteriophora was tested for the control of o . sulcatus in nursery cyclamen stock in new zealand during 1990 . more than 1400 plants were treated with 80 nematodes / cm² using syringes . the number of infested pots was reduced from 27 to 3 . 8 % following treatment and the number of weevils was reduced by 73 % ( garnham and mcnab , 1990 ) .
three of five isolates of heterorhabditis sp . and m . anisopliae controlled larvae of o . sulcatus on thuja occidentalis in containers in the field in the netherlands during september - october 1991 . in open ground , two of three isolates of heterorhabditis sp . tested were effective as was m . anisopliae . the efficacy of heterorhabditis sp . was determined by soil temperature and antagonism in soil ( van tol , 1993 ) .
in a 4 - year ( 2007 - 2010 ) field study that simulated colonization by o . sulcatus in rubus idaeus plantation comprising two cultivars ( glen ample and glen rosa ) , o . sulcatus abundance on raspberry plants was found to be negatively related to plant height . heavily infested plants had lower shoot and root biomass in cultivars glen ample ( 62 % and 60 % , respectively ) and glen rosa ( 50 % and 12 % , respectively ) , significantly smaller berries ( 5 . 1 g and 2 . 8 g , respectively , in glen ample and 3 . 3 g and 2 . 7 g , respectively , in glen rosa ) and smaller yields ( 2 . 93 kg and 0 . 99 kg in glen ample and 2 . 80 kg - 1 . 71 kg in glen rosa , respectively ) ( clark et al . , 2012 ) .
the cowpea trypsin inhibitor gene from cowpea ( vigna unguiculata ) , which confers resistance to insect pests , has been inserted into strawberry cultivars by agrobacterium - mediated gene transfer . greenhouse trials in which transformants were challenged by larvae of o . sulcatus established that this heterologous gene may have value in the soft fruit industry and it is envisaged that plants containing this gene will be resistant to chewing insects ( graham et al . , 1996 ) .
the six larval instars of o . sulcatus completed development from eggs inoculated onto container - grown rhododendrons in 84 days when grown indoors at 18 - 22°c or 211 days outdoors in oregon , usa . larval mortality was greatest during instars i - iii . during instars iv - vi , mortality increased with increasing insect density . underground stem tissue was fed on exclusively by instars iv - vi , and the amount of tissue removed increased with larval density ( la
mortality of o . sulcatus larvae at 10 , 15 , 20 and 25°c following treatment with 100 million conidia / ml suspensions of six m . anisopliae isolates was temperature - dependent . in all cases , the lt50s ( time taken to kill 50 % of the test population ) were inversely related to temperature , but the nature of this response varied between isolates . strain 101 - 82 was the most virulent isolate at 25°c , with an lt50 of 3 . 7 days , but it was the least virulent isolate at 15°c and it failed to kill any o . sulcatus larvae at 10°c . in contrast , strain 159 - 83 had the lowest virulence at both 20 and 25°c , whereas it was the most virulent isolate at 10°c with an lt50 of 20 days . the mortality rates followed a similar pattern and were positively related to temperature in all cases with the exception of strain 159 - 83 at 25°c ( moorhouse et al . , 1994 ) .
the parasitic nematode heterorhabditis bacteriophora and the fungal pathogens metarhizium anisopliae and beauveria bassiana were used in a trial for the control of larvae of o . sulcatus in nursery rhododendron stock in new zealand in 1988 . larvae of the pest were added to planter bags containing rhododendron plants and the control organisms were added 2 weeks later . after 5 weeks , h . bacteriophora , m . anisopliae and b . bassiana had achieved 93 , 32 and 39 % control , respectively ( barratt et al . , 1989a ) .
a large number of isolates of entomophilic nematodes were evaluated for their efficacy against o . sulcatus in strawberries at 9 , 12 and 20°c . no marked differences were found between heterorhabditis spp . and steinernema spp . at 20°c , but the isolates responded differently to low temperatures . three isolates ( hfsel , huk 211 and s . kraussei mr ) gave almost 50 % control at 9°c and , in addition to k122 and hb1 ' 87 , these isolates also performed well at 12°c ( westerman and zeeland , 1994 ) .
the temperature profile relating to the efficacy of the uk isolate of s . carpocapsae against o . sulcatus on strawberry was clearly delineated between 15 and 33°c . the nematode can be delivered through a drip irrigation system without loss of viability , and the distribution of the nematodes through two t - tapes along and across the raised beds was very satisfactory . nematodes can be applied either during the late summer or early autumn or in the late spring when temperatures are high enough to give satisfactory control ( kakouli et al . , 1994 ) .
in the lago maggiore district of italy , o . sulcatus has one generation a year , but development times varied greatly with temperature and were different in field and greenhouse crops . in the field , eggs were present from mid - april to early june , larvae from late may to early october , pupae from late september to the end of november , and adults ( which overwintered ) from the beginning of november to mid - april . the main larval damage occurred in the summer in the field , and in the winter in the greenhouse (
several clones of the wild beach strawberry ( fragaria chiloensis ) were compared with clones of commercial strawberries ( f . x ananassa ) ( both species are octoploid ) , for resistance to feeding by adults of o . sulcatus . weevils fed less and had lower fecundity on f . chiloensis leaves than on f . x ananassa leaves . the f . chiloensis clones cl - 5 and gcl - 8 also increased the preoviposition period of newly emerged adults . egg production correlated closely with the amount of feeding on a clone ( shanks et al . , 1984 ) .
in japan , of 108 candidate plant species in 49 families , the adults of o . sulcatus fed on the leaves of 101 species , in 46 families . in tests with 68 candidate species in 29 families , the larvae fed on the roots of 55 species in 24 families . of these , 90 species in 45 families are new food - plant records for the adults and 46 species in 21 families are new food - plant records for the larvae . the results indicated that the preferred food - plants of both adults and larvae are in the family rosaceae (
in idaho , usa , although some adults survived winter conditions , o . sulcatus overwintered primarily as developing larvae associated with hop root systems 5 - 50 cm deep in the soil . pupation began in mid - april with soil temperatures of 15 - 17°c and concluded in mid - to late april . adult emergence began in early may and was complete by late may to early june in 1986 - 88 . the preoviposition period averaged 26 days in the field . the mean number of eggs laid per adult female was 290 ( with a range of 22 - 1230 ) . eggs hatched in 12 - 22 days at 21°c (
larvae of o . sulcatus were reared at three densities ( 0 , 2 or 8 ) on plants of taraxacum officinale with and without infection by the mycorrhizal fungus , glomus mosseae . on plants without the fungus , 84 % of larvae developed to the last instar , however , only 43 % reached the last instar on infected plants . the differential survival of larvae was evident in their effects on plant biomass . significant interactions were found between larval density and infection , indicating that the mycorrhizal presence mitigated the effects of herbivory at low densities of larvae . infection by g . mosseae thus conferred some degree of resistance in roots to this insect ( gange et al . , 1994 ) .
isolates was temperature - dependent . in all cases , the lt50s ( time taken to kill 50 % of the test population ) were inversely related to temperature , but the nature of this response varied between isolates . strain 101 - 82 was the most virulent isolate at 25°c , with an lt50 of 3 . 7 days , but it was the least virulent isolate at 15°c and it failed to kill any o . sulcatus larvae at 10°c . in contrast , strain 159 - 83 had the lowest virulence at both 20 and 25°c , whereas it was the most virulent isolate at 10°c with an lt50 of 20 days . the mortality rates followed a similar pattern and were positively related to temperature in all cases with the exception of strain 159 - 83 at 25°c (
the ability of steinernema feltiae , s . rara and steinernema sp . strain tlein , steinernema sp . strain pac and steinernema sp . strain cuban to control larvae of o . sulcatus was studied in the laboratory and in the field in the czech republic . of the five strains tested in the laboratory , s . feltiae strain hyl gave the best results , providing 100 % elimination of larvae on azaleas [ rhododendron sp . ] . three releases of this nematode ( 300 , 000 infectives / plant ) were performed in three beds of rhododendron during 1989 - 90 , resulting in 72 - 88 % protection of plants in beds and 52 - 77 % protection in adjacent plots . only 30 % of plants survived in untreated plots ( mracek et al . , 1993 ) .
the biology of o . sulcatus was studied in the laboratory at 20 - 22°c and ld 16 : 8 on strawberry leaves . eggs were transferred to impatiens plants at 20°c and ld 14 : 10 . the time from pupation to adult emergence was 14 . 10 days at 20°c and newly emerged adults remained in the pupal cells for 2 - 5 days following emergence . the pre - oviposition period lasted 5 - 23 weeks , with the majority ( 94 % ) of adults beginning oviposition 5 - 8 weeks after emergence . the 32 adults which survived the first weeks after emergence had a mean longevity of 46 . 5 weeks . mean fecundity was 830 eggs / adult , with a viability of 80 . 8 % . two distinct egg - laying cycles were observed : the first extended from late spring to october and the second from late november until the following summer . a third cycle extending into the spring of the final year was also indicated (
in japan , the development of o . sulcatus was investigated at constant temperatures of 12 , 15 , 18 , 21 and 26°c . the development threshold temperatures for eggs , larvae plus prepupae , pupae , and the preoviposition period were 6 . 32 , 2 . 45 , 6 . 09 and 8 . 44°c , respectively . the thermal constants for eggs , larvae plus prepupae , pupae and the preoviposition period were 186 . 43 , 2061 . 93 , 182 . 85 and 571 . 10 day - degrees c , respectively . the rate of development from the first to the fifth larval instar was greater at higher temperatures , but development of the sixth and seventh instars was slower at higher temperatures . the developmental zero of the first to fifth instars was - 0 . 66 , - 0 . 40 , 1 . 66 , 2 . 83 and 2 . 40°c , respectively . almost all larvae pupated at temperatures between 12 and 21°c , but at 24 and 26°c , only one larva pupated . larvae moulted 4 - 5 times at 15°c , 5 - 6 times at 18 and 21°c , 6 - 8 times at 24°c , and 6 - 9 times at 26°c (
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legless , curved larvae are white to pinkish in colour , and have brown heads . the mandibles are short . the body segments appear somewhat wrinkled and hairy . half - grown larvae overwinter in the soil .
both the adult and larval stages are damaging to seedlings . the adult weevils live above ground feeding on cotyledons and on the bark of seedlings at night . root weevil larvae are subterranean , feeding on the roots of many kinds of plants including conifer seedlings in nursery beds .
generally this insect attacks various broad - leaved plants such as berries and rhododendrons . however , coniferous seedlings can also be utilized as hosts .
this insect can cause very significant damage in a forest nursery situation . rhododendrons are a favourite food of these weevils . rhododendrons around a nursery can give valuable indication of damage levels by these insects .
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urltoken
. within this genus at least three are important pests of soft fruit in the uk . they are the vine weevil (
) . the first two weevils are particularly important in northern britain . there have been recent reports of
the image above shows adult vine weevil ( left ) and clay - coloured weevil ( right ) . ( click on image to enlarge )
adult vine weevils have been reported to feed on more than 100 different plant species . the insects feed on leaves in a characteristic notching pattern . larvae of the vine weevil attack plant root , which decreases plant development and production . many plant species die when attacked by vine weevil larvae . in soft fruit , raspberry plants can tolerate moderate infestation whilst low numbers of larvae can kill young strawberry and blackcurrant plants . in raspberry , adult weevils shelter in the foliage during the day and can be dislodged during harvest resulting in contaminated crops .
vine weevils are parthenogenetic ( only females , reproduction without males ) and only reproduce once a year . many adult weevils emerge in late spring and early summer , when a feeding frenzy commences before of egg - laying . some adults emerging later in the year can survive overwinter given favourable conditions . eggs laid on the plant or soil surface hatch after several days and the larvae burrow into the soil where they can feed on plant roots . after several developmental moults , the majority of weevils overwinter as larvae before pupating at the start of spring .
control of these insects has become more difficult with the withdrawal of many of the persistent organochlorine - based insecticides . current insecticidal control in soft fruit is by application of sprays or drenches of a small number of products ( consult your fruit advisor for up - to - date recommendations ) . nematodes as a biocontrol method have been investigated , although they have been found to be ineffective in cooler climates . a suitable control method for vine weevils is currently being sought .
) is locally important pests in raspberry plantations in east and central scotland . unlike the vine weevil , most damage to raspberry is caused by feeding of adult weevils in the spring . these weevils have a much narrower host range than vine weevil . they feed on hardy ornamental shrubs , most notably , rhododendrons and raspberry . these weevils have a similar geographic range to vine weevil and have recently been found feeding on raspberry in north - west usa . also , like vine weevil , all the adults appear to be parthenogenic females .
raspberry : the most noticeable damage to raspberry is adult feeding to the buds and expanding fruiting laterals in the spring , and to newly planted canes . these animals feed after dark and have been observed on the cane when the air temperature was 4ºc . most severe damage occurs when weevils emerge early in the season and feed on the expanding buds . if the secondary buds are also chewed , then yields can be severely affected . later emergence results in a different form of damage . adult weevils frequently chew the petioles of the expanding flower laterals . these subsequently break either in strong winds or by the increasing weight of the developing flowers and fruit . there is no evidence to show that larval feeding to the roots causes any noticeable loss of yield .
image of adult clay - coloured weevil feeding on raspberry fruiting lateral at night . note damage to leaflets and to main lateral .
severe damage to young fruiting laterals ( right ) caused by early attack by clay - coloured weevil in the spring . cane on left not attacked .
hardy ornamental nursery plants : adult feeding damage to perennial plants , such as rhododendron , is very similar to that caused by vine weevil and consequently much of the damage may be wrongly attributed . the most common symptom is notching on leaves , particularly those closer to the ground . there appears to be no significant damage caused by larval feeding .
laboratory studies at scri have shown that the adults have the potential to live for one or two years . given an adequate food supply adult have several periods of egg laying in any one year . they have also the potential to lay in excess of 100 eggs per annum .
clay - coloured weevil adults emerge in early spring . they climb up the plant after dark and feed on developing buds and flower shoots . they shelter in the soil and debris at the base of the plant . eggs are laid in the soil and soon hatch . the larvae feed on the roots , often at the depth of about 50 cm . when fully mature , they pupate in earthen cells and emerge as adults .
the level of reported damage caused by clay - coloured weevil to raspberry started to increase about 10 years after the withdrawal of ddt in the 1970s . since then several products have been used to manage adult numbers on the canes early in the spring ( consult your fruit advisor for current recommendations ) . although some have been successful at reducing the damage , the insect still remains a problem . the relative lack of success of insecticidal control has resulted in a reappraisal of this pest and new work to understand its behaviour has begun .
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insects and arachnids of canada series , part 25 . coleoptera , curculionidae , entiminae . donald e . bright , patrice bouchard . 2008 . 2008 . nrc research press , ottawa , ontario , canada .
immigrant phytophagous insects on woody plants in the united states and canada : an annotated list mattson w . j . , niemela p . , millers i . , inguanzo y . 1994 . general technical report nc - 169 . st . paul , mn : usda forest service , north central forest experiment station .
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. it is subspherical , ca 1 mm in diameter , at first pearly - white , gradually becoming brown and finally black .
body white , crescent - shaped , widest near thorax , tapered posteriorly ; skin asperities semi - globular with only a more or less short , spinous point or spicule , especially on dorsal folds ; with some prominent setae on each segment ; body length 9 . 0 - 10 . 5 mm . head free , subdepressed , emarginate posteriorly , widest behind middle ; testaceous to pale ferruginous , a longitudinal strip over seta des 1 paler , anterior margin of head narrowly chestnut - brown , tentorial rib brown , mandibles bidentate apically , mandibular scrobe broadly and suffusedly paler ; endocarina absent ; pigmented ocellar spots small , but rather distinct ; labium with premental sclerite with proximal margin ' y ' - shaped ; head width 1 . 52 - 1 . 82 mm . pronotum transverse with smooth rectangular plate . abdominal segments each with 3 dorsal folds ; spiracles on abdominal segments 1 - 8 , lateral , bicameral . anus terminal with 4 lobes .
. it is yellowish - white , with a maximum length of 10 mm and width at the pronotum of 2 . 6 mm . the urogomphi are relatively short and curved mesad .
) published in previous versions of the compendium are based on an interception record which is considered invalid .
or the museum of entomology , university of valle , colombia , and has not been reported in colombia by the institute of natural sciences , national university of colombia .
the distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .
o ' brien and wibmer , 1982 ; rutherford et al . , 1987 ; li et al . , 1995 ; eppo , 2014
o ' brien and wibmer , 1982 ; zervos et al . , 1994 ; eppo , 2014
o ' brien and wibmer , 1982 ; baird et al . , 1992 ; eppo , 2014
la and lone clarke , 1981 ; o ' brien and wibmer , 1982 ; berry et al . , 1997 ; eppo , 2014
o ' brien and wibmer , 1982 ; owen et al . , 1991 ; eppo , 2014
instituto colombiano agropecuario , 2013 , personal communication ; seymour et al . , 1985 ; eppo , 2014
coremans - pelseneer and tillemans , 1991 ; casteels et al . , 1995 ; eppo , 2014
schirocki and hague , 1994b ; lola - luz et al . , 2003 ; eppo , 2014
del and bene parrini , 1986 ; abbazzi et al . , 1995 ; baraldi and baraldi , 1996 ; eppo , 2014
cross et al . , 1995 ; crook , 1996 ; graham et al . , 1996 ; cross and burgess , 1997 ; eppo , 2014
occurred in a horticultural nursery in berlin , germany , in 1967 . larval damage to the roots did not at first result in the visible withering of the leaves noted on less sturdy plants , but it was severe . the adults caused serious damage to the leaves , especially of the rosette - forming variety , causing heavy losses (
caused injury to concord grapes in south - central washington , usa , by feeding on the berry pedicels and cluster stems . injury resulted in reduced berry weight and loss of berries or portions of the cluster . weekly counts on 20 tagged clusters provided estimates of loss ( in tons / acre ) for grapes grown in different cover - crop conditions ; they were 3 . 36 for no cover crop , 3 . 45 for oats and vetch , 2 . 42 for lucerne , 3 . 08 for creeping red fescue (
, a pest of concord grapes in central washington , usa , were placed in screened cages containing single concord vines . it was found that 11 adults per cage resulted in complete defoliation and nearly complete fruit loss in the first season . the threshold of economic loss was 1 - 3 adults per plant per season . an index was developed for estimating root injury caused by larval feeding . the larvae fed first on the phloem tissue , girdling the roots , but the xylem was left intact , except in cases of severe injury . vigour and fruit yield over a 3 - year period were not significantly affected by root injury (
) were found in only 3 fields , but notched leaves characteristic of their feeding were found in 40 fields , indicating a greater prevalence than perceived by growers . damage to the leaves of strawberry plants was positively correlated with the number of years in production , suggesting that it takes some time for the flightless weevils to migrate into and to increase to damaging numbers in fields (
is one of the most ubiquitous and damaging species in the genus . larvae of these flightless , parthenogenetic species destroy roots ; adults may cause unacceptable defoliation during 4 weeks of maturation feeding and a 3 - month oviposition period .
, such as the use of polythene mulches , has increased its pest status . infestations are most common in europe ( where it originated ) and the usa . nearly 150 plant species have been identified as potential hosts of
. the root - feeding larval stage is the most damaging . severe damage by the leaf - feeding adults is less common (
is still an important pest infesting many ornamental plants in tree nurseries . year - round infestation was reported in greenhouse cultures by 10 farmers ( von
is an important pest of hops in idaho , usa . primary damage occurred as nearly mature larvae girdled small roots and rhizomes during feeding in the spring (
three virus diseases are causing increasing damage to grapevines in europe and elsewhere , referred to as mottling , yellow mosaic and fan leaf disease . in experiments , the first virus was transmitted from diseased to healthy plants by adults and larvae of
look at the foliage of plants for signs of adult damage . the adults eat irregularly - shaped notches from the leaf margin . feeding takes place at night , but the small black weevils may be seen during the daytime in the leaf litter or some other dark place . dig up wilting plants or tip plants out of pots , to find small , creamy - white , curved , legless larvae with pale - brown heads , feeding at the roots , or burrowing into the corm if this is present .
. although no significant difference was attributed to nematode treatments , weevil damage in non - irrigated beds was lower than in irrigated beds . irrigation management may be helpful for controlling this pest (